KARPAGAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE - 641105

Department of Science and Humanities

OBT553- Fundamentals of Nutrition

(III CSE, III IT)

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 SYLLABUS

UNIT I OVERVIEW OF NUTRITION

Definition, six classes of nutrients, calculating energy values from food, using the RDA,
nutritional status, nutritional requirement, malnutrition, nutritional assessment of individuals
and populations, dietary recommendations, Balanced diet planning: Diet planning
principles, dietary guidelines; food groups, exchange lists, personal diet analysis.

UNIT II DIGESTION
Digestion, Absorption and Transport: Anatomy and physiology of the digestive tract,
mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption of nutrients.

UNIT III CARBOHYDRATES

Glycemic and Non-glycemic carbohydrates, blood glucose regulation, recommendations of
sugar intake for health, health effects of fiber and starch intake, Artificial sweeteners;
Importance of blood sugar regulation, Dietary recommendations for NIDDM and IDDM

UNIT IV PROTEINS & LIPIDS

Proteins; Food enzymes; Texturized proteins; Food sources, functional role and uses in
foods. Review of structure, composition & nomenclature of fats. Non-Glyceride
components in fats & oils; Fat replacements ; Food sources, functional role and uses in
foods; Health effects and recommended intakes of lipids. Recommended intakes of proteins,
Deficiency- short term and long term effects.

UNIT V METABOLISM, ENERGY BALANCE AND BODY COMPOSITION

Energy Balance; body weight and body composition; health implications; obesity, BMR and
BMI calculations; Weight Control: Fat cell development; hunger, satiety and satiation;
dangers of unsafe weight loss schemes; treatment of obesity; attitudes and behaviours
toward weight control. Food and Pharmaceutical grades; toxicities, deficiencies, factors
affecting bioavailability, Stability under food processing conditions.

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 UNIT I
OVERVIEW OF NUTRITION

Food is anything edible which includes all foods we eat and drinks acceptable for a
particular society, culture or religion. Food keeps us alive and will help us grow, develop,
work and play. Food gives us a feeling of comfort and satisfaction. What we eat and how we
eat makes up our food habit. Most of our food habits are learned in the home from our
parents. As we grow up, our experience and learning help us to change some of these food
habits. We learn about food and nutrition in order to be able to teach society and help to
change our food habits for the better living.

Diet is the sequence and balance of meals in a day. It is concerned with the eating
patterns of individuals or a group. Some people may eat twice in a day (breakfast and
dinner); others may eat four times (breakfast, lunch, snack and dinner); still others may
seem to be chewing all day long.

Nutrition
The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a
living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues is
known as nutrition. It is the science or study that deals with food and nourishment,
especially in humans. The source of nourishment is food.
Nutrient
A nutrient is an active chemical component in food that plays a specific structural
or functional role in the body’s activity.
They are categorized into
➢ .Macro nutrient (needed in relatively large amounts) includes carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, fibre and water. These substances are needed for the supply of energy and
growth, for metabolism and other body functions.
➢ Micro nutrient (needed in smaller quantities) include minerals and vitamins.

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Six classes of nutrients
There are six main groups of essential nutrients.
They are Carbohydrates, Lipids (fats), Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water.
i) Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates are essential for proper body functioning. They are sugars, fibres or starches
that provide energy for all the cells and tissues in the body. Carbohydrates also ensure our
body is not breaking down proteins to gain energy, preventing loss of muscle mass. There
are two different types of carbohydrates: simple and complex. Body needs complex
carbohydrates which give energy to support the immune system, brain function, the nervous
system, digestive function.
The following foods contain complex carbohydrates: quinoa ,brown rice ,vegetables .whole
grain pasta, bread, and other baked goods, fruits ,barley.
ii) Lipids (fats)
Lipids (Fats) are essential nutrient that boosts absorption of vitamins and helps protect
organs. Healthful fats help in cell growth ,blood clotting ,building new cells ,muscle
movement, brain functioning ,hormone production, mineral and vitamin absorption reducing
the risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes and balance blood sugar.
Unsaturated fats, found in natural sources, actually protect the heart and helps in the
prevention of heart disease. These good fats can be found in nuts, avocados and salmon.
Some types of fats are undoubtedly bad. Trans fats, found in processed and baked foods,
increase the risk of heart disease and should be eaten very rarely, if ever.
iii) Proteins
Protein is a macronutrient that every cell in the body needs to function properly. Proteins are
made of amino acids. They are the building blocks of cells, which turn over quicker and
regenerate more slowly as a person ages. There are 20 amino acids in total, but the nine
essential amino acids are Histidine Ioleucine, Leucine, Lysin, Methioine Phenylalanine,
Threonine, Tryptophan and Valine.
Animal proteins provide all essential amino acids, while plant proteins may be lacking
several of these essential elements.Proteins ensure the growth and development of muscles,
bones, hair, and skin, forms antibodies, hormones, and other essential substances and serve
as a fuel source for cells and tissues when needed,

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The following foods are good sources of protein:

• red meats (limit their use and choose lean cuts) poultry, including chicken and turkey
• fish and other sea food, beans and legumes
• eggs ,dairy products
iv) Vitamins
Vitamins are micronutrients that offer a range of health benefits.
Vitamin A is vital for skin and eye health, Vitamin C for bone and muscle structure and
immune support, and Vitamin D for bone growth and cardiovascular and nervous health.
Vitamin D is particularly critical for bone and immune health, so highly essential.
No food provides every essential vitamin. A diverse and healthy diet is needed. If our diet is
restrictive, a supplement which contains multivitamin can be taken.
v) Minerals

Major minerals help the body to improve bone health, balance water level, and maintain
healthy skin, hair, and nails. The major minerals include calcium, chloride, magnesium,
phosphorous, potassium and sodium.
Eg
• Calcium is essential for bone health, muscle and nerve function, and circulation.
99 per cent of the body's calcium is found in the bones and teeth. Calcium is found in dairy,
leafy greens and fish such as sardines and salmon.
• Sodium is another essential nutrient that has gained a bad reputation. Sodium keeps
nerves and muscles working correctly. Sodium can be found naturally in nuts, vegetables,
meats and legumes, but intake should be limited to around one teaspoon of salt. Processed,
frozen, and canned foods with high sodium should be avoided.

Trace minerals are: iron, selenium, zinc, Manganese, chromium, copper, iodine and fluoride.

• Iron is a part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in red blood cells that carries oxygen in
the body; needed for energy metabolism. It is found in red meats; fish; poultry; shellfish
(especially clams); egg yolks; legumes; dried fruits; dark, leafy greens; iron-enriched
breads and cereals; and fortified cereals

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 • Fluoride is involved in formation of bones and teeth and helps prevent tooth decay.
Drinking water (either fluoridated or naturally containing fluoride), fish, and most teas
contains fluorine.

vi) Water

Water is absolutely essential for survival, especially as it makes up to 60 per cent of the
human adult body. A few days without water can lead to serious illness and even death.
Keeping hydrated is really important. It is critical for waste removal and temperature
regulation, and is an essential element of every cell. Water helps in flushing toxins out,
transporting nutrients, preventing constipation lubrication, hydration and act as shock
absorption.

Calculating energy values from food

The amount of grams of each energy source (fat, carbohydrate, and protein) and the
amount of energy per gram of each energy source will be given on the label. Multiply the
grams by the Energy per gram to obtain the Energy value.
Eg To calculate the energy available from a food, multiply the number of grams of
carbohydrate, protein, and fat by 4, 4 and 9 respectively. Then add the results together.
For example, 1 slice of bread with a tablespoon of peanut butter on it contains 16 grams
carbohydrate, 7 grams protein, and 9 grams fat
16g carbohydrate x 4 kcal/g = 64 kcal
7g protein x 4 kcal/g = 28 kcal
9g fat x 9kcal/g = 81 kcal
Total = 173 kcal

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Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily level of intake

sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%-98%) healthy people.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) have been prepared by the Food and Nutrition
Board since 1941. The first edition was published in 1943 to provide “standards to serve as
a goal for good nutrition.”

The recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) are estimates of nutrients to be

consumed daily to ensure the requirements of all individuals in a given population. The
recommended level depends upon the bioavailability of nutrients from a given diet. The
term bioavailability indicates what is absorbed and utilized by the body. In addition, RDA
includes a margin of safety, to cover variation between individuals, dietary traditions and
practices. The RDAs are suggested for physiological groups such as infants, pre-schoolers,
children, adolescents, pregnant women, lactating mothers, adult men and women, taking
into account their physical activity. In fact, RDAs are suggested averages/day.

However, in practice, fluctuations in intake may occur depending on the food

availability and demands of the body. But, the average requirements need to be satisfied
over a period of time.

Nutritional status

Nutritional status is the physiological state of an individual, which results from the
relationship between nutrient intake and requirements and from the body's ability to digest,
absorb and use these nutrients..
For adults, general adequacy is assessed by measuring weight and height; the result is
commonly expressed as the body mass index, the ratio of weight (kg) to height (m). Body
fat may also be estimated, by measuring skin fold thickness, and muscle diameter.
For children, weight and height for age are compared with standard data for adequately
nourished children. The increase in the circumference of the head and the development of
bones may also be measured. Status with respect to individual vitamins and minerals is
normally determined by laboratory tests, either measuring the blood and urine

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concentrations of the nutrients and their metabolites, or by testing for specific metabolic
response.
Dietary methods of assessment include looking at past or current intakes of nutrients from
food by individuals or a group to determine their nutritional status. We can ask what the
family or the mother and the child have eaten over the past 24 hours and use this data to
calculate the dietary diversity score.

Nutritional requirement
Nutritionists have a wide knowledge of the role of nutrients in health and disease.
People need many different nutrients to maintain health and reduce the risk of diet-related
diseases. The amount of each nutrient needed is called the nutritional requirement.
The human diet must provide
➢ Calories; enough to meet our daily energy needs.
➢ Amino acids. There are nine, or so, "essential" amino acids that we need for protein
synthesis and that we cannot synthesize from other precursors.
➢ Fatty acids.
➢ Minerals.
➢ Vitamins.
Daily Intake Levels
Nutrient Quantity Per Day
Protein 50 grams
Fat 70 grams
Saturated Fatty Acids 24 grams
Carbohydrates 310 grams

Malnutrition
Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more
nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems. It
may involve calories, protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins or minerals.
Causes: Eating a diet in which nutrients are either low or high
Symptoms: Problems with physical or mental development, and reduced work productivity.

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Adverse effects
• Educed muscle and tissue mass
• Decreased mobility and stamina as a result of muscle wasting,
• Breathing difficulties, and an increased risk of chest infection and respiratory failure,
• Wounds take longer to heal and illnesses take longer to recover from,
Treatment:
• Dietary changes, such as eating foods high in energy and nutrients.
• Support for families to help them manage factors affecting the child's nutritional intake.
• Giving vitamin and mineral supplements.
Recommended diet for Malnutritious child

• Eat ‘little and often’ – 3 small meals a day with 2-3 snacks in-between meals

• Include protein at each meal such as meat, fish, chicken, eggs, beans or lentils

• Avoid low fat, sugar-free, diet foods and drinks for example skimmed milk

• Add high calorie ingredients to meals and drinks including full cream milk, cheese,
butter, olive oil and cream

• Try not to have drinks just before meals to prevent feeling full.

• Include puddings after lunch and evening meal such as creamy yoghurts, custards,
rice pudding, milk puddings or ice-cream

• Try including 1 pint of full cream milk each day - this can be enriched by adding 4
tablespoons of dried milk powder. Use this instead of milk and water in drinks,
cooking, cereals and puddings

• Choose nourishing drinks such as milky drinks (malted drinks, hot chocolate, milky
coffee and milkshakes) or high sugar drinks such as fruit juice, smoothies, fizzy
drinks or squash

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 Dietary changes and supplements
• A dietitian will advise about dietary changes that can help. They may create a
tailored diet plan that ensures we get enough nutrients.
They may also suggest:
• having a healthier, more balanced diet
• eating "fortified" foods that contain extra nutrients
• snacking between meals
• having drinks that contain lots of calories
If these measures are not enough, taking extra nutrients in the form of supplements may
be recommended. These should only be taken on the advice of a healthcare professional.
Foods can be categorized according to the function as-

• Energy rich foods (Carbohydrates and fats)-whole grain cereals, millets, vegetable oils,
ghee, nuts and oilseeds and sugars.
• Body building foods (Proteins)- Pulses, nuts and oilseeds, milk and milk products,
meat, fish, poultry.
• Protective foods (Vitamins and minerals) - Green leafy vegetables, other vegetables,
fruits, eggs, milk and milk products and flesh foods.

Nutritional assessment of individuals and populations

A nutritional assessment is used to determine the nutritional status of a person or
group of people. Both under nutrition and over nutrition play a major role in morbidity and
mortality, and therefore assessment of nutritional status is essential to improve the health of
individuals and populations throughout the world. There are four main approaches to
assessing nutritional status:
i) Anthropometry : It measures the dimensions and composition of the human body
Eg To assess growth in children we can use several different measurements including
length, height, weight and head circumference.
ii) Biomarkers: It reflects either nutrient intake or the impact of nutrient intake. When we
measure of nutritional status biomarker is available.

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iii) Clinical assessment: It ascertains the clinical consequences of imbalanced nutrient
intakes. Clinical methods of assessing nutritional status involve checking signs of deficiency
at specific places on the body or asking the patient whether they have any symptoms that
might suggest nutrient deficiency from the patient.
iv) Dietary assessment: It estimates food and/or nutrient intakes. Dietary methods of
assessment include looking at past or current intakes of nutrients from food by individuals
or a group to determine their nutritional status.
Dietary recommendations
The following dietary recommendations can be followed
➢ Reduce total fat intake to 30% or less of calories. Reduce saturated fatty acid intake
to less than 10% of calories, and the intake of cholesterol to less than 300 mg daily.
The intake of fat and cholesterol can be reduced by substituting fish, poultry without
skin, lean meats, and low-or non fat dairy products for fatty meats and whole-milk
dairy products; by choosing more vegetables, fruits, cereals, and legumes; and by
limiting oils, fats, egg yolks, and fried and other fatty foods.
➢ Every day eat five or more servings of a combination of vegetables and fruits,
especially green and yellow vegetables and citrus fruits. Also, increase intake of
starches and other complex carbohydrates by eating six or more daily servings of a
combination of breads, cereals, and legumes.
➢ Maintain protein intake at moderate levels.
➢ Balance food intake and physical activity to maintain appropriate body weight.
➢ Avoid alcohol consumption. Limit consumption to the equivalent of less than 1
ounce of pure alcohol in a single day.
➢ Limit total daily intake of salt (sodium chloride) to 6 g or less. Limit the use of salt
in cooking and avoid adding it to food at the table. Salty, highly processed salty,
salt-preserved, and salt-pickled foods should be consumed sparingly.
➢ Maintain adequate calcium intake.
➢ Avoid taking dietary supplements in excess of the RDA [Recommended Dietary
Allowances] in any one day.
➢ Maintain an optimal intake of fluoride, particularly during the years of primary and
secondary tooth formation and growth.

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Balanced diet planning
A balanced diet is one which provides all the nutrients in required amounts and
proper proportions. Eating a balanced diet means choosing a wide variety of foods and
drinks from all the food groups. It also means eating certain things in small amounts,
namely saturated fat, cholesterol, simple sugar, salt and alcohol. The goal is to take in all of
the nutrients you need for health at the recommended levels and perhaps restrict those things
that are not good for the body.
The quantities of foods needed to meet the nutrient requirements vary with age, gender,
physiological status and physical activity. A balanced diet should provide around 50-60% of
total calories from carbohydrates, preferably from complex carbohydrates, about 10-15%
from proteins and 20-30% from both visible and invisible fat.
Components of a balanced diet
• Fats
Some part of our energy requirement is fulfilled by fats. Fats can be found in fatty foods
such as butter, ghee, oil, cheese, etc.
• Proteins
We need proteins for growth purposes and to repair the wear and tear of the body. Protein
also helps in building muscle. It is found in dairy products, sprouts, meat, eggs, chicken, etc
• Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide us energy. Carbohydrates can be found in rice, wheat, chapati, bread,
etc. Cereals are our staple food.
• Minerals and Vitamins
Vitamins, Minerals, and Fibre improve the body’s resistance to disease. We mainly obtain it
from vegetables and fruits. Deficiency diseases like Anemia, Goitre, etc can be caused due
to lack of mineral in the body.
In addition, a balanced diet should provide other non-nutrients such as dietary fibre,
antioxidants and photochemical which give positive health benefits.
Antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, riboflavin and selenium protect the
human body from free radical damage. Other photochemical such as polyphenols, flavones,
etc., also afford protection against oxidant damage. Spices like turmeric, ginger, garlic,
cumin and cloves are rich in antioxidants.

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A food pyramid helps us identify the food groups people should combine in order to make a
balanced diet.

Importance of a Balanced Diet

• Balanced Diet leads to a good physical and a good mental health.
• It helps in proper growth of the body.
• It increases the capacity to work.
• It increases the ability to fight or resist diseases.
Balanced diet can be planned in a community by the following processes
➢ Help individual to identify the balanced diet: We should know which foods they use, the
amount of different foods available, and how they prepare their meals.
➢ Suggest using mixture of foods: The staple food is the common type of food that is
consumed by the community and it’s the main part of most meals. Eg maize, kocho.
They are cheap. In order to have a good balanced diet, people in the community will
need to eat other foods in addition to the staple foods.
The additional foods are important because they
• Provide nutrients that may not be available in the staple food. For example, legumes
such as peas, beans and lentils add protein, iron and other minerals and fat; green and
yellow vegetables and fruits add vitamins A and C, folate, and fibre
• Make the food less bulky
• Make the diet more tasty and interesting to eat.
➢ Adding small amounts of animal products like meat, milk and eggs with staples,
legumes and vegetables will improve the balanced diet.

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Diet planning principles
Here are six principles which are important to incorporate into a diet plan:

i) Maintaining adequate levels of energy, nutrients, movement and rest for optimal
health.
ii) Balancing different food groups, and consuming foods in the right proportion.
iii) Consuming the appropriate number of calories to maintain a healthy weight depending
on our metabolism and exercise levels.
iv) Focussing on a diet that is nutrient dense without being high in calories.
v) Learning how to be moderate with foods that are higher in fat or sugar.
vi) Exploring a varied diet that provides all the nutrients necessary for good health.

Here are a few simple practices for a healthy diet plan.

➢ Choose a variety of foods from each major food group to ensure intake of adequate
amounts of calories, protein, vitamins, minerals and fiber. Choosing a wide range of
foods also helps to make meals and snacks more interesting.
➢ Adapt the meal plan to meet specific tastes and preferences. For example, a serving of
grains doesn't only mean a slice of wheat bread. It can be wild rice, whole-wheat pasta,
grits, bulgur, cornmeal muffins or even popcorn.
➢ Combine foods from different major groups. For example, create a meal of (1) tortillas
(grain group) and beans (meat and beans group), or (2) fish topped with fruit salsa
served with steamed vegetables over pasta.
➢ Select meals and snacks wisely and chose nutrient-rich foods within each group. For
example, in the setting of lactose intolerance, choose foods from other groups that are
good sources of the nutrients found in dairy products.
Nutritious eating includes:

➢ Eating a variety of foods, including vegetables, fruits and whole-grain products.

