7SM2 : Energy Conversion II Lab Manual Expt. No.

5/P-V SYSTEM
EXPERIMENT NO: - 05

Aim: - STUDY OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM.

The operation of a photovoltaic cell is shown in Figure 9.5.

P type

These solar cells contain a junction of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor, i.e., a p-n
junction. To some extent, electrons and holes diffuse across the boundary of this junction,
setting up an electric field across it. The free electrons are generated in the n layer by the
action of the photons. When photons of sunlight strike the surface of a solar cell and are
absorbed by the semiconductor, some of them create pairs of electrons and holes. If these
pairs are sufficiently near the p-n junction, its electric field causes the charges to separate,
electrons moving to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side. If the two sides of the
solar cell are now connected through a load, an electric current will flow as long as sunlight
strikes the cell.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:
 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
The thickness of the n-type layer in a typical crystalline silicon cell is about 0.5 micrometer,
whereas that of the p-type layer is about 0.25 mm. Silicon has a band gab of 1.11 eV;
therefore, photons with wavelength of 1.12 micrometer or less are useful in creating
electron-hole pairs and thus electricity. Thus majority of solar radiation can be used
effectively in PVs.
A photovoltaic cell consists of the active photovoltaic material, metal grids, antireflection
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7SM2 : Energy Conversion II Lab Manual Expt. No.5/P-V SYSTEM
coatings, and supporting material. The metal grid reduces the active cell area in turn the
penetration of photons. There are also electrical effects such as sheet resistance
(resistance to the flow of electrons across the top layer to the grid) that limit cell output.
The complete cell is optimized to maximize both the amount of sunlight entering the cell
and the power out of the cell. The photovoltaic material can be one of a number of
compounds. The metal grids enhance the current collection from the front and back of the
solar cell. The antireflection coating is applied to the top of the cell to maximize the light
going into the cell. Typically, this coating is a single layer optimized for sunlight. As a result,
photovoltaic cells range in color from black to blue. In some types of photovoltaic cells, the
top of the cell is covered by a semitransparent conductor that functions as both the
current collector and the antireflection coating. A complete photovoltaic cell is a two-
terminal device with positive and negative leads.

PV CELL CHARACTERISTICS
A photovoltaic PV generator is mainly an assembly of solar cells, connections, protective
parts, and supports. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, usually silicon, and
are specially treated to form an electric field with positive on one side (backside) and
negative on the other side, facing the sun. When solar energy (photons) hits the solar cell,
electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material, creating
electron-hole pairs. If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides,
forming an electrical circuit, the electrons are captured in the form of electric current,
called photocurrent, Iph. During darkness the solar cell is not active and works as a diode,
i.e., a p-n junction that does not produce any current or voltage. If, however, it is
connected to an external, large voltage supply, it generates a current, called the diode or
dark current, ID. A solar cell is usually represented by an electrical equivalent one-diode
model, shown in Figure 9.6. This circuit can be used for an individual cell, a module
consisting of a number of cells, or an array consisting of several modules.

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As shown in Figure 9.6, the model contains a current source, Iph, one diode, and a series
resistance RS, which represents the resistance inside each cell. The diode has also an
internal shunt resistance, as shown in Figure 9.6.RSH is a part of electron hole pair which
recombines before going into the load, which has to be taken into account inside the
model of the photovoltaic cell. It should be noted that the shunt resistance is usually
much bigger than a load resistance, whereas the series resistance is much smaller than a
load resistance, so that less power is dissipated internally within the cell. Therefore, by
ignoring these two resistances, the net current is the difference between the
photocurrent, Iph, and the normal diode current, ID.
Figure 9.7 shows the I-V characteristic curve of a solar sell for PV cell temperature of 25°C
and incident light at an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 with a spectrum close to that of sunlight
at solar noon(air mass = 1.5) . The current from a PV cell depends on the external voltage
applied and the amount of sunlight on the cell.
When the cell is short-circuited, the current is at maximum (short-circuit current, Isc), and
the voltage across the cell is 0. When the PV cell circuit is open, with the leads not making
a circuit, the voltage is at its maximum (open-circuit voltage, Voc), and the current is 0. In
either case, at open circuit or short circuit, the power (current times voltage) is 0. Between
open circuit and short circuit, the power output is greater than 0.

