Creating Inclusive Classrooms.

CREATING INCLUSIVE
CLASSROOMS
Effective ami Reflective Practices
Fourth Edition
Spencer J. Salend
State University of New York at New Paltz
Mciiill
I'tiiil kc 1 lall
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

Columbus, Ohio
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Salend, Spencer J.
Creating inclusive classrooms ; effective and reflective practices / Spencer J. Salend.—
4th ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Effective mainstreaming. 3rd ed. cl998.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-I3-0I9073-X (pbk.)
I. Inclusive education—United States. 2. Mainstreaming in education—United States. 3.
Curriculum planning—United States. 4. Classroom management—United States. 5.
Handicapped children—Education—United States. I. Salend, Spencer J. Effective
mainstreaming. II. Title
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CHAPTER
12
/
EVALUATING STUDENT
PROGRESS AND THE
EFEECTIVENESS OE
YOUR INCLUSION
PROGRAM
Ms. Charles and Ms. Mackey

Ms. Charles, a general education teacher, and Ms. Mackey, a .special education teacher,
were asked by their principal to work together as a cooperative teaching team to start
an inclu.sion class. Their class included 24 .students, 7 of whom had been identified as
having a disability. Ms. Charles and Ms. Mackey had worked together before to
nuiinstream students, and they were both excited about working in an inclusive
classroom. At first, they had .some difficulty determining their re.spomibilities and
blending their skills. As they worked together, they began to notice and respect each
other's .skills, perspectives, experiences, and areas of expertise. From their point of view,
things were going well.
However, soon they were faced with the cpiestion of whether the inclusion
program was benefitting their students. It first came up at a meeting with the
.students' families. Some families of students without disabilities expressed concerns
about whether the needs of the .students with disabilities would interfere with their
children's education. A few of the families of students with disabilities also were
worried about their children being ridiculed by others and about lo.sing
individualized services. Their principal also approached them with a request from the
school board to provide data Justify ing the money being .spent on the program. Even
many of their colleagues were asking if the students were really .successful in the
inclusion program.
'While M.S. Charles and Ms. Mackey felt that their inclu.sion program was
benefitting their students, they knew they had to begin to document the program's
PART IV Evaluating individual and Programmatic Progress
outcomes. In addition to looking for strategies and resources in professional journals,

they began to ask others how the academic, .social, and behavioral progress of students
educated in inclusion programs could be evaluated as an ongoing process.
How can Ms. Charles and Ms. Mackey evaluate the effectiveness of their inclusion
program? After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer this as well as the fol
lowing questions.
•0' How can I evaluate the academic performance of students?
How can I evaluate the social and behavioral performance of students?
•0- How can I measure perceptions of my inclusion program?
How can I improve the effectiveness of my inclusion program?
L
ike Ms. Charles and Ms. Mackey, it is important for you to evaluate the effec
tiveness of your inclusion program by examining its impact on all of your stu
dents, on yourself and other teachers, and on students' families. An evaluation
can assess the impact of your inclusion program on your students' academic, social,
and behavioral performance. It can also allay the concern that the academic and be
havioral needs of students with disabilities will require excessive school resources and
teacher attention and therefore jeopardize the education of students without disabili
ties. Information on the perceptions of students, teachers, and family members re
garding your inclusion program is also helpful in examining the overall effectiveness of
your inclusion program. This information validates successful inclusive educational
policies that should be continued, as well as pinpointing procedures that need to be
revised.
How CAN I EVALUATE THE ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS?
An important goal of inclusion programs is to enhance the academic performance of all
students. A variety of strategies for examining your program's impact on your students are
IMATIONAL presented below.
Lachat (1997) provides guidelines
for examining tfie appropriateness
of large-scale tests for students from
various cultural and language back
Standardized Testing
grounds. As we saw in Chapters 1 and 2, important aspects of the IDEA amendments of 1997 and
educational reform efforts relate to the participation of all students, including those with
disabilities, in statewide testing programs that measure higher educational standards.
touR SITES Student performance on these standardized statewide tests also can he used to examine
Information and resources on the the impact of your inclusion program on your students' academic performance. This is
inclusion of students with disabilities done by comparing the scores of students educated in inclusion classes with the scores of
in statewide and districtwide assess their counterparts who are not taught in inclusion classes (Waldron & McLeskey, 1998a).
ments are available from the National
Center on Educational Outcomes These test scores also can be used to contrast the performance of students with disabili
(www.coled.umn.edu/NCEO, ties taught in inclusion classes with the performance of their classmates without disabil
612-626-1530). ities (Gronna, Jenkins, and Chin-Chance, 1998a).
CHAPTER 12
Norm-Referenced Testing Norm-referenced tests provide measures of perform

>•
Evaluating Student Progress and the Effectiveness of Your Inclusion Program
Types of Standardized Tests

Some states have developed performance assessments (Kearns, Kleinert, Clayton, Bur-
dge, & Williams, 1998). However, most statewide and districtwide tests are either norm-
referenced or criterion-referenced (Gronna et ah, 1998a).
ance that allow teachers to compare a students score to the scores of others. Norms are
determined and are then used to compare students in terms of such variables as age and
grade level. For example, norm-referenced testing may reveal that your inclusion pro
gram has improved a student s performance so that he or she is now reading at a third-
grade level and doing mathematics at a fifth-grade level.
Criterion-Referenced Testing In contrast to norm-referenced testing, criterion-

referenced testing compares a students performance to a specific level of skill mastery.
That is, rather than giving the grade level at which students are functioning, criterion-
referenced testing demonstrates specific skills mastered and not mastered by the student.
For example, the test may show that a student in your inclusion program can now add and
subtract decimals and fractions but still needs to leam how to multiply or divide them.
Testing Accommodations for Diverse Learners

Many diverse learners, including students with disabilities, will need accommodations in
order to take part in statewide testing, as well as when they take tests in your classroom.
Testing accommodations, also referred to as alternative testing techniques, are adapta
tions in testing administration and procedures that allow students to perform at their op
timal level and demonstrate their knowledge and abilities.
The testing accommodations needed, which should appear in students' lEPs or Sec
tion 504 accommodation plans, are related to the instructional modifications used to help
them leam content. They also depend on the purpose of the test, the nature of the items,
and the regulations that guide the test's administration. For example, it would not be ap
propriate to provide a reader for students taking tests designed to assess their reading abil
ity. However, a reader would be an appropriate testing accommodation for a math test that
requires considerable reading. In addition, the accommodations, if used with general edu
cation students, should have little effect on their test performance (Tindal, Heath, Hollen-
beck. Almond, & Hamiss, 1998). After the testing accommodations are used, their effec
tiveness, usefulness, and faimess should be assessed (Elliott, Kratochwill, & Schulte, 1998).
Accommodations typically relate to presentation and response mode formats, and to
scheduling and setting altematives (Erickson, Ysseldyke, Thurlow, & Elliott, 1998). An
other accommodation is to train students before they take the test (Elliott et al., 1998).
A discussion of various alternative testing techniques follows.
Presentation of Items and Directions Alternative testing techniques may in

clude adaptations in the way test questions and directions are presented to students. You
can help your students to understand test items and directions by simplifying the lan
guage used, formatting the test so that there is only one complete sentence per line, pro
viding models and visuals, listing directions in the order in which they should be followed,
and using cues to help students perform well (Elliott et al., 1998; Rein, 1995). For ex
ample, to indicate a change in directions among types of items, you can provide a sample
of each type of problem set off in a box with each change in directions. Similarly, cues
such as color coding, underlining, enlarging, or highlighting key words or phrases can
OUR SITES
The National Center for Research
on Evaluation, Standards, and
Student Testing (CRESST)
(www.cresst96.cse.ucla.edu, 310-
206-1532) and the ERIC Clearing
house on Assessment and
Evaluation (www.ericae.net, 800-
464-3742) maintain websites that
offer information and resources on
student assessment.
REFLECTIVE
what is your view of the inclusion of
students with disabilities in statewide
assessments? How will it affect
them, you, and your school district?
(OUR SITES
FairTest, the National Center for Fair
and Open Testing, an advocacy
organization examining the misuses
and problems associated with
standardized testing and other forms
of assessment and promoting fair
and equitable assessment of
students, maintains a website
(www.fairtest.org, 617-864-4810).
MATIONAL
Elliott et al. (1998) developed the
Assessment Accommodation
Checklist, and Fuchs, Karns, Eaton,
and Hamlett (1999) developed the
Dynamic Assessment of Test
Accommodations (DATA) to help
teachers select testing accommoda
tions for students with a wide range
of disabilities.
PART IV Evaluating Individual and Programmatic Progress
Alternative testing tech

