FOOD AND NUTRITION

Short and Essay questions Unit I, Unit II and part of Unit III.
1. Nutrition as defined by Robinson (1982) is “ the science of foods and nutrients, their
action, interaction and balance in relationship to health and disease, the processes by
which the organism ingests, digests, absorbs, transports and utilizes nutrients and
disposes of their end product”.

2. Health The widely accepted definition of health is that given by the world
Health Organization (1948). It defines it as “a state of complete physical, mental and
social well being and not merely an absence of disease or infirmity”. In recent years, this
statement has been amplified to include the ability to lead a “socially and economically
productive life”.
3. Cereals: the main carbohydrate rich cereals are Rice, Wheat, Maize, Bajra, Jowar, Oats,
Barley, Rye and Finger Millets.
4. My plate: Eats a variety of foods and eat less of some foods and more of others. The main
message is that fruits and vegetables take up half the plate, with the vegetable portion being a
little bigger than the fruit section. The plate has been divided so that the grain section is bigger
than the protein section. Because nutrition experts recommend you eat more vegetables than
fruits and more grains than protein foods.

5. Classification of carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are classified, depending on the number of

sugar units they contain, as simple carbohydrate and complex carbohydrates.
Monosaccharide’s and disaccharides make up simple carbohydrates, called simple sugars
containing one and two sugar units respectively. Polysaccharides called complex carbohydrates
are structurally larger and more complex than simple sugars. They include starch, dietary fiber
and glycogen.
6. Essential fatty acids: Certain fatty acids should be provided essentially in the diets, as they
are not synthesized in the body. These are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely linoleic,
linolenic and archidonic acids and are grouped as “essential” fatty acids.

7. ICMR food groups: ICMR (1989) has classified the different food items into five food groups,
as follow: Cereal, roots and tubers, 2. Pulses, nuts and oilseeds, 3. Milk, meat and their
products, 4. Fruits and vegetables and 5. Fat and oils, sugar and jiggery.
8. Balanced diet : A balanced diet may be defined as one which contains the various groups of
foodstuffs such as energy yielding foods, body building foods and protective foods in the
correct portions so that an individual is assured of obtaining the minimum requirements of all
the nutrients.
9. Malnutrition: Malnutrition refers to deficiencies or excesses in nutrient intake, imbalance of
essential nutrients or impaired nutrient utilization. The double burden of malnutrition consists
of both under nutrition and overweight and obesity, as well as diet-related non-communicable
diseases.
10. Essential amino acids are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan and valine. In addition to these infants require histidine for growth.

11. Water soluble vitamins- There are eight types of vitamin B: thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2),
niacin (B3), Pantothenic acid (B5), Pyridoxine (B6), Biotin (B7), folate or folic acid (B9) and
Cyanocobalamin (B12) and vitamin C.
12. The Recommended dietary allowance: The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is the
guideline stating the amount of nutrients to be actually consumed in order to meet the
requirements of the body. The RDA is based on requirements. The requirement for a particular
nutrient is the minimum level that needs to be consumed to perform specific functions in the
body and to prevent deficiency symptoms.
13. Pluses: Pulses are green gram, black gram, Bengal gram, red gram, cow pea chick pea
beans, etc. Nuts and oil seeds like groundnuts, sesame is included in this group. The foodstuffs
from this food group provide major portion of protein for vegetarians as pulses are very good
source of proteins. The proteins from these sources are also second-class proteins.
14. Dietary fiber: Dietary fiber is defined as that portion of plant material ingested in the diet
that is resistant to digestion by gastro intestinal secretions. It consists of hemicelluloses,
cellulose, lignin’s, oligosaccharides, pectin’s, gums and waxes.

15. Functions of Vitamin D: Vitamin D regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus
from the intestinal tract and also calcification of bones and teeth. Vitamin D is required for
normal bone and teeth development. Vitamin D regulates the enzyme ‘alkaline phosphates’
which regulates the release of phosphate organic compounds.

16. Functions of Vitamin K: Vitamin K is essential for the formation of prothrombin and other
blood clotting proteins by the liver. Vitamin K probably also participates in oxidative
phosphorylation in the tissues.

17. Vitamin B6: Vitamin B6 in the form of pyridoxal phosphate functions as a co-enzyme in
many biological reactions. Pyridoxine is essential for the process of Transamination,
Deamination, Decarboxylation. Vitamin B6 is involved in several biochemical steps for the
conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to niacin. It is water soluble vitamin.

18. Functions of Vitamin B12: Vitamin B12 is necessary for normal growth and maintenance
of healthy nervous tissue and normal blood formation. Involved in DNA synthesis and thus in
cell replication. Vitamin B12 co-enzymes are essential for the formation of red blood cells.
Vitamin B12 is also required for the synthesis of myelin sheath that surrounds the nerve fiber.
19. Classification of fatty acids: There are four major types of dietary fats in foods: saturated
fats, trans fats, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats.
(1) Saturated fatty acid- these types of fatty acids are without double bonds.
Example-Stearic acid.
(2) Monounsaturated fatty acids:-these types of fatty acids are with one double bond.
Example- Oleic acid.
(3) Polyunsaturated fatty acids:- these types of fatty acids are with more than one double bond.
Example- Linoleic acid.

Folic acid; Folate (vitamin B-9) is important in red blood cell formation and for healthy cell
growth and function. The nutrient is crucial during early pregnancy to reduce the risk of birth
defects of the brain and spine.

Criteria for balanced diet:

1. Should meet the nutritional requirements of the individual
2. Should prevent degenerative diseases
3. Should improves immunity
4. Should increase stamina
5. Should help in coping up stress
6. Should develop optimum cognitive ability.

Malnutrition can manifest in two forms: undernutrition and over nutrition. Undernutrition occurs when
the body does not receive enough nutrients, leading to stunted growth, weakened immune system, and
other health problems. Over nutrition occurs when the body receives an excess of certain nutrients,
such as calories or saturated fats, which can lead to obesity, heart disease, and other health issues.

Difference between under nutrition and over nutrition: Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of
nutrients and insufficient energy supply, whereas over nutrition is characterized by excessive nutrient
and energy intake. Over nutrition can result in obesity, a growing global health threat. Obesity is defined
as a metabolic disorder that leads to an over accumulation of fat tissue.

Difference between nutrition and malnutrition: Nutrition refers to the process by which the body
obtains and utilizes the nutrients necessary for growth, development, and maintenance of health. This
includes obtaining macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, as well as micronutrients like
vitamins and minerals, in appropriate amounts to support bodily functions.