➢ Eating lean meats, poultry, fish, beans and low-fat dairy products.
➢ Limiting consumption of salt, sugar, alcohol, saturated fats and trans fats.
➢ Reading food labels to ensure a healthy diet.

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One model for a “balanced” and nutritious meal would be to use the "plate method" for
planning food portions:

• 50 percent as assorted vegetables

• 25 percent as protein
• 25 percent as whole grains (e.g., brown rice)
• One fruit

Dietary guidelines
Dietary guidelines for Indians published by National Institute of Nutrition in 1998
and revised in 2011. The Ministry of Health has endorsed them
➢ Ensure provision of extra food and health care to pregnant and lactating women.

➢ Promote exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months and encourage breastfeeding until 2

years.
➢ Feed home-based semi-solid foods to the infant after 6 months.

➢ Ensure adequate and appropriate diets for children and adolescents, both in health

and sickness.
➢ Eat plenty of vegetables and fruits.

➢ Ensure moderate use of edible oils and animal foods and use a minimum of

ghee/butter/vanaspati.
➢ Avoid overeating to prevent overweight and obesity.

➢ Exercise regularly and be physically active to maintain ideal body weight.

➢ Restrict salt intake to a minimum.

➢ Ensure the use of safe and clean foods.

➢ Adopt the right pre-cooking processes and appropriate cooking methods.

➢ Drink plenty of water and take beverages in moderation.

➢ Minimize the use of processed foods rich in salt, sugar and fats.

➢ Include micronutrient-rich foods in the diets of elderly people to enable them to be

fit and active.

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Food groups
Foods from the basic food groups provide the nutrients essential for life and growth.
These foods are also known as ‘everyday foods’. Each of the food groups provides a range
of nutrients, and all have a role in helping the body function. In particular, vegetables,
legumes and fruit protect against illness and are essential to a healthy diet.
The basic food groups are:
i) Breads, Cereals, Rice, Pasta, Noodles and Other Grains
ii) Vegetables , Legumes and Fruit

iii) Milk, Yoghurt, Cheese and/or alternatives

iv) Lean meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts and legumes.

A balanced diet includes a variety of foods from each of the food groups, and offers a range
of different tastes and textures. It is important to choose most of the foods we eat each day
from these food groups.

i) Breads, Cereals, Rice, Pasta, Noodles and other Grains

Breads, cereals, rice, pasta, noodles and other grain-based foods provide carbohydrates,
which the body uses for energy. The best choices from this group are wholemeal and
wholegrain breads, cereals and savoury biscuits. Other good choices include brown rice,
couscous, wholegrain pasta and polenta.
ii) Vegetables, Legumes and Fruit
Fruit and vegetables provide vitamins, minerals and fibre, and should be included in meals
and snacks each day. Choose a variety of fruits, vegetables and legumes (including different
colours, textures and flavours) to provide a wide range of vitamins and minerals.
iii) Milk, yoghurt, cheese and/or alternatives
Plain milk, cheese and yoghurt are the most common dairy foods, and main dietary sources
of calcium. Having enough calcium is important for healthy bones and teeth.
Milk is not recommended for babies under 12 months, but small amounts in breakfast
cereal, and other dairy products such as yoghurt, custard and cheese, can be given after nine
months. Full-cream plain milk is recommended for children aged one to two years, and
reduced-fat plain milk is suitable for children over the age of two years. If children do not
drink cow’s milk, or eat cow’s milk products, they can have a calcium-fortified soy drink

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instead. Rice and oat milks are not recommended and should only be given to children after
medical advice.
iv) Lean Meat, Fish, Poultry, Eggs, Nuts and Legumes

This group includes red meat (such as beef, lamb and kangaroo), white meat (such as pork,
chicken and turkey), fish and eggs. Non-animal products in this group include nuts, legumes
and tofu. Meat and its alternatives are rich in protein, iron and zinc, and essential for
children’s growth and development. It is best to choose lean meat and skinless poultry to
ensure children’s diets do not contain too much fat.

Some families follow vegetarian eating practices. Usually this means avoiding animal
products such as meat, poultry and fish. Many vegetarians still eat some animal related
products such as eggs, milk, cheese and yoghurt. It is especially important that vegetarians
eat a variety of legumes, nuts, seeds and grain-based foods, to gain the same nutrients that
meat, poultry and fish would otherwise provide.
Exchange lists
A person can exchange, trade, or substitute a food serving in one group for another
food serving in the same group. These lists put foods into six groups: starch/bread, meat,
vegetables, fruit, milk, and fats.
The Exchange System groups together foods that have roughly the same amounts of
calories, carbohydrate, fat and protein into "Exchange" groups, so that one may be
exchanged for another.
For example, at breakfast we might aim for one Starch exchange, one Fruit, one Fat and one
Milk.
• The food exchange systems help people learn how to eat more balanced and nutritious,
while providing a wide variety of food. To solve this problem, the concept of
“exchange”, or “substitution”, of similar foods was developed.
• Scientist took foods in standard amounts and analyzed them for their nutrient content
and calories. The results were averaged out and foods with similar nutrients and caloric
content were placed in the appropriate food exchange group.

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Personal diet analysis
A personal diet analysis involves a dietician or nutritionist evaluating our daily
diet to determine its healthfulness. The diet analysis is necessary because we may have
health concerns or problems such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
obesity, diabetes or Crohn's disease.
Personal diet analysis using software and online Tools.
There are software packages that can be used at home. We can enter our daily food
intake into our computer and allow the software to do the diet analysis. Our diet could
then be modified and re-entered until the right nutritional content was reached. Many
dieticians do this for their patients.
In-Person Diet Analysis; Dietician and nutritionists give personal counselling.
Food Journal
In person, individualized nutrition counselling typically involves us keeping a
diary or a food journal of what we eat each day. Most food journals are kept for a few
days to a few weeks. Our diet is then evaluated for nutritional content, balance, calories,
portion sizes, fat and carbohydrate intake, etc. The nutrition expert will then review our
journal and make suggested changes to our diet.
Recommendations
A nutritionist or dietician would suggest the following:
Breakfast: 1 egg 1 tbsp. canola oil margarine 1/2 apple sliced 1 piece whole-grain bread 1
to 2 cups green tea or juice
Lunch: 1 tuna sandwich on whole-grain bread w/lettuce and tomato and 1 tbsp. low-fat
mayonnaise or 1 turkey or veggie burger on whole-grain bread with lettuce and tomato,
ketchup and mustard, 1 teaspoon of mayonnaise if desired 1/2 cup baked chips 1 glass
water or juice
Snack: 1 whole orange or 4 slices of 3-4 inch celery sticks with peanut butter

Dinner: 1 cup chicken casserole with mozzarella cheese, onions, scalloped potatoes, low-
fat milk 1 cup green salad with 1 tablespoon of olive oil and vinegar dressing 1 to 2 pieces
whole grain bread of their choice -- i.e., slices, roll or baguette 1 glass water or juice

Dessert: 3/4 cup chocolate frozen yogurt.

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Explanation of Recommendations
The recommendations made will add many nutrients and will lower the amount of
calories, bad fat and cholesterol. This modified diet is much more balanced and
incorporates the right amount of each food group. There are many ways to modify our
diet. Personal counselling and interviewing is useful in determining what types of foods to
incorporate into our meal plan. This diet was modified by taking the client's existing
choices and making them more healthful. Personal consulting by a nutrition expert is the
ideal method for achieving that and finding a diet solution that will last.

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 UNIT II
DIGESTION
Digestion:
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-
soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. (or)
The process of breaking down food into individual molecules small enough to be absorbed
through the intestinal wall is known as digestion.
Digestion occurs in two processes based on how food is broken down
i) Mechanical digestion –It refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into
smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes.
ii) Chemical digestion- Here enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body
can use.
Anatomy of the digestive tract

The digestive system which is 30 feet in length in adults is made up of the

gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or digestive tract and the liver, pancreas and gallbladder.
The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to
the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are
the solid organs of the digestive system

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i) Mouth
Food is chewed into smaller pieces. Adults have 32 specialized teeth that can grind, chew,
and tear different kinds of food. The tongue is an organ consisting of skeletal muscles
(voluntary muscles) that move the food around the mouth to allow for efficient mechanical
digestion. Salivary glands beneath and in back of the tongue secrete the saliva that allows
for easier swallowing of food and the beginning of chemical digestion.
ii) Pharnyx
Swallowing forces the chewed food through a tubular entrance (pharynx) to
the esophagus (food tube). As food is swallowed a flap-like valve, the epiglottis, closes
over the trachea (windpipe) to prevent food entering the windpipe and causing choking.
iii) Esophagus
The esophagus connects the pharynx with the stomach. Contractions of the esophagus push
the food through a sphincter (a ring of smooth muscle that closes off an opening in the
body) and into the stomach.
iv) Stomach
The stomach is a muscular and stretchable sac with three important functions:
➢ It mixes and stores food until it can be further digested.
➢ It secretes chemicals that help break the food into more digestible forms.
➢ It controls the passage of food into the small intestine.
The stomach starts chemical digestion of protein. Secretions from the stomach lining
consist of about two liters of hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsin, and other fluids that make up
gastric fluids each day. The fluid is extremely acidic and it helps kill bacteria and other
pathogens that may have been ingested.
The thick mucus also produced by the stomach lining usually keeps the acids from
damaging the lining. If not enough mucus is produced or if too much acid is produced,
peptic ulcers form. Heredity, stress, smoking, and excessive alcohol intake can make the
ulcers worse. Food stays in the stomach for approximately 3-4 hours and moves through
another sphincter muscle to pass into the small intestine.
v) Small intestine
Nearly 7 meters in length, the small intestine is folded and curled around a small area in the
abdominal cavity. The inside surfaces of the intestine are covered with projections

19
called villi. These finger-like structures are covered in smaller projections
called microvilli and work to absorb food molecules that have been broken down by the
processes of chemical digestion.
The small intestine has three distinct parts: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the
ileum. Each day, about 9 liters of fluid enters the duodenum. Most chemical digestion
takes place in the duodenum by chemicals secreted by the liver, pancreas and small
intestine. The other two sections of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum, absorb
food molecules by way of the villi directly into the blood stream.
vii) Large intestine
The large intestine includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. The appendix is a
finger-shaped pouch attached to the cecum. The cecum is the first part of the large intestine.
The colon is next. The rectum is the end of the large intestine a “holding area” for the
undigested material. Waste leaves the body from this area.
The large intestine receives the material “left-over” from chemical digestion that is basically
nutrient free. Only water, cellulose, and undigestible materials are left. The main job of the
large intestine is to remove water from the undigested material. Water is quickly removed
from the material through villi and returns to the blood stream.
Liver
The liver is a large organ located just above the stomach. The liver produces bile which
helps digest lipids. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and flows from the gallbladder to the
duodenum where it helps digest fats.
Gall bladder
The gall bladder is a small, greenish organ located just under the liver. It stores bile
produced by the liver until it is secreted directly into the first section of the small intestine.
Pancreas
The pancreas has three important functions that help the digestive system change food into a
form that can be used by the cells.
➢ It produces enzymes which help break down proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
➢ It produces the hormone, insulin, which helps regulate blood glucose levels.
➢ It produces sodium bicarbonate which helps to neutralize stomach acids.

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Physiology of the digestive tract
The digestive system ingests and digests food, absorbs released nutrients, and excretes food
components that are indigestible. The six activities involved in this process are ingestion,
propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation.

i) Ingestion: It is the process of entry of food through the mouth. The food chewed and
mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes that begin breaking down the carbohydrates in
the food plus some lipid digestion via lingual lipase. Chewing increases the surface area of
the food and allows an appropriately sized bolus to be produced.
ii) Propulsion: Food leaves the mouth when the tongue and pharyngeal muscles propel it
into the esophagus. Propulsion is movement of food through the digestive tract. It includes
both the voluntary process of swallowing and the involuntary process of peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the process of alternating waves of muscle contraction and relaxation which
moves food through the digestive tract. It helps mixing food with digestive juices.
iii) Mechanical digestion It is a purely physical process that does not change the chemical
nature of the food. Mechanical digestion begins in our mouth with chewing, and then moves
to churning in the stomach and segmentation in the small intestine. Peristalsis is also part of
mechanical digestion.

21
iv) Chemical digestion: Starting in the mouth, digestive secretions break down complex
food molecules into their chemical building blocks (for example, proteins into separate
amino acids). These secretions vary in composition, but typically contain water, various
enzymes, acids, and salts. The process is completed in the small intestine.
v) Absorption: Food that has been broken down is of no value to the body unless it enters
the bloodstream and its nutrients are put to work. This occurs through the process
of absorption, which takes place primarily within the small intestine. There, most nutrients
are absorbed from the lumen of the alimentary canal into the bloodstream through the
epithelial cells that make up the mucosa. Lipids are absorbed into lacteals and are
transported via the lymphatic vessels to the bloodstream (the subclavian veins near the
heart).
vi) Defecation: It is the final step in digestion; undigested materials are removed from the
body as feces.
Absorption:
Absorption is the process by which the products of digestion are absorbed by the
blood to be supplied to the rest of the body. The small intestine absorbs most of
the nutrients in our food, and our circulatory system passes them on to other parts of
our body to store or use. Special cells help absorbed nutrients cross the intestinal lining into
our bloodstream.
The nutrients in food should be absorbed by the gut in order to enter our bloodstream and be
transported to the brain, organs and other parts of the body that need them. Without
efficient nutrient absorption, our body won't function properly leaving us susceptible to
deficiencies and disease.
The muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver,
and intestine, and push the mixture forward for further digestion. The walls of the small
intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into our bloodstream.
Our intestine absorbs certain vitamins — vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin K —
when they're paired with a fat source. Getting enough of these vitamins and
maximally absorbing them is important because deficiencies are connected with more risk
of cancer and type 2 diabetes.

22
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the small intestine ( jejunum), with the
following notable exceptions:
• Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.

• Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum.

• Water and lipids are absorbed by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine.

• Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid
by co-transport.

• Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.

Glucose, amino acids, fats, and vitamins are absorbed in the small intestine via the action of
hormones and electrolytes.
During absorption, the digested products are transported into the blood or lymph through the
mucous membrane. Absorption is achieved by the following mechanisms.

a) Simple diffusion.
b) Active transport
c) Facilitated transport.
d) Passive transport.

a) Simple diffusion: Simple diffusion is defined as the movement of solute from the higher
concentration to the lower concentration through the membrane.
After digestion, a few monosaccharide’s diffuse into the blood based on the concentration
gradient. Example: Glucose, amino acids and ions like chloride.

b) Active transport: Active transport may be defined as the process of solute movement
from the lower concentration to the higher concentration by the expense of energy.
Electrolytes like Na ions are absorbed by active transport into the blood.

c) Facilitated transport: Facilitated transport is defined as the process of movement of

solutes across the biological membrane with the help of specific carrier proteins. Some
digested amino acids and glucose are absorbed into the blood by this method.

23
d) Passive transport: Passive transport is defined as the process of solute movement across
a cell membrane without a requirement of energy. After digestion, simpler food substance is
absorbed into the blood by passive transport.
Some digested products from fats cannot be absorbed into the blood. Example: Fatty acids
and glycerol. These components attach to micelles which are small droplets and form the
micelle-component complex. This micelle – component complexes are re-formed into
chylomicrons. Chylomicrons are a small protein coated fat globules. Then, chylomicrons
move into the lymph vessels and release the digested products into the blood. Finally, the
digested and absorbed products reach the tissue to be utilized for their activities. This
process is called as assimilation.

Absorption of nutrients

➢ Carbohydrate Absorption
All carbohydrates are absorbed in the form of monosaccharides, glucose and
galactose are transported into the epithelial cells by common protein carriers via
secondary active transport. The monosaccharides combine with the transport
proteins immediately after the disaccharides are broken down.

➢ Nucleic Acid Absorption

The products of nucleic acid digestion—pentose sugars, nitrogenous bases, and
phosphate ions—are transported by carriers across the villus epithelium via active
transport. These products then enter the bloodstream.

➢ Mineral Absorption
The electrolytes absorbed by the small intestine are from both GI secretions and
ingested foods. Since electrolytes dissociate into ions in water, most are absorbed via
active transport throughout the entire small intestine. During absorption, co-transport
mechanisms result in the accumulation of sodium ions inside the cells, whereas anti-
port mechanisms reduce the potassium ion concentration inside the cells. To restore
the sodium-potassium gradient across the cell membrane, a sodium-potassium pump
requiring ATP pumps sodium out and potassium in.

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 In general, all minerals that enter the intestine are absorbed, whether we need them
or not. Iron and calcium are exceptions; they are absorbed in the duodenum in
amounts that meet the body’s current requirements.

➢ Protein Absorption
Active transport mechanisms, primarily in the duodenum and jejunum, absorb most
proteins as their breakdown products, amino acids. Almost all (95 to 98 percent)
protein is digested and absorbed in the small intestine.

➢ Lipid Absorption
About 95 percent of lipids are absorbed in the small intestine. Bile salts not only
speed up lipid digestion, they are also essential to the absorption of the end products
of lipid digestion.

➢ Vitamin Absorption
The small intestine absorbs the vitamins that occur naturally in food and
supplements. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are absorbed along with dietary
lipids in micelles via simple diffusion

➢ Water Absorption
Each day, about nine liters of fluid enter the small intestine. About 2.3 liters are
ingested in foods and beverages, and the rest is from gastrointestinal (GI) secretions.
About 90 percent of this water is absorbed in the small intestine.

Transport:
The process of moving absorbed nutrients throughout the body through the
circulatory and lymph systems is transport.
Cells require many types of essential and non-essential nutrients. Nutrients enter the
cell by passive or active transport mechanisms.
i) Passive transport mechanisms do not require energy input and involve simple diffusion
of solutes across the membrane. Passive transport can occur with or without involvement of
a protein to facilitate diffusion.

