Achmad Hisyam Kamil - 5022221061

Resume only from 5th Meeting of DSTL (Q) Class

Photovoltaic (PV) technology involves converting sunlight directly into electricity. This process is facilitated by PV cells, which
are the basic building blocks of solar power systems. Here's a detailed explanation of the components and principles involved
in PV technology:
● Photovoltaic (PV) Cells: These are the smallest units of a solar power system, capable of converting sunlight into
electricity. Each PV cell consists of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor material, typically silicon. When sunlight hits the
n-type layer, it energizes the electrons, causing them to break free from their atomic bonds and create electron-hole pairs.
These charge carriers are then separated by the electric eld created by the p-n junction, allowing electrons to move
towards the n-type side and holes towards the p-type side. This movement of charge generates an electric current.
● PV Modules: A PV module is a collection of PV cells that are electrically connected together. These modules are
designed to optimize the conversion of sunlight into electricity by maximizing the number of cells in a given area. The
ef ciency of a PV module is determined by the number of cells it contains and the quality of the cells themselves.
● PV Arrays: An array is a group of PV modules connected together. The modules in an array can be connected in series or
parallel to increase the overall output voltage or current. The choice of connection depends on the speci c requirements
of the solar power system. For example, connecting modules in series increases the voltage, while connecting them in
parallel increases the current.

● Electric Circuit Diagram: The electric circuit diagram of a PV system includes components such as the n-type and p-type
layers, electrical contacts, and a bottom contact. The n-type layer is thin and transparent, allowing sunlight to penetrate
and energize the electrons. The p-type layer is thick and acts as a collector for the electrons. Electrical contacts are
placed on the top and bottom surfaces of the PV cell to allow the ow of electrons, forming an electrical circuit. The bottom
contact collects the generated electrons and provides an external path for the electrical current to ow out of the cell.
● Diodes in PV Systems: Diodes are used in PV systems to control the ow of electric current. Bypass diodes are
connected in parallel with PV cells to provide a low resistance path for current, preventing overheating of the cells.
Blocking diodes are used in series with PV panels to prevent current from owing back into the panels, ensuring that the
electrical current only ows out of the array to the external load or batteries.
● Working Principle: The working principle of a PV cell is based on the photovoltaic effect, where sunlight (photons) strikes
the n-type layer of the cell, energizing the electrons. This energy causes the electrons to break free from their atomic
bonds, creating electron-hole pairs. The electric eld between the n-type and p-type layers separates these charge
carriers, allowing electrons to move towards the n-type side and holes towards the p-type side. This movement generates
an electric current, which can be harnessed as electricity.
fi
fl
fi
fi
fl
fl
fl
 The relationship between current, power, and voltage in a solar cell is best understood through the I-V (current-voltage)
characteristic curve. This curve illustrates how the output of a solar cell changes with varying levels of sunlight (irradiance)
and temperature. Key parameters include Isc (short circuit current), Voc (open circuit voltage), Vmp (voltage at maximum
power), Imp (current at maximum power), and Pmp (maximum power point).
● Isc (Short Circuit Current): This is the maximum current that can ow through the solar cell when the terminals are
shorted together. It occurs in full sunlight with zero voltage across the terminals and indicates the panel's current capacity.
● Voc (Open Circuit Voltage): This is the maximum voltage that can be measured across the solar cell when no current is
owing, i.e., when the terminals are open-circuited. It occurs in bright sunlight when no current ows and helps determine
system safety margins.
● Vmp (Voltage at Maximum Power): This is the voltage at which the solar cell or panel delivers the maximum power
output. It corresponds to the point where power output is highest and is used to optimize system performance. Most solar
panel manufacturers specify Vmp to be around 70 to 80% of the Voc.
● Imp (Current at Maximum Power): This is the current at which the solar cell or panel delivers the maximum power
output. It corresponds to the point where power output is highest and is used to optimize system performance.
● Pmp (Maximum Power Point): This is the maximum amount of power a solar cell can deliver during its standard test
condition. It is the point on the I-V curve where the product of Vmp and Imp is maximized, indicating the most ef cient
operation of the solar cell.
The I-V characteristic curve of a solar cell shows a typical shape with a peak at the maximum power point (MPP). The curve
starts at zero current (Isc) at zero voltage (Voc) and increases to a maximum current (Imp) at a lower voltage (Vmp). The
curve then decreases to zero current at the open circuit voltage (Voc).

The relationship between PV voltage and PV output power in solar cells is signi cantly in uenced by temperature changes. As
temperature rises, the performance of PV modules tends to decrease, affecting both voltage and power output. Conversely,
when temperature decreases, the PV output shows an increase in voltage and power. This behavior is due to the
temperature-dependent characteristics of semiconductor materials used in solar cells.
● Effect of Temperature on Voltage and Power: When the temperature increases, the voltage across the PV module
decreases. This is because the temperature increase reduces the bandgap of the semiconductor material, making it
easier for electrons to break free from their atomic bonds. This reduction in bandgap energy leads to a decrease in the
voltage generated by the solar cell. Similarly, as temperature rises, the power output of the PV module decreases. This is
because the increase in temperature leads to a higher ow of charge carriers, which reduces the voltage generated and,
consequently, the power output.
fl
fl
fl
Solar thermal generation systems utilize concentrated solar energy to produce high-temperature heat, which is then converted
into electricity. These systems are categorized into several types, each with unique components and operational principles.