Malnutrition, on the other hand, refers to a state of imbalance between the body's nutrient
requirements and the intake of nutrients. This can result from a lack of adequate nutrients in the diet,
poor absorption or utilization of nutrients, or excess intake of certain nutrients

UNIT – I:
The different groups of foods may be broadly classified under three heads from the nutritional
point of view.

1. Energy Yielding Foods: This group includes foods rich in carbohydrates and fats and also pure
fats and carbohydrates. Cereals, roots and tubers, dry fruits sugar and fats are the important
energy yielding foods.
2. Body Building Foods: Foods rich in proteins are called body building foods. This may be
broadly divided in to two groups.
Milk, Egg, Meat and Fish rich in proteins of high biological value and
Pulses, Oil Seeds and Nuts and low-fat oilseed flours rich in proteins of medium nutritive
value.
3. Protective Foods: Foods rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals are termed protective
foods. Protective foods are broadly classified in to two groups.
Foods rich in vitamins, minerals and proteins of high biological value.
E.g. Milk, eggs, fish and liver and
Foods rich in certain vitamins and minerals only.
E.g. Green leafy and other vegetables and some fruits.

Functions of food

Food may be classified according to their functions in the body

___________________________________

Physiological Social Psychological

functions functions functions

_____ __________________________________

Energy yielding Body building foods Protective foods

(Carbohydrate, Fats (Protein) (Vitamins and minerals
protein, fat)

The functions of food can be broadly classified into three main categories.
1) Physiological functions of food.
2) Psychological functions of food.
3) Social function of food.
1) Physiological functions of food
The physiological functions of food can be further sub-divided as follow:
a. Energy giving.
b. Body building.
c. Regulatory and protecting functions of food.
Elaborate the various functions of food?
a) Energy giving: Foods rich in carbohydrates and fats are called energy yielding foods. The
body needs a constant supply of energy to carry out the involuntary processes like, respiration,
circulation of blood etc. which are essential for continuance of life. Energy is also required to
carry out voluntary activities like professional, household, and recreational activities. Energy is
mainly provided to our body through carbohydrates and fats in the food. Rich sources of
carbohydrates are cereals, sugar, jiggery, potatoes, honey etc. Good Sources of fats include
ghee, oil, nuts etc. A major part of our daily diet is constituted by these energy-rich food
materials.
b) Body Building: Foods rich in protein are called body building foods. Thus, one of the most
important functions of food is that of building the body. In adult life, the food eaten each day
helps to maintain the structure of the adult body, and to replace worn out cells of the
body. Building of new tissues is very important particularly for the growing children and
pregnant women. There is also a continuous breakdown of old tissues and building up of new
tissues going on in our body at all ages irrespective of the apparent growth, thus maintaining a
need for body building nutrients.
For the body building purposes, the major nutrients utilized are proteins and minerals.
Proteins are mainly provided through milk and milk products, meat, fish, poultry, nuts, soybean,
and pulses etc.
c) Regulatory and Protective function: Foods rich in protein, minerals and vitamins are known
as protective and Regulatory foods. The third physiological function of food is to regulate the
activities of the body. It includes regulation of such varied activities as beating of the heart,
maintenance of body temperature, muscle contraction, control of water balance, clotting of
blood, removal of waste products from the body etc. Apart from regulating our body processes,
food also protects us from various infections, diseases, and injuries. The main nutrients which
perform these functions include proteins, vitamins, minerals, water, and roughage. The major
sources of these protective and regulatory nutrients are green leafy vegetable, milk, fresh fruits
and vegetable, fish etc.
B) The Psychological Functions of food
The second major function of food is the psychological function. Food must also satisfy certain
emotional needs. These include sense of security, love, and attention. Everyone grows in a
particular culture with its own unique food habits of that culture and caste. The person begins
to associate the food habits and foods commonly consumed by him, as it gives him a sense of
security and satiety. The foods daily eaten by us, give us more mental satisfaction. In a friendly
gathering, one may try unfamiliar foods and thus enlarge our food experiences
C) Social function of Food
Food and eating has significant social meaning. Share food with any other person implies
social acceptance. When you share a meal with anyone else, you are expressing your
acceptance of friendship and respect for that person. Food is a medium through which we
express our happiness. Sweets are also distributed and exchanged to mark certain auspicious
occasion like festivals. Food is the common link in a meeting, party or get-together that attracts
people to come to such social gatherings.
2. ICMR FOOD GROUPS
To get maximum benefit from food, so that it performs all its functions it is important that we
take a diet containing all the nutrients in adequate amounts. It is often seen that most
foodstuffs contain some nutrients in either more or lesser amounts than required. Thus, to be
able to obtain all the nutrients and in adequate amounts, it is important to include different
types of foodstuffs in our diet. On the other hand, it is also not possible to include, all the
foodstuffs in our diet at one time. Therefore, to overcome this problem, food items providing
same types of nutrients have been grouped together, termed as a ‘Food Group’.
Food groups have been formed according to various methods from time to time. ICMR (1989)
has classified the different foods items into five food groups, as follow:
1. Cereal, roots and tubers
2. Pulses, nuts, and oil seeds
3. Milk, meat and their products
4. Fruits and vegetables
5. Fat and oils, sugar and jiggery
In this classification, the foodstuffs providing similar nutrients have been grouped together.