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ii) Active transporters always require energy input and involve dedicated transport
proteins embedded in the cytoplasmic membrane. Molecules are accumulated against an
increasing concentration gradient during active transport.
The three general types of active transporters include the ABC transporters, the secondary
transporters and the group translocation systems.
• ABC transporters employ a periplasmic solute binding protein, a membrane intrinsic
transport protein and an ATP hydrolyzing protein to drive solute uptake.
• Secondary transporters import solutes either by co-transport (symport) or by molecule
exchange (antiport of an ion). The driving force for most secondary transporters is the
proton motive force; alternatively, the gradient of the co- or anti- transported ion drives
transport.
• Group translocation systems modify the solute upon cell entry. PEP or ATP provides
the energy for the modification reaction.
Solute transport systems are also used to maintain intracellular ion levels, and to
export cell waste materials and toxins.
Mechanical digestion
Mechanical digestion is a purely physical process that does not change the chemical
nature of the food.
Mechanical digestion prepares the food for chemical digestion.
It involves chewing (in the mouth), mixing, churning (in the stomach and intestine)
and segmentation (in the intestine).Large pieces of food are breaking down into smaller
pieces increases the surface area of the food. Bile physically digests fats by emulsifying
them – turning them into small droplets with a large surface area.
Chewing : Mechanical digestion is performed by the teeth and pieces of food are mixed
with saliva and become smaller, easier to swallow and have a larger surface area.
Peristalsis: The walls of the alimentary canal have an inner, circular muscle fibre coat and
an outer, longitudinal muscle fibre coat. As the ball of food (bolus) formed in the mouth
enters the pharynx, a reflex action is initiated. This produces slow, wave-like contractions in
the walls of the esophagus and later along the whole length of the tract
(peristalsis).Peristaltic waves involve the contraction of the circular muscle fibres behind the

26
bolus (A) and their relaxation in front of the bolus. Longitudinal muscles provide the wave-
like action. The two functions together push the ball down the tract (B).

Chemical digestion
The digestive secretions in mouth break down complex food molecules into their
chemical building blocks (for example, proteins into separate amino acids). These secretions
vary in composition, but typically contain water, various enzymes, acids, and salts. The
process is completed in the small intestine.
Mouth: Chemical digestion begins in our mouth. As we chew, our salivary glands release
saliva into our mouth. The saliva contains digestive enzymes that start off the process of
chemical digestion. Digestive enzymes found in the mouth include:
➢ Lingual lipase: This enzyme breaks down triglycerides, a kind of fat.
➢ Salivary amylase: This enzyme breaks down polysaccharides, a complex sugar that’s a
carbohydrate.
Chemical digestion breaks down different nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and
fats, into even smaller parts:
➢ Fats break down into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
➢ Nucleic acids break down into nucleotides.
➢ Polysaccharides, or carbohydrate sugars, break down into monosaccharides.
➢ Proteins break down into amino acids.
Stomach: In our stomach, unique cells secrete digestive enzymes. One is pepsin, which
breaks down proteins. Another is gastric lipase, which breaks down triglycerides. Our body
absorbs fat-soluble substances, such as aspirin and alcohol.
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Small intestine: The small intestine is a major site for chemical digestion and absorption of
key food components, such as amino acids, peptides, and glucose for energy. There are lots
of enzymes released in the small intestine and from the nearby pancreas for digestion. These
include lactase to digest lactose and sucrase to digest sucrose, or sugar.
Large intestine: The large intestine doesn’t release digestive enzymes, but it does contain
bacteria that further break down nutrients. It also absorbs vitamins, minerals, and water.
Without chemical digestion, our body wouldn’t be able to absorb nutrients, leading to
vitamin deficiencies and malnutrition. Some people may lack certain enzymes used in
chemical digestion. For example, people with lactose intolerance usually don’t make enough
lactase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down lactose, a protein found in milk.
How human body control the digestive process
The hormones and nerves work together to help us control the digestive process. Signals
flow within your GI tract and back and forth from your GI tract to our brain.
Hormones
Cells lining in stomach and small intestine make and release hormones that control how our
digestive system works. These hormones tell our body when to make digestive juices and
send signals to our brain that we are hungry or full. Our pancreas also makes hormones that
are important to digestion.
Nerves
We have nerves that connect our central nervous system—our brain and spinal cord—to our
digestive system and control some digestive functions. For example, when we see or smell
food, our brain sends a signal that causes our salivary glands to "make our mouth water" to
prepare us to eat.
We also have an enteric nervous system (ENS)—nerves within the walls of your GI tract.
When food stretches the walls of our GI tract, the nerves of our ENS release many different
substances that speed up or delay the movement of food and the production of digestive
juices. The nerves send signals to control the actions of our gut muscles to contract and
relax to push food through our intestines.

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 UNIT III
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source. Carbohydrates can be
divided into three main categories: sugar, fiber and starch. Foods with carbohydrates include
quinoa, brown rice, vegetables .whole grain pasta, bread, and other baked goods, fruits
barley.
Classifications of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into three major groups
1.Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple sugars. They cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler form. The
simplest carbohydrates are the three-carbon dihydroxyacetone and trioses glyceraldehyde.
They are further classified into glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose.
2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides are comprised of two monosaccharides connected by a glycosidic linkage
(C-O-C). Cn(H2O)n-1is the general formula for disaccharides. The most common
disaccharides forms are lactose, sucrose, and maltose.
3. Polysaccharides
Majority of the carbohydrates that can be found in nature take place as polysaccharides of
high molecular weight. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are formed by the
method of polymerization of a huge number of monosaccharide monomers. The other name
for polysaccharides is also known as glycans.
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
The digestive system breaks down carbohydrates in foods and drinks into simple
sugars, mainly glucose. For example, both rice and soft drink will be broken down to simple
sugars in our digestive system. This simple sugar is then carried to our body’s cells through
the bloodstream.
The pancreas secretes a hormone called insulin, which helps the glucose to move from
blood into the cells. Inside a cell, the glucose is ‘burned’ along with oxygen to produce
energy. Our brain, muscles and nervous system all rely on glucose as their main fuel to
make energy.

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The body converts excess glucose from food into glycogen. Glycogen acts as a storage form
of glucose within the muscle tissue and the liver. Its role is to supplement blood glucose
levels if they drop between meals (especially overnight) or during physical activity.
Glycemic carbohydrates & Non-glycemic carbohydrates

Glycemic carbohydrates or High glycemic index are those with GI of 70 or higher. White
bread, rice cakes, most crackers, bagels, cakes, doughnuts, croissants, most packaged
breakfast cereals contains high glycemic index.

Non-glycemic carbohydrates or Low glycemic index are those which have GI of 55 or

less. Most fruits and vegetables, beans, minimally processed grains, pasta, low-fat dairy
foods, and nuts have low glycemic index.

The glycemic index (GI) is a way that carbohydrates in foods and drinks are ranked
according to how quickly they raise the glucose level of the blood (also known as ‘blood
sugar level’). It has replaced classifying carbohydrates as either ‘simple’ or ‘complex’.
The GI uses glucose or white bread as a reference food – it has a GI score of 100.
Carbohydrate-containing foods are then compared with this reference to assign their GI.
This ensures all foods compared have the same amount of carbohydrate, gram for gram.
Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion have a higher glycemic index.
These high GI carbohydrates, such as a baked potato, release their glucose into the blood
quickly.

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 Carbohydrates that breaks down slowly eg. oats, release glucose gradually into the
bloodstream. They have low glycemic indexes. The blood glucose response is slower and
flatter. Low GI foods prolong digestion due to their slow breakdown and may help with
feeling full.
Generally eating low GI foods and high GI foods at the same time has the effect of
‘averaging’ the GI. Eg. Eating cornflakes (a higher GI food) with milk (a lower GI food)
will reduce the overall effect of the cornflakes and milk meal on blood glucose levels.
Factors that affect the GI of a food
Factors such as the size, texture, viscosity (internal friction or ‘thickness’) and
ripeness of a food affect its GI. For instance, although both ripe and unripe bananas have a
low GI (less than 55), an unripe banana may have a GI of 30, while a ripe banana has a GI
of 51.
Fat and acid foods (like vinegar, lemon juice or acidic fruit) slow the rate at which
the stomach empties and slow the rate of digestion, resulting in a lower GI.
Cooking and processing can also affect the GI – food that is broken down into fine or
smaller particles will be more easily absorbed and so has a higher GI. Foods that have been
cooked and allowed to cool (potatoes, for example) can have a lower GI when eaten cold
than when hot (for example, potato salad compared with hot baked potato).

Calculating Glycemic Load (GL)

The GL = GI x the amount of carbohydrates (in grams) in a serving of food) ÷ 100.
Eg. Pasta
GI of a standard white wheat pasta, boiled to al dente texture = 43
The carbohydrate content of a standard 180g serve = 44g
GL = 43 x 44/100 = 19g
However, if a half portion of pasta was eaten, the GL would also halve:
GI of a standard white wheat pasta, boiled to al dente texture = 43
The carbohydrate content of a half portion 90g serve = 22g
GL = 43 x 22/100 = 9.5g

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 Group GI range Examples
fructose; pulses (black, pinto, kidney, lentil, peanut, chickpea);small
seeds (sunflower, flax, pumpkin, poppy, sesame, hemp); walnuts,
cashews,most whole intact grains (durum/
Low 55 or less
spelt/kamut wheat, millet, oat, rye, rice, barley);most vegetables,
mostsweet fruits (peaches, strawberries, mango tagatose)
mushrooms; chilies, unpeeled sweet potato
white sugar or sucrose, not intact whole wheat or enriched
wheat, pita bread, basmati rice, unpeeled white/yellow
Medium 56–69
potato, grapejuice, raisins, prunes, pumpernickel bread cranberry
juice, regular ice cream, banana, peeled sweet potato
glucose (dextrose, grape sugar), high fructose corn syrup, white
70 bread (only from wheat endosperm), most white rice (only from rice
High
and above endosperm), cornflakes, extruded breakfast,cereals, maltose, maltod
extrins, peeled white/yellow potato

Use of GI
It helps us manage our post-meal blood sugar levels. The GI can also help us to determine
appropriate combinations of food. For example, eating several low GI fruits and vegetables
combined with a high GI food can help us maintain better blood sugar control
Blood glucose regulation
Regulation of glucose in the body is done automatically and constantly throughout
each minute of the day.
Normal BG levels should be between 60 and 140 mg/dL in order to supply required energy
to the cells of the body. Too little glucose, called hypoglycemia, starves cells, and too much
glucose (hyperglycemia) creates a sticky, paralyzing effect on cells. Euglycemia or blood
sugar within the normal range is naturally ideal for the body’s functions. A delicate balance
between hormones of the pancreas, intestines, brain, and even adrenals is required to
maintain normal BG levels.
Glucose, fats, and proteins are the foods that fuel the body. The body, cells use glucose as a
source of immediate energy. To keep the body running smoothly, a continuous
concentration of 60 to 140 mg/dL of glucose in blood plasma is needed. During exercise or
stress the body needs a higher concentration because muscles require glucose for energy.
Functioning body tissues continuously absorb glucose from the bloodstream. For people
who do not have diabetes, a meal of carbohydrates replenishes the circulating blood glucose
about 10 minutes after eating and continues until about 2 hours after eating. A first-phase
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release of insulin occurs about 5 minutes after a meal and a second phase begins at about 20
minutes. Because the duration of insulin’s effect is only about 2 hours, taking a 2-
hour postprandial (after meal) BG shows how well insulin was released and used by the
body. The food is broken down into small components including glucose and is then
absorbed through the intestines into the bloodstream. Glucose (potential energy) that is not
immediately used is stored by the body as glycogen in the muscles, liver, and fat. When
blood glucose levels fall after 2 hours, the liver replenishes the circulating blood glucose by
releasing glycogen (stored glucose). Glycogen is a polysaccharide, made and stored
primarily in the cells of the liver. Glycogen provides an energy reserve that can be quickly
mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose.
Necessity to regulate blood glucose
Blood glucose (sugar) level should be regulated as glucose is a nutrient that gives
energy for many tissues like brain, retina and germinal epithelium of the gonads.
Role of Liver: Liver act as an important glucose buffer system. When blood glucose
increases after meal, the excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in liver.
Afterwards when glucose level fall the glycogen in the liver is converted into glucose and
released in blood. The storage of glycogen and release of glucose from liver are mainly
regulated by insulin and glycagon.
Role of pancreas: Regulation of blood glucose is largely done through the endocrine
hormones of the pancreas.
Hormones Tissue of origin Metabolic effect Effect on
Blood
Glucose
Insulin Pancreatic β • Enhances entry of glucose into cells Lowers
Cells • Enhances storage of glucose as glycogen,
or conversion to fatty acids
• Enhances synthesis of fatty acids and
proteins
• Suppresses breakdown of proteins into
amino acids, of adipose tissue into free fatty
acids.
Glucagon Pancreatic α • Enhances release of glucose from glycogen Raises
Cells (glycogenolysis);
• Enhances synthesis of glucose
(gluconeogenesis) from amino acids or fats.

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Amylin Pancreatic β • Suppresses glucagon secretion after eating Lowers
Cells • Slows gastric emptying
• Reduces food intake.
Somatostati Pancreatic δ • Suppresses glucagon release from α cells
n Cells (acts locally)
Lowers
• Suppresses release of Insulin, Pituitary
tropic hormones, gastrin and secretin
• Enhances release of glucose from glycogen
Thyroxine Thyroid • Enhances absorption of sugars from Raises
intestine

Diabetes mellitus it is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose level.

In most cases diabetes mellitus develop due to deficiency of insulin.
Diabetes mellitus may be
Primary diabetes is unrelated to any disease. Primary diabetes mellitus is classified into
Type I and Type II
Secondary diabetes occurs due to damage or disease of pancreas by another disease or
factor.
Diagnosis test for diabetes mellitus
➢ Fasting blood sugar
➢ Postprandial blood sugar

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 ➢ Glucose tolerance test(GTT)
➢ Glucosylated haemoglobin.
Importance of blood sugar regulation
Glucose control is very important as it helps in preventing particular diseases,
especially for those who have diabetes. In the long term, poor control of blood sugar
levels in diabetic patients leads to heart and blood vessel disease, kidney failure, nerve
damage, eye problems and heart disease.
Glucose levels are measured most commonly to diagnose or to monitor diabetes. It is
also important to check blood glucose levels during – for example:
pregnancy, pancreatitis and with increasing age. Normally, blood sugar levels stay within a
narrow range during the day. A good level is 140 mg/dL. After we consume food, our blood
sugar level will rise and after we have had a night’s rest, they will usually be lowest in the
morning.
Diabetes results from a lack of insulin, or insensitivity of the body towards the level of
insulin present. Thus if we have diabetes, our blood sugar level may move outside the
normal limits.
Carbohydrate foods are the body’s main energy source. When they are digested, they break
down to form glucose in the bloodstream. If we make sure to eat regular meals, spread
evenly throughout the day we will help maintain our energy levels without causing large
rises in our blood sugar levels. It is also important to maintain a stable and balanced blood
sugar level, as there is a limited range of blood sugar levels in which the brain can function
normally. Regular testing of your blood sugar levels allows us to monitor our level of
control and assists us diabetes management strategy if our levels aren’t within the
expected/recommended range.
Importance of GTT
The glucose tolerance test determines how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood.
It tests diabetes, insulin resistance, impaired beta-cell function, reactive hypoglycemia and
other disorders of carbohydrate metabolism.
The glucose tolerance test, also known as the oral glucose tolerance test, measures our
body's response to sugar (glucose). The glucose tolerance test can be used to screen for type

35
2 diabetes. A modified version of the glucose tolerance test is used to diagnose gestational
diabetes — a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy.
Long term complications, of diabetes include eye disease, kidney problems, nerve
problems, cerebrovascular disease such as strokes, and cardiovascular disease such as heart
attacks, heart failure and high blood pressure, can be significantly reduced.
Home blood sugar level testing kit.
The recommended range of blood sugar levels are:
• 72 to 99 mg/dL before meals (140 mg/dL) 2 hours after eating.

• 140 and 199 mg/dL prediabetes

• more than 200 mg/dL after two hours indicates diabetes

• Health care professionals most often use the fasting plasma glucose (FPG) test or the

A1C test to diagnose diabetes. In some cases, they may use a random plasma glucose (RPG)
test.
Test blood sugar
People who have type 1 diabetes should measure their blood sugar levels at least
once a day, either in the morning before breakfast or at bedtime. Those with type 2
diabetes and are on insulin treatment should also measure their blood sugar levels one – two
times a day. For those type 2 diabetics who are on a special diet or oral tablets, blood sugar
levels should be measured once or twice a week before mealtime or one to two hours after a
meal.
Diet and exercise play a very important role in helping control blood sugar levels. Research
has shown that by eating a diet with a lower GI and rich in healthy foods, people with
diabetes can reduce their average blood sugar levels and reduce the risk of complications.
There are various factors that affect the GI of a food. These include: the types of sugar in the
food, the way it is prepared, the type of starch, and its fat and fibre content. Although you
don’t have to avoid all high GI foods, you should try and combine them with low or
intermediate GI foods when possible.
Madication : Biguanide, Sulfonylureas, Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, Meglitinides
Insulin injection

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Recommendations of sugar intake for health
WHO recommends a maximum of 5 to 10 teaspoons of free sugars per day. A new
WHO guideline recommends adults and children reduce their daily intake of free sugars to
less than 10% of their total energy intake. A further reduction to below 5% or roughly 25
grams (6 teaspoons) per day would provide additional health benefits.
WHO means all forms that are added to food (such as dextrose, glucose and fructose), as
well as table sugar (sucrose) and the sugar naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices
and fruit concentrates. Sugar that occurs naturally in whole fruit, however, does not count
toward the 25 grams.
Research shows that too much added sugar can cause high blood sugar levels and damage
the delicate blood vessels in your kidneys. Eating too much sugar can cause cavities (tooth
decay)
Health effects of fiber intake
Dietary fiber, also known as roughage or bulk, includes the parts of plant foods our
body can't digest or absorb. Fiber isn't digested instead; it passes relatively intact through
our stomach, small intestine and colon and out of our body.
Fiber is commonly classified
• Soluble fiber. This type of fiber dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. It can
help lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas,
beans, apples, citrus fruits, carrots, barley and psyllium.
• Insoluble fiber. This type of fiber promotes the movement of material through our
digestive system and increases stool bulk, so it can be of benefit to those who struggle
with constipation or irregular stools. Whole-wheat flour, wheat bran, nuts, beans and
vegetables, such as cauliflower, green beans and potatoes, are good sources of insoluble
fiber.
Benefits of a high-fiber diet
➢ Normalizes bowel movements
➢ Lowers cholesterol levels
➢ Helps control blood sugar levels
➢ Aids in achieving healthy weight
➢ Helps us live longer.

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Daily recommendations of fiber for adults
Age 50 or younger Age 51 or older
Men 38 grams 30 grams
Women 25 grams 21 grams

Too much fiber can cause:

➢ bloating
➢ abdominal pain
➢ flatulence
➢ loose stools or diarrhoea
➢ constipation
➢ temporary weight gain
➢ intestinal blockage in people with Crohn’s disease
➢ reduced blood sugar levels, which is important to diagnose diabetes
If we eat too much fiber and are experiencing the symptoms of too much intake, try the
following to help counteract the effects:
➢ Drink plenty of water
➢ Stop using any fiber supplements
➢ Avoid high-fiber foods
➢ Eat a bland diet
➢ Remove fiber-fortified foods from our diet
➢ Look for foods that contain substances such as inulin and chicory root extract
➢ Engage in light physical activities, like walking, as often as possible
➢ Consider keeping an online diary of our food intake to help you see how much
fiber we’re getting each day
Instead of eating fiber-rich foods in one meal, spread them out throughout the day. It’s best
to get your fiber from a variety of foods, so don’t rely on any one food or source. Aim for a
wide range of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, beans, and nuts.