niques may include adapta
tions in the manner in
which test questions and
directions are presented to
students.
alert your students to the specifics of each item. Cues, such as arrows, can be placed at
the bottom of the test pages to indicate those pages that are a continuous part of a sec
tion of the test; stop signs can be placed to indicate ending pages.
Some students will require the help of school personnel when taking tests. A proc
tor can read and/or simplify the test directions and questions for these students (Tindal
et al., 1998). Proctors should be careful not to give students cues and additional infor
mation that may affect their performance. School personnel also can help students dur
ing the test by turning pages for them, helping them maintain their place in a standard
exam booklet, delivering on-task and focusing prompts, and motivating students to sus
tain their effort (Elhott et al., 1998). Students with hearing disabilities may benefit from
a trained teacher who can sign and interpret oral directions and translate their answers.
Some students may need specialized adaptations and equipment to gain information
about test directions and items. Students with visual impairments may benefit from visual
magnification aids, readers, verbal descriptions of pictorials, tactile materials, photo-
enlarged examinations and answer sheets, and Braille or large-print versions of tests (Erin
& Koenig, 1997). Students with hearing impairments may need to use devices that amplify'
sound. Audiocassettes of tests, and markers or masks to focus the students' attention and
help them maintain their place during reading, can help students with reading disabilities.
Responses to Items You also may need to make changes in the way students re
spond to test items or determine their answers. Some students who have problems with
writing and speaking may need to indicate their responses by providing oral responses or
pointing, respectively. Some students may benefit from fewer items per page or line, ex
tra space between items, and a larger answer block (Thurlow, Ysseldyke, & Silverstein,
1995). Students who have difficulty transferring their responses to a separate answer
sheet can be allowed to mark their responses on the test protocol or to fold test pages and
position the answer sheet so that only one page appears (Erickson et al., 1998). To mini
mize difficulty transferring responses, school personnel can monitor students during test
ing to make sure that they record answers in the correct space, follow the correct
CHAPTER 12 Evaluating Student Progress and the Effectiveness of Your inclusion Program
sequence, and check to see that the question numbers correspond to the numbers on the
answer sheet (Hughes, 1996).
Students who have difficulty with writing can be helped in several ways. Use of
multiple-choice items instead of sentence completion and essay questions can minimize
the amount of writing necessary to complete the test. When grammar, punctuation, and
spelling are not essential aspects of the response, students can record their answers on an
audiocassette or take an oral test. If the mechanics of written language are important in
evaluating the response, students can dictate their complete response, including spelling,
punctuation, paragraphing, and grammar, to a scribe (Kearns et al. 1998). Students can
then review their response in written form and direct their recorder to the correct gram
mar, punctuation, and word choices. Devices such as word processors. Braille writers,
speech synthesizers, pointers, electronic dictionaries, audiocassettes, and communication
boards can help students who have difficulty answering orally or in writing to respond.
Because of their unique conditions, some students with disabilities may need to use
aids to respond to test items. Computational aids such as calculators, software programs,
and mathematics tables can be useful for students who have the ability to complete items
but lack the memory skills to remember facts or word definitions.
Scheduling and Setting Alternatives

It was my first high school final. I studied more than I ever had and thought I had a good
chance of getting an A or B. I . . . took my regular seat at the large table by the window.
During the teacher's directions, I forced myself to listen. I was doing good. Then I no
ticed this squirrel outside in the tree. ... I watched the squirrel for 20 minutes. My
teacher walked over and asked when I was going to start my exam. I looked away from
the squirrel, but then I noticed this girl snapping her gum. ... It was driving me crazy. I
couldn't think. . . . She finally spit her gum out, but by that time it was too late. I didn't
have enough time to finish now that I didn't even start the exam.... I felt sick to my stom
ach. I knew my mom would be mad. (Yehle & Wambold, 1998, p. 8)
You may need to adjust the scheduhng of tests, as well as the location in which the
tests are given. Some students with disabilities may not work as fast as their peers because
of (1) difficulties processing information and staying on task, (2) the extra time required
to use specialized testing techniques (such as dictating answers), (3) physical needs that
cause them to tire easily, and (4) the declining effectiveness of their medications over time.
Therefore, when planning testing for these students, you can consider scheduling alter
natives such as giving them more time to complete tests; giving shorter versions of tests;
allowing students to take breaks as needed; changing the time of day when the test is given;
dividing the testing session into several shorter periods during the day; and allowing stu
dents to complete the test over a period of several days (Erickson et al., 1998).
Students who have difficulty remaining on task and are anxious about taking tests REFLECTIVE
may perform better if they take the test in a small group or individually in a quiet place De alternative testing techniques
give students with disabilities an
free of distractions. Students with physical disabilities may require adaptive furniture or advantage over other students?
devices, and students with sensory impairments may need specific environmental Would these techniques violate the
arrangements, such as specialized lighting or acoustics. integrity of your tests?
Test Adaptations for Second Language Learners Since language proficiency can
affect students' test performance, you may need to modify tests for second language learn
ers and those who speak vernacular dialects of English. Consider the following adaptations;
•0' Provide context clues, and present items and directions using graphics and pictures.
<>• Teach students the language of academic testing, and give them bilingual
dictionaries or glossaries for content area tests.
Provide students with review sheets, lists of vocabulary, and important terms
before giving tests.
Use items that are easy to understand and low in language level.
MATIONAL <5^ Allow students to demonstrate mastery of test material in alternative ways, such as
Fradd and Wilen (1990) provide with projects developed by cooperative learning groups or through the use of
guidelines for using interpreters and
translators to assess the test
manipulatives or drama.
performance of second language O Use a translator to administer the test, and allow students to respond in their na
leamers. tive language or dialect.
Some teachers have tried to minimize the bias in English-language tests by translat
ing them into the students dominant language. However, translations do not remove the
MATIONAL cultural bias in tests that are related to content, item, picture, and task selection. Some
concepts in English, referred to as empty concepts (e.g., certain time and color concepts),
Hughes, Deshler, Ruhl, and
Schumaker (1993) improved may not exist in other cultures and languages. In addition, because words may have dif
students' test performance by ferent levels of difficulty across languages and dialects, test translations may change the
teaching them to use PIRATES: psychometric properties of the original test. Additionally, translation does not account for
Prepare to succeed; /nspect the
instructions; Read, remember,
experiences and words that have different or multiple meanings in different cultures.
reduce; Answer or abandon; Turn Thus, despite the translation, the constructs underlying the test items still reflect the
back; Estimate; Eurvey. Hughes dominant culture and may not be appropriate for students from other cultures.
(1996) developed A/V5fV£R an
essay test-taking learning strategy:
Analyze the situation; Notice
Training Prior to Testing An appropriate alternative testing procedure for many
requirements; 5et up an outline; students may be training prior to testing to improve their test-taking skills (Elliott et al.,
Work in details; Engineer your 1998). Instruction in test-taking skills can reduce some of the anxiety about testing that
answer; and Review your answer.
students experience and can help them feel comfortable with the test format (Berendt &
Koski, 1999). Therefore, prior to testing, you can allow your students to practice taking
tests, and give them time to work in groups to take and prepare for tests. These small
REFLECTIVE
groups can review notes and chapters, predict possible questions, and quiz members on
What studying and test-taking
strategies do you use? Are they
specific facts, terms, and concepts.
successful? How did you learn these You also can teach your students to develop their test-taking skills. Recommended
strategies? test-taking skills that can be taught to students are presented in Figure 12.1.
Alternatives to Standardized Testing

OUR SITES Most students with disabilities should be able to participate in statewide tests with appro
The following websites can assist priate testing accommodations. However, students who are not working on general educa
you in creating forms to use with tion goals or standards may not need to take part in these assessments (Erickson et al., 1998;
informal assessment techniques: Gronna, Jenkins, & Chin-Chance, 1998b). In these cases, you and your colleagues may
www.junior.apk,net/-- jbarta/tutor/
forms/index.html, www.freedback. want to use some of the assessment alternatives presented below. Because these methods
com, and vwvw.response-o-maticcom. are classroom-based techniques that align assessment with your curriculum and instruc
tion, you also can use them to assess the progress of all of your students, provide a more
complete picture of your students' performance, and examine the effectiveness of your in
clusion program (Winn & Otis-Wilbom, 1999; Ysseldyke & Olsen, 1999).
Cuniculum-Based Measurement
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) provides individualized, direct, and repeated
^tMATIONAL measures of students' proficiency and progress in the curriculum. Because CBM is an
Idol, Nevin, and Paolucci-Whitcomb ongoing, dynamic process involving content derived directly from students' instructional
(1999) and Paulsen (1997) offer
guidelines and models for using
programs, it provides continuous measurements of your students' progress (Jones,
CBM to assess student performance Southern, & Brigham, 1998). For instance, Ms. Charles and Ms. Mackey, the teachers
in inclusive classrooms. we met at the beginning of this chapter, can examine their students' progress in reading
PRIOR TO TESTING
^ Review the content to be studied over a spaced period of time rather than cramming.
Determine the specific objectives of each study session.
•O" Study the most difficult content areas first.
Make sure that the study area is conducive to studying.
^ Gather all the materials necessary for studying, including notebooks, textbooks, paper, writing utensils, reference books, and
calculators.
Review prior tests in terms of format, length, response types, and the completeness of the responses required.
Develop and use study guides, review sheets, vocabulary lists, and outlines of the material to be covered on the test.
Sleep and eat well before the test.
Develop a positive attitude about the test and your effort.
DURING TESTING
^ Remain calm.
Preview the test to determine the number and nature of test items before beginning the test.
Be aware of the time left to complete the test.
<> Develop an order and a timeline for working on the test based on the total time allotted to the test, the point values of sections (work
on those sections worth the most points in descending order), and the difficulty of the items.
Make three passes through the test. In the first pass, read all questions and respond to the ones you know how to answer, noting
those that are somewhat difficult or very difficult. During the second pass, respond to those questions skipped in the first pass that
have been identified as somewhat difficult. Answer all unanswered questions during the third pass.
Read the directions to all parts of the test to determine what type of response is required, the aids allowed, the sequence to be
followed in completing the test, the point values of items and sections of the test, and the time and space limits.
Underline important parts of test items and directions.
Seek clarification about the specifics of test items and directions.
Identify and analyze critical words, look for word clues, and rephrase questions in language you can understand.
•<^ Jot down on the test paper essential facts and formulas that you will use throughout the test.
Check responses to make sure that they are correct, complete, neat, and marked appropriately.
Stay with your first choice when you are unsure of an answer.
Answer all questions. However, when you lose additional points for incorrect responses, answer only those questions that have a high
probability of being correct.
WHEN WORKING ON MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS

Read the question and think of the answer before reading and carefully analyzing all the choices.
^ Examine each response alternative, select the one that is most complete and inclusive, and eliminate choices that are obviously
false or incorrect, that are not related to the content covered in class, or that are absurd or deal with nonsense or irrelevant
material.
Be aware that the choices a// of the above, none of the above, and numbers that represent the middle range are often correct, as are
alternatives that are unusually long or short.
Be aware that when alternative answers are contradictory, one of them is likely to be correct, and that when two options provide
similar information, neither of them should be considered.
Use clues such as subjea-verb agreement, verb tense, and modifiers such as a or an and other information from the stem of the item
to determine the correct response.
WHEN WORKING ONMATCHING ITEMS

Survey both lists to get an idea of the choices, to note if each column has an equal number of items, and to determine if an alternative
can be used more than once.
Read the initial item in the left-hand column first and then read each choice in the right-hand column before answering.
•O' Work on the easiest items first and skip items that are difficult.
Record the correct answer if you know it immediately, and highlight choices in the right-hand column that have been used.
Avoid guessing until all other items have been answered, as an incorrect match can multiply the number of errors.
CESmSB Recommencied student test-taking skills. (continued)

Sources; Hoy (1995), Hudson (1996), Hughes (1996), Langan (1982), Millman and Pauk (1969), Pauk (1984), and
Putnam (1992).
419
PART IV Evaluating individual and Programmatic Progress
WHEN WORKING ON TRUE-FALSE ITEMS

Determine the type of true-false items on the test before beginning.
Examine the questions for spediic determiners, which are words that modify or limit a statement (e.g., rarely, usuaiiy). In general, false
statements often Include a qualifier that suggests that the statement Is extreme or true 100 percent of the time (e.g., no, never, every,
always, alt).
Words that moderate a statement (e.g., sometimes, most, many, generally, usually) often Indicate that a statement Is true. If true-false
statements lack a specific determiner, the question should be marked True only If It Is always true.
Read all parts of the statement, and mark the statement False If any part of It Is not true or correct.
Highlight the negative words or prefixes In true-false statements and Identify the meaning of the Item while deleting the negatives.
WHEN WORKING ON SENTENCE COMPLETION ITEMS

Answer sentence completion Items by converting them Into questions.
Use the grammatical structure of the Item to help you formulate the answer. If the stem ends In a or an, the correct answer probably
starts with a consonant or a vowel, respectively. The verb form also Indicates whether the answer Is singular or plural.
Use the number and length of the blanks provided as a clue. Often, two blanks with no words between them Indicate that a two-
word response, such as an Individual's name. Is the answer. Two blanks separated by words should be approached as two separate
statements. A long blank tends to suggest that the correct answer Is a phrase or a sentence.
WHEN WORKING ON ESSAY QUESTIONS

Read the questions and record relevant points to be mentioned or addressed next to each question.
Highlight key words related to directions and Important Information to be addressed.
^ Work on the easiest questions first, rereading each question and adding new Information or deleting Irrelevant statements.
Outline the response before writing, and then use the outline as a guide for composing the answer.
^ Consider the following when writing the response: rephrase the question as the first sentence of the answer; present the answer In a
logical order, with transitions from one paragraph to another; give specifics when necessary; use examples to support statements; and
summarize the main points at the end of the essay.
Proofread responses for clarity, organization, legibility, spelling, and grammar.
•O' Write down the outline and key points rather than leaving the question blank.
(continued)
by using CBM to record and graph measures of their students' performance on the se
lections they read every day in class.
CBM has several advantages over other methods of assessment, including linking
testing, teaching, and evaluation, as well as making it easier to develop and evaluate lEPs
(Fuchs & Fuchs, 1998; Jones, Southern, & Brigham, 1998). CBM provides information
on the demands of instructional tasks. This allows you to determine the content and pace
of an instructional program and to communicate information about your students' per
formance to their families and to other professionals (Paulsen, 1997).
Idol, Nevin, and Paolucci-Whitcomb (1999), Jones et al. (1998), and King-Sears,
Burgess, and Lawson (1999) offer the following guidelines for conducting a CBM:
1. Identify the content area(s) to he assessed. CBM begins by examining and deter
mining the content areas to be assessed.
2. Define the school-related tasks that will constitute the assessment and the sample
duration. For example, you can measure reading by having students read aloud from
their readers for a sample duration of 1 minute, and measure writing by the number of
words written during a sample duration of 5 minutes.
3. Determine if performance or progress measurement will he used. Performance
measurement involves changes on a specific task that remains constant throughout
the CBM. Progress measurement evaluates student progress on sequentially ordered
levels/objectives within the curriculum.
' Aimline
• Correctly
S w 10
o Incorrectly
Graph of CBM of spelling.
4. Prepare and organize the necessary materials. Select material from the curricu
lum related to the assessment tasks in advance.
5. Administer the CBM.
6. Decide how frequently the CBM will be administered. Depending on your
time, the students' skill, and the nature of the task, decide how frequently to adminis
ter the CBM.
7. Record and graph students' performance over time. A sample graph is presented
in Figure 12.2. The vertical axis measures the student's performance on the school-
related task (such as the number of words read or the number of words spelled). The hor
izontal axis indicates the day on which the CBM is given. Data points on the graph should
provide a measure of the correct and incorrect responses. The diagonal broken line start
ing at the left and ending on the right side of the graph is called the aimline; it provides
a reference point for judging students' progress and making decisions about their in
structional program. The vertical broken lines indicate changes in the program. Gable,
Arllen, Evans, and Whinnery (1997) offer additional guidelines for graphing student per
formance and interpreting these data.
8. Analyze the results to determine students' progress in terms of skills mistered and
not mastered. You can use the data to identify the students who have mastered the skills
and are ready for new instructional objectives; those who are progressing but need addi
tional teaching to demonstrate mastery of skills; and those who have not progressed and
need modifications in their instructional program. King-Sears et al. (1999) suggest that if
students fail to make progress in three consecutive sessions, you need to teach a less dif
ficult form of the task or an easier skill or change your teaching procedures.
9. Examine and compare the efficacy of different instructional strategies. You can ex
amine the data to assess and compare the efficacy of different teaching methods and make MATIONAL
decisions about students' educational programs (Allinder, 1996; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1998).
Wiggins (1997) and Herman,
Aschbacher, and Wnters (1992)
Authentic/Performance Assessment provide questions that can guide
you in selecting appropriate
You also can use authentic/performance assessment to measure the impact of your in performance/authentic assessment
structional programs on your students' academic performance (Poteet, Choate, & Stewart, tasks.
In authentic/performance
assessment, students apply
the knowledge and skills
they have learned to
contextualized problems
and real-life settings.
1996; Siegel-Causey & Allinder, 1998). In this type of assessment, students work on
meaningful, complex, and relevant learning activities that are incorporated into the as
sessment process. The results of these activities are authentic products that reveal their
ability to apply the knowledge and skills they have learned to contextualized problems
and real-life settings. Teachers using authentic/performance assessment have students
demonstrate their skills, problem-solving abilities, knowledge, and understanding by cre
REFLECTIVE ating and making things, developing projects, solving problems, producing written prod
V\ffiat performance/authentic assess ucts, responchng to simulations, giving presentations and performances, conducting in
ment tasks might be appropriate for
measuring your understanding of
vestigations, and designing and performing experiments (O'Malley & Valdez Pierce,
the material presented in this course 1996). For example, in an authentic assessment related to a unit on the plant life cycle,
and book? your students could create a children's book explaining this topic to others.
MATIONAL
States like Kentucky have estab
Portfolio Assessment
lished an alternate portfolio assess Authentic/performance assessment is closely related to portfolio assessment, which is
ment system to involve students used to assess student progress in inclusive classrooms (Banerji & Dailey, 1995; Jochum,
with moderate and severe cognitive
disabilities in the statewide testing Curran, & Reetz, 1998). Portfolio assessment involves teachers, students, and family
system (Kearns, Kleinert, & members working together to create a continuous and purposeful collection of various
Kennedy, 1999). authentic student products across a range of content areas throughout the school year
that show the process and products associated with student learning (Danielson &
IMATIONAL Abrutyn, 1997). Portfolios are student-centered and archival in nature. They contain
Gelfer and Perkins (1998) and samples over time that are periodically reviewed by teachers, famihes, and students to re
O'Malley and Valdez Pierce (1996) flect on and document progress, effort, attitudes, achievement, development, and the
provide guidelines for developing strategies students use to leam (Duffy, Jones, & Thomas, 1999). While portfolio assess
portfolios with young children, and ment is appropriate for all students, it is particularly meaningful for students from vari
with students from various cultural
and language backgrounds, respec ous cultural and language backgrounds, whose progress may not be accurately measured
tively. by traditional testing strategies (O'Malley & Valdez Pierce 1996; Rueda & Garcia, 1997).
In authentic/performance
assessment, students apply
the knowledge and skills
they have learned to
contextualized problems
i
and real-life settings.
1996; Siegel-Causey & Allinder, 1998). In this type of assessment, students work on
meaningful, complex, and relevant learning activities that are incorporated into the as
sessment process. The results of these activities are authentic products that reveal their
ability to apply the knowledge and skills they have learned to contextualized problems
and real-life settings. Teachers using authentic/performance assessment have students
demonstrate their skills, problem-solving abilities, knowledge, and understanding by cre
JREFLECTIVE ating and making things, developing projects, solving problems, producing written prod
What performance/authentic assess ucts, responding to simulations, giving presentations and performances, conducting in
ment tasks might be appropriate for
measuring your understanding of
vestigations, and designing and performing experiments (O'Maiiey & Vaidez Pierce,
the material presented in this course 1996). For example, in an authentic assessment related to a unit on the plant life cycle,
and book? your students could create a children's book explaining this topic to others.
^ji^FOR MATI ONAT