1) Cereals, Roots, and Tubers

This group has been further subdivided into two:
i) Cereals and Cereals products: The foodstuffs included in this group are rice, jawar, bajara,
maize, bread, etc. These food items are rich sources of energy and, thus provide energy to the
body. Cereals are an integral part of our diet on some form or other. Cereals are the cheapest
source of energy. In addition to carbohydrates, they also contain some amounts of proteins and
as cereals constitute a major part of our daily diet, ample amounts of proteins are derived from
them. Cereals are also a good source of B-group vitamins, provided one consumes whole grain
cereals, as most of B-group vitamins are present in the outer layer of the cereals.
(ii) Starchy roots and tubers: Like potatoes, sweet potatoes, jam, colocasia, tapioca etc.
mainly provide carbohydrates and are thus grouped along with cereals under energy giving
foods. These roots and tubers, can however, be used along with cereals in providing energy.
2) Pulses, Nuts and Oil seeds
This food groups include various pulses and legumes, like green gram, black gram beans, etc.
Nuts and oil seeds like groundnuts, sesame is included in this group. The foodstuffs from this
food group provide major portion of protein for vegetarians as pulses are very good source of
proteins. The proteins from these sources are also second-class proteins.
Apart from proteins, nuts also contain a high amount of fat; therefore they are good sources of
energy also. Oil seeds like groundnuts, till, mustard, and sunflower seeds etc. also have good
amounts of proteins. The oil cake or meal left after the extraction of oils is rather a very good
source of proteins.
3) Milk, Meat and their products
The foodstuffs included in this food groups are:
i) Milk and milk products. ii) Eggs, meat fish, poultry etc.
All these foodstuffs provide us with first class proteins i.e. their protein contain all the essential
amino acids, in adequate amounts. The food items from this group thus help in body building
and maintenance processes.
i) Milk and its products: Milk and its products like cheese, curds, are very good source of good
quality proteins. Along with proteins milk also provides us with calcium and phosphorous,
vitamin A and riboflavin. Milk is a very important food for growing children, as it provides them
with good quality proteins, and they are also able to digest it. For small infants this is the only
food, which is easily digested and assimilated in the body.
ii) Eggs, meat, fish, and chicken: These are also excellent sources of first-class protein, which
can be totally utilized in our body for building the body. They also contain B-group vitamins in
good amounts. Among, this liver is very good source of vitamin A and vitamin B 12. Eggs contain
nearly all the nutrients, but are particularly good source of protein, fats, vitamin A, iron,
Calcium, and phosphorus.
4) Fruits and Vegetables
This food includes fresh vegetables and fruits which provide protective nutrients to our body
i.e. vitamins and minerals. The foodstuffs included in this group are spinach, methi, cabbage,
cauliflower, carrot, papaya, mango, apple, tomato, lemon, orange, guava, amla etc.
Green leafy vegetables and orange and yellow colored fruits and vegetables provide us mainly
with carotenes. Vitamin C is found in citrus fresh fruits. Vitamin B group is also present in green
leafy vegetables. Some fruits like peaches, pineapple and vegetables like fenugreek, mustard
leaves, horse gram leaves are exceptionally good sources of iron. Calcium is basically furnished
by green leafy vegetables.
Fruits and vegetables also provide dietary fiber to our meals. The fibrous tissues, which are not
digested, help to move the food through the digestive tract and regulate excretion of body
wastes.
5) Fats and Oils, Sugar and Jiggery Fats and oils like vegetables oils; hydrogenated fats and pure
ghee are very concentrated sources of energy providing 9 Kcal./g. They are mainly used as the
cooking medium and hence do form a necessary part of the diet. Fats and oils help to increase
the palatability of our food.
Sugar, jiggery and honey supplies energy in the form of carbohydrates. These food items
provide about 4 Kcal/g. Sugar is the main source of energy in the form of carbohydrate. Apart,
from providing carbohydrates, jiggery is also a good source of iron.

3. Food pyramid and My plate

The food guide pyramid was introduced in 1992 by USDA (United States Department of
Agriculture) as a general plan of what to eat each day. The food guide pyramid is a valuable tool
for planning a health promoting diet.
By incorporating the principle of balance, variety and moderation, an individual can still
eat their favorite foods while following the food guide pyramid.
Bread, Grain, Cereal and pasta from the base
At the base of the food pyramid is the group that contains breads, grains, cereals and
pastas. These foods provide complex carbohydrates, which are an important source of energy.
6 to 11 servings of these foods in a day. One serving of this group can be
1 slice of bread2. ½ cup of rice, cooked cereal or pasta3. 1 cup of ready to eat cereal 4.
1 flat tortilla

Fruits and vegetables: fruits and vegetables are rich in nutrients. Many are excellent
sources of vitamin A, vitamin c, potassium. They are low in fat and sodium and high in fiber.
The food pyramid suggests 3 to 5 servings of vegetables each day. One serving of vegetables
can be 1 cup of raw leafy vegetables, ½ cup of other vegetables, cooked or raw, ¾ cup of
vegetable juice.
The food pyramid suggests 2 to 4 servings of fruits each day. One serving of fruit can be
one medium apple, orange or banana, ½ cup of chopped, cooked fruit, ¾ cup of fruit juice.
Beans, eggs, Lean Meat and Fish: Meat, poultry and fish supply protein, iron, and zinc.
Non-meat foods such as dried peas and beans also provide many of these nutrients. The food
pyramid suggests 2 to 3 servings of cooked meat, fish or poultry. Each serving should be
between 2 and 3 ounces. The following foods count as one ounce of meat:
One egg, ½ cup cooked dry beans, 2 tablespoons of peanut butter,
1/3 cup of nuts
Dairy Products: Products made with milk provide protein and vitamins and minerals, especially
calcium. The food pyramid suggests 2 to 3 servings each day. 1 cup of milk, 1 ½ ounce of natural
cheese, 1 ounce of process cheese.
Fats and sweets: A food pyramids tip is the smallest part, so the fats and sweets in the top of
the food pyramid should comprise the smallest percentage of your daily diet. The foods at the
top of the food pyramid should be eaten sparingly because they provide calories but not much
in the way of nutrition. These foods include salad dressings, oils, cream, butter, margarine,
sugars, soft drinks, candies and sweet desserts. The food guide pyramid can be extremely
useful – whether you want to gain weight, lose weight or maintain your weight. Eating healthy
diet simpler easier if you base your choices on the food pyramid.

The new food pyramid become three dimensional and has a figure climbing up the side
of it, the horizontal lines have been replaced by vertical lines starting from the tip of the
pyramid and radiating downward. The new food pyramid is color coded. The six colored stripes
denote the quantities of food you should consume. An orange stripe represents grains, a green
stripe for vegetables, a red stripe for fruits, yellow stripe denotes how much fats and oils
should have, a blue stripe for the milk and dairy products that your allowed, and a purple stripe
shows the quantities if meat, fish, beans and pulses that you should eat in a day. Today the
food pyramid is being replaced by a plate which health care professionals feel will be easier to
follow and have a more positive impact on the nutritional status of the population.
My plates – eats a variety of foods and eat less of some foods and more of others. The
main message is that fruits and vegetables take up half the plate, with the vegetable portion
being a little bigger than the fruit section. The plate has been divided so that the grain section is
bigger than the protein section. Because nutrition experts recommend you eat more
vegetables than fruits and more grains than protein foods.
The plate is simple and useful and helps an individual to view his or her own plate a little
differently.

UNIT – II:
3. Carbohydrates, Classification and Functions
Energy that is needed to move, perform work and live is chiefly consumed in the form of
carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, primarily starches, are least expensive, easily obtained and
readily digested form of fuel.
COMPOSITION
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with
the later elements in the ratio of 2:1. The general formula is C nH2nOn. They are viewed as
hydrated carbon atoms.
Classification of Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are classified, depending on the number of sugar units they contain, as
simple carbohydrate and complex carbohydrates.