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Health effects of starch intake
Starch is an odorless and tasteless substance that is naturally found in many foods
including rice, wheat, and potatoes. It functions as a store of carbohydrates (along with
dietary fiber and sugar) and plays an important role in one’s diet.
Starchy foods are a good source of energy and the main source of nutrient in our diet. As
well as starch, they contain fibre, calcium, iron and B vitamins. Sugar and starch both
contribute calories to your food (on the other hand, the third type of carbohydrate, fiber,
does not).
Advantage of starch
Starchy foods are an important source of energy. After they are eaten, they are
broken down into glucose, which is the body's main fuel, especially for our brain and
muscles. Starchy foods provide important nutrients to the diet including B vitamins, iron,
calcium and folate.
Health effects
The health effects of eating too much starch are somewhat similar to the health
effects of eating too much sugar.
➢ Higher Blood Sugar – Contrary to popular belief, sugar is not the only food that can
raise our blood sugar. Too much starch has similar effects. This is because starch is
made up of a long glucose molecule that our body breaks down into simpler sugar as
part of digestion.
➢ Gaining Weight – When we eat too much of anything, we can gain weight. The same is
true for eating too much starch. There are actually about 3-5 calories for every gram of
starch in a food. This can add up, especially with super starchy foods like potatoes. Like
with sugar, our body converts any extra starch into fat in order to save the energy for
later use. This means if we don’t burn those calories we can expect to gain weight.
Artificial sweeteners
Natural sweeteners like sucrose and fructose give sweetness to a substance but they
also contain calories which can be harmful to humans when taken in extra quantity.
Artificial sweeteners are substances that are used as substitutes for natural sugar (sucrose),
they contain low calories.

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They are many times sweeter than regular sugar, so they are also referred to as intense
sweeteners. Some of them are so sweet that dextrose or maltodextrin is added to reduce the
intense sweetness of artificial sweetening agents. These sweetening agents are generally
obtained from the substitutes of synthetic sugar, but they can also be formed from natural
substances, including herbs or sugar itself.
Artificial sweetener is one of the most attractive substitutes to sugar as it does not add many
calories in our diet. It can be used directly in the processed food as in puddings, dairy
products, candy, soft drinks, baked goods, jams and many other foods and beverages. It can
also be used after mixing it with starch-based sweeteners.
Artificial sweeteners accepted by FCC
➢ Aspartame It is a combination of two amino acids phenylalanine and aspartic
acid. Sold under the brand names NutraSweet, Equal, or Sugar Twin. It is a low
calorie sweetener 200 times sweeter than table sugar.

➢ Saccharin. Sold under the brand names Sweet'N Low, Sweet Twin, or Necta
Sweet, It is 300 times sweeter than sucrose.

➢ Sucralose. It is 600 times sweeter table sugar, is suited for cooking, baking, and
mixing with acidic foods. It's sold under the brand name Splenda.

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 ➢ Neotame. Sold under the brand name Newtame, this sweetener is 13,000 times
sweeter than table sugar and suited for cooking and baking.
➢ Acesulfame K It is 200 times sweeter than table sugar. It’s suited for cooking and
baking and sold under the brand names Sunnet or Sweet One.
Artificial sweeteners are used by those who try to cut out sugar, who are concerned with
diabetes, weight gain, obesity related disorder and dental caries.
Advantages of artificial sweeteners
➢ Weight Control: If someone wants to lose their weight then they should use
an artificial sweetening agent as virtually it carries zero calories. One gram of sugar
carries 4 calories and one teaspoon of sugar contains about 4 gram of sugar. So by
eating 1 teaspoon also we gain 16 calories. So in the case of a weight control,
artificial sweetening agent is the best option.
➢ Diabetes: It also helps in controlling diabetes as it does not raise the blood sugar
levels because it does not contain the carbohydrates in it.
Dietary recommendations for NIDDM and IDDM
Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that helps the body’s cells absorb
glucose (sugar) so that it can be used as a source of energy. Insulin helps lower blood
glucose levels. When the blood glucose increases, insulin is released from the pancreas to
normalize the glucose level.
Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which the pancreas produces inadequate amounts of
insulin, or in which the body’s cells fail to act appropriately to insulin.
In patients with diabetes, the absence or inadequate production of insulin gives rise to
hyperglycemia. Diabetes is considered to be a chronic medical condition; it simply means
that although it can be controlled, it lasts a lifetime. Diabetes mellitus may cause life-
threatening complications if left untreated. In both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes,
complications may include blindness, kidney failure, and heart disease.
Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), also known as type 1diabetes, usually
starts before 15 years of age, but can occur in adult’s also. In type 1 diabetes or juvenile-
onset diabetes, the body may either produce insulin in very small amounts or it may not
produce insulin at all. Type 1diabetes can result in diabetic coma, a state of unconsciousness
caused by extremely high levels of glucose in the blood, or even death.

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Type 1 occurs during puberty—around age 10 to 12 in girls and age 12 to 14 in boys. There
is no cure for Type 1 diabetes, and treatment includes insulin injection. Symptoms for type 1
diabetic include polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), and polyphagia
(increased hunger).
The Mediterranean diet plan is often recommended for people with type 1 diabetes because
it is full of nutrient-dense foods, including lots of fresh vegetables, some fruit, plant-fats
such as olive oil and nuts, fish such as sardines, and occasional meat and dairy.Diabetes diet
simply means eating the healthiest foods in moderate amounts and sticking to regular
mealtimes. A diabetes diet is a healthy-eating plan that's naturally rich in nutrients and low
in fat and calories. Key elements are fruits, vegetables and whole grains
Foods to eat for a type 1 diabetic diet include complex carbohydrates such as brown rice,
whole wheat, quinoa, oatmeal, fruits, vegetables, beans, and lentils.
Avoid
• sodas (both diet and regular),

• simple carbohydrates - processed/refined sugars (white bread, pastries, chips,

cookies, pastas),
• trans fats (anything with the word hydrogenated on the label), and high-fat animal
products.

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or type 2 diabetes results from an

imbalance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion and adult-onset diabetes, the
body’s weak balance between insulin production and the ability of cells to use insulin goes
awry. This may result from insulin resistance in which cells fail to use insulin properly often
times combined with an absolute insulin deficiency. Both longitudinal and cross-sectional
studies have demonstrated that the earliest detectable abnormality in NIDDM is an
impairment in the body's ability to respond to insulin.
Type 2 diabetes usually occurs after the age of 45.Symptoms of type 2 include all
symptoms of type 1 and repeated infections or skin sores that heal slowly or not at all,
generalized tiredness, and tingling or numbness in the hands or feet. Type 2 can be
controlled by physical exercise, healthy loss of weight, and diet control. Insulin Injections
may also be used.

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Potential complications of diabetes and frequent comorbidities
• Heart and blood vessel disease
• Nerve damage (neuropathy) in limbs
• Kidney disease (nephropathy).
• Eye damage (retinopathy).
• Skin conditions.
• Hearing impairment.
• Diabetes foot problems
• Heart attack and stroke.
• Gum disease and other mouth problems.
Role of nutrients in type 2 diabetes treatment
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) leads to increased mortality rates and health care costs.
Nutrients (namely, carbohydrates, fat, protein, mineral substances, and vitamin), sensing,
and management are central to metabolic homeostasis.
Diets rich in whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts and lower in refined
grains, red/processed meats, and sugar-sweetened beverages have demonstrated to reduce
diabetes risk and improve glycemic control and blood lipids in patients with diabetes.
Goals of nutrition therapy in people with diabetes include development of an
individualized eating plan that can help to achieve personal targets for blood glucose, blood
pressure, cholesterol, and triglycerides levels.
Healthy diabetes type 2 meal plans include: a lot of vegetables, and limit processed
sugars and red meat.
People with type 2 diabetes must be extra aware of the carbohydrate content of
their meals so their blood sugar levels don't rise, or if they are using injectable insulin, so
they can dose insulin appropriately.
Choose foods that are rich in nutrients
• Fruits and vegetables.
• Legumes, such as beans and lentils.
• Whole grains, such as whole wheat and brown rice.
• Nuts and seeds, such as almonds and sunflower seeds.
• Lean sources of proteins, such as chicken and lean cuts of pork.

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• Fish and eggs.
• Dairy products, such as unsweetened yogurt.
Type 2 diabetics and patient with frequent comorbidities can avoid
• Sugar-sweetened beverages.
• Trans fats.
• White bread, rice, and pasta.
• Fruit-flavored yogurt.
• Sweetened breakfast cereals.
• Flavored coffee drinks.
• Honey, agave nectar, and maple syrup.
• Dried fruit.

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 UNIT IV
PROTEINS & LIPIDS
Proteins
Proteins are macromolecules formed by amino acids. A total of 20 different amino
acids exist in proteins. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the
structure, function and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. Enzymes carry out
almost all of the thousands of chemical reactions that take place in cells.
Function of Protein
Proteins provide structural framework of our body and maintain proper pH and fluid
balance. It helps repair and build our body's tissues, allows metabolic reactions to take place
and coordinates bodily functions.
Protein digestion begins when we first start chewing. There are two enzymes in our saliva
called amylase and lipase. They mostly break down carbohydrates and fats. Once
a protein source reaches our stomach, hydrochloric acid and enzymes called proteases break
it down into smaller chains of amino acids.
Food enzymes
Different types of enzymes target different nutrients:
• Amylase breaks down carbs and starches
• Protease works on proteins
• Lipase handles fats
Enzymes are the primary motivators of all natural biochemical processes. Enzymes are
essential components of every chemical reaction in the body. For example, they are the only
substance that can digest food and make it small enough to pass through the gastrointestinal
mucosa into the bloodstream. Three broad classifications of enzymes are:
➢ Food enzymes - occur in raw food and, when present in the diet, begin the process of
digestion
➢ Digestive enzymes – produced by the body to break food into particles small enough
to be carried across the gut wall
➢ Metabolic enzymes - produced by the body to perform various complex biochemical
reactions.

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Edward Howell isolated and concentrated plant enzymes from their sources. He found the
difference is that food enzymes begin digesting food in the stomach and will work for at
least one hour before the body’s digestive system begins to work. For this reason, enzymes
should be considered as essential nutrients.
If the body is unable to make enough digestive enzymes, food molecules cannot be digested
properly. This can lead to digestive disorders like lactose intolerance.
Thus, eating foods that are high in natural digestive enzymes can help improve digestion.
Here are foods that contain natural digestive enzymes.
Food Enzyme Present Function
Pineapple Bromelain Break down proteins into
amino acids
Papaya Proteases known as papain Help ease digestive
symptoms such as
constipation and bloating
Mango Amylases Help break down carbs for
easier digestion
Honey Diastases Break down starch into
Amylases maltose
Break down starch into
Invertases sugars like glucose and
maltose
Proteases Break down sucrose, a
type of sugar, into glucose
and fructose
Break down proteins into
amino acids
Bananas Amylases and Glucosidases Break down complex
carbs like starch into
smaller and more easily
absorbed sugars
Avocados Lipase Digest fat molecules into
smaller molecules, such as
fatty acids and glycerol,
which are easier for the
body to absorb
Kefir is a fermented milk Lipase, Proteases These enzymes break
beverage It’s made by down fat, protein and
adding kefir “grains” to milk lactose molecules
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and lactase
Sauerkraut type of fermented Help ease digestive
cabbage symptoms

Kimchi fermented Proteases, Lipases and These enzymes digest

vegetables Amylases proteins, fats and carbs
respectively

Miso fermenting soybeans Lactases, Lipases, Proteases Improve the ability to

with salt and koji, a type of and Amylases digest and absorb foods
fungus
Kiwifruit Protease called actinidain Digest proteins and is
commercially used to
tenderize tough meats
Ginger Zingibain, which is a It may aid digestion by
protease helping food move faster
through the digestive tract
and boosting the body’s
own production of
digestive enzymes

Texturized proteins
The protein available as nutrition consists of 20% animal sources and 80% plant
sources. The plant proteins are primarily from cereals (57%) and oilseed meal (16%).Many
plant proteins have a globular structure and although available in large amounts, are used to
only a limited extent in food processing.
Texturization (when applied to plant proteins) is the development of a physical
structure which will provide, when eaten, a sensation of eating meat.
Starting Material to prepare Texturized Proteins
The following protein sources are suitable for the production of texturized products:
soya; casein; wheat gluten; oilseed meals such, groundnut, sesame, sunflower, safflower or
rapeseed; zein (corn protein); yeast; whey; blood plasma. Commercial textured vegetable
protein products are manufactured almost exclusively from soy protein.
Meat "texture" is a visual aspect (visible fibers), chewiness, elasticity, tenderness
and juiciness. The principal physical elements of meat which create the texture complex are:
the muscle fibres and the connective tissue. Many plant proteins have globular structure.
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Texturization confers a fiber-like structure to globular proteins. Suitable processes give the
protein chewiness and good water holding property, cooking strength and a meat-like
structure. These products have an ability to retain these properties during subsequent
hydration and heat treatment. These texturized proteins are often used as meat substitutes,
extenders and meat analogues.
Plant protein (soy protein) texturization can be done by two processes
i) Spin process: The process tries to assemble a heterogeneous structure comprising a
certain amount of protein fibers within a matrix of binding material. The fibers are produced
by a "spinning" process, similar to that used for the production of synthetic fibres for the
textile industry.
ii) Extrusion process: It is the process that converts the soy material into a hydratable,
laminar, chewy mass without true fibres. Two different methods can be used to produce
such a mass: thermoplastic extrusion steam texturization. During texturization, globular
proteins are unfolded by the breaking of intra-molecular binding forces. The resultant
extended protein chains are stabilized through interactions within the neighbouring chains.

Food sources, functional role and uses in foods

Sources of food Proteins
The important sources of protein are grain, oil seed and legumes followed by meat and milk.
Protein producers include algae (Chlorella, Spirulina ) yeast and bacteria -single cell
protein(SCP) Bacteria of species pseudomonas in aqueous methanol produce about 0.3 ton
of protein per ton of alcohol. Some product rich in protein also result from other processes
eg. In oil and starch production.
Raw materials in which protein enrichment takes place include
• Legumes like soyabeans
• Wheat which provide gluten as by-product of starch production
• Potatoes after starch production, protein isolated by thermal coagulation.
• Eggs
• Milk supplies casein
• Fish supplies protein concentrates after fat extraction

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 • Blood from slaughter animals, which is processed into blood meal, blood plasma
concentrate and globin isolate.
• Green plants grown from animal fodder, such as alfalfa, which are processed into
leaf protein concentrate through thermal coagulation of proteins.

Functional use of food protein

Proteins, amino acids and peptides are important constituent of food. They supply
the required building blocks for protein biosynthesis.
They contribute to flavour of food and precursors for aromatic compounds.
Proteins contribute to physical property of food and their ability to build or stabilize gels,
foams, emulsions and fibrillar structures.
The nutritional energy value of proteins (17 kJ/g or 4 kcal/g) is as high as that of
carbohydrates.
Biological functions of Protein
• Catalytic function Nearly all chemical reactions in biological systems are catalyzed
by specific enzymes.
• Transport and storage
Eg Haemoglobin transport oxygen to blood
Myoglobin carries and stores oxygen in muscles.
Albumin transports free fatty acids in blood.
Transferrin transports iron in blood.
• Coordinated motion
Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle.
• Structural and mechanical support
Collagen (a fibrous protein in skin and bone)
• Defence function
Clotting factors (prevent loss of blood)
Immuno-globulins (protect against infection)
• Generation and transmission of nerve impulses
Receptor proteins (neuro-transmitters e.g.acetyl choline) are responsible for
transmitting nerve impulses.
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 • Control of growth and differentiation
The activities of different cells are coordinated by hormones. Many hormones are
polypeptides and proteins such as insulin and thyroid –stimulating hormone.
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM)
Protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) (also called protein-energy malnutrition or PEM)
occurs when a child doesn't eat enough protein and energy (measured by calories) to meet
nutritional needs.
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is “an imbalance between the supply of protein and
energy and the body's demand for them to ensure optimal growth and function”. Protein
energy malnutrition (PEM) is an unintentional loss of 10% or more of body weight in a
period of six months or less and serum albumin levels of less than 3.5 grams per decilitre
(g/dl)
Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is a common childhood disorder and is primarily caused
by deficiency of energy, protein, and micronutrients.
PEM diagnosis
Protein energy malnutrition diagnosis is done by laboratory testing, including serum
albumin.
PEM is noted as underweight (low body weight compared with healthy peers), stunting
(poor linear growth), wasting (acute weight loss), or edematous malnutrition (kwashiorkor).
Recommended intake for PEM:
One can include plenty of fruit and vegetables, plenty of starchy foods such as bread, rice,
potatoes, pasta. some milk and dairy foods or non-dairy alternatives. And some sources of
protein, such as meat, fish, eggs and beans.
Role of bioactive protein in human system
The protein in our diet helps body to repair cells and make new ones. Protein is also
important for growth and development in children, teens, and pregnant women. Bioactive
proteins and peptides are considered as important ingredients in functional foods,
nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals.
Bioactive proteins are beneficial to human both physiologically and metabolically.
They act as antioxidant, antimicrobial antihypertensive and other biological activities.

50
Lactoferrin and lactoperoxidase boost the body’s natural protection against pathogens and
play an important role in the immune defense system.
Bioactive peptides from plant sources are typically from soy, oat, pulses (chickpea,
beans, peas, and lentils), wheat, flaxseed etc. Bioactive proteins are naturally present in
biological fluids including saliva and tears. It is found in excess in mammals’ milk, one of
the functions of which is to strengthen the immune system of newborns.

The health benefits of bioactive proteins have led the nutrition, hygiene, beauty, and
agri-food industries to use them increasingly. Nowadays, they can be found in the diets of
young children, the elderly, and athletes; as well as in cosmetic products, dietary products,
and dietary supplements.
Bioactive peptides are peptide sequences within a protein that exert a beneficial
effect on body functions and positively impact human health, beyond its known nutritional
value.
Review of structure, composition and nomenclature of fats
There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on the same chemical
structure. All fats are derivatives of fatty acids and glycerol.
Most fats are glycerides, particularly triglycerides (triesters of glycerol). Fatty acids are
composed of carbon chains containing a methyl group at one end and a carboxyl group at
the other. The methyl group is termed the omega (ω) and the carbon atom situated next to
the carboxyl group is termed the “α” carbon, followed by the “β” carbon, etc.
Fatty acid molecules also have two chemically distinct regions: i) a long hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chain, which is not highly reactive; and ii) a carboxyl (-COOH) group, which
is hydrophilic and highly reactive. In the cell membrane, virtually all fatty acids
form covalent bonds with other molecules via the carboxylic acid groups.