Central Receiver and Heliostats

● Central Receiver: This is a large, at surface that collects concentrated solar energy. The receiver is typically made of a
high-temperature material that can withstand the heat generated by the concentrated sunlight. The heat collected by the
receiver is used to produce steam, which drives a turbine connected to a generator to produce electricity.
● Heliostats: These are mirrors that track the sun's movement across the sky throughout the day. They focus sunlight onto
the central receiver, ensuring that the receiver receives concentrated solar energy. Heliostats are crucial for maintaining
the ef ciency of solar thermal power plants by ensuring that the receiver is always exposed to sunlight.

Absorber Tube, Re ector, and Solar Field Piping

● Absorber Tube: In linear concentrating systems, such as parabolic troughs and linear Fresnel re ectors, the absorber
tube is a long, cylindrical tube that runs the length of the mirrors. The mirrors focus sunlight onto the absorber tube, which
contains a heat-transfer uid. This uid is heated by the concentrated sunlight and circulated through the tube to produce
steam, which drives a turbine to generate electricity.
● Re ector: Re ectors, or mirrors, are used in both linear concentrating systems and parabolic troughs to capture and
focus sunlight onto the receiver. The shape and design of the re ector are critical for maximizing the concentration of
sunlight onto the receiver. In parabolic troughs, the re ector is a long, parabolic-shaped mirror that focuses sunlight onto a
receiver pipe located at the focus of the parabola. In linear Fresnel re ectors, the mirrors are positioned above several
receiver tubes to allow for greater mobility in tracking the sun.
● Solar Field Piping: This refers to the piping system that transports the heat-transfer uid from the absorber tubes to the
heat exchanger. The heat exchanger is where the uid is heated and then used to produce steam, which drives the
turbine to generate electricity. The design and layout of the solar eld piping are crucial for ensuring ef cient heat transfer
and minimizing losses.

In summary, solar thermal generation systems capture and concentrate sunlight using various components, including central
receivers, heliostats, absorber tubes, re ectors, and solar eld piping. These systems convert the concentrated solar energy
into high-temperature heat, which is then used to produce steam and generate electricity. The ef ciency and performance of
these systems depend on the design and operation of their components, including the tracking and focusing of sunlight, the
heat transfer processes, and the conversion of heat into mechanical and electrical energy.
fi
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fi
fl
fi
fl
Wind power generation involves converting the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy, which is then converted into
electrical energy. The key components of a wind turbine include the rotor blade, gearbox, nacelle, generator, power cables,
tower, transformer, switchyard, and the wind itself.

Key Components of Wind Power Generation

● Rotor Blade: The rotor blade is the part of the wind turbine that captures the wind's kinetic energy. The design and size of
the rotor blades are crucial for maximizing the turbine's ef ciency and power output.
● Gearbox: The gearbox is used in wind turbines to match the speed of the rotor to the speed of the generator. This is
necessary because the rotor's speed can vary signi cantly with wind speed, while the generator needs a constant speed
to produce electricity ef ciently.
● Nacelle: The nacelle is the housing that contains the generator and other components of the turbine. It protects the
generator and other mechanical parts from the wind and weather.
● Generator: The generator converts the mechanical energy from the rotor into electrical energy. The ef ciency of the
generator is a critical factor in the overall performance of the wind turbine.
● Power Cables: These cables transport the electrical energy produced by the generator to the grid or to a storage facility.
The design and materials of the power cables are important for ensuring the safety and reliability of the power
transmission.
● Tower: The tower supports the nacelle and rotor, providing stability and height to the turbine. The height of the tower is a
critical factor in the turbine's ability to capture wind energy ef ciently.
● Transformer: The transformer steps up the voltage from the generator to a level suitable for transmission to the grid. This
is necessary because the generator produces a low voltage, which is not ef cient for long-distance transmission.
● Switchyard: The switchyard is the control center for the wind farm, where operators can monitor and control the operation
of the turbines. It includes the necessary equipment for starting, stopping, and adjusting the operation of the turbines
based on wind conditions.
● Wind: The wind is the primary source of energy for wind turbines. The ef ciency and power output of a wind turbine
depend signi cantly on the wind speed, direction, and consistency.
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
Power Curve and Wind Speed Relationship
The power output of a wind turbine is not directly proportional to wind speed. Instead, it follows a power curve that shows the
relationship between wind speed and power output. This curve includes several key parameters:
● Cut-in Speed: The minimum wind speed at which the turbine starts generating power. Below this speed, the turbine does
not generate power.
● Rated Output Power: The maximum power output of the turbine at its rated wind speed. This is the peak of the power
curve.
● Rated Output Speed: The wind speed at which the turbine produces its rated output power.
● Cut-out Speed: The maximum wind speed at which the turbine can safely operate. Above this speed, the turbine shuts
down to prevent damage.

The formula for calculating the power available to a wind turbine is:

Where:
● P is the power output in kilowatts (kW),
● Cp is the power coef cient, which depends on the design and ef ciency of the turbine,
● A is the swept area of the rotor blades, which can be calculated as πr^2, where π is the blade area and r is the radius of
the rotor,
● ρ is the air density, typically around 1.2 kg/m³,
● V is the wind speed in meters per second (m/s).

The power curve of a wind turbine shows how the power output changes with wind speed. It is essential for understanding the
performance of the turbine under various wind conditions and for planning the operation of wind farms.
fi
fi