Monosaccharide’s and disaccharides make up simple carbohydrates, called simple

sugars containing one and two sugar units respectively. Polysaccharides called complex
carbohydrates are structurally larger and more complex than simple sugars. They include
starch, dietary fiber and glycogen.

There are two main classes of monosaccharide’s based on the carbonyl group present in
them. They are aldoses and ketoses, aldoses (eg; glucose) containing the aldehyde group (CHO)
and ketoses, (eg;- fructose) containing the ketone group (C=O).

Aldoses are further divided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses and hexoses based on the number
of carbon atoms

The common disaccharides are Maltose, Lactose and Sucrose which on hydrolysis yield
two monosaccharide units.
Maltose hydrolysis Glucose + Glucose

Lactose hydrolysis Glucose + Galactose

Sucro
se hydrolysis Glucose + Fructose

Polysaccharides have high molecular weight and are insoluble in water. They are in the form of
long chains either branched or un-branched.
The polysaccharides are further classified into groups depending upon the products they yield
on hydrolysis. Homopolysaccharides yield only one type of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
eg:- starch, dextrin, cellulose, glycogen
Heteropolysaccharides yield more than one type of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis eg:-
Heparin, Hyaluronic acid. Heparin is an anticoagulant found in the liver, spleen, lungs and
blood. Hyaluronic acid is found in the umbilical cord synovial fluid and vitreous humor. It has a
lubricating action. In tissues it forms an important part of the cementing ground substance.
The sugars are also classified as reducing and non reducing sugar. The reducing property is
attributed to the free aldehyde or keto group.

FUNCTIONS
Carbohydrates perform the following functions.
1. Energy: The principle function of carbohydrates is to serve as a major source of energy for
the body. Each gram of carbohydrate yields 4Kcal of energy regardless of its source. In Indian
diets 60 – 80 % of energy is derived from carbohydrate.

2. Glucose: Glucose is indispensable for the maintenance of the functional integrity of the
nervous tissue and is the sole source of energy for the proper functioning of the brain.
 Prolonged lack of glucose may cause irreversible damage to the brain.

3. Protein Sparing Action: Carbohydrates exert a protein sparing action. If sufficient amounts of
carbohydrates are not available in the diet, the body will convert protein to glucose in order to
supply energy. Hence to spare proteins for tissue building, carbohydrates must be supplied in
optimum amounts in the diet. This is called the protein sparing action of carbohydrates.

4. Fat Metabolism: Carbohydrates are essential to maintain normal fat metabolism.

Insufficient carbohydrates in the diet results in larger amounts of fat being used for energy than
the body are equipped to handle. This leads to accumulation of acidic intermediate products
called ketone bodies.

5. Synthesis of Body Substances: Carbohydrates aid in the synthesis of nonessential amino

acids, glycoprotein’s (which function as antibodies) and glycolipids (which form a part of cell
membrane in body tissues especially brain and nervous system).
Lactose remains in the intestine longer than other disaccharides and thus encourages growth of
beneficial bacteria.
6. Precursors of Nucleic Acid: Carbohydrates and products derived from them, serve as
precursors of compounds like nucleic acids, connective tissue matrix and galactosides of
nervous tissue.
7. Detoxification Function: Glucuronic acid, a metabolite of glucose serves as a detoxifying
agent. It combines with harmful substances containing alcohol or phenolic group converting
them to harmless compounds which are later excreted.

8. Roughage of the Diet: Insoluble fibers known as composite carbohydrates can absorb water
and give bulk to the intestinal contents which aids in the elimination of waste products by
stimulating peristaltic movements of the gastrointestinal tract.

Food Sources

There are three main sources of carbohydrates (1) Starches (2) Sugars and (3) Cellulose.
(1) Starches are present in cereals (eg. Rice, wheat, maize, sago, and all bakery products)
pulses, potatoes, sweet potatoes, yam and dry fruits.
(2) Sugars are present in cane sugar, jiggery, honey, jam, jellies, dry fruits, sweets and fresh
fruits, eg. Banana, sapoto, grapes, mango.
(3) Cellulose is the fibrous substance. eg. Whole grains, whole pulses

Recommended Daily Dietary Intakes

As carbohydrate is utilized as main source of energy, at least 40 percent of the total
energy in the food should come from Carbohydrates.