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Fatty acids can contain double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids) or no double bonds (saturated
fatty acids) in the hydrocarbon chains. The presence of double bonds results in the
formation of bends or kinks in the molecules, and impacts the capacity of the fatty acid
chains to stack together. Other differences between fatty acids include the length of the
hydrocarbon chains, as well as the number and position of the double bonds. The presence
of the double bond will also influence the melting point, as unsaturated fatty acids have a
lower melting point than saturated fatty acids. The melting point is also influenced by
whether there are an even or odd number of carbon atoms; an odd number of carbons is
associated with a higher melting point. Furthermore, saturated fatty acids are highly stable,
while unsaturated fatty acids are more susceptible to oxidation.
Types of fatty aids
Depending on the length of carbon chain fatty acid may be
• Short-chain fatty acids less than 6 carbons Eg. Butyric acid (4 carbons) Butterfat
• Medium-chain fatty acids 6-10 carbons Eg Caproic acid (6 carbons) Butter fat
• Long-chain fatty acids 12 or more carbons Eg Oleic acid (18 carbons) Olive oil
The degree of unsaturation –
• Saturated fatty acids-All carbons are attached by single bonds Eg Stearic acid
• Unsaturated fatty acids –Carbons are attached by double bonds E.g Oleic aid
• Cis - fatty acid
• Trans-fatty acid

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The location of double bonds
• Omega-3 fatty acids
• Omega-6 fatty acids
Nomenclature of Fatty acids
Trivial Name IUPAC Name Carboxyl ω Reference
Reference
Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic aid 16 16
Stearic aid Octadecanoic acid 18 18
Oleic acid 9- Octadecenoic acid 18.1 Δ9 18.1 (ω -9)
Linoleic acid 9,12- Octadecenoic acid 18.2 Δ9,12 18.2 (ω-6)
Linolenic acid 9,12,15-Octadecenoic 18.3 Δ9,12,15 18.3 (ω-3)
acid

Non-Glyceride components in fats & oils

•Non - glyceride components of fats and oils represent a wide range of chemical
classes, such as sterols, terpene alcohols, tocopherols, and hydrocarbons, long- chain
alcohols including waxes, carotenoid pigments, and sulfur- and nitrogen-containing
flavor compounds.
•The non-glyceride components of fats from animal foods contain cholesterol and fat
soluble vitamins A, E, D
•Plant foods and vegetable oils have fat soluble vitamins, E, D, K and carotenoids,
plant sterols and a wide range of other chemical compounds.
• Non-glyceride components provide nutrition and promote health.
•Plant sterols as well as unique non-glyceride components like oryzanols and sesame
lignans lower LDL cholesterol in the blood.
•Vitamin E, carotenoids, sesame lignans, oryzanols and phenols have antioxidant
effects.
•The hypocholesterolemic (low levels of cholesterol in the blood) and antioxidant
effects is better with a combination of non-glyceride lipid components. Therefore,
taking plant sterols and other non-glyceride components from natural plant foods and
vegetable oils could provide an additional dietary means that could prevent and
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 correct dyslipidemia (large amounts of lipids) and increase the antioxidant potential of
human diets.

Function of fats
•Fat is an important storage form of food.
•It produces energy in the body such as carbohydrates.
•Fat serves as a solvent for the fat-soluble vitamins.
•The fat lying underneath the skin renders protection to the body against a rapid heat
loss.
Dietary fats in food
There are four major dietary fats in food:
1. Saturated fats.
2. Trans fats.
3. Monounsaturated fats.
4. Polyunsaturated fats.
1. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and are sometimes called solid fats. The
basic carbon structure of these fatty acids is “saturated” with hydrogen atoms. Saturated fat
may increase health risks if a person consumes too much over a long period. A high intake
of saturated fat may eventually raise levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in
the body. This increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and stroke.
Sources of saturated fat are:
• animal meats and meat products
• dairy products, except those that are fat-free
• processed foods, including baked goods, snack foods, and french fries
• some vegetable oils, including coconut oil, palm oil, and cocoa butter
2. Trans fats
Trans fats are the product of a process that adds hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils to make
them more solid. Another name for trans fats is partially hydrogenated oils. Trans fats are
not essential, and they have damaging health effects. Trans fats raise levels of LDL
cholesterol and lower levels of HDL cholesterol. This increases the risk of heart disease,
stroke, and type 2 diabetes. They also have a long shelf life and can give food a taste. As

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trans fats can be used in commercial fryers many times over, they have become common in
fast-food chains and other restaurants.
Sources of trans fats can include:
• fried foods, such as french fries
• doughnuts, pies, pastries, biscuits, and other baked goods
• pizza dough, cookies, and crackers
• stick margarines and shortenings
• packaged foods
• fast foods
If any ingredient list on food packaging includes “partially hydrogenated oils,” it means that
the product contains trans fats.
Unsaturated fats
Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, and they mostly derive from plant oils.
Healthcare professionals consider these to be “good” fats.
The two main types of unsaturated fat are:
3. Monounsaturated fats
Monounsaturated fat molecules are not saturated with hydrogen atoms — each fat molecule
has bonded with one hydrogen atom. Monounsaturated fats may lower LDL, or “bad,”
cholesterol levels, and maintain healthful levels of “good” high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol.
Many health professionals report that a diet rich in monounsaturated fats may also reduce a
person’s risk of heart disease. The Mediterranean diet, which research suggests may reduce
the risk of chronic disease, contains plenty of monounsaturated fats.
Sources of monounsaturated fats include:
• olives and olive oil
• nuts and nut butters
• avocados
4. Polyunsaturated fats
A number of spaces around each polyunsaturated fat molecule are not saturated with
hydrogen atoms.

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Nutritionists report that polyunsaturated fats are good for health, especially those from fish
and algae, known as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The omega-3 acids could help
keep the heart healthy, reduce triglycerides in the blood, and improve brain, joint, and eye
health.Omega-3 fatty acids may protect against heart disease by lowering blood cholesterol
levels and, possibly, inflammation. The other type of polyunsaturated fats is omega-6 fatty
acids. These mostly occur in vegetable oils and processed foods. An excessive intake of
omega-6, may lead to increased inflammation.
Sources of polyunsaturated fats include:
• oily fish, such as sardines, mackerel, trout, salmon, and herring
• safflower, grape seed, soybean, and sunflower oils
• nuts, seeds, and pastured eggs
Fat replacements
Fat is present in most foods. It provides a unique texture, flavor, and aroma to the food.
While fat is essential to life, it can be detrimental to health when consumed in excess of
physiological requirements. High fat diets increase risk of heart disease, weight gain, and
some cancers. High blood cholesterol is more prevalent in those that consume diets high in
saturated fats, and it increases risk for coronary heart disease in those individuals.
Fat replacers (substitutes) are non fat substances that act like fat in a food. An ideal fat
replacer would be a substance that has no health risks and tastes and looks like
natural fat but has fewer calories. Fat replacers can be found in foods such as baked goods,
cheeses, sour cream, yogurt, margarine, salad dressing, sauces, and gravies.Fat replacers can
be divided into four categories based on the food component from which they are derived
Category Type and example Function

Carbohydrate- Binder, body,

based Starchy foods, such as corn, cereals, and grains. bulk, flavor,
Eg. cellulose, gelatin, dextrins, gums, and modified moisture
dietary fibers. retention, mouth
feel
Protein-based Modifying protein, using egg white or whey from milk. Mouth feel,
Eg microparticulated egg white and milk protein (such water-binding,
as Simplesse). reduce syneresis
Fat-based Replacing triglycerides in vegetable oils. Emulsion, mouth

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 Eg caprenin, salatrim (such as Benefat), and olestra feel
(such as Olean).
Combination Flavour, texture,
• Carbohydrate and protein (Mimix)
mouth feel, water
• Carbohydrate and fat (Optamax)
retention

Benefits of fat replacers

Consumption of fat replacers can help in lowering total overall fat and calorie
intake from foods.
It will have positive implications for those looking to reduce either one of these, especially
when in a disease state associated with high fat diets.
While fat substitution alone can reduce the percentage of kilocalories ingested from dietary
fat, it may not reduce an individual’s total energy intake (in terms of kilocalories) unless the
rest of the diet is of high quality and low energy density.
Food sources, functional role and uses in foods
Source of fats
Plant sources- Vegetable oils and margarine, nuts and olives, chocolate, avocados.
Animal sources - Fatty meats and fish, dairy products, whole milk and egg yolk.
Function served by fats
They are the concentrated source of energy and provide double the energy than that of
carbohydrates and proteins. They provide energy especially in starvation.
Avocado One 201 gram (g) avocado contains approximately 29 grams (g) of fat. Avocados
also contain a substance called lutein, which may be necessary for eye health and are a rich
source of potassium.
Chia seeds contain 8.71 g of fat, much of which is made up of omega-3 fatty acids. Dark
chocolate provide a good amount (9 g) of healthful fat, other nutrients, such as potassium,
calcium and magnesium.
Eggs are a popular source of protein, especially for vegetarians. Traditionally, people
believed that egg whites were the more healthful part, but the egg yolk actually contains
several important nutrients. The yolk also contains vitamin D and choline, B vitamin that
supports the function of the liver, brain, nerves, and muscles. The yolk also contains other
phytonutrients, including lutein.

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Fatty fish
• Fatty fish are packed with unsaturated and omega-3 fatty acids that play an
important role in heart and brain health fresh (not canned) tuna
• Herring ,mackerel ,salmon ,sardines ,trout.
Flaxseeds provide omega-3 fatty acids and a healthful dose of fiber at the same time.
Nut and seed butter provides a healthful amount of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
fats.
Olive oil is unsaturated fats that are good for heart health. It also contains vitamin E, vitamin
K, and potent antioxidants. Extra-virgin olive oil has associations with a lower risk of heart
disease and death in those with a high risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
Tofu is a complete plant protein and a good source of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
fats .Yogurt yogurt contains good probiotic bacteria to support gut function. Regularly
eating yogurt may reduce weight gain and obesity and improve heart health.
Health effects and recommended intakes of lipids
Inadequate fat intake leads to
• Dry and scaly skin
• Dry eyes
• Feeling constantly cold
• Dry hair and/or hair loss
• Hormonal problems, including loss of menstrual cycle
• Inability to feel full/always feeling hungry
• Issues concentrating and/or mental fatigue
• Deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins
The dietary reference intake (DRI) for fat in adults is 20% to 35% of total calories from fat.
That is about 44 grams to 77 grams of fat per day if you eat 2,000 calories a day. It
is recommended to eat more of some types of fats because they provide health benefits.

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Recommendations for dietary fat intake in Indians

Minimum Fat from Visible

Age/Gender/
Physical level of Total foods other Fat ᵍ
physiological
activity fat than visible
groups %E g/p/d
(%E) fats ͩ %E
Sedentary 25
Adult Man Moderate 10 10 30
20
Heavy 40
Sedentary 20
Adult Woman Moderate 25
20 10 10
Heavy 30
Pregnant 10 30
20 10
Lactating 30
0-6 months 40-60 Human milk
Infants
7-24 months 35 10 25 25
3-6 years 25
Children
7-9 years 30
10-12 years 35
Boys 13-15 years 45
16-18 years 50
10-12 years 25 10 15 35
Girls 13-15 years 40
16-18 years 35

Recommended intakes of proteins

Our body uses protein to build and repair tissues. Protein is used to make enzymes,
hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones,
muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.
• Causes Biochemical Reactions
• Acts as a Messenger
• Provides Structure
• Maintains Proper pH
• Balances Fluids
• Bolsters Immune Health
• Transports and Stores Nutrients
We need protein for our muscles, bones, and the rest of our body.

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A daily protein intake of about 1.0-1.2 g/kg of body weight is beneficial for healthy
metabolic function, That is, about 10% to 35% of your total calories in a day should be
protein.A metabolically beneficial protein intake for an average adult should be 25-30 g per
meal, according to the Protein Summit’s researchers. Older adults might want to eat a little
more because they don’t metabolize protein as well as younger adults, they recommended.
Recommended Dietary Allowance for proteins
Group Protein -RDA
School-age kids 19-34 gm/day
Teenage boys 52 gm/day
Teenage girls 46 gm/day
Adult men 56 gm/day
Adult women 46 gm/day
Pregnant or breastfeeding women 71 gm/day
Protein present in food
➢ 2 hard-boiled eggs = 13 g protein
➢ ¼ cup almonds = 6 g protein
➢ 10 chicken nuggets = 24 g protein
➢ 1 cup chili (with beans) = 16 g protein
Deficiency- Short term and long term effects
Protein is included in a wide variety of animal and plant foods. Choosing nutritious protein
sources is also recommended for optimal health and fitness.
Protein selection tips
➢ Aim for meals to have approximately 20 grams and snacks to have about 10 grams
of protein (3 ounces of cooked chicken breast has about 21 grams of protein).
➢ Eat higher protein grains like quinoa.
➢ Choose lean or low-fat meat and poultry.
➢ Select seafood high in omega 3 fatty acids including salmon, trout, sardines, and
anchovies.
➢ Avoid fresh chicken, turkey, and pork that have been enhanced with a salt-
containing solution.
➢ Choose unsalted nuts and seeds to keep sodium intake low.

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Serious protein deficiency can cause swelling, fatty liver, skin degeneration, increase the
severity of infections and stunt growth in children. While true deficiency is rare in
developed countries, low intake may cause muscle wasting and increase the risk of bone
fractures.
When protein is lacking in your diet, especially for long periods of time, it can make us
deficient and potentially lead to adverse effects.
Inadequate protein can lead to the following:
➢ Muscle Wasting – Protein is essential for muscle growth, strength, and repair.
Insufficient protein in our diet reduces lean body mass, muscle strength, and function.
Not consuming enough protein can also cause muscle cramping, weakness, and
soreness. Our body will take protein from muscle tissue and use it as energy to support
other vital body functions when protein is low. This eventually causes muscle wasting or
atrophy as a direct result of chronic, low dietary protein.
➢ Poor Wound Healing – Wound healing is dependent on good nutrition, including
protein intake. Protein deficiency lead to low wound healing rates and reduced collagen
formation. Without adequate protein, the wound healing process is said to be greatly
compromised.
➢ Infections – Our immune system functions best with adequate protein intake. Protein
deficiency is indicated to impair our immune system. Without a healthy immune system
risk of infection is increased and the ability to fight off infection is decreased

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 UNIT V
METABOLISM, ENERGY BALANCE AND BODY COMPOSITION

Energy Balance
Energy balance is the difference between our energy input or the number of calories that we
put into our body and our energy output or the number of calories we burn each day. People refer to
the energy balance equation as the "calories in, calories out" equation. We should calculate our
energy balance if we want to lose weight. The energy balance may be figured as
➢ Perfect Balance: If we end up with a 0 at the end of our energy equation, we have found a
perfect energy balance. In this state, we won't gain or lose weight. Perfect energy balance is
for people who are in the weight maintenance stage of their weight loss journey.
➢ Positive Energy Balance: If we end up with a positive number, we’ve achieved the right
balance for weight gain. For some people, like pregnant women, growing children and
weightlifters who are trying to bulk up, this is a healthy state.
➢ Negative Energy Balance: If we end up with a negative number, we've found the energy
imbalance necessary for weight loss. This imbalance is also called an energy deficit. It means
that we've tipped the scales to slim down. For best results we want a negative energy balance
of 500-1000 calories per day to lose 1-2 pounds per week.
Energy balance = energy input – energy output

Weight gain = energy input > energy output

Weight loss = energy input < energy output

Body weight

Human body weight refers to a person's mass or weight. Body weight is measured
in kilograms, a measure of mass, throughout the world, body weight is the measurement of weight
without items located on the person. Practically though, body weight may be measured with clothes
on, but without shoes or heavy accessories such as mobile phones and wallets, and using manual or
digital weighing scales. Excess or reduced body weight is regarded as an indicator of determining a
person's health, with body volume measurement providing an extra dimension by calculating the
distribution of body weight.
Body composition
Body composition is the proportion of body fat and non-fat mass in our body.
Body fat: This can be found in muscle tissue, under the skin (subcutaneous fat), or around
organs .Some fat is necessary for overall health. "Essential fat" helps protect internal organs, stores

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fuel for energy, and regulates important body hormones. But we may also have excess storage of fat
and non-essential body fat.
Non-fat mass: This includes bone, water, muscle, organs, and tissues. It may also be called lean
tissue. Non-fat mass tissues are metabolically active, meaning they burn calories for energy, while
body fat does not.
A healthy body composition is one that includes a lower percentage of body fat and a higher
percentage of non-fat mass. Knowing our body composition can help us to assess our health and
fitness level.
Body fat percentage is a measurement of body composition telling how much of the weight of our
body is fat. The percentage of our body that is not fat is fat.
Ways to measure our body fat percentage
➢ Skin fold test
➢ Body Circumference Measurements
➢ Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA)
➢ Hydrostatic Weighing
➢ Air Displacement Plethysmography (Bod Pod)
➢ Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
➢ Bioimpedance Spectroscopy (BIS)
Health implications
The Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity
➢ All-causes of death (mortality)
➢ High blood pressure (Hypertension)
➢ High LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides (Dyslipidemia)
➢ Type 2 diabetes
➢ Coronary heart disease
➢ Stroke
➢ Gallbladder disease
➢ Osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint)

Body mass index (BMI Calculation)

BMI or body mass index confirms our height to weight ratio and provides the information
needed to successfully manage our weight. Body mass index (BMI) is a measure of body fat based
on height and weight that applies to adult men and women.
There are many online tools that will calculate our BMI or we can use the formula:
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BMI = kg/m2 where kg is a person's weight in kilograms and m2 is their height in metres squared.
A BMI of 25.0 or more is overweight, while the healthy range is 18.5 to 24.9.
If your BMI is less than 18.5, it falls within the underweight range.
If your BMI is 18.5 to <25, it falls within the healthy weight range.
If your BMI is 25.0 to <30, it falls within the overweight range.
If your BMI is 30.0 or higher, it falls within the obesity range.
Obesity is frequently subdivided into categories:
Class 1: BMI of 30 to < 35
Class 2: BMI of 35 to < 40
Class 3: BMI of 40 or higher. Class 3 obesity is sometimes categorized as “severe” obesity.
BMR calculations
The BMR is our basal metabolic rate, and confirms what kind of metabolism we have.Once
we know our BMR, suggested intake of calories can be calculated. We can use online tools to
figure out how many calories we should be consuming daily, or use the following Harris-Benedict
equation to calculate your BMR by hand.
Men: BMR = 88.362 + (13.397 x weight in kg) + (4.799 x height in cm) - (5.677 x age in years)
Women: BMR = 447.593 + (9.247 x weight in kg) + (3.098 x height in cm) - (4.330 x age in years)
Methods to measure energy metabolism
The end product of all metabolic activity is either heat or work. Since work also ultimately appears
as heat, we can measure the heat produced.
We can measure energy metabolism by two methods
1. Direct calorimetry: It is the most accurate method for quantifying the metabolic rate. Here the
heat generated by the work done is directly measured. The direct calorimetry
technique measures the rate of heat loss by the subject using a calorimeter.
2. Indirect calorimetry: It is an accurate and non-invasive method which allows clinicians to
personalize the prescription of nutrition support to the metabolic needs and promote a better
clinical outcome. It is the gold standard used to determine energy expenditure, by measuring
pulmonary gas exchanges. In this method measurements of respiratory gas exchange (oxygen
consumption, and carbon dioxide production) are used to estimate the type and amount of
substrate oxidized and the amount of energy produced by biological oxidation.