States like Kentucky have estab
Portfolio Assessment
lished an alternate portfolio assess Authentic/performance assessment is closely related to portfolio assessment, which is
ment system to involve students used to assess student progress in inclusive classrooms (Banerji & Dailey, 1995; Jochum,
with moderate and severe cognitive
disabilities in the statewide testing Curran, & Reetz, 1998). Portfolio assessment involves teachers, students, and family
system (Kearns, Kieinert, & members working together to create a continuous and purposeful collection of various
Kennedy, 1999). authentic student products across a range of content areas throughout the school year
that show the process and products associated with student learning (Danielson &
^MATIONAL Abrutyn, 1997). Portfolios are student-centered and archival in nature. They contain
Geifer and Perkins (1998) and samples over time that are periodically reviewed by teachers, families, and students to re
O'Maiiey and Vaidez Pierce (1996) flect on and document progress, effort, attitudes, achievement, development, and the
provide guidelines for developing strategies students use to learn (Duffy, Jones, & Thomas, 1999). While portfolio assess
portfolios with young children, and ment is appropriate for all students, it is particularly meaningful for students from vari
with students from various cultural
and language backgrounds, respec ous cultural and language backgrounds, whose progress may not be accurately measured
tively. by traditional testing strategies (O'Maiiey & Vaidez Pierce 1996; Rueda & Garcia, 1997).
Here are some guidelines for using portfolio assessment that you may want to consider:
1. Identify the goals of the portfolio. Typically, the goals of students' portfolios are
individualized, broadly stated, related directly to the curriculum, and cover an extended
period of time. For students with disabilities, portfolio goals also can be linked to their
lEPs, and portfolio goals for second language learners might relate to increasing their
proficiency in English.
IMATIONAL
2. Determine the type of portfolio. Jochumetal. (1998) and Swicegood (1994) iden
tified four types of portfolios: showcase, reflective, cumulative, and goal based. A show Jochum et al. (1998) outline the
roles of students, family members,
case portfolio presents the student's best work and is often used to help students enter general and special educators, and
a specialized program or school or to apply for employment. A reflective portfolio helps ancillary support personnel in the
teachers, students, and family members reflect on students' learning, including atti portfolio process.
tudes, strategies, and knowledge. A cumulative portfolio shows changes in the products
and process associated with students' learning throughout the school year. A goal-based
portfolio has preset goals and items are selected to fit those goals, such as goals from a
student's lEP. Another type of portfolio is a process portfolio, which documents the
steps and processes a student has used to complete a piece of work (Katz & Johnson-
Kuby, 1996).
3. Select a variety of real classroom products that address the goals of the portfolio. Stu
dents and teachers jointly select a range of authentic classroom products related to the goals
of the portfolio. Some schools also involve families and students' classmates in the selection
process, and use video and audio recordings to document students' accomplishments. For ex
ample, you can use video and audio recordings to examine and document a student's progress
on such learning activities as describing illustrations in a "big book," giving and presentations,
participating in meaningful conversations, retelling stories, or solving math problems.
A variety of strategies can be used to involve your students in selecting items. Some
teachers schedule a selection day on which students choose items for their portfolios; oth
ers encourage students to select items that are in progress or completed. Carpenter, Ray,
and Bloom (1995) offer several options for selecting items and involving students in the
process, including items selected by students with and without a menu determined by
teachers or outside sources such as the school board, items selected by teachers, and
items selected by students and teachers together. You can help students select portfolio
items by offering models, allowing students to learn from each other by sharing their port
folios, and creating and sharing evaluation criteria with students (Wesson & King, 1996).
4. Establish procedures for collecting, storing, organizing, and noting the .significance
of students' products. Portfolio items are usually stored in individualized folders such as
file folders, binders, and boxes with dividers organized in a variety of ways: according to
students' lEPs, academic or content area subjects, student interests, thematic units, or
chronologically (e.g., early/intermediate/later works) (Reetz, 1995). You can ask your stu
dents to personalize their portfolios by covering them with photographs, pictures, and lo
gos (Keefe, 1995b).
Technology and multimedia can be used to store items and organize electronic or&OUR SITES
digital portfolios (Niguidula, 1997; Stiggins, 1997). For example, videocassettes can be The Coalition of Essential Schools
used to record students' performances and portfolio items, scanners to enter students' (www.ces.aisr.brown.edu, 401-863-
work on a computer diskette or laser disk, and CD writers and photo CD technology to 3384) has developed a CD-ROM
on digital portfolios.
record pictures and add sound and text. Software programs offer ways to scan student-
produced projects and artwork; enter sound and video clips of student presentations; or
ganize portfolios by subject, theme, or project; and link students' work to national and
districtwide standards, rubrics, and individualized lesson plans (Bahr & Bahr, 1997; Edy-
bum, 1994). A sample hypermedia-based electronic portfolio is presented in Figure 12.3.
Figure 1. Screen 1 In a Student's File.
Name;. Ann Demo-Student

Student ID: 123-45-6789 Class: [993
Sex: O Male ® Female Ethnic: • Caucasian

BIrthdate: 2/24/81 ^ Afro-Amer
Enrolled: H/Z/K
Exit date: / / • SpEd • Amer-Ind
Other: • Other [a
Year:| 90-91 Grade: I 5 W Scholastic History
Teacher:
Attendance: 0 davs missed

as of 3 / 1 / 91
Student Information Add History Show Notes [2] Cr
Figure 2. Student Information Pop-Up Menu.

Student Information
Family Information
Emergencies dent
Health I Medical Class:
Student Behavior
Special Services
Standardized Tests • Caucasian
• Afro-Amer
Oral Communication
• Hispanic
Reading Sample S Asian
Written Proficiency • SpEd • Amer-Ind
Writing Sample • Other
Mathematics
Custom-1 Scholastic History
Custom-2 d ilVction
Custom-3 Placed 1st in Science Fair
Custom-4
Custom-5 >sed
Video Sample
91
Teachers' Remarks
Principal I Counselor
Student Information I Add Hisloi^ [ Show Notes |
Figure 3. Reading Sample Card.
SlufL it It ick
Name: Ann Demo-Student
Recordings
I
I Student j | Family j
Date: H / JJ. 190
Current Reading Assessment
10/14/90-Grade 5 I IIB I Reads fluently with expression
cn Modulates voice when reading
m Reads phrases, rather than words
CE Displays independent behaviors
cn Reads a variety of materials
•Z] Returns to text to verify/clarify
•D Makes reasonable predictions
am Can sequence events in a story
czm Can summarize
en Talks meaningfully about story
WOJ Uses reading to improve writing
IIE
i
Record
SHogiyes ] CP] -{}•
Sample hypermedia-based electronic portfolio.