In our country 60 – 80 percent of a day’s energy needs are met from carbohydrates in the
form of starch furnished by cereals and pulses. In developed countries only 30 – 40 percent of
days energy needs are met from carbohydrates
There is no fixed amount recommended for carbohydrates, but even then it should provide
about 60-70% of the total energy. The daily diet of an adult should contain at least 40 gms of
dietary fiber.
Deficiency: The energy needs are not met if the diets are deficient in carbohydrates. The work
efficiency is lowered. Also person becomes underweight. Growth will be slow in the case of
children. Symptoms of ketosis may also develop. If carbohydrates are consumed in excess they
get accumulated as fat in the body leading to obesity and predisposes to diabetes and heart
ailments. The energy needs are not met if the diets are deficient in carbohydrates. The work
efficiency is lowered. Also person becomes underweight. Growth will be slow in the case of
children. Symptoms of ketosis may also develop. Lack of dietary fiber in the diet leads to
constipation and colon cancer. If carbohydrates are consumed in excess they get accumulated
as fat in the body leading to obesity and predisposes to diabetes and heart ailments.
Hypoglycemia : It is very important to have normal blood glucose level, when the glucose level
in blood drops below normal value it is called low blood glucose or hypoglycaemia.
Hypoglycaemia is generally seen in diabetics but it can happen if adequate amounts of
carbohydrates are not consumed because all carbohydrates are converted into glucose.
Hypoglycaemia can cause a feeling of dizziness, lethargy, confusion and triggers hunger.
Ketosis : When the body does not have adequate supply of carbohydrates to produce energy,
it starts breaking down the fats to meet the metabolic demands. Ketones are produced in the
process of fat breakdown and an excessive amount of ketones in blood is termed as ketosis,
mild ketosis can cause nausea, headache, smelly breath and metal fatigue whereas severe
ketosis can seriously damage the vital organs.
Weight Gain: Carbohydrate deficiency triggers hunger and leads to extra calorie consumption.
Taking adequate amounts of low calorie, healthy carbohydrates keeps you full for longer and
produces early satiety with the high fiber content.
5. Classification, Functions and food sources of Proteins:
The word protein means to “take the first place”. In 1938 a Dutch Chemist Mulder, described
that all living plants and animal contain certain substance without which life was not possible
and this was identified as proteins. In constitution of body they stand next to the water. Indeed
proteins are of the greatest importance in human nutrition.
They are complex organic compounds containing the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
usually sulphur. Some proteins also contain phosphorus, iron, iodine, copper and other
inorganic elements. The proteins differ from carbohydrates and fat as they contain nitrogen,
Proteins are made up of much smaller units known as amino acids.
Proteins may be classified on the Basis of structure
1. Simple proteins – These proteins are made up of amino acids only. Eg. Zetin in corn,
Albumin in egg white and gliadin in wheat.
 2. Conjugated proteins – These proteins have a non-protein molecule attached to the
protein Eg. Blood protein hemoglobin, which contains a heme(Iron) attached to protein
and Milk protein casein which has a phosphate group attached.
3. Derived proteins – These results from a partial breakdown of a native protein.
Proteases, peptones and polypeptides are formed when digestive enzymes begin their
action on proteins.
Function: Proteins are very essential for life processes, as there is hardly any important
physiological function in which proteins do not participate. The important functions of proteins
are:
(1) Body building: It is the most important function of protein. These are the major
structural components of body tissues. Infact every living cell contains protein. The first
need for proteins therefore is to supply the materials for the growth and development and
the continuous replacement of the cell protein.
(2) Body Regulatory: Many proteins have highly specialized functions in the regulation of body
processes. All chemical reaction in the body are carried out by enzymes, which are protein in
nature. Proteins are also a constituent of hemoglobin, which is necessary to carry oxygen from
lungs to tissues and bring back CO2.Governing the body reaction are hormones, which are also
proteins. Plasma protein has a fundamental role in the maintenance of water balance. Blood
proteins also help in maintaining acid base balance of the body.
(3) Body protection: There is a protein called gamma globulin, which has a capacity to fight
against invading organism. The body’s resistance to disease is maintained in part by antibodies,
which are protein in nature.
(4) Energy Yielding: The energy needs of the body take priority over other needs, and if the
diet does not furnish sufficient energy from carbohydrates and fats. The proteins of the diet as
well as tissue protein will be used up for giving energy. One gram of protein gives 4 calories.
(5) Maintenance of body temperature: During the metabolism of proteins extra heat is
liberated, which is used for maintaining the body temperature.
Food Sources: There are two main dietary sources of proteins
(1) Animal source: Milk and milk products excluding butter and ghee, eggs, meat, fish and
poultry.
(2) Plant sources: Pulses e.g. Soybean, Bengal gram, red gram dal, green gram, black gram dal;
Cereals e.g. wheat maize, rice, barley, jowar, bajra; and nuts e.g. peanuts, almond, cashew nuts.
Fruits and vegetables are poor sources.
6. FATS CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTIONS
Lipids more commonly known as fats and oil, are integral part of our food. They are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They occur in both plants and animals.
Lipids are concentrated source of energy
Fat is an important component of our diets and serve a number of functions. These are also
organic compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These differ from carbohydrates is that
they have much smaller proportion of oxygen and much greater proportions of carbon and
hydrogen.
CLASSIFICATION
Lipids are classified into simple, compound and derived lipids which are further
subdivided as follows.

Lipids

Simple Compound Derived

a) Fats and oils (a) Phospho lipids (a)Sterols
b) Waxes (b) Glyco lipids (b)Fatty acids
(c) Lipo proteins

Simple lipids
Fats and Oils are included in this type. At room temperature, oils are liquids and fats are solids.
Fats and oils contain esters of fatty acid and glycerol, a form in which lipids are present in food.

Compound lipids
They are esters of fatty acids containing phosphorous carbohydrate or protein.
Phospholipids contain a phosphoric acid in addition to the alcohol and fatty acids.
Glycolipids contain a fatty acid, carbohydrate and a nitrogenous base. Phospholipids and
glycolipids form part of the cell membrane and the nervous system.
Lipoproteins are macromolecular complex of lipids with proteins.
Derived lipids
These are substances liberated during hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which still
retain the properties of lipids. The important members of this group are sterols, fatty acids and
alcohol.
Sterols
Sterols are solid alcohols and form esters with fatty acids. In nature they occur in the Free State
in the form of esters. Based on their origin sterols are classified as cholesterol (animal origin)
and phytosterol (in plants).
Cholesterol is a complex type of lipid that is regularly synthesized by and stored in the liver. It is
present in all animal products.
Fatty acids
Fatty acids are the main building blocks of fat. They have a methyl group (CH 3) at one end and a
carboxyl group (COOH) at the other end with a chain of carbon and hydrogen atom in the
middle. They have a basic formula CH3(CH2)n COOH. Where ‘ n’ denotes the number of carbon
atoms which may vary from 2 to 2l.
Fatty acids can be classified into Saturated Fatty Acids(SFA) and Unsaturated Fatty Acids (UFA)
 Saturated Fatty Acids: Saturated fatty acids are those that are unable to absorb more
hydrogen. They are usually stiff and hard fats. Eg. Ghee, and Butter.
Unsaturated fatty acids; Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bond in their
molecule and are thus not saturated with hydrogen. They are liquid at room temperature. Eg.
Sunflower oil.
Unsaturated fatty acids may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated depending on the
number of double bonds.
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA): MUFA have only one double bond in their molecule. Eg. oleic
acid found in olive oil, peanut oil
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA): PUFA have 2 or more double bonds in their molecule. Eg.
linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and Arachidonic acid. They are present in corn, safflower, soybean,
sunflower oils and fish oils.
Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are usually soft or liquid at room temperature.
The term fat is generally applied to all triglycerides regardless of whether they are solid or
liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides from animal sources contain a higher percentage of
saturated fatty acids and are normally solids at room temperature and known as fats.
The plant triglycerides are rich in unsaturated fatty acids and are generally liquids at room
temperature and called oils.
Essential Fatty Acids: Certain fatty acids should be provided essentially in the diets, as they are
not synthesized in the body. These are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely linoleic, linolenic
and archidonic acids and are grouped as “essential” fatty acids. They are required for
metabolism and for maintenance of normal health of the skin. .
Non -essential fatty acids: Non-essential fatty acids are those which can be synthesized by the body
and which need not be supplied through the diet. Palmitic acid, oleic acid and butyric acid are examples
of non – essential fatty acids.