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Measurement of energy expenditure
Energy expenditure is estimated by measuring macronutrient, oxygen consumption, heat
production and carbon dioxide production. Most measurement approaches in use today involve the
measurement of oxygen consumption and/or production of carbon dioxide via indirect calorimetry.
Obesity
Obesity is a complex disease involving an excessive amount of body fat. Obesity is not a
cosmetic concern but it is a medical problem that increases our risk of other diseases and health
problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and certain cancers.
Usually, obesity results from a combination of inherited factors, combined with the environment
and personal diet and exercise choices.
Even modest weight loss can improve or prevent the health problems associated with obesity.
Dietary changes, increased physical activity and behavior changes can help to lose weight.
Prescription medications and weight-loss procedures are additional options for treating obesity.
Causes of obesity
➢ Eating a poor diet of foods high in fats and calories
➢ Having a sedentary (inactive) lifestyle
➢ Not sleeping enough, which can lead to hormonal changes that make us feel hungrier and crave
certain high-calorie foods
➢ Genetics, which can affect how our body processes food into energy and how fat is stored
➢ Growing older, which can lead to less muscle mass and a slower metabolic rate, making it
easier to gain weight
➢ Pregnancy (weight gained during pregnancy can be difficult to lose and may eventually lead to
obesity).
Certain medical conditions may also lead to weight gain. These include:

➢ Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): A condition that causes an imbalance of female

reproductive hormones
➢ Prader-Willi syndrome: A rare condition that an individual is born with which causes

excessive hunger
➢ Cushing syndrome: A condition caused by having an excessive amount of the hormone
cortisol in your system
➢ Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid): A condition in which the thyroid gland doesn’t

produce enough of certain important hormones

➢ Osteoarthritis (and other conditions that cause pain that may lead to inactivity).
Risk factors for obesity

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➢ Increased energy intake
➢ Decreased energy expenditure
➢ Heredity
➢ Psychosocial factors
➢ Metabolic changes
Obesity diagnosis
Obesity occurs when BMI is 30 or more. Body mass index is a rough calculation of a person’s
weight in relation to their height. Other more accurate measures of body fat and body fat
distribution include skinfold thickness, waist-to-hip comparisons, and screening tests such as
ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.
Health implications
➢ type 2 diabetes

➢ heart disease

➢ high blood pressure

➢ certain cancers (breast, colon, and endometrial)

➢ stroke

➢ gallbladder disease

➢ fatty liver disease

➢ high cholesterol

➢ sleep apnea and other breathing problems

➢ arthritis

➢ infertility

Obesity Treatments
Losing weight through healthy eating, being more physically active, and making other
changes to our usual habits .Doctor may consider adding other treatments, including weight-loss
medicines, weight-loss devices, or bariatric surgery.
Weight Control

Weight control, the "balancing act" means taking in only as much food and drink as we need
to fuel our body's basic functions, the activities of daily living, and exercise. The number of calories
needed for energy balance is highly individual, and it changes from day to day depending on our
activity level.

Maintaining a healthy weight is important for overall health and can help us prevent and control
many diseases and conditions. Overweight or obese person are at higher risk of developing serious

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health problems, including heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, gallstones, breathing
problems, and certain cancers. So weight control helps us feel good and gives more energy to enjoy
life.

Weight-management programs
Plans include a lower-calorie diet, increased physical activity, and ways to help us change our food
habits and stick with them.
➢ Weight-loss medicines: A doctor will sometimes prescribe medication, such as orlastat
(Xenical) to help a person lose weight.
➢ Weight-loss devices
➢ Electrical stimulation system: Surgeon places a device in our abdomen with laparoscopic
surgery .The device blocks nerve activity between our stomach and brain.
➢ Gastric balloon system: One or two balloons is placed in stomach through a tube that goes in
mouth. The balloons are filled with salt water so they take up more space in stomach and help
us feel fuller.
➢ Gastric emptying system: A gastric emptying system uses a pump to drain part of the food from
our stomach after a meal. The device includes a tube that goes from the inside of our stomach to
the outside of our abdomen. About 20 to 30 minutes after eating,we use the pump to drain the
food from our stomach through the tube into the toilet.
➢ Bariatric surgery: Bariatric surgery includes several types of operations that help lose weight
by making changes to our digestive system. Bariatric surgery may be an option if a person has
extreme obesity or serious health problems, such as type 2 diabetes or sleep apnea, related to
obesity.
➢ Calorie-restricted diets: Doctor may recommend a lower-calorie diet such as 1,200 to 1,500
calories a day for women and 1,500 to 1,800 calories a day for men. The calorie level depends
on our body weight and physical activity level.
Fat cell development

Growth of adipose tissue is the result of the development of new fat cells from precursor cells.
This process of fat cell development, known as adipogenesis, leads to the accumulation of lipids
and an increase in the number and size of fat cells.

Under a microscope, fat cells look like bulbous little spheres. Like other cells in the body, each has
a cell membrane and a nucleus, but their bulk is made up of droplets of stored triglycerides, each of
which consists of three fatty-acid molecules attached to a single glycerol molecule.

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Main function of fat cells is to hold on to lipids. These fatty molecules are the body's main choice
of energy reserve — each fat cell encapsulates a drop of them. When we lose weight, these
liquid fat reserves are drained to fuel the body.

Theories on obesity
• Fat cell theory: The number of fat cells is determined during early in life to provide space
to store fat. Juvenile obesity - increase in the number of fat cells, increase adult obesity due
to increase in size of fat cells.
• Set point theory: Once the body reaches ideal body weight or set point, body gets signals
for food intake.
• Leptin: Obesity gene called ob codes for protein, leptin, acts as a hormone of hypothalamus
to promote negative energy balance.
Role of fat in obesity
Dietary fat induces overconsumption and weight gain through its low satiety properties and
high caloric density. Obesity is generally caused by eating too much and moving too little. If we
consume high amounts of energy, particularly fat and sugars, but do not burn off the energy through
exercise and physical activity, much of the surplus energy will be stored by the body as fat.
Fat cell size was responsible for the increase of obese adipose tissue at a moderate degree of
obesity. The fat in a person's body is stored in fat cells distributed throughout the body. A normal
person has between 25 and 35 billion fat cells, but this number can increase in times of excessive
weight gain, to as many as 100 to 150 billion cells.

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Hunger

Hunger is the uneasy or painful sensation caused by want of food; craving appetite. It is the
exhausted conditions caused by want of food.

Hunger is a result of the immediate causes of malnutrition. The immediate cause of undernutrition
involves insufficient dietary intake of nutritional foods or disease, which can prevent the absorption
of nutrients consumed.
Satiety and Satiation

In general meaning of “satisfying hunger,” satiation and satiety are used interchangeably. .

“Satiation” refers to the end of desire to eat after a meal, and this can occur at any time after the
onset of eating. Satiation occurs during an eating episode and brings it to an end.

Satiety starts after the end of eating and prevents further eating before the return of hunger. Satiety,
is feeling "full" and satisfied after eating; the cessation of hunger. The feeling of satiety occurs due
to a number of bodily signals that begin when a food or drink is consumed and continue as it enters
the gut and is digested and absorbed.
•Economic satiation, where increasing the amount of a good reduces the worth of each individual
unit of it.
•Predator satiation, an anti-predator adaptation involving high population densities of the prey.
•Semantic satiation, where repetition of a word or phrase causes it to temporarily lose meaning
Satiating foods pack in lots of protein, fiber, and other nutrients that fill you up while nourishing
your body. Those can include: Fruits: apples, oranges, bananas, oranges, peaches, pears, plums,
pineapple, papaya, mango. Other foods which are satiating are
Boiled or baked potato. Pulses. high -fiber foods. low -fat dairy products. eggs. nuts. lean meat and
fish.

Some studies have shown that calories from protein are more satiating than calories from
carbohydrate or fat. But, the characteristic of a food that appears to have the most impact on both
satiation and satiety is energy density. That is, the amount of energy a food contains per weight, or
calories in a portion of food. Fruits, vegetables, beans, and cooked grains are low energy density
foods. High energy density foods have more fat and less water. Studies have shown that satiation
and satiety are increased after consuming high volume, low energy density foods. Thus, starting a
meal with two cups of leafy greens and chopped vegetables will lead to greater satisfaction and less
eaten during the main meal than starting a meal with a few mozzarella sticks. Eating low energy
density foods does not necessarily mean eating more volume of food. It means eating foods with

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more water and fiber. This can be done by adding fruits, vegetables, beans, and whole grains to
meals and reducing high-fat meats, cheeses, sauces, and dressings in meals.
Dangers of unsafe weight loss schemes

i)Tapeworm tablets :Tablets containing tapeworm eggs were marketed to help people lose weight.
These eggs reportedly hatched in our system and stole our nutrients, causing weight loss. It wasn’t
known whether these tablets really contained tapeworm eggs, but the idea itself is pretty extreme.
Why it’s dangerous: Once a person gets infected with this parasite, the larvae move through the
blood vessels, and can get into the eyes, brain and the spinal cord. This can lead to headaches,
seizures, paralysis, blindness and, in some cases, death.
ii)The cotton ball diet :This is a diet fad that involved dipping cotton balls into liquid such as
smoothies or juice and swallowing them. The cotton is meant to fill you up and stave off hunger.
Why it’s dangerous: Cotton balls contain chemicals such as bleach, but there is also the risk of
blockage or obstruction in our digestive system
iii)The vinegar diet :Drink plenty of vinegar, paired with one cup of tea and a raw egg. This
combination made you vomit, causing you to lose your appetite, and weight.
Why it’s dangerous: Drinking large quantities of vinegar could potentially cause a potassium
imbalance, irritation of the stomach lining, as well as the erosion of tooth enamel.
iv) The cabbage soup diet: Eat cabbage soup combined with severely limited meals for seven days
and lose 5kg. While it might be effective to help us lose some flab and bloat for a big occasion, it’s
simply not effective as a long-term eating plan.
Why it’s dangerous: It’s an extremely restrictive diet, devoid of important nutrients such as
healthy fats and carbohydrates.
v)The 'Sleeping Beauty' diet sleeping means there's less time for eating, and it also boosts our
metabolism. An extreme approach was taking sedatives to make you sleep for hours during the day.
Why it’s dangerous: Not only are we depriving our self of important nutrients, but sleeping pills
and sedatives can have adverse effects on our body.
vi)The grapefruit juice diet : Dieters were expected to severely curb their food intake to 1
000 calories per day, and every meal should be accompanied by either half a grapefruit or 230 ml
freshly-squeezed grapefruit juice.
Why it’s dangerous: Reduction of kilojoules that makes this diet a fad. Grapefruit can clash
with medications such as blood thinners.

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vii)Arsenic diet pills: Diet pills could contain dangerous ingredients such as arsenic, a chemical
element which is poisonous to humans. Arsenic was promoted to speed up the metabolism in the
same way as amphetamines.
Why it's dangerous: Arsenic is highly toxic in its inorganic form and in high doses. It can also
cause health problems such as skin lesions and cancer when consumed through food or drinking
water.
Attitudes and behaviours toward weight control
Weight management is the physiological processes that contribute to a person's ability to attain
and maintain a certain weight. Most weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle
strategies that promote healthy eating and daily physical activity.

Attitude, and the supportive attitude of the people around us plays a major role in weight loss and
adopting a healthier lifestyle. The first step in changing our attitude, experts say, is to recognize that
we need to exercise both our body and our mind.
"Dieting and eating well are both an exercise in physical abilities as well as mental abilities,"
"Habits make up eating styles, and eating styles define how and what one eats," "They are directly
linked with psychology, emotion, and mental outlook."In other words, changing your habits, and
maybe even getting rid of a few particularly nasty ones- like triple chocolate fudge ice cream -- can
actually help to change our attitude.
Behaviors that can support efforts for weight loss and healthful eating

➢ Know where you are starting. Keep a food record for three days. Track all the food and
beverages eaten along with the portions. Identify how often we are eating away from home,
eating take out, or buying food on the run.

➢ Home in on our goal and make a plan. What is our goal? Do we want to lose weight to
improve our health? Will you cook more meals at home? Will we eat smaller portions? Be
specific and start small.

➢ Identify barriers to our goals — and ways to overcome them. Could a busy schedule get in
the way of going to the gym? Look up some healthy recipes, then head to the grocery store
armed with a list of ingredients you’ll need to prepare them.

➢ Identify current habits that lead to un healthful eating. Are we snacking in front of the TV?
Do we skip lunch only to feel starved by mid afternoon, ready to eat anything in sight? Do we
finish everything on your plate even after you start to feel full?

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➢ Control portions. Refamiliarize with standard serving sizes

➢ Identify hunger and satiety cues. Be aware of physical versus emotional hunger. Do we eat
when we are stressed, bored, tired, sad, or anxious? Try to stop eating before getting full (it
takes about 20 minutes for your brain to register “stop eating” signals from your stomach).
Foods that can help you feel fuller include high-fiber foods such as vegetables, whole grains,
beans, and legumes; protein (fish, poultry, eggs); and water.

➢ Focus on the positive changes. Changing behavior takes time — at least three months. Get
support from others and take the time to acknowledge the changes you have made.

➢ Go with the 80/20 rule. Stay on track 80% of the time, but leave some room for a few
indulgences. You don’t want to feel deprived or guilty.

➢ Focus on overall health. Walk, dance, bike, rake leaves, garden — find activities you enjoy
and do them every day. Focus on seasonal, whole, high-quality foods.

➢ Eat slowly and mindfully. Enjoy the entire experience of eating. Take the time to appreciate
the aromas, tastes, and textures of the meal in front of you.

Changing behavior takes time and effort. Taking a few small steps today will make a difference in
our health tomorrow.

Food and Pharmaceutical grades

There are basically three different grades of raw materials used in products they are:
Pharmaceutical Grade- meets pharmaceutical standards
Food Grade - meets standards set for human consumption
Feed Grade - meets standards set for animal consumption
The difference between each grade type is quality and purity. In technical terms, no substance is
100% pure, for there are always other substances added to various products. The difference between
the grades is how much of these other substances are present in the product.

Food grading involves the inspection, assessment and sorting of various foods regarding quality,
freshness, legal conformity and market value. Food grading often occurs by hand, in which foods
are assessed and sorted. Machinery is also used to grade foods, and may involve sorting products by
size, shape and quality. For example, machinery can be used to remove spoiled food from fresh
product.

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There are several criteria by which pharmaceutical grade are judged. The product must be in excess
of 99% purity with no binders, fillers, excipients, dyes, or unknown substances. They must pass lots
of tests in order to be recognized certifications. One of the conditions of a pharma grade supplement
is that they must be absorbed in the body within 45 minutes. With the guarantee of great quality and
speed, users tend to feel an effect sooner.

Eg For instance, food grade serine, which is less expensive, can have up to 100 ppm (parts per
million) of mold whereas pharmaceutical grade serine is not more than 10 ppm. That is 10 times
“purer,” or 10 times less impurity allowed in pharmaceutical grade serine.

.Factors affecting bioavailability

When the drug is administered orally the bioavailability depends on several factors:
Physicochemical properties of the drug and its excipients that determine its dissolution in the
intestinal lumen and its absorption across the intestinal wall.

Various physiological factors reduce the availability of drugs prior to their entry into the systemic
circulation. Whether a drug is taken with or without food will also affect absorption, other drugs
taken concurrently may alter absorption and first-pass metabolism, intestinal motility alters the
dissolution of the drug and may affect the degree of chemical degradation of the drug by intestinal
microflora. Disease states affecting liver metabolism or gastrointestinal function will also have an
effect.
Other factors may include, but are not limited to:
• Physical properties of the drug (hydrophobicity, pKa, solubility)
• The drug formulation (immediate release, excipients used, manufacturing methods, modified
release – delayed release, extended release, sustained release, etc.)
• Whether the formulation is administered in a fed or fasted state
• Gastric emptying rate
• Circadian differences
• Interactions with other drugs/foods:
o Interactions with other drugs (e.g., antacids, alcohol, nicotine)
o Interactions with other foods (e.g., grapefruit juice, pomello, cranberry
juice, brassica vegetables
• Transporters: Substrate of efflux transporters (e.g. P-glycoprotein)
• Health of the gastrointestinal tract

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• Enzyme induction/inhibition by other drugs/foods:
o Enzyme induction (increased rate of metabolism),
o e.g., Phenytoin induces CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4
o Enzyme inhibition (decreased rate of metabolism), e.g., grapefruit juice inhibits CYP3A →
higher nifedipine concentrations
• Individual variation in metabolic differences
o Age: In general, drugs are metabolized more slowly in fetal, neonatal, and geriatric
populations
o Phenotypic differences, enterohepatic circulation, diet, gender
• Disease state
o E.g., hepatic insufficiency, poor renal function
Each of these factors may vary from patient to patient (inter-individual variation), and indeed in the
same patient over time (intra-individual variation). In clinical trials, inter-individual variation is a
critical measurement used to assess the bioavailability differences from patient to patient in order to
ensure predictable dosing.
Stability under food processing conditions
Almost all food is processed in some way before it is eaten. Commercially, the main
reasons to process food are to eliminate micro-organisms (which may cause disease) and to extend
shelf life. Simply cooking or combining a food with other foodstuffs to create a recipe is also
considered a form of food processing. Whatever the case, the nutrient value of any food is often
altered by the processing.
The stability of nutrients in food depends on their environment. Nutrients can be lost to varying
degrees depending on whether the food is exposed to light or air, acid or alkali, the temperature and
their ability to dissolve in water. Generally the losses of carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamin K,
niacin, biotin and elements are small during processing and storage. Greatest losses are usually seen
with vitamins B-l and C, with intermediate losses shown by vitamin A, provitamin A and vitamins
D, E, B-2, B-6, B-12, pantothenic acid and folacin.
Losses may be due to destruction of the nutrient or by dissolving in water that is later thrown away.
The presence of acid (from other foods or addition of vinegar) or alkali (from other foods or added
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)) can cause destruction of some vitamins.
Toxicities
Food toxins are natural substances covering a large variety of molecules, generated by fungi,
algae, plants, or bacteria metabolism with harmful effects on humans or other vertebrates even at
very low doses.
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Basic types of toxins:

• Microbial toxins: Microbial toxins are toxins produced by micro-organisms, including bacteria

and fungi. Microbial toxins promote infection and disease by directly damaging host tissues and by
disabling the immune system. Some bacterial toxins, such as Botulinum neurotoxins, are the most
potent natural toxins known.
• Emotional toxins: Some “toxic emotions” can be just as harmful as a physical toxin. Here is a
list of some the most common toxic emotions: Bitterness, unforgiveness, resentment, retaliation,
anger, hatred, guilt, shame, sorrow, regret, jealousy, helplessness, depression, apathy, loneliness,
fear, rejection. Emotional stress from suppressed emotions has been linked to mental illness and
physical problems like heart disease, intestinal problems, headaches, insomnia and autoimmune
disorders. Scientists now know that positive feelings can have healing effects on the body.
Foreign substances (metals, chemicals, medicines, etc.): Antigens are substances (usually
proteins) on the surface of cells, viruses, fungi, or bacteria. Nonliving substances such as toxins,
chemicals, drugs, and foreign particles (such as a splinter) can also be antigens. The immune
system recognizes and destroys, or tries to destroy, substances that contain antigens
• Metabolic toxin: (i.e. those produced by the organism itself in metabolising food).
Metabolic toxins (or body toxins) are normal by-products of your metabolism occurring throughout
the mind and body. Organic chemist Ludwig Brieger defined a toxin as a poisonous substance
produced within living cells or organisms. This excluded manufactured substances (chemical)
created by artificial processes.
Ill effects of natural toxins present in the food
Natural toxins cause health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. Some of these toxins
are extremely potent. Adverse health effects can be acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions
to severe stomach ache and diarrhoea, and even death.
Food poisoning, or food borne illness, occurs when we eat contaminated food infected with a
toxic organism, such as a bacteria, fungus, parasite or virus. Sometimes the toxic byproducts cause
food poisoning. When we eat something toxic, our body reacts to purge the toxins.
Deficiencies
The body requires many different vitamins and minerals that are crucial for both body
development and preventing disease. These vitamins and minerals are often referred to as
micronutrients. They aren’t produced naturally in the body, so you have to get them from your diet.