Source: D. L. Edyburn, An equation to consider: The portfolio assessment knowledge base + technology = The Grady Profile.
LD Forum, vol. 19, 1994, pp. 36, 37. Copyright 1994 by LD Forum. Reprinted with permission.
424
Date: 12/18/2000
Teacher Comments: This piece demonstrates James's ability to engage in the writing process and use story
elements. James was given a choice of several themes and selected a theme relating to Thanksgiving.
James completed the piece using a checklist that guided him in creating and organizing the elements of
the story. When James first discussed the piece with me, I encouraged him to elaborate on his story.
Student Comments: I have been working on a story about Thanksgiving. I feel good about this item
because I made up the story. In working on this story, I used a checklist that Ms. Feld gave me. The
checklist asked me: What is the title of the story?. Who are the characters?. Where does the story take
place?. What happens in the story?, and How does the story end?
Sample caption statement.
5. Record the significance of items included in students' portfolios and help stu
dents reflect on them. When selecting products for a portfolio, teachers and students
write caption statements, brief descriptions that identify the document, provide the con
text in which it was produced, and reflect on why it was selected. For students who have
difficulty writing caption statements, peer or adult scribes or audio and video recordings
can be used to engage them in the self-reflection process (Jochum et al., 1998). A sam
ple caption statement is presented in Figure 12.4.
Reetz (1995) and Countryman and Schroeder (1996) identified the following
prompts, which can be used to help students compose caption statements;
Improvements
This piece shows my improvement in I used to but now I
Pride
1 am proud of this work because . In this piece, notice how I.
Special Efforts
This piece shows something that is hard for me. As you can see, 1 have worked
hard to .
lEP Objectives
This work shows my progress on 1 have learned to . I will
continue to .
Content Areas
In (content area) I have been working on My goal is to.
Thematic Units
1 have been working on a unit relating to the theme of . As part of this
unit, 1 selected the following pieces: . These pieces show that 1
Projects
I have been working on a project about . I learned . The
project shows I can .
Difficulties
This piece shows the trouble I have with .
Strategy Use
This piece shows that 1 used the following method: . The steps I used
were and .
You can help your students reflect on their portfolios by asking them to discuss why
they selected a particular piece. Questions also can relate to learning outcomes (e.g.,
"What did you leam from working on this project?"), improvement (e.g., "If you could
redo this, how would you improve it?" or "How is this piece different from your other
pieces?"), process (e.g., "What process did you go through to complete this assign
ment?"), and strategy use (e.g., "What strategies did you use to work on this piece?"
"Were they effective?"), as well as other aspects of student learning. You also can pro
mote reflection by asking students to compare a recently completed item with an earlier
work, by having students reflect on each other's work, by asking them to write letters for
their portfolios explaining why a specific item was chosen, or by writing a portfolio in
troduction that compares items, identifies patterns, and interprets the meaning of the
whole portfolio (Danielson & Abrutyn, 1997; Pike et ah, 1994).
Many portfolios also include statements that summarize and reflect on the informa
tion presented in the portfolio and provide a framework for making decisions about stu
dents' educational programs (Keefe, 1995b). For example, you can ask your students to
write summary statements about their writing portfolios by responding to the following
questions: How have your attitudes toward writing changed?; What patterns have you no
ticed in your writing products?; Which writing project did you find most difficult? Why?;
Which writing product do you consider your best? Why?; In which writing project did
you leam the most about yourself as a writer? What did you learn?; and What changes
have you noticed in your writing strategies over time?
MATIONAL 6. Review and evaluate portfolios and share them with others. Portfolios should be re
Countryman and Schroeder (1996) viewed and evaluated periodically by teachers, students, family members, and administra
and Hebeil and Schultz (1996) offer tors throughout the school year during conferences (Countryman and Schroeder, 1996;
suggestions for helping students Wesson & King, 1996). Students can share their portfolios with others by identifying the
share their portfolios at conferences
with their teachers and families, and goals and purpose of their portfolios, explaining how their portfohos are organized and indi
Graham and Fahey (1999) describe vidualized to reflect their needs, providing an overview of the contents and special items in
how a collaborative assessment their portfolios, reviewing the criteria for evaluating their portfolios and individual items,
conference is used to engage and outlining what the portfohos show about their school performance and what they would
teachers in a discussion of
students' work. like others to leam about them from their portfolios (Herbert & Schultz, 1996; Maxim,
1995). Others can then examine and evaluate students' portfohos using mutuaUy agreed-on
criteria that address the goals of the portfolio and examine the students' progress. The fol
REFLECTIVE lowing questions can guide that process: (a) What does the portfoho reveal about the stu
You applied for a job in a local dent's lEP and academic, behavioral, language, and social-emotional performance and
school district by sending a resume skiUs?; (b) What are the student's strengths and instmctional needs?; (c) What does the port
and a letter of interest. The superin foho indicate about the student's leaming style, attitudes, motivation, interests, cultural back
tendent's office asks you to come in
for an interview and bring a
ground, and use of leaming strategies?; (d) Do items in the portfoho relate to each other? 11
portfolio showing your experiences so, what patterns do they reveal?; and (e) How can the information presented in the portfo
and training. What items would you ho be used to plan the student's educational program? (Swicegood, 1994). Near the end of
include in the portfolio? How would the conference, participants can be asked to write or dictate a note or letter to the portfoho
you organize and present them?
stating what they feel is the most meaningful information in the portfoho, as well as what the
portfoho indicates about the student's progress and educational program (Keefe, 1995b).
Rubrics
IMATIONAL Authentic/performance assessment and portfoho assessment include the use of rubrics,
Finson and Ormsbee (1998) discuss statements specifying the criteria associated with chfferent levels of proficiency for evaluat
and give examples of tfie use of ing stndent performance (McTighe, 1997). Teachers using mbrics describe the various di
rubrics in inclusive classrooms. mensions of assessment tasks, the chfferent levels of performance, and the criteria describ
ing each level, and then rate student performance on assessments and activities. Rubrics can
REFLECTING ON PROFESSIONAL PRACTICES
James moved into the school district in November and lio. First, he mentioned the goals and purpose of the portfo
was placed in Ms. Feld's class. To prepare an educational lio and how it was organized. He then spoke about the con
program for James, Ms. Feld examined his performance tent and spedal items in the portfolio, discussing why items
on several norm-referenced tests administered while he were seleded and what they showed about his teaming. Ms.
attended his prior school. The test results indicated that Feld spoke about James's progress by dting various portfo
James's reading and writing skills were significantly below lio items. James's family gave their reactions to his portfolio
grade level. However, they provided little information and asked questions about it. James, his family, and Ms. Feld
about his strengths and the teaching strategies that could discussed how his reading and writing had changed, the
be used to help him. Therefore, Ms. Feld decided to work pattems that were evident in his reading and writing, the
writh James to develop a reading and writing portfolio. strategies he was using in these areas, and the changes in
Throughout the school year, James and Ms. Feld se his attitude and motivation. They also talked about tfie skills
lected a variety of items for his portfolio, including an au- and teaming strategies that needed to be developed, as well
diocassette of James reading, a collection of pieces that he as goals andplans for future work to address his instructional
wrote based on a single theme using a process approach needs. At the end of the meetings, Ms. Feld, James, and
to writing, written summaries of books heread, a children's James's family wrote notes summarizing their reactions to
book that he wrote, and a self-recording graph of James's the portfolio, which then were included in the portfolio.
daily reading. The items were stored in an accordion file James's family was proud of him, and pleased to see
folder by date and subject area. James decorated the cover real and understandable signs that James was teaming.
of his portfolio, and included a picture of his family and James's notes indicated that he was feeling good about
drawings of his favorite activities. When James and Ms. himself and that he liked having some control over his
Feld selected an item for the portfolio, they discussed what learning. Ms. Feld felt much better knowing that her in
it revealed about James's progress in reading and writing. structional program was helping James make progress in
After discuKing the item's significance, each of friem wrote reading and writing.
a caption statement that was attached to the item. Why did Ms. Feld decide to work with James to de
During several family-teacher conferences throughout velop a portfolio? What roles did James perform in the
the school year, Ms. Feld and James shared his portfolio with portfolio process? What rotes did James's family perform?
his family. Before these meetings, James and Ms. Feld ex How did Ms. Feld involve James and his family in tiie
amined the whole portfolio and summarized what it portfolio process? What was the impact of the portfolio on
demonstrated about James's progress in reading and writ James, his family, and Ms. Feld? How could you use port
ing. James began the conference by presenting his portfo folios with your students?
help you clarify and communicate your expectations. They also make grading and feedback &OUR SITES
more objective and consistent, which in turn helps students understand the quahties associ The Center on Learning, Assess
ated with assignments and aids them in monitoring their own work (Goodrich, 1997; ment, and School Structure
(CLASS) maintains a website
Schirmer, Bailey, & Fitzgerald, 1999). A writing rubric developed by Ms. Cheryl Ebert, an (www.ciassnj.org, 609-730-1199)
English teacher at the Johnson City (New York) High School, is presented in Figure 12.5. that offers help in creating rubrics.
Technology-Based Testing
Advances in technology and multimedia allow you to assess students' responses to au
thentic situations and give students opportunities to use and develop their critical think
ing, social, and metacognitive skills (Bahr & Bahr, 1997; Lawrence, 1994). For example,
students can be given video clips of academic and social situations and asked to respond
to them in a variety of ways.
Technology-based testing also allows you to modify the presentation and response
modes of items to tailor exams to the skill levels of your students. For example, an exam
Name: Assignment:
Narrative/Descriptive Writing Scoring Guide Date:
Course Outcome: Students will be able to Internalize a writing
process which Includes planning, composing, revising, and self-evaluating.
Criteria Focus on and Grammar, Usage,