The functions of fats are:

(1) Energy fielding: Fats are concentrated source of energy. One gram of fat gives 9 calories.
Compared to carbohydrate it not only gives more amounts of energy but at a faster rate too.
(2) Fats also perform the protein sparing action in the same way as carbohydrate does.
(3) Storehouse of energy for the body’s needs: In fact not only amount of fats as such are
stored in adipose tissue, but any amount of glucose, amino acids, not promptly utilized are also
synthesized and stored in the body, thereby energy is continuously available from the stores in
adipose tissues.
(4) Insulation and padding: The subcutaneous layer of fat is an effective insulator and reduces
losses of body heat in cold weather, thus regulating the body temperature. The vital organs
such as the kidneys are protected against physical injury by a padding of fat around the organs.
(5) Fats help in absorption and transportation of fat-soluble vitamins in the body.
(6) Provides essential fatty acids: Fat is also the source of certain fatty acids which are essential
for metabolism and for maintaining a normal skin.
(7) Fats acts as a lubricant for various body organs especially the organs of the gastrointestinal
tract.
(8) Gives satiety value: Fat depresses the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, thus
the food stays in the gastrointestinal tract for a longer time and feeling of hunger is delayed.
(9) Fat also increases the palatability of the diet by adding flavor to many cooked
preparations.
Food Sources
Dietary fats are derived from two main sources
(1) Animal sources: It includes butter, ghee, curd, whole milk, and its products meat, fish,
poultry, and eggs.
(2) Plant sources: They include all vegetables oils e.g. groundnut, gingili, mustard, cottonseed,
sunflower, and coconut oil. Also it will include hydrogenated fats, margarine, nuts and oil seeds
like cashew nut, peanuts, almonds, and mustard seeds.
Recommended Daily Dietary Intakes
The fat requirement mainly depends upon the energy needs of the individual. From
physiological point of view there can be wide variation in fat intake and still good health can be
maintained. On an average about 15-20% of the total energy should be supplied from fats. The
dietary fats should be a good source of essential fatty acids and hence at least 50% of the
dietary fat should be from vegetables oils rich in essential fatty acids.
VITAMIN A- FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
Vitamin A was discovered in the early nineteenth century by Dr. McCollum and Davis. Dr.
McCollum carried out experiments on rats and found that when butter and egg yolk were
added to the diet of group of rats, they were healthier, stronger as compared to the other
group which was fed on lard and vegetables only. He came to the conclusion that butter and
egg yolk contain some vital elements that were absent in lard and vegetables. In 1913, he
isolated vitamin A from butter and egg yolk.
Chemistry
Vitamin A occurs in several forms: as retinal, as retinal, as an aldehyde and as retinoic
acid. These several forms may be referred to as vitamin A. In its pure form, vitamin A is a pale
yellow crystalline compound and occurs naturally in animals. It is soluble in fat solvents but
insoluble in water, and is relatively stable to heat, acids and alkalis. It is easily oxidized and
rapidly destroyed by ultra-violet radiation.
The ultimate source of all vitamin A is in the carotenes which are synthesized by plants.
Animals, as well as man in turn convert a considerable portion of carotene of the foods they eat
into vitamin A. Carotenes are dark-red crystalline compounds also known as “Pro-vitamin A” or
“precursors of vitamin A”. Alfa, Bita, Gama, molecules of carotene are of significance in
nutrition. Each molecule of beta-carotene yields two molecules of vitamin A.
Functions
1. Vitamin A is required for normal vision in dim light. The retina has two kinds of cells-rods and
cones. Rods are sensitive to dim light; the cones respond to bright light.
2. The rods contain a pigment called rhodopsin. Rhodopsin is formed by the combination of a
specific form of vitamin A with a protein.
3. Rhodopsin in the presence of bright light, breaks down into it components. In the dark these
components, Vitamin A and protein again combine to regenerate rhodopsin. This rhodopsin
helps us to see in dim light. This is called a visual cycle.
4. Vitamin A is required to maintain the integrity of epithelium, especially the
Membranes that line eyes, the mouth, and the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary
tracts. These membranes resist bacterial invasion.
5. Vitamin A is essential for normal skeletal and tooth development.
6. It has a probable role in the immunological defense mechanism of the body.

Sources: Vitamin A in the human diet exists as retinol or as retinal or beta carotene which has
to be converted to Vitamin A. Foods of animal origin contains retinol. Plant sources are rich in
Beta carotene. Only one third of the dietary beta Carotene is absorbed. Beta Carotene from
green leafy vegetables is well utilized than from carrots and papayas. Good sources of Vitamin
A are sheep liver, butter, ghee, egg, milk, curds, liver oils of shark and halibut. Good sources of
beta carotene are Agatha, amaranth, drumstick leaves, green leafy vegetables, mango, papaya,
and carrot and jack fruit.
Deficiency symptoms:
1. Xerophthalmia is an eye manifestation arising due to vitamin A deficiency. Blindness, as
a result of xerophthalmia, is an important public health problem in India. One of the
earliest manifestations of xerophthalmia is night blindness.
2. This is followed by conjunctiva xerosis which means, dryness of the conjunctiva. In
addition, to xerosis, dry foamy, triangular spots may appear on the conjunctiva. These
are called Bitot’s spot.
3. As in the case of conjunctiva, the normal cornea of the eye is moist and shining, when
vitamin A deficiency become severe, the cornea becomes dry and dull and appear like
ground glass. This condition is called corneal xerosis which means dryness of the cornea
the most dangerous form of xerophthalmia is known as keratomalacia.
4. In this condition, the cornea become very soft and raw and easily infected. It leads to
destruction of the eye. The eyes get completely melted and destroyed. This condition
leads to irreversible blindness.
5. The deficiency of vitamin A leads to the degeneration and keratinization of the
epithelium. This increase the susceptibility to infection of the eye, nasal passages,
middle ear, pharynx, mouth, respiratory tract, lungs, and genitourinary tract.
6. Dry and scaly skin is an important symptom of a deficiency of this vitamin. This patched
skin is an important symptom of a deficiency of this vitamin. This patched skin is termed
 as toad’s skin.

VITAMIN D
Pure Vitamin D was isolated in crystalline form in 1930 and was called calcifierol. It was
also known as antiranchitic vitamin.
Chemistry and Characteristic
Vitamin D is a group of sterol compounds possessing anti-rachitic properties, but only two are
of nutritional interest. (i)Vitamin D2 or Ergocaliciferol found in a plants and (ii) Vitamin D3 or
cholecalciferol which occurs in animal cells and activates in the skin on exposure to ultra-violet
light. Pure Vitamin D is white, crystalline compounds which are soluble in fats and fat solvents,
but insoluble in water. They are stable to heat, alkalis and oxidation.
Functions

1. Vitamin D regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestinal tract and
also calcification of bones and teeth. It is believed that vitamin D renders the intestinal
mucosa more permeable to calcium and phosphorus. Thus vitamin D is required for normal
bone and teeth development.
2. Vitamin D regulates the enzyme ‘alkaline phosphates’ which regulates the release of
phosphate organic compounds.
3. Absorption in the gastro intestinal tract.
4. Retention by the kidney
5. Vitamin D helps in deposition of calcium in the bones.
6. The bones grow denser and stronger.