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A nutritional deficiency occurs when the body doesn’t absorb or get from food the necessary
amount of a nutrient. Deficiencies can lead to a variety of health problems. These can
include digestion problems, skin disorders, stunted or defective bone growth, and even dementia.

Nutrients Food Sources Deficiency Symptoms Function

Disorder
Hypoglcemia,Fatig Gives energy to
ue and dereased body
energy
Cereal, whole levels,weakened
Hypoglycaemi
Carbohydrat grains, legumes, immune
a and
es potatoes, cheese, system,unhealthy
Ketoacidosis.
pasta, etc. weigh
loss,dehydration
and reduced body
secreation
Enlarged fatty Provide
liver,atrophy of structure and
different tissues support for
Almonds, eggs, and organs but cells,for growth
chicken, yogurt, subcutaneous fat and
cottage cheese, preserved. maintenance.
oats, seafood, Kwashiorkor No fatty Protect against
Proteins
beans and and Marasmus. liver,Atrophy of disease and
pulses, milk and different tissues antibiotics.
other dairy and organs Arry atoms and
products. including small molecules
subcutaneous fat within cells and
throughout the
body.
• Swelling in the Found in
neck, thyroid
unexpected weight hormone, which
gain, helps regulate
Eggs, nuts,
Goitre, growth,
bread, seaweed, • fatigue and
Anaemia, development,
Iodine dairy products, weakness
Hypothyroidis and metabolism
and iodized • hair loss,
m.
table salt. • dry, flaky skin,
• trouble learning
and remembering

76
 • Confusion or Important for
memory loss, healthy bones
• muscle spasms, and teeth; helps
muscles relax
numbness and
•
and contract;
tingling in the
Dates, spinach, important in
Muscle hands, feet, and
almonds, nerve
spasms, low face,
soybeans eggs, functioning,
bone density,
• Depression,
Calcium beans, lentils blood clotting,
and
milk, and all • Hallucinations, blood pressure
Hypocalcaemi
other dairy • muscle cramps, regulation,
a.
products. immune system
• weak and brittle
nails, health
• easy fracturing of
the bones.

• Nausea and Needed for

vomiting, proper fluid
• Headache, balance, nerve
transmission,
• Confusion,
and muscle
Gastrointestina• Loss of energy,
Onions, contraction
l Distress, the drowsiness and
cabbage, sweet fatigue,
Improper
Sodium potato, broccoli,
functioning of • Restlessness and
pumpkin seeds,
nerves and irritability,
eggs and milk
muscles. • Muscle weakness,
spasms or cramps.
• Seizures,
• Coma

loss of appetite, Important for

Milk, yogurt, Weak bones anxiety, bone pain, healthy bones
soy products, and muscles, fragile bones, stiff and teeth; found
beans, whole joint pains, joints, fatigue, in every cell;
Phosphorous grain food nervous irregular breathing, part of the
products, system irritability, system that
potatoes, peas, disorders, numbness, maintains acid-
etc. obesity, etc. weakness, and base balance
weight change.
Green leafy Night Unable to see in Maintain health
Vitamin – A
vegetables, yell Blindness and dim light,dryness and vigour of

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 ow colored other vision of eyes epithelial cells
fruits, milk, nut problems.
s, tomatoes,
carrots,
broccoli, etc.

Whole-grain Muscle cramps, Essential for

foods, retarded growth in formation of
legumes eggs, children, may lead nerve impulses
Vitamin –B 1 green leafy Beriberi to paralysis and
vegetables milk carbohydrate
and milk metabolism
products, etc.
Bleeding in gums Promotes
Citrus fruits, and internal organs, wound healing,
Vitamin -C broccoli, milk, Scurvy general weekness, iron absorption
and chestnuts. anemia, swollen protects against
legs infections
Rickets(children) Helps in
Osteomalacia(adult intestinal
) absorption of
Fish, liver, egg
Improper calcium and
yolks, cheese,
growth of phosphorous.
Vitamin -D citrus fruit
bones and Also involved
juices, soy milk,
Rickets. in calcium
cereals, etc.
metabolism and
bone
fermentation
Adnormal structure Inhibition of
Potatoes, turnip, of mitochondria certain fatty
pumpkin, avoca and lysosomes and acids of cellular
Heart
do, guava, plasma membrane membranes,
problems and
Vitamin -E olives, mango, of cells. Hemolysis, normal stability
Haemoltic
olives, Anemia of red blood
anemia
milk, nuts, cells,
seeds etc. reproduction
and for integrity
Tomatoes, Blood takes longer Required for
chestnuts, to clot the formation of
broccoli, beef, Haemorrhage pro-thrombin an
Vitamin -K
cashew nuts, or bleeding essential
lamb, mangoes, component
etc. from blood

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 clotting
Eruption of skin Maintain body
and limbs, back temperature,
and buttocks supports
internal organs
Fats Oil, ghee, curds phynoderma
and provides
energy in
starving
conditions
Lead to risk of Speeds up
obesity related to metabolism and
type 2 diabetes, makes us feel
high blood pressure and more full
Pure safe and cancer while
Water Dehydration
water,boiled promoting good
physical,
mental and
emotional
health
Laeds to Regulates
Carrots, indigestion & digestion,
cucumber, motion problem, maintain
apples, citric increased blood cholesterol and
Roughage fruits, grape Constipation sugar and blood sugar,
fruits, oat meal, cholesterol level, weight
whole grain gain of weight and management,
bread low immunity disease
prevention

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 UNIT I - OVERVIEW OF NUTRITION
PART- A
1. Define nutrition.
The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a
living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues
is known as nutrition.
2. What are micro and macronutrients?
Micro nutrient are needed in smaller quantities by human body they include
minerals and vitamins.
Macro nutrient are needed in relatively large amounts by human body they include
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, fibre and water.
3. Classify the nutrients present in food.
Six class of nutrients required are Carbohydrates, Lipids (fats), Proteins, Vitamins,
Minerals, Water.
4. Define RDA.
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is the average daily level of intake
sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%-98%) healthy people.
5. List the recommended intake of nutrient.

Nutrients Quantity Per Day

Protein 50 grams
Fat 70 grams
Saturated Fatty Acids 24 grams
Carbohydrates 310 grams
6. What is malnutrition?
Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more
nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health
problems. It may involve calories, protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins or minerals.
7. Mention the adverse effects of malnutrition.
Malnutrition in human may lead to
• Educed muscle and tissue mass
• Decreased mobility and stamina as a result of muscle wasting
• Breathing difficulties, and an increased risk of chest infection and respiratory
failure
• Wounds take longer to heal
8. What is anthropometry?
Anthropometry measures the dimensions and composition of the human body.
Eg To assess growth in children we can use several different measurements including
length, height, weight and head circumference.
9. What are biomarkers?
Biomarkers are used to assess nutritional status. It reflects either nutrient intake or
the impact of nutrient intake. When we measure of nutritional status biomarker is
available.
10. What is dietary assessment?
Dietary assessment estimates food and/or nutrient intakes. Dietary methods of
assessment include looking at past or current intakes of nutrients from food by
individuals or a group to determine their nutritional status.

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11. What is balanced diet?
A balanced diet is one which provides all the nutrients in required amounts and
proper proportions. Eating a balanced diet means choosing a wide variety of foods
and drinks from all the food groups.
12. List the significance of balanced diet.
Balanced Diet leads to a good physical and a good mental health.
• It helps in proper growth of the body.
• It increases the capacity to work.
• It increases the ability to fight or resist diseases.
13. List the diet planning principles.
• Maintaining adequate levels of energy, nutrients, movement and rest for optimal
health.
• Balancing different food groups, and consuming foods in the right proportion.
• Consuming the appropriate number of calories to maintain a healthy weight
depending on our metabolism and exercise levels.
• Focussing on a diet that is nutrient dense without being high in calories.
• Learning how to be moderate with foods that are higher in fat or sugar.
14. What is exchange list?
A person can exchange, trade, or substitute a food serving in one group for
another food serving in the same group. These lists put foods into six groups:
starch/bread, meat, vegetables, fruit, milk, and fats. The Exchange System groups
together foods that have roughly the same amounts of calories, carbohydrate, fat and
protein into "Exchange" groups, so that one may be exchanged for another.
For example, at breakfast we might aim for one Starch exchange, one Fruit, one Fat
and one Milk.
PART- B
1. Classify nutrients present in food with examples.
2. Explain recommended dietary allowance?
3. How is nutritional status assessed in children and adult?
4. Summarize the methods used to assess the nutritional status of an individual also
describe about the personal diet analysis.
5. Explain the effects of malnutrition. How is it treated?
6. Discuss the approaches used in assessing nutritional status of human.
7. Interpret List the dietary recommendations to be followed for healthy living.
8. Discuss the components of balanced diet.
9. Outline the tips to be followed for a healthy diet planning.
10. Summarize the dietary guidelines endorsed for healthy living.
11. Discuss the basic food groups.
12. Explain exchange list with suitable example.
13. Outline the principles of diet planning and also describe about the personal diet
analysis.
PART- C
1. Summarize the tips to be followed for a healthy diet planning.
2. Analyse the advantages of dietary recommendations for better living
3. Review the factors responsible to cause malnutrition. Recommend a diet for the
malnourished female person under the age of five (05) and also mention the
reasons/factors behind the selection of particular diet. Suggest some modifications
to be done on their regular diet.

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 UNIT II -DIGESTION

PART- A

1. What is digestion?
The process of breaking down food into individual molecules small enough to be
absorbed through the intestinal wall is known as digestion.
2. What are the processes involved in digestion?
Digestion occurs in two processes based on how food is broken down
i) Mechanical digestion –It refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food
into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes.
ii) Chemical digestion- Here enzymes break down food into the small molecules the
body can absorb.
3. Compare and relate mechanical and chemical digestion.
Mechanical digestion refers to the breakdown of food into digestible particles,
mainly by the teeth. Chemical digestion refers to the process by which compounds
with a high molecular weight in the food are broken down into small substances that
can be absorbed by the body.
Both mechanical and chemical digestion promotes the digestion, absorption, and
excretion of the ingested food by animals. A major part of both mechanical and
chemical digestion occurs in the stomach.
4. Name the organs which help in digestion of food.
Mouth, Pharnyx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Liver, Gall bladder and
Pancreas helps in digestion of food.
5. List the functions of stomach.
The stomach is a muscular and stretchable sac with three important functions:
• It mixes and stores food until it can be further digested.
• It secretes chemicals that help break the food into more digestible forms.
• It controls the passage of food into the small intestine.
6. Point out various transport process involved during transportation of nutrients.
Two major types of cell transport are passive transport and active transport.
7. What is active transport?
Active transporters always require energy input and involve dedicated transport
proteins embedded in the cytoplasmic membrane. Molecules are accumulated against
an increasing concentration gradient during active transport.
8. What is assimilation?
The digested and absorbed products reach the tissue to be utilized for their
activities. This process is called as assimilation.
9. What is passive transport?
Passive transport does not require energy input and involve simple diffusion of
solutes across the membrane. Passive transport can occur with or without
involvement of a protein to facilitate diffusion.
10. How vitamin is absorbed by human body?
The small intestine absorbs the vitamins that occur naturally in food and
supplements. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are absorbed along with dietary
lipids in micelles via simple diffusion.
11. Enlist the three types of active transporters.
The three general types of active transporters include the ABC transporters, the
secondary transporters and the group translocation systems.

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12. What is propulsion?
Propulsion is movement of food through the digestive tract. It includes both the
voluntary process of swallowing and the involuntary process of peristalsis.
13. What is peristalsis?
Peristalsis is the process of alternating waves of muscle contraction and relaxation
which moves food through the digestive tract. It helps mixing food with digestive
juices.
14. How hormones help in digestion of food?
Cells lining in stomach and small intestine make and release hormones that control
our digestive system. These hormones tell our body when to make digestive juices
and send signals to our brain that we are hungry or full. Our pancreas also makes
hormones that are important to digestion.
15. How human body control the digestive process
The hormones and nerves work together to help us control the digestive process.
Signals flow within your GI tract and back and forth from your GI tract to our brain.
16. What is absorption?
Absorption is the process by which the products of digestion are absorbed by the
blood to be supplied to the rest of the body.
17. What is mechanical digestion?
Mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into
smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes.
18. What is the function of liver in digestion?
The liver produces bile which helps digest lipids. Bile is stored in
the gallbladder and flows from the gallbladder to the duodenum where it helps digest
fats.
19. What is the function of pancreas in digestion?
• Pancreas produces enzymes which help break down proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates.
• Pancreas produces the hormone, insulin, which helps regulate blood glucose
levels.
• Pancreas produces sodium bicarbonate which helps to neutralize stomach acids.
20. What is defacation?
Defacation is the final step in digestion; undigested materials are removed from the
body as feces.

PART – B
1. Discuss the anatomy of the human digestive tract with a neat diagram.
2. Explain the physiological functioning of the human digestive system.
3. Explain the process involved in the absorption of different nutrients in the human
body.
4. Describe the mechanism by which nutrient sare absorbed in body? Give the
mechanism.
5. Discuss the steps by which nutrients are transported inside human body.
6. Discuss mechanical and chemical digestion of food.

PART – C
1. Explain the advantage of nutrients absorbed by human body.
2. Describe human body controls digestion

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 UNIT III -CARBOHYDRATES
PART- A
1. What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred energy source. Carbohydrates contain
sugar, fiber and starch. Foods with carbohydrates include quinoa, brown rice,
vegetables whole grain pasta, bread, and other baked goods, fruits, barley.
2. How carbohydrates are adsorbed and digested in the body?
The digestive system breaks down carbohydrates in foods and drinks into simple
sugars, mainly glucose. This simple sugar is then carried to our body’s cells through
the bloodstream.
The pancreas secretes a hormone called insulin, which helps the glucose to move
from blood into the cells. Inside a cell, the glucose is ‘burned’ along with oxygen to
produce energy. Our brain, muscles and nervous system all rely on glucose as their
main fuel to make energy.
The body converts excess glucose from food into glycogen. Glycogen acts as a
storage form of glucose within the muscle tissue and the liver. Its role is to
supplement blood glucose levels if they drop between meals (especially overnight)
or during physical activity.
3. What is glycemic index?
The glycemic index (GI) is a way that carbohydrates in foods and drinks are
ranked according to how quickly they raise the glucose level of the blood (also
known as ‘blood sugar level’). It has replaced classifying carbohydrates as either
‘simple’ or ‘complex’.
4. How is glycemic load calculated?
The GL = GI x the amount of carbohydrates (in grams) in a serving of food) ÷
100.
Eg. Pasta GI of a standard white wheat pasta, boiled to al dente texture = 43
The carbohydrate content of a standard 180g serve = 44g
GL = 43 x 44/100 = 19g
However, if a half portion of pasta was eaten, the GL would also halve:
GI of a standard white wheat pasta, boiled to al dente texture = 43
The carbohydrate content of a half portion 90g serve = 22g
GL = 43 x 22/100 = 9.5g
5. Outline the factors that affect GI of a food.
Factors such as the size, texture, viscosity (internal friction or ‘thickness’) and
ripeness of a food affect its GI. For instance, although both ripe and unripe bananas
have a low GI (less than 55), an unripe banana may have a GI of 30, while a ripe
banana
has a GI (of 51).
6. Give examples of food high in GI.
Food high in GI are glucose (dextrose, grape sugar), high fructose corn syrup,
white bread (only from wheat endosperm), most white rice (only from rice
endosperm), corn flakes, extruded breakfast cereals, maltose, maltodextrins, peeled
white/yellow potato.
7. What is hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia?
Normal BG levels should be between 60 and 140 mg/dL in order to supply
required energy to the cells of the body.
Too little glucose, called hypoglycemia, starves cells, and too much glucose
(hyperglycemia) creates a sticky, paralyzing effect on cells. Euglycemia or blood
sugar within the normal range is naturally ideal for the body’s functions.