The typical current voltage curve shown in Figure 9.7 presents the range of combinations
of current and voltage. In this representation, a sign convention is used, which takes as
positive the current generated by the cell when the sun is shining and a positive voltage is
applied on the cell’s terminals.
If the cell’s terminals are connected to a variable resistance, R, the operating point is
determined by the intersection of the I-V characteristic of the solar cell with the load I-V
characteristics. As shown in Figure 9.7 for a resistive load, the load characteristic is a

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7SM2 : Energy Conversion II Lab Manual Expt. No.5/P-V SYSTEM
straight line with a slope 1/V = 1/R. If the load resistance is small, the cell operates in the
region AB of the curve, where the cell behaves as a constant current source, almost equal
to the short-circuit current. On the other hand, if the load resistance is large, the cell
operates on the region DE of the curve, where the cell behaves more as a constant voltage
source, almost equal to the open circuit voltage. The power can be calculated by the
product of the current and voltage. If this exercise is performed and plotted on the same
axes, then Figure 9.8 can be obtained.

The maximum power passes from a maximum power point (point C on Figure 9.7), at
which point the load resistance is optimum, Ropt, and the power dissipated in the resistive
load is maximum and is given by Pmax = Imax* Vmax
Point C on Figure 9.7 is also called the maximum power point, which is the operating point
Pmax, Imax, Vmax at which the output power is maximized. Given Pmax, an additional
parameter, called the fill factor, FF, can be calculated such that Pmax = Isc Voc FF.
The fill factor is a measure of the real I-V characteristic. In cells with a high fill factor less of
the current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses. For good cells, its value is
greater than 0.7. The fill factor decreases as the cell temperature increases. Cell cooling
can be passive or active; passive cooling involves natural convection over extended heat
transfer areas on the backs of the cells, and active cooling depends on forced circulation of
coolant.
Efficiency is defined as the maximum electrical power output divided by the incident light
power. An improvement in cell efficiency is directly connected to cost reduction in
photovoltaic systems.

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7SM2 : Energy Conversion II Lab Manual Expt. No.5/P-V SYSTEM
Another parameter of interest is the maximum efficiency, which is the ratio between the
maximum power and the incident light power.
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
ŋ max = = [𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥]/[𝐴 ∗ 𝐺𝑡]
𝑝𝑖𝑛
Where, A = cell area m2 and Gt is solar irradiance [6570 W/m2 for Pusad in month of
March]. The maximum power point efficiency is seen to be a linear function of
temperature, and for this and many modules it is also a function of solar radiation. In
practice solar cells can be connected in series or parallel. When two identical cells are
connected in parallel, the voltage remains the same but the current is doubled; when the
cells are connected in series, the current remains the same but the voltage is doubled.

Cells are mounted in modules, and multiple modules are used in arrays. Individual modules
may have cells connected in series and parallel combinations to obtain the desired current
and voltage. Arrays of modules may likewise be arranged in series and parallel. For
modules or cells connected in series, the voltages are additive, and when connected in
parallel, the currents are additive.

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7SM2 : Energy Conversion II Lab Manual Expt. No.5/P-V SYSTEM

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

A solar PV system is a long lasting system and can last for 20-30 years.
Solar PV panels (also known as solar PV modules) work by converting sunlight into
electricity. There are two kinds of modules: Thin-film, and Crystalline [mono or poly]. In
India, the most commonly available panels are polycrystalline/ multi-crystalline.
Rooftop solar plants predominantly use crystalline panels because they are more efficient
and therefore better suited to installations like rooftops where space is a constraint.
DC to AC conversion is done by using an inverter. One- and two-axis tracking can also be
used with PV generators. Solar panels are mounted on iron fixtures so that they can
withstand wind and weight of panels. Solar panel mountings are roof mounting, frame
mounting or pole mounting .The proper design of mounting structures is important to
power plant performance as the power output from the PV plant will not be maximized if
the mountings buckle and the panels are not optimally oriented towards the sun. In
addition, improperly mounted panels present a ragged appearance that is not pleasing to
the eye. Allowing sufficient air circulation to cool the PV panels is also an important factor
that mounting structures should be designed.
If solar power is required when there isn’t enough sunlight for the panels to generate
electricity (such as at night), a battery backup is required. Other components include the
cables, switchgear, fuses, electrical peripherals etc. Electrical peripherals include Junction
Boxes, earthing, Lightning Arrestors, and Conduits etc. All of these are highly specific to the
design of the power plant.
Typical cost break up is as follows
COMPONENT COST/WATT [Rs.]
Solar module 35 to 50
Cables 1 to 2
Mounting 4 to 6
Inverter 6 to 14
Tubular solar battery 5 yrs warranty per AH 100 to 150
Cables, Combiner box, junction box, fuses & disconnects, 2/w, 500,800,50,
protection switches , Energy meter, Remote control and 50, 2000,2000
monitoring system per piece
Supervision , design and installation 4
25 amp ,55 amp 48 v mppt charge controller Rs5000 , 10000
per piece
TOTAL Rs 85/w
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A rooftop solar PV system typically requires 100 square feet of shade-free roof area per
kW of capacity. Rooftop solar PV plants weigh about 30-60 Kg/m2.
TYPES OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM
There are two types of Solar PV system assemblies that are available:
1. Off-Grid System or standalone system:
An Off-Grid system works independently and is not connected to the Grid. Grid over
here means the wiring network from the electricity distribution company that provides
you electricity. An off-grid solution generates electricity and stores it in a system of
batteries and does not provide it back to the grid. In an off-grid solution a PV Module
generates electricity that charges the batteries connected to it through a charge
controller.