Quality Organization of Task Narrative Descriptive Style and Diction and Mechanics
Excellent • Topic is approached • Opening situation is • Very descriptive • Uses well-chosen and • Can correctly use certain
90+ in a unique and clearly established. words or phrases appropriate words all parts of speech, ending
(A) imaginative way. • Characters are are used. of the time. punctuation, and
• Attitude and point of effectively introduced • Details are chosen • Expresses ideas in an indentation at all times.
view remain the and developed. to create a very imaginative and • Correctly uses comma and
same for entire • Description is original clear picture or creative way. quotations at all times.
paper. and vivid. image for the • Effective • Uses proper tense
• Paragraphs and • Conflict is clearly reader throughout paragraphing. throughout.
sentences are developed. the writing. • Varies sentence • Few or no spelling errors.
organized and make • Conflict is logically and structure. • Capitalization cornea
sense. completely solved. throughout
Quality • Topic is understood. • Opening situation is • Descriptive words • Generally chooses • Can correctly use certain
80+ • Attitude and point of established. or phrases are appropriate words. parts of speech, ending
(B) view are clear, but ' Characters are used. • Expresses ideas punduation, and
not used throughout adequately introduced • Details are chosen clearly. indentation in most cases.
the paper. and developed. to create a good • Some sentence • Correctly uses commas
• Paragraphs are not • Includes some picture or image structures are and quotations most of
always organized. description. for the reader repetitious. the time.
but sentences are • A conflict is developed. throughout the • Some errors in • Uses proper tense
organized in a • Conflict is solved. writing. sentences. throughout.
pattern. • Correct paragraphing. • Minor spelling errors.
• Capitalization appropriate.
Acceptable * Topic is understood. * Opening situation is • Few descriptive • Sometimes chooses • Word usage is limited.
70+ but ideas are not not appropriate or words or phrases inappropriate words. • Emors or omissions in the
(C) developed enough. established. are used. • Meaning is clear, but use of commas or
• Attitude and point of • Characters are not well ' There are not word choice is not quotations.
view change through developed. enough details to varied. • Errors in verb tense, but
out the writing. • Conflict is not keep the picture or • Some sentences are meaning is dear.
• Paragraphs are not established or does image in the choppy. • Several spelling errors, but
always organized. not make sense. reader's mind. • Fragments/run-ons. meaning is dear.
and sentence order • Conflict is not • Errors in
does not make sense. completely solved. paragraphing.
Below • Topic is not • Lacking major • Almost no • Chooses incorrect or • Utde or no knowledge of
Expectations understood. elements of narrative desCTiptive words inappropriate words. use of parts of speech or
• Attitude, point of struaure. or phrases are • Meaning is unclear or ending punduation.
view are unclear. used. confusing, point is not • Commas, quotes, capital
• Paragraphs are not • Details, if any, do made. ization, punctuation errors
organized, nor do not create a picture • Many fragments throughout the paper.
the sentences make for the reader. and/or run-ons. • Spelling errors interfere
sense. • Incorrect or no with understanding.
paragraphing. • Constant shifting of verb
tenses.
Notes:
MAn-AMM Sample writing rubric.

Source: Developed by Cheryl Ebert, English teacher, Johnson City High School, Johnson City Central School District,
Johnson City, NY
428
Advances in technology
and multimedia are
providing new ways to
assess student learning.
administered via the computer can be structured so that the difficulty of each question
depends on how the student performed on the prior question. If the student answers a
question correctly the computer can branch to a more difficult item; if he or she answers
a question incorrectly, the computer can branch to an easier item. Technology-based as
sessment can also meet the needs of your linguistically diverse students by giving tests
and interacting with students in their preferred language.
It is important to be aware of concerns about computer-based testing (FairTest, cited
in Thurlow et al., 1995). These concerns include limiting test takers because it may take
longer to read text presented on computer screens; making it more difficult to identify
errors in material presented this way; preventing test takers from using such test-taking
techniques as underlining or highlighting key words, eliminating choices, and scanning
materials; failing to remove the cultural bias associated with testing; and placing students
who do not have experience with technology at a disadvantage.
Dynamic Assessment
Dynamic assessment involves examining how students react to and benefit from instruc
tion by using a test-train-retest model (Jitendra & Kameenui, 1993). While your students
work on a task, you observe and offer help and feedback to improve their performance
and skills. As students master skills, you offer less help and feedback and try to improve
students' problem-solving abilities. One example of dynamic assessment is Feuerstein's
(1979) Learning Potential Assessment Model, in which teachers offer students prompts
and clues to promote skill acquisition as needed.
Observations
Although observational techniques are typically used to record students' social behaviors,
you also can use them to document students' academic performance and academic-related
behaviors (Meltzer et al., 1998). You can maintain recorded anecdotal records of students
performing various content area activities, as well as observing students' products and/or the
processes or strategies they use (Banerji & Dailey, 1995). Some teachers structure their ob
servations by using teacher-made rating scales and checklists such as the one in Figure 12.6.
im
1 Advances in technology
i and multimedia are
I providing new ways to
assess student learning.
administered via the computer can be structured so that the difficulty of each question
depends on how the student performed on the prior question. If the student answers a
question correctly, the computer can branch to a more difficult item; if he or she answers
a question incorrectly, the computer can branch to an easier item. Technology-based as
sessment can also meet the needs of your linguistically diverse students by giving tests
and interacting with students in their preferred language.
It is important to be aware of concerns about computer-based testing (FairTest, cited
in Thurlow et ah, 1995). These concerns include limiting test takers because it may take
longer to read text presented on computer screens; making it more difficult to identify
errors in material presented this way; preventing test takers from using such test-taking
techniques as underlining or highlighting key words, eliminating choices, and scanning
materials; failing to remove the cultural bias associated with testing; and placing students
who do not have experience with technology at a disadvantage.
Dynamic Assessment
Dynamic assessment involves examining how students react to and benefit from instruc
tion by using a test-train-retest model (Jitendra & Kameenui, 1993). While your students
work on a task, you observe and offer help and feedback to improve their performance
and skills. As students master skills, you offer less help and feedback and try to improve
students' problem-solving abilities. One example of d)'namic assessment is Feuerstein's
(1979) Learning Poteidial Assessment Model, in which teachers offer students prompts
and clues to promote skill acquisition as needed.
Observations
Although observational techniques are typically used to record students' social behaviors,
you also can use them to document students' academic performance and academic-related
behaviors (Meltzer et al., 1998). You can maintain recorded anecdotal records of students
perf orming various content area acbvities, as well as observing students' products and/or tlie
processes or strategies they use (Banerji & Dailey, 1995). Some teachers structure their ob
servations by using teacher-made rating scales and checklists such as tlie one in Figure 12.6.
Student:
Teachen
Datets): _
Directions: Use the following system to record student behavior:

N = Student does not engage in the behavior.
B = Student is beginning to engage in the ixhavior
D = Student is developing the behavior.
P = Student has proficiency in the behavior.
Support your notations with comments.
Narratives Behavior Datets) Comments
Names characters
Describes the setting
Identifies time/place
Identifies problems
Identifies solutions
Predicts story outcomes
Identifies mood
Describes author's view
States theme of story
Observation checklist of students' understanding of narrative text.

Source: Authentic assessment strategies by K. Pike and S. J. Salend, Teaching Exceptional Children, vol. 28, 1995, p. 16.
Copyright 1995 by The Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted by permission.
Observational techniques can be used to collect data on the amount of time planned
for teaching, time actually spent teaching, and time spent by students on teaching activ
ities in class, as well as the rates and sources of interruptions to planned teaching activi
ties (Hollowood et al., 1994). These data also can be used to help determine if the pres
ence of students with disabihties in general education classrooms reduces the teacher's
attention and instructional time devoted to their classmates without disabilities.
Teacher-Made Tests
MATIONAL Traditional teacher-made tests are often used to evaluate students' performance in gen
Test development soflware programs eral education classrooms. Several factors you can consider when developing tests are
to help you In creating your own tests presented below. When designing tests, you must be careful not to compromise the in
are available (Bahr & Bahr, 1997).
tegrity of the test, course, or curriculum.
Test Content The items on your tests should be directly related to the objectives of
your instructional program. The tests should reflect not only what but also how content
has been taught. Content taught via analysis, synthesis, or problem-solving techniques is
best tested through essay questions, whereas factual and rote memory material may be
tested by objective items. Additionally, the language and terminology used in both test
directions and items should be consistent with those used in class.
The percentage of test questions related to specific content areas should reflect
the amount of time your class spent on these topics. For example, on a test following
a unit in which 30 percent of class time was spent on the U.S. Constitution, 30 percent
of the test items should focus on material related to the Constitution. Shorter and
more frequent tests of specific content rather than fewer, longer, and more compre
hensive tests can help your students who have difficulty remembering large amounts
of information.
Test Format Even though many of your students can master the content necessary
to perform well on a test, they may have difficulty with the test s format. Tests that cause
confusion and distraction because of poor appearance or spatial design can defeat stu
dents before they begin. Therefore, items should be clearly and darkly printed on a solid,
nondistracting background. Ideally, tests should be typed. If they must be written, the
writing should be in the style (manuscript or cursive) familiar to the student.
Confusion can be minimized by proper spacing and sequencing of items (Rein,
1995). Items and the directions for completing them should appear on the same page so
that students do not have to turn back and forth. Presenting items in a fixed, predictable,
symmetrical sequence that emphasizes the transition from one item to another can help
ensure that your students do not skip lines or fail to complete test items. Allowing stu
dents to write on the test itself rather than transferring answers to a separate page can re
duce confusion for students with organizational difficulties. Providing enough space for
responses allows students to complete an answer without continuing on another page and
can structure the length of responses.
The needs of your students should also be considered in phrasing and structuring ob
jective and essay-type questions. Guidelines you can use in writing test items are dis
cussed here.
Multiple-Choice Items Students' performance on multiple-choice items can be