Food Sources: Vitamin D occurs only in foods of animal origin. Fish liver oils are the richest
natural source. Liver, eggs and butter contain useful amount. Small amounts are present in
fresh milk and milk products.
Another cheap source of vitamin D is sunlight. Exposure to ultraviolet rays of the sunlight converts
the precursor of vitamin D (7-dehydrocholestrol) present in the skin, to its active form.
Recommended Daily Allowances
The recommended daily allowances of Vitamin D are not fully known for the present. 200 IU
of Vitamin D can be taken as tentative value. If exposure to sunlight is sufficient, deficiency
symptom are not seen.
Deficiency: Deficiency of vitamin D leads to Rickets in Children, a condition in which the level of
calcium and phosphorus is always low.
Bone growth cease and in more severe cases the bone which has already formed may be
demineralised. This results in clinical changes which are observed by the swelling or bending of
ribs. This condition is known as ‘rachiticrosary .
The long bones increase in at the ends and they may become curved instead of remaining
straight. This leads to ‘knock-kees’, bowed legs, curvature of vertebral column and deformities
of the pelvic bones. Softening of the skull, particularly in infants and the delayed closing of
fontanels is another feature of the deficiency of this vitamin.
Deficiency in adults leads to Obsteomalacia, a condition in which bones become fragile so that
they are susceptible to fracture.
In old age a deficiency of both vitamin D and calcium leads to Osteoporosis, a condition
in which bones become porous and break easily.
VITAMIN E
Evans and Bishop established the fact that a fat soluble factor was necessary for
reproduction in rats. They showed that the absence of this factor, or vitamin E, as it was
designated, leads to infertility in rats.
Chemistry and characteristic
Vitamin E consists of a group of chemical substances called ‘tocopherols’.
Alphatocopherol is the compound possessing the greatest vitamin E activity. High temperature
and acids do not affect the stability of this vitamin, but oxidation takes places in the presence of
rancid fats or lead and iron salts. Decomposition occurs in ultraviolet light, alkalis and oxygen.
Functions

1. The primary role of vitamin E is to act as an anti-oxidant. By accepting the oxygen, it helps
to prevent the oxidation of vitamin A in the intestine, thereby sparing vitamin A.
2. Vitamin E reduces the oxidation of the polyunsaturated fatty acids, thereby helping to
maintain the integrity of the cell membranes.
3. Vitamin E plays a part in the formation of RBC’s in the bone marrow.
4. It helps in releasing the energy from carbohydrates and fats, through the synthesis of a
coenzyme Q.
5. In some animals vitamin E is required to prevent the sterility.
6. Vitamin E reduces platelet aggregation
7. Vitamin E is essential for the iron metabolism and the maintenance of
Nervous tissues and immune function.
8. Vitamin E is been promoted as an anti-aging vitamin, because as cells age
They accumulate lipid breakdown products.
9. Vitamin E prevents this accumulation in maintaining cell health.
Food Sources
Many vegetables oils such as wheat germ oil and cotton seed oil are good sources
of vitamin E. Good concentration of vitamin E is present in dark-green leafy vegetables, nuts,
legumes, as well as whole-grain cereals. Although foods of animal origin are low in vitamin
E, liver, heart, kidney milk and eggs are the animal sources of this vitamin. Human milk provides
an adequate amount of vitamin E to infants; cow’s milk is low in this vitamin.
Recommended Daily allowances
The vitamin E requirement is linked to that of essential fatty acids. The requirement of
vitamin E suggested is 0.8 mg/g of essential fatty acids.
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency results in increased haemolysis (break down) of the red blood cells
leading to anemia. Premature infants also show a low level to tocopherol. In some species of
animals, vitamin E deficiency is known to cause reproductive failure. In human beings vitamin E
deficiency is not frequently reported.
1. Defective functioning of the retina leading to permanent blindness in premature infants
occurs.
2. It leads to reproductive failure in humans
3. Vitamin E deficiency is associated with decreased ability
of the lymphocytes.

UNIT – III:
VITAMIN C – FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS:
Chemistry and Characteristics
Vitamin C is a white crystalline compound of relatively simple structure and closely
related to monosaccharide sugars. It can be prepared synthetically at low cost from glucose. Of
all the vitamins, Vitamin C is the most easily destroyed. It highly soluble in water heat, light,
alkalis, oxidative, enzymes and trace.
The chemical name for Vitamin C is ascorbic acid. It was discovered in 1747 by the
British physician Lind and demonstrated that citrus fruit juices prevented and cured scurvy.
Functions:
1. Ascorbic Acid is essential for formation of cement substances and collagen which is
found in blood vessels teeth and bones.
2. It helps in the biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids (eg) hydroxy proline, tyrosin.
3. It is required for absorption of iron as it reduces ferric to ferrous form which is easily
absorbed.
4. Vitamin C is essential for the formation of collagen a major structural protein of
connective tissues.
5. It is required for normal wound healing because it helps in the formation of connective
tissue.
6. Vitamin C is required for carnitine synthesis which aids in the transport of fatty acids in
the cell.
7. Vitamin C is essential for the neither synthesis of nor epinephrine a neurotransmitter.
8. It activates hormones (eg) growth hormone, gastrin releasing peptide, calcitonin, gastrin
oxytocin.
 9. Drug detoxifying metabolic systems in the body require Vitamin C for its optimal
activity.
10. Vitamin C is an excellent anti-oxidant. It combines with free radicals oxidizing them to
harmless substances that can be excreted.

Food Sources: Fruits and vegetables are the main sources of this vitamin. Citrus fruits (oranges,
grapes, fruits, lemons and limes) berries, melons, pine-apples, guavas, pears, banana, apple,
leafy vegetables, green pepper, amla, tomatoes are good source of ascorbic acid. Dry legumes
contain negligible amount which increase approximately seven times, during germination. Milk,
eggs, meat and poultry do not have any Vitamin C. Human milk contains four to six times as
much ascorbic acid as cow’s milk to protect the infant from scurry.
Effects of Deficiency: Prolonged deficiency of ascorbic acid produces a disease condition
called as ‘scurvy’ in both infants and adults.
Infantile scurvy:
There is loss of appetite, failure to gain weight, irritability, palor, defective growth of bones.
Hemorrhage occurs under the skin. There is defective formation of teeth and gums are swollen.
The ends of the ribs become prominent resulting in beaded appearance called scorbutic rosary.
Adult Scurvy:
1. General manifestation is fever, susceptibility to infection, and delayed wound healing.
2. Anemia: Microcytic hypo chromic anemia develops due to failure of absorption of iron.
3. Gums become spongy and bleed easily. Gums become swollen and ulcerated.
4. The blood vessels become fragile and porous due to defective formation of collagen.
Joints become swollen and tender.
Clinical symptoms appear when total body pool of ascorbic acid decreases. Skin
becomes rough and dry. There are small petechial hemorrhages around hair Follicles.