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8. What are glycogens?
Glycogens are polysaccharide, made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver.
Glycogen provides an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a
sudden need for glucose.
9. What is diabetes mellitus?
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose level.
In most cases diabetes mellitus develop due to deficiency of insulin.
10. List the long term complications of diabetes mellitus.
Long term complications including eye disease, kidney problems, nerve problems,
cerebrovascular disease such as strokes, and cardiovascular disease such as heart
attacks, heart failure and high blood pressure, can be significantly reduced.
11. What is the recommended intake of sugar as per WHO?
WHO recommends a maximum of 5 to 10 teaspoons of free sugars per day. A new
WHO guideline recommends adults and children reduce their daily intake of free
sugars to less than 10% of their total energy intake. A further reduction to below 5%
or roughly 25 grams(6 teaspoons) per day would provide additional health benefits.
12. Classify dietary fibers.
Fiber is commonly classified
Soluble fiber. This type of fiber dissolves in water to form a gel-like material. It can
help lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels. Soluble fiber is found in oats, peas,
beans, apples, citrus fruits, carrots, barley and psyllium.
Insoluble fiber. This type of fiber promotes the movement of material through our
digestive system and increases stool bulk, so it can be of benefit to those who
struggle with constipation or irregular stools. Whole-wheat flour, wheat bran, nuts,
beans and vegetables, such as cauliflower, green beans and potatoes, are good
sources of insoluble fiber.
13. Outline the benefits of high fiber diet.
High fiber content in diet
• Normalizes bowel movements
• Lowers cholesterol levels
• Helps control blood sugar levels
• Aids in achieving healthy weight
• Helps us live longer.
14. What are the advantages of starch?
Starchy foods are an important source of energy. After they are eaten, they are
broken down into glucose, which is the body's main fuel, especially for our brain
and muscles. Starchy foods provide important nutrients to the diet including
B vitamins, iron, calcium and folate.
15. What are artificial sweeteners? List its advantage.
Artificial sweeteners are substances that are used as substitutes for natural sugar
(sucrose), they contain low calories.
16. Name some artificial sweeteners recommended by FCC.
Aspartame,Saccharin, Sucralose, Neotame,Acesulfame K
17. What is NIDDM and IDDM?
Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or type 2 diabetes results
from an imbalance between insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion and adult-onset
diabetes, the body’s weak balance between insulin production and the ability of cells
to use insulin goes awry.
Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), also known as type 1diabetes,
usually starts before 15 years of age, but can occur in adult’s also. In type 1 diabetes

85
 or juvenile-onset diabetes, the body may either produce insulin in very small
amounts or it may not produce insulin at all.
18. Distinguish between NIDDM and IDDM.
Type 1 (IDDM) diabetes is an autoimmune reaction that attacks cells in our
pancreas that produce insulin and is caused by inherited genetics or environmental
elements.
Type 2 (NIDDM) diabetes happens when our body becomes resistant to insulin and
is associated with genetics and lifestyle choice.
19. Mention any two importance of GTT.
Glucose tolerance test is used to test for diabetes, insulin resistance, impaired
beta cell function, reactive hypoglycemia, acromegaly, and other disorders of
carbohydrate metabolism.
PART- B
1. Illustrate the way by which food is digested and absorbed by human body.
2. Summarize about GI.
3. How is blood glucose regulated by different organs of the human body?
4. Why is it essential to regulate blood sugar in human body?
5. Examine the suggested intake of sugar by human as per WHO recommendation
6. Discuss the benefits and health effects of fiber intake in humans.
7. Explain the role of starch in human health.
8. Summarize the dietary recommendations for NIDDM and IDDM.
9. Describe about the glycemic and non-glycemic carbohydrates with suitable
examples and also comment on its uses in human health.
PART- C
1. Discuss the role of artificial sweeteners as an alternative for sugar intake.
2. Outline the health effects of fiber and starch intake.
3. Discuss the secondary complications associated with type 2 diabetes. Relate the role
of nutrients in diabetes.

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 UNIT IV- PROTEINS & LIPIDS
PART- A
1. What are proteins?
Proteins are macromolecules formed by amino acids. A total of 20 different amino
acids exist in proteins. They do most of the work in cells and are required for the
structure, function and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.
2. What are enzymes?
Enzymes are the primary motivators of all natural biochemical processes. Enzymes
are essential components of every chemical reaction in the body.
3. How are enzymes classified?
Enzymes are classified into
• Food enzymes - occur in raw food and, when present in the diet, begin the
process of digestion
• Digestive enzymes – produced by the body to break food into particles small
enough to be carried across the gut wall
• Metabolic enzymes - produced by the body to perform various complex
biochemical reactions.
4. List any five food materials containing natural digestive enzymes.
Pineapple Papaya Mango Avocados Kiwifruit contains natural digestive enzymes
namely Bromelain, papain, Amylases, Lipase and actinidain
5. What is texturization?
Texturization (when applied to plant proteins) is the development of a physical
structure which will provide, when eaten, a sensation of eating meat.
6. List few starting materials used to synthesize texturized protein.
The following protein sources are suitable for the production of texturized
products: soya; casein; wheat gluten; oilseed meals such, groundnut, sesame,
sunflower, safflower or rapeseed; zein (corn protein); yeast; whey; blood plasma.
Commercial textured vegetable protein products are manufactured almost exclusively
from soy protein.
7. Name two processes by which texturization can be done.
i) Spin process: The process tries to assemble a heterogeneous structure comprising
a certain amount of protein fibers within a matrix of binding material. The fibers are
produced by a "spinning" process, similar to that used for the production of synthetic
fibres for the textile industry.
ii) Extrusion process: It is the process that converts the soy material into a
hydratable, laminar, chewy mass without true fibres. Two different methods can be
used to produce such a mass: thermoplastic extrusion steam texturization.
8. List few biological function of protein in human.
• Catalytic function
• Transport and storage
• Coordinated motion
• Structural and mechanical support
• Defence function
• Generation and transmission of nerve impulses
• Control of growth and differentiation

9 What is PEM?
Protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is “an imbalance between the supply of protein
and energy and the body's demand for them to ensure optimal growth and function”.

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10. How are fatty acids classified based on the length of the carbon chain.
Depending on the length of carbon chain fatty acid may be classified into
• Short-chain fatty acids less than 6 carbons Eg. Butyric acid (4 carbons)
Butterfat
• Medium-chain fatty acids 6-10 carbons Eg Caproic acid (6 carbons) Butter fat
• Long-chain fatty acids 12 or more carbons Eg Oleic acid (18 carbons) Olive
oil
11. What are fat replacers?
Fat replacers (substitutes) are non fat substances that act like fat in a food. An
ideal fat replacer would be a substance that has no health risks and tastes and looks
like natural fat but has fewer calories. Fat replacers can be found in foods such as
baked goods, cheeses, sour cream, yogurt, margarine, salad dressing, sauces, and
gravies.
12. List the benefits of fat replacers.
Consumption of fat replacers can help in lowering total overall fat and calorie intake
from foods.
It will have positive implications for those looking to reduce either one of these,
especially when in a disease state associated with high fat diets.
While fat substitution alone can reduce the percentage of kilocalories ingested from
dietary fat, it may not reduce an individual’s total energy intake (in terms of
kilocalories) unless the rest of the diet is of high quality and low energy density.
13. Mention the plant and animal source of fat.
Plant sources- Vegetable oils and margarine, nuts and olives, chocolate, avocados.
Animal sources - Fatty meats and fish, dairy products, whole milk and egg yolk.
14. List the health effects due to inadequate fat in human body.
Inadequate fat intake leads to
• Dry and scaly skin
• Dry eyes and dry hair and/or hair loss
• Feeling constantly cold
• Hormonal problems, including loss of menstrual cycle
• Inability to feel full/always feeling hungry
• Issues concentrating and/or mental fatigue. Deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins
15. What happens to excess fats in the body?
Our body needs healthy fats for energy and other functions. But too much saturated
fat can cause cholesterol to build up arteries (blood vessels). Saturated fats raise our
LDL (bad) cholesterol. High LDL cholesterol increases risk for heart disease and
stroke.

16. What is the use of protein in human body?

Protein is used to make enzymes, hormones, and other body chemicals. Protein is an
important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.
Proteins
• Causes Biochemical Reactions
• Acts as a Messenger
• Provides Structure
• Maintains Proper pH
• Balances Fluids
• Bolsters Immune Health
• Transports and Stores Nutrients

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17. Compare fats and oils. FATS OILS
Fatty acid chains in Fats have a single Oils have double-bonded carbon
bond Since it is saturated with hydrogen, atoms Thus it is called unsaturated
it is called saturated fat. fatty acid
A fat remains solid - the binding is Oil remains liquid - the binding is
strong. not that strong.
Source - Human and animals mostly Source - plants and fruits.
Unhealthy for human health. Healthy for human health.
Responsible for high cholesterol levels Eases high cholesterol levels

PART-B
1. Discuss the significance of maintaining protein in human health.
2. What are food enzymes? Explain the function in human body.
3. Mention the food rich in proteins. Analyze the advantage of texturized protein in
human health.
4. Explain the major food sources of protein and analyze their functional role.
5. Review the structure, composition and nomenclature of fats.
6. Classify and explain the different types of fat with suitable sketch.
7. Write a note on non-Glyceride components in fats & oils
8. What are fat replacers? .Explain their benefits.
9. Discuss the role of bioactive proteins in human systems.

PART-C
1. Suggest the recommended intake of fats and protein for proper functioning of human
body.
2. Explain the functional role and uses of texturized proteins in foods. Identify the
recommended intake amount of proteins for the persons affected with PCM and PEM.

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 UNIT V METABOLISM, ENERGY BALANCE AND BODY COMPOSITION
PART –A
1. What is energy balance?
Energy balance is the difference between our energy input or the number of calories
that we put into our body and our energy output or the number of calories we burn
each day.
2. What is perfect balance?
If we end up with a 0 at the end of our energy equation, we have found a perfect
energy balance. In this state, we won't gain or lose weight. Perfect energy balance is
for people who are in the weight maintenance stage of their weight loss journey.
3. What is positive energy balance?
If we end up with a positive number, we’ve achieved the right balance for weight
gain. For some people, like pregnant women, growing children and weightlifters who
are trying to bulk up, this is a healthy state.
4. What is negative energy balance?
If we end up with a negative number, we've found the energy imbalance necessary
for weight loss. This imbalance is also called an energy deficit. It means that we've
tipped the scales to slim down. For best results we want a negative energy balance of
500-1000 calories per day to lose 1-2 pounds per week.
5. How is body weight measured?
Human body weight refers to a person's mass or weight. Body weight is
measured in kilograms, a measure of mass, throughout the world, body weight is the
measurement of weight without items located on the person.
6. How can we measure the fat percentage in our body?
Ways to measure our body fat percentage are
• Skin fold test
• Body Circumference Measurements
• Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA)
• Hydrostatic Weighing
• Air Displacement Plethysmography (Bod Pod)
• Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
• Bioimpedance Spectroscopy (BIS)
7. What is body mass index?
BMI or body mass index confirms our height to weight ratio and provides the
information needed to successfully manage our weight.
8. How is BMR calculated?
The BMR is our basal metabolic rate, and confirms what kind of metabolism we
have. Once we know our BMR, suggested intake of calories can be calculated. We
can use online tools to figure out how many calories we should be consuming daily,
or use the following Harris-Benedict equation to calculate your BMR by hand.
Men: BMR = 88.362 + (13.397 x weight in kg) + (4.799 x height in cm) - (5.677 x
age in years)
Women: BMR = 447.593 + (9.247 x weight in kg) + (3.098 x height in cm) - (4.330 x
age in years)
9. What is the relationship between BMR and BMI?
BMI stands for Body Mass Index and is related to your height and weight. Whereas
BMR, or RMR, represents the amount of calories your body requires to perform
essential functions. So our body requirements in nutrients is calculated by the BMI
which already adding up the BMR.

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10. What is obesity?
Obesity is a complex disease involving an excessive amount of body fat. Obesity is
not a cosmetic concern but it is a medical problem that increases our risk of other
diseases and health problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure and
certain cancers.
Usually, obesity results from a combination of inherited factors, combined with the
environment and personal diet and exercise choices.
11. List the major causes for obesity.
• Eating a poor diet of foods high in fats and calories
• Having a sedentary (inactive) lifestyle
• Not sleeping enough, which can lead to hormonal changes that make us feel
hungrier and crave certain high-calorie foods
• Genetics, which can affect how our body processes food into energy and how fat
is stored
• Growing older, which can lead to less muscle mass and a slower metabolic rate,
making it easier to gain weight
• Pregnancy (weight gained during pregnancy can be difficult to lose and may
eventually lead to obesity). Certain medical conditions may also lead to weight
gain. These include:Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) Prader-Willi syndrome,
Cushing syndrome, Osteoarthritis).
12. How is obesity diagnosed?
Obesity occurs when BMI is 30 or more. Body mass index is a rough calculation of
a person’s weight in relation to their height. Other more accurate measures of body fat
and body fat distribution include skinfold thickness, waist-to-hip comparisons, and
screening tests such as ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scans.
13. Mention few weight management programmes.
Weight management plans include a lower-calorie diet, increased physical activity,
and ways to help us change our food habits and stick with them.
• Weight-loss medicines.
• Weight-loss devices
• Electrical stimulation system
• Gastric balloon system
• Gastric emptying system
• Bariatric surgery
• Calorie-restricted diet
14. What is hunger?
Hunger is the uneasy or painful sensation caused by want of food; craving appetite.
It is the exhausted conditions caused by want of food. Hunger is a result of the
immediate causes of malnutrition.
15. What is satiation and satiety?
Satiation refers to the end of desire to eat after a meal, and this can occur at any
time after the onset of eating. Satiation occurs during an eating episode and brings it
to an end.
Satiety starts after the end of eating and prevents further eating before the return of
hunger. Satiety, is feeling "full" and satisfied after eating; the cessation of hunger.
The feeling of satiety occurs due to a number of bodily signals that begin when a food
or drink is consumed and continue as it enters the gut and is digested and absorbed.

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16. Mention few unsafe weigh loss schemes.
Few methods followed to lose weight are
• The cotton ball diet
• The vinegar diet
• The cabbage soup diet
• The 'Sleeping Beauty' diet
• The grapefruit juice diet
• Arsenic diet pills
17. What is food grade and pharma grade?
Food Grade - meets standards set for human consumption
Pharmaceutical Grade- meets pharmaceutical standards. There are several criteria
by which pharmaceutical grade are judged. The product must be in excess of 99%
purity with no binders, fillers, excipients, dyes, or unknown substances. They must
pass lots of tests in order to be recognized certifications.
18. What are food toxins?
Food toxins are natural substances covering a large variety of molecules, generated
by fungi, algae, plants, or bacteria metabolism with harmful effects on humans or
other vertebrates even at very low doses.
19. Specify the ill effects of natural toxins present in the food.
Natural toxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and are extremely potent.
Acute poisoning ranging from allergic reactions to severe stomach ache and
diarrhoea, and even death.
20. List the basic types of toxins.
Microbial toxins, Emotional toxins, Foreign substances (metals, chemicals,
medicines, etc.) and Metabolic toxin.

PART- B
1. Write a note on obesity.
2. How can we control body weight? Examine best weight management programs.
3. Write a note on i) hunger ii) satiety and satiation.
4. Relate the dangerous weight loss schemes to human health effects.
5. How behavioural and attitude change helps in controlling body weight?
6. Distinguish between food and pharmaceutical grades.
7. Review the functions, deficiency syndrome/disease and its treatment of various
nutrients present in the food.
8. Summarize the factors to be considered for obesity.
9. Detail on the direct and indirect measurement of energy metabolism.
10. Discuss on fat cell theory and the role of fats in obeisity.

PART- C
1. Recommend two days low cost menu for obesity adult male. Mention the ill effects
of unsafe weight loss schemes.
2. Examine the factors affecting the bioavailability of foods after consumption and
comment on stability of nutrients during thermal processing of foods. Analyse the
role of toxins in body functioning.

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 B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS NOVEMBER / DECEMBER 2020
FIFTH SEMESTER
Agriculture Engineering
OBT553 FUNDAMENTALS OF NUTRITION

(Common to Biomedical Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Computer and

communication Engineering, Electronics communication Engineering, Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering, Medical Electronics, Information Technology)

(Regulations 2017)
Time: 3 Hours Answer ALL Question Max. Marks 100
PART- A (10 x 2 = 20 Marks)

1. Classify the nutrients.

2. Define the term “Balanced Diet”?
3. Point out various transport process involved during transportation of nutrients.
4. Compare and relate mechanical and chemical digestion.
5. Mention any two importance of GTT.
6. Distinguish between NIDDM and IDDM.
7. State the role of enzymes in food processing.
8. Compare fats and oils.
9. Recall the relationship between BMR and BMI.
10. Specify the ill effects of natural toxins present in the food.

PART- B (5 x 13 = 65 Marks)

11. a) Summarize the methods used to assess the nutritional status of an individual.
OR
b) Outline the principles of diet planning and also describe about the personaldiet
analysis.
12. a) With a suitable diagram, illustrate the anatomy and physiology of digestivetract.
OR
b) Explain the process involved in the absorption of different nutrients in the human
body.
13. a) Describe about the glycemic and non-glycemic carbohydrates with suitableexamples
and also comment on its uses in human health.
OR
b) Enumerate the health effects of fiber and starch intake.
14. a) Mention the rich in proteins. Explain the functional role and uses of texturized
proteins in foods. Identify the recommended intake amount ofproteins for the persons
affected with PCM and PEM.
OR
b) Classify and explain the different types of fat with suitable sketch.
15. a) Summarize the factors to be considered for obesity. Recommend two dayslow cost
menu for obesity adult male. Mention the ill effects of unsafe weight loss schemes.
OR
b) Examine the factors affecting the bioavailability of foods after consumption and
comment on stability of nutrients during thermal processing of foods.

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 PART- C (1 x 15 = 15 Marks)

16 a) What is malnutrition? Review the factors responsible to cause malnutrition.

Recommend a diet for the malnourished female person under the age of five(05) and also
mention the reasons/factors behind the selection of particulardiet. Suggest some
modifications to be done on their regular diet.
OR

b) Review the functions, deficiency syndrome/disease and it treatment ofvarious nutrients

present in the food.

94
 B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2021.
Fifth Semester

Computer Science and Engineering

OBT553 — FUNDAMENTALS OF NUTRITION

(Common to Biomedical Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Computer and

communication Engineering, Electronics communication Engineering, Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering, Medical Electronics, Information Technology)

(Regulations 2017)

Time : Three hours Maximum : 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.

PART A — (10 x 2 = 20 marks)

1. What is Balanced Diet? Write down its significance.

2. Define malnutrition.
3. Compare active and passive absorption.
4. List the digestive enzymes along with function which digestive carbohydrates.
5. Differentiate between NIDDM and IDDM.
6. Explain glycemic load and glycemic index.
7. What is PEM?
8. Explain how textured protein is different from natural protein.
9. Relationship between hunger and satiety.
10. List the direct and indirect methods to measure energy.

PART B — (5 x 13 = 65 marks)
11. (a) What are the diet planning principles, exchange list and personalized analysis for a
diabetic person?
OR
(b) Detail the nutritional assessment methods that would be involved for children
below 5 years.

12. (a) Detail on the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates.

OR
(b) Explain the role of bioactive protein in human system.

13. (a) Classify carbohydrates and the relation between the type of carbohydrate and glycemic
index.
OR
(b) Detail on the role of enzymes in the digestion of proteins.

14. (a) Classify fats and detail on the pros and cons of fats and oil in diet.
OR
(b) Explain the cases of obesity along with physiological changes and treatment management
involved.

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15. (a) Detail on the direct and indirect measurement of energy metabolism.
OR
(b) Detail on the fat cell theories and the role of fat in obesity.

PART C — (1 x 15 = 15 marks)
16. (a) A Patient with Uncontrolled Type 2 Diabetes and Complex Comorbidities.
Explain the onset of Type 2 diabetes and what are the secondary complications
associated with it. Relate the role of nutrients in diabetes.
OR
(b) A status with BODY WEIGHT that is grossly above the acceptable or
desirable weight, due to accumulation of excess FATS in the body. List the
causative factors of obesity and explain in terms of BMI how the obesity is
calculated. Detail a dietary management.

96