improved by composing well-written, grammatically correct items using language free of
double negatives that students can read and understand (Maxim, 1995; Savage & Arm
strong, 1996). The stem should provide a context for answering the item, contain only
one major point and only relevant information, and be longer than the answer alterna
tives. The choices should be feasible and of the same length, should be presented verti
cally, and should not contain categorical words such as always, all, only, or never.
Multiple-choice items can be tailored to the needs of students by reducing the number
of choices and by eliminating more difficult choices, such as having to select all of the
above or none of the above. Finally, allowing students to circle the answer they choose
can alleviate problems in recording answers. An example of an adapted multiple choice
item is as follows;
Directions: (Circle)the lettered choice that answers the question.
In which court case did the Supreme Court decide that segregating students by race
was unconstitutional? (Note: Italicize text to highlight the information.)
(a) Plessy v. Ferguson
(b) Baker v. Carr
(c) Newkirk v. Phalen School District
(d) Brown v. Board of Education ofTopeka
Matching Items When writing matching items, you should consider several vari
ables that can affect students' performance. Each matching section of the test should
contain a maximum of 10 items. When more than 10 items are needed, group the addi
tional items hy content area in a separate matching section. There should be 25 percent
more items in one column than in the other and only one correct response for each pair
(Savage & Armstrong, 1996). Because students usually approach matching items hy read
ing an item in the left-hand column and then reading all the available choices in the right-
hand column, you can help your students save time and work in a coordinated fashion by
listing the longer items in the left-hand column. For example, a matching item designed
to assess mastery of vocabulary would have the definitions in the left-hand column and
the vocabulary words in the right-hand column.
Place clear, unambiguous directions and both columns on the same page. This prevents
the frustration some students encounter when matching questions are presented on more
than one page. To avoid the disorganization that can occur when students respond by draw
ing lines connecting their choices from both columns, direct students to record the letter or
number of their selection in the blank provided. You also can improve student performance
on this type of test question by giving choices that are clear and concise, embedding an ex
ample in the matching question, labeling both columns, and organizing columns in a sensi
ble and logical fashion (such as placing items in one column in numerical order and those in
the other column in alphabetical order). An adapted matching item is as follows:
Directions: Write the letter from column 2 in the blank next to the best answer in
column 1. The first one is done for you as an example.
Column 1 Column 2
I. A small, raised part of the land, lower than A. Peninsula
a mountain.
2. Land surrounded by water on three sides. B. Plateau
3. An area of high, flat land. C. Reservoir
4. A lake where a large water supply is stored. D. Valley
5. Low land between mountains or hills. E. Hill
6. Low and wet land. F. Swamp
True-False Items Many of your students may have difficulty responding to the true-
false part of a test. In particular, they may have problems responding to items that require
them to correct all false choices. To eliminate problems, phrase questions clearly and
briefly, highlighting critical parts of the statements. Eliminate items that assess trivial in
formation or values or that mislead students. Avoid stating items negatively. Eocus each
item on only one point, avoid items that ask students to change false statements into true
statements, and limit the number of true-false questions per test (Maxim, 1995). Stu
dents who fail to discriminate the T and the F, or who write Ts that look like F's and vice
versa, should be allowed to record their response hy circling either True or Fake. An
adapted true-false question is as follows:
Directions: Read each statement. If the statement is true, circle (Tri^ If the state
ment is false, circle (Fd^.
True False 1. The bee that lays eggs in the colony is the queen.
Sentence Completion Items Sentence completion items can be especially difficult

for students who have memory deficits. You can reduce the memory requirements of
these items by making sure that they assess critical information and hy providing several
CHAPTER 12 Evaluating Student Progress and the Effectiveness of Your inclusion Program 4^
response choices or a word bank that includes a list of choices from which students se
lect to complete the statement. For example, the sentence completion question The
outer layer of the atmosphere is called the can be modified by listing the choices
of stratosphere, exosphere, and ionosphere under the blank. Where possible, the words
in word banks can be categorized and placed together in the list. Because statements to
be completed that come directly from print materials such as textbooks can be too vague
when taken out of context, you should clearly phrase sentence completion items so that
students can understand them. Additionally, word blanks should be placed near the end
of items, be of the same length, kept to a minimum in each sentence, and require a one-
word response or a short phrase (Newby et al., 1996). You also can modify the scoring of
these items by accepting synonyms as correct responses and by not penalizing students
for misspelling correct answers.
Essay Questions Essay questions present unique problems for many students be
cause of the numerous skills needed to answer them. You can adapt essay questions by
making sure that they are focused, appropriate, and understandable in terms of readabil
ity and level of difficulty. Key words that guide students in analyzing and writing the essay
can be highlighted and defined or students can be allowed to use a word list or dictionary.
You also can help your students interpret essay questions correctly and guide their
essays in several ways. You can provide check sheets or outlines hsting the components
that can help them organize their response. Rather than using a single open-ended essay
question, you can direct the organization and ensure the completeness of the response
by using subquestions that divide the open-ended question into smaller sequential ques
tions that can elicit all the parts of an accurate, well structured, detailed answer. Similarly,
important concepts that students should include in their essays can be listed, highlighted,
and located in a prominent place so that students will read them before writing their es
says. For example, an essay question on the food groups can be adapted as follows:
Directions: When writing this essay, some terms you want to discuss include miner
als, vitamins, protein, carbohydrates, fats, calories, sugars, and grains.
1. How are the basic food groups different? In writing your answer, discuss the
following:
What are the basic food groups?
What are examples of the foods that make up the basic food groups?
What nutrients does each food group provide?
How many servings from each group should one have?
Readability of Items Another factor to consider when developing a test is the read
ability of its items. Abstract sentences can be made more readable by simplifying the lan
guage and adding examples that illustrate the statements. For example, the essay terms
requiring students to compare and contrast two concepts can be simplified by asking stu
dents to identify how the concepts are ahke and different. In reading test items, misun
derstandings can be avoided by using fewer pronouns to refer to important points,
objects, or events. Additional information on making text and teacher-produced materi
als such as tests more readable and legible is presented in Chapter 8.
Scoring The scoring of your tests can be modified to address the unique needs of
students. This can be done by omitting certain questions, offering extra credit oppor
tunities, giving bonus points for specific questions, allowing students to earn back
REFLECTING ON YOUR PRACTICES
You can evaluate your teacher-made tests by addressing 0 Are there 25 percent more choices in one column
the following: than in the other?
0 Is an example embedded?
Content 0 Is there only one correct r«ponse for each pair?
^ Do items measure important information related to 0 Are the directions and the columns presented on
the objectives taught? the same page?
^ Does the test require students to apply skills that 0 Are columns labeled and organized in a sensible,
they have not been specifically taught? logical manner?
•O" Are the types of questions consistent with the 0 Do students respond by writing the letter or
strategies used to help students learn the content? number in a blank rather than drawing lines from
<> Are the language and terms used in test directions column to column?
and items consistent with those used in class? 0 Are the longer item statements listed in the left-
Does the percentage of items devoted to specific hand column and the shorter statements in the
content areas reflect the amount of class time spent right-hand column?
on those areas?
^ Is the scope of the material being tested too broad? True-False Questions
Too narrow? 0 Are questions phrased clearly, without double
negatives?
Format and Readability 0 Do items relate to relevant information?
Is the readability of the test appropriate? 0 Are items focused on only one point?
•O" Are directions and items presented in language 0 Do students respond by circling their choice of True
students can understand? or Fake rather than writing out their response?
•0- Are cues provided to indicate a change in directions? 0 Are items unequivocally true or false?
To alert students to the specifics of each item?
•0 Is the length of the test reasonable? Sentence Completion Items
0 Is there a reasonable number of items per page?
0 Do items on a page have proper spacing, and are 0 Do items relate to meaningful information?
they ordered correaly? 0 Are items understandable to students and have
only one answer?
0 Do students have to transfer their responses to a
separate answer sheet? 0 Do items provide students with a sufficient context
for answering?
0 Do students have enough space to record their
responses? •<^ Are word blanks placed at the end of the item, of
0 Is the test legible, neat, and free of distracting the same length, and kept to a minimum?
features? 0 Are response choices or word blanks provided?
Multiple-Choice Items Essay Questions