Thiamine: Vitamin B1

Thiamine is known as Vitamin B1. Deficiency of thiamine leads to beri – beri. This condition is
widely prevalent among population whose diet contains more of polished cereals.
Functions
1. Thiamine is converted to thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), which is an important co
enzyme in the carbohydrate metabolism.
2. It is involved in transmission of nerve impulses across the cells
3. Thiamine as TPP is an essential cofactor for the conversion of amino acid tryptophan to
niacin.
4. Yeast, whole wheat, millets, hand pounded rice, parboiled rice are good sources of
thiamine. The bran contains most of the thiamine in the cereals. Gingelly seeds,
5. groundnut, soya bean, cashew nuts, organ meats, pork, liver and eggs supply thiamine.
6.
5. Thiamine is involved in the carbohydrate metabolism. Its requirement is related to
energy derived from carbohydrate. The ICMR expert group recommends an allowance
of 0.5 mg per 1000 Kcal for adults and for infants 0.3 mg/1000 Kcal is suggested.
 Effects of Deficiency
Deficiency of thiamine is associated with low calorie intake. Severe deficiency of
thiamine produces a disease known as beri – beri.
It is manifested as
a. Dry beri – beri
b. Wet beri – beri
c. Infantile beri – beri
In later stages complete loss of sensation in hands and legs occur. It is characterized by foot
and waist drop. Mental depression and confusion occurs.
a. Dry beri – beri
There is loss of appetite, tingling numbness and burning sensation in hands and feet. Calf
muscles are tender. Knee and ankle jerks are sluggish. In later stages complete loss of sensation
in hands and legs occur. It is characterized by foot and waist drop. Mental depression and
confusion occurs
b. Wet beri – beri
In this case there is enlargement of heart and the cardiac output is high. Oedema or
accumulation of fluid in legs, face and trunk is observed. palpitations are marked.
c. Infantile beri – beri
It occurs in first few months of life if the diet of the mother is deficient in thiamine. Symptoms
are restlessness, sleeplessness, constipation, enlargement of the heart and breathlessness.
Riboflavin: Vitamin B2.
Riboflavin or Vitamin B2 is the yellow enzyme which is heat stable unlike other B Vitamins.
Riboflavin in the combined form with proteins forms flavo proteins or yellow enzymes.
This enzyme is of two types FAD – Flavin-di-nucleotide and FMN- Flavin mono-nucleotide.
a. These substances act as coenzymes in many biological reactions primarily in oxidation –
reduction, and dehydrogenation reactions.
b. Release of energy from glucose, fatty acids and amino acids.
c. Conversion of vitamin B6 and folate to active coenzymes.
d. It is essential for the formation of red blood cells
e. It is required for the synthesis of glycogen
Food Sources: Rich sources are liver, dried yeast, egg, milk, meat, fish, whole cereals, legumes,
and green leafy vegetables.

Requirements: Riboflavin requirement is related to energy intake – 0.6 mg/1000Kcal.

Effects of Deficiency
Riboflavin deficiency is prevalent mainly among the low income groups particularly the
vulnerable group and the elderly adults. Riboflavin deficiency is characterized by
1. Soreness and burning of the mouth and tongue.
2. Lesions at the angles of the mouth called Angular Stomatitis.
3. The inflammation of the tongue called glossitis
4. Dry chapped appearance of the lip with ulcers termed cheilosis.
5. The skin becomes dry and results in seborehoeic dermatitis.
6. Photophobia, lacrimation, burning sensation of the eyes and visual fatigue.
 7. Decreased motor co-ordination
2. Normocytic anaemia

Folic Acid
Folic acid was first extracted from dark green leafy vegetables. It forms yellow crystals and is a
conjugated substance
Characteristics: Folain is a generic term for folic acid, pteroyglutamic acid and other
compounds having the activity of folic acid. It consists of three linked componets: a pteridine
grouping, para-amino-benzoic acid, and glutamic acid, an amino acid. Pure folic acid occurs as a
bright yellow crystalline compound, only slightly soluble in water. It is easily oxidized in an acid
medium and is sensitive to light. Made up of three acids namely pteroic, para amino benzoic
acid and glutamic acid.
Functions
1. Folic acid coenzyme is essential in bringing about transferring single carbon units for
many interconversions. A number of key compounds are formed by these reactions like
(i) Purines which are essential constituents of living cells.
(ii) Thymine – this essential compound forms a key part of DNA.
(iii) The formation of haem group of hemoglobin.
(vi) The conversion of phenylalanine into tyrosin.
Food Sources: Green leafy vegetables, liver, kidney, gingelly seeds, cluster beans, are rich
sources of folic acid.

Requirements: The recommended dietary allowances of Folic acid by ICMR are given in table
ICMR Recommended Dietary Allowance for Folic acid
Group Folic acid mg/day
Man 100
Woman 100
Pregnant woman 400

Deficiency
1. Simple folate deficiency results in the bone marrow producing immature cells
(megaloblasts cells) and few matured red blood cells. These results in reduced oxygen –
carrying capacity causing anemia termed - Megaloblastic anemia.
2. Folate deficiency during pregnancy causes neural tube disorders of the fetus.
3. Folate deficiency impairs the ability of the immune system to fight infection.
4.

Importance of folic acid in women’s health.

Folate is important for a range of functions in the body. It helps the body make healthy new red
blood cells, for example. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. If the body does
not make enough of these, a person can develop anemia, leading to fatigue, weakness, and a
pale complexion. Without enough folate, a person can also develop a type of anemia
called folate deficiency anemia. Folate is also important for the synthesis and repair of DNA and
other genetic material, and it is necessary for cells to divide. Getting enough folate during
pregnancy is particularly important. This is because folic acid is crucial for early fetal
development, particularly with regard to the spinal cord. During pregnancy, folate deficiency
increases the risk of congenital irregularities.

Before and during pregnancy: Folic acid protects unborn children against serious birth defects
called neural tube defects. These birth defects happen in the first few weeks of pregnancy,
often before a woman knows she is pregnant. Folic acid might also help prevent other types of
birth defects and early pregnancy loss (miscarriage). Since about half of all pregnancies in the
United States are unplanned, experts recommend all women get enough folic acid even if you
are not trying to get pregnant her a vitamin nor a mineral.