The charge controller prevents overcharging of batteries and also makes sure that the
batteries do not get discharged at night or cloudy days. There are three types of charge
controllers available: 1) Shunt 2) PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) 3) MPPT (Maximum
Power Point Tracking). MPPT being the most sophisticated, efficient [90 to 95 %] and thus
more expensive and Shunt the simplest, least expensive but less efficient. It is desirable to
have multiple controllers on solar P-V system. A junction box has bypass diodes that keep
power flowing in one direction and prevent it from feeding back to the panels.
The battery bank is the component that needs regular maintenance. Solar systems need
deep cycle batteries. They last for 5 to 10 years and are 80% efficient. These tubular
batteries are also designed to provide electricity for long periods and can discharge up to
50% of their capacity repeatedly [DOD]. Life of batteries depends on number of times it is
discharged and thus deep cycle batteries are a must. Regular lead batteries need to be
filled with distilled water regularly for right operation but if maintained well can run for
long and are cheaper than maintenance free batteries. It is important to size the batteries
properly so that they can store sufficient power based on ones needs during cloudy
weather. Batteries should be located in a space that is easy to reach (for maintenance),
well-ventilated and protected from extreme weather. Multiple batteries used in series
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increase the capacity and the voltage of a battery bank. Multiple batteries connected in
parallel increase the capacity whilst keeping the voltage the same.
The inverter converts DC current from the battery into AC current that is useful for various
appliances in a house. Choose the right inverter that is 1] at least 85% efficient, 2] works at
desired voltage and 3] has desired power rating. There are two types of inverters available
in the market: 1) Modified Sine Wave and 2) Pure Sine Wave inverters. Modified sine wave
inverters are cheap but less efficient and some power supplies, such as those used for
laptop computers and portable televisions, may not work at all. They create a buzz sound
with appliances and thus should be used only with low-end appliances. Pure sine wave
inverters are most efficient but are expensive.
2 Grid tie system:
A grid-tie system is simpler and cheaper to install as compared to off-grid solution. It also
requires less maintenance, as there are no batteries involved in it. So essentially a grid
connected system is similar to the above diagram without a charge controller and a
battery bank.

Systems should incorporate a fuse between the batteries and the controller and/or
inverter to prevent damage. An isolation switch is used to disconnect various components.
Ground fault protection ensures that if there is a short within the solar array, the current
flow is cut off immediately. This averts the risk of damage to either the controller or the
solar array, and significantly reduces the risk of electrocution. In this case the electricity
generated through the PV array is connected to the inverter as well as the grid. During the
daytime when there is ample sun, the electricity generated will be used in the house
through the inverter and any extra electricity generated will be sent into the grid. Anti-
islanding is a protection mechanism to immediately shut down the inverter, preventing it
from generating AC power when the connection to the load no longer exists. A solar
energy system should always be earthed (grounded). This means running a wire from a
negative terminal to an earthing rod that is rammed into the ground.

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The distribution company can use this extra electricity generated to distribute in other
areas. In return the producer of the electricity (the one who has installed the PV system)
gets rebate when electricity is used from the grid during the nighttime. This system turns
out to be cheaper as it does not involve any batteries for storage and thus require less
maintenance as well. As it does not involve storage, such a system is good for places where
there is no electricity available. Bidirectional Energy Meter acts as the measuring device for
the generated as well as consumed electricity. Cleaning is an important key aspect of solar
panel maintenance. The dustier your area, the more frequent inspection is recommended.
This ensures that dirt, grime, bird droppings and debris do not block the sun from efficient
absorption by the panels. The first (and easiest) way is to rinse of dust with a standard
garden hose. Solar cable should be properly sized with regards to resistance, voltage and
size and withstand all environmental severities like UV radiation, rain, dust & dirt,
temperature variations, humidity, insects and microbes etc.

RESULT: - In this way the PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM is studied.

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