0 Does the stem provide a context for answering the 0 Is the readability of the question appropriate?
item, and is it longer than the answer altematives? 0 Are key words highlighted?
0 Does the stem relate to only one point and include 0 Are open-ended questions divided into smaller
only relevant information? sequential questions?
0 Are all the choices grammatically correct, free of Are students provided with a list of important
double negatives, feasible, and of the same length? concepts that should be discussed in the essay?
0 Is the correct choice clearly the best answer? How would you rate your teacher-made tests?
( ) Excellent ( ) Good ( ) Needs Improvement
Matching Items ( ) Needs Much Improvement
0 Does the matching section include no more than What are some goals and steps you could adopt to
10 items? improve your teacher-made tests?
points by correcting incorrect answers using their notes and textbooks, and giving par
tial credit for showing correct work (Hobbs, 1995). When grammar, spelling, and punc
tuation are not the elements being tested, you can consider not penalizing students for
these errors or giving students separate grades for content and mechanics. For exam
ple, if an essay response on a social studies test is correct but contains many misspelled
words, you could give separate grades for content and spelling. On essay tests, students
initially can be given credit for an outline, web, diagram, or chart in place of a lengthy
response.
In addition to grading the test, you can offer students corrective feedback on their
test performance. When the test is returned, review it carefully with the class. You and
your students should analyze tests to determine what types of errors were made and how
often they occurred. If patterns of errors are noted, preparation for upcoming tests
should address these trends. Error trends also can provide information for adapting tests
to meet students' skills and preparing students for tests. For example, if students' tests
showed problems with true-false items, you could use other types of items or review with
the student strategies for handling true-false items.
Cooperative Group Testing In cooperative group testing, students work collabora

tively on open-ended tasks that have nonroutine solutions (Pomplun, 1996). You can then
evaluate each group's product and cooperative behavior. Students also can be asked to re
spond individually to questions about their group's project. For example, in science, students
can work in groups to develop a hypothesis related to recychng and then design, describe,
and implement their study and report their conclusions. Each group member can brain
storm ways to test the hypothesis and record the group's decisions, activities, and findings.
Some teachers use a two-tiered testing system (Gajria, Giek, Hemrick, & Salend,
1992). In this system, students working in collaborative groups take a test, and each
student receives the group grade. After the group test, students work individually on a
In cooperative group
testing, students work
collaboratively on open-
ended tasks that have
nonroutine solutions.
second test that covers similar material. Students can be given two separate grades,
their two grades can be averaged together into one grade, or they can be allowed to se
lect the higher grade.
Student Involvement Your tests can be made fairer by involving students in the
testing process. Curwin and Mendler (1988) suggest that you incorporate students' sug
gestions in writing and scoring tests. Ask them to submit possible test questions, have
them test each other, and allow them to score each other's exams. Students also can he
allowed to choose the type of test they take (Gajria et al., 1992). For example, you can
create three versions of a test: multiple-choice, essay, and sentence completion. Your stu
dents can then select the test that best fits their response style and study habits. Similarly,
you can structure your tests to give students some choice in responding to items (Rein,
1995). For example, a test can consist of 20 items with varying formats, and students can
be directed to respond to any 15 of them.
Gathenng Additional Information About the

Academic Progress of Diverse Learners
In addition to using various types of standardized and nonstandardized assessments, you
can gather additional information about your students' academic progress by using a va
riety of techniques described in the following sections.
Enor Analysis
You can increase the amount of information obtained from formal and informal assess
ment procedures by using error analysis. This method is used to examine students' re
sponses in order to identify areas of difficulty and patterns in the ways students approach
a task. Error analysis usually focuses on identifying errors related to inappropriate nse of
rules and concepts, rather than careless random errors or those caused by lack of training.
Think-Aloud Techniques
The ways students approach a task can also be determined by think-aloud techniques, in
which students state the processes they are using and describe their thoughts while
working on a task. You can encourage students to think aloud by modeling the procedure
and talking as you work through tasks and situations. You can also prompt students to
think aloud by asking probing questions such as "What are you doing now?", "What are
you thinking about?", and "How did you come up with that answer?" (Andrews &
Mason, 1991).
Student Journals/Learning Logs

Student learning in inclusive settings also can be assessed through the use of journals or
learning logs. Periodically, you can ask students to write comments in their journals on
what they learned, how they learned it, what they do not understand, why they are con
fused, and what help they would like to receive. Students who have difficulty writing can
maintain an audio log by recording their responses on audiocassette. You and the stu
dents can then examine the logs to identify instructional goals and modifications.
CHAPTER 12 Evaluating Student Progress and the Effectiveness of Your Inclusion Program
Students also can make journal entries on specific information covered in classes, at
titudes toward a content area, how material covered in class relates to their lives, and ad
ditional questions that need to be studied. For example, after learning about decimals,
students can be asked to respond to the following questions: (1) What are decimals, and
why do we use them?; (2) What part of learning about decimals do you find easy? Hard?;
and (3) Write a story to go with the problem 9.5 + 3.3 = 12.8.
Self-Evaluation Questionnaires/Interviews
Self-evaluation questionnaires or interviews can provide information on students' per
ceptions of their educational needs, progress in learning new material, and strategies for
completing a task. For example, according to Pike et al. (1994), a questionnaire or inter
view might focus on asking students to respond to the following questions; "What are
some things you do well when you read?", "What are some areas in reading that cause
you difficulty?", "In what ways is your reading improving?", and "What areas of your read
ing would you like to improve?"
Reporting Information About the

Academic Progress of Diverse Learners
lEPs
Students' academic performance in inclusive settings also can be determined by exam
ining their lEPs. For example, you can assess their progress by examining their success
in attaining the goals outlined in their lEPs. If specific goals have not been achieved, the
evaluation can attempt to explain why, and whether these goals are still appropriate.
Report Card Grades

Report card grades, which are reported periodically, are another indicator of student IMATIONAL
progress in inclusive classrooms. Because students with disabilities may receive the ser Christiansen and Vogel (1998) offer
vices of several teachers, the roles of these professionals in grading should be deter a decision-making model that
teachers working collaboratively in
mined and conflicts should be resolved (Christiansen & Vogel, 1998). In addition, when
inclusive classrooms can use to
grading students in inclusive classes, the issues of equity and fairness must be considered determine appropriate grading
(Bradley & Calvin, 1998). systems for student with disabilities.
Alternate Grading Systems When grading students in inclusive classrooms, a va

riety of alternative grading systems can be considered (see Figure 12.7). The grading sys REFLECTIVE
tem chosen for each student should be included in the student's lEP (Hendrickson & De grading alternatives and accom
Gable, 1997). In addition, Bradley and Calvin (1998) suggest that points and percentages modations compromise standards
rather than letter grades be used to grade different types of classroom products. They and reduce course integrity? Should
grades be assigned only by the
also believe it is important to minimize competition among students, avoid posting grades general education classroom
and scores, and give students opportunities to grade themselves and each other. In addi teacher or through collaboration
tion, they encourage you to weight a variety of activities to determine students' grades. with others?
For example, rather than giving grades based solely on test scores, points can be divided
so that 40 percent of the grade is related to projects, 30 percent to test performance, 10
percent to class participation, 10 percent to homework, and 10 percent to effort. It is also
important to examine the effectiveness of grading alternatives and their impact on all
students. Finally, be prepared to offer a rationale for their use if students question you
about their appropriateness.
4^ PART IV Evaluating Individual and Programmatic Progress
lEPgrading: Students' lEP goals and performance criteria serve as the foundation for grading. Teachers assign grades that
acknowledge students' progress in meeting goals established at a certain skill level.
Contract grading: Teachers and students determine the amount and quality of the work students must complete to receive a specific
grade. In framing the contract, both teachers and students agree on the content the students hope to learn; activities, strategies, and
resources that will help them acquire the skills; products students will produce to demonstrate mastery; strategies for evaluating their
products; timelines for assignments, including penalties for lateness; and procedures for assigning a grade.
Pass/fail systems: Minimum course competencies are specified and students who demonstrate mastery receive a P grade, while those
who fail to meet the minimum standards are given an F grade. Some schools have modified traditional pass/fail grading system to
include such distinctions as honors (HonorP), high pass (HP), pass (P), and low pass (LP).
Mastery level/criterion systems: Students and teachers meet to divide the material into a hierarchy of skills and activities based on
individual needs and abilities, as measured by a pretest. After completing learning activities, the students take a posttest or perform an
activity to demonstrate mastery of the content When students demonstrate mastery, they receive credit for that accomplishment and
repeat the process with the next skill to be mastered.
Checklists and rating scales: Teachers develop checklists and rating scales that describe the competencies associated with their courses
and evaluate each student according to mastery of these competencies. Some school districts have revised their grading systems by
creating rating scales for different grade levels. Students are rated on each skill using a scale that includes "not yet evident,"
"beginning," "developing," and "independent."
Multiple grading: Teachers grade students in the areas of ability, effort, and achievement. The ability grade is based on the students'
expected improvements in the content areas. The effort grade is a measure of the time and energy the students devoted to learning
the content. The achievement grade assesses the students' mastery of the material in relation to others. Students' report cards can then
include the three grades for each content area, or grades can be computed by averaging the three areas.
Level grading: Teachers individualize the grading system by using a numeric subscript to indicate the level of difficulty on which the
students' grades are based. For example, a grade of B6 indicates that a student is working in the B range at the sixth-grade level.
Subscript systems can also be used to indicate whether students are working at grade level, above grade level, or below grade level.
Shared grading: Teachers who are team teaching collaborate to assign grades based on both teachers' observations of students'
performance. Before making their evaluations, teachers establish guidelines for determining and weighting valid criteria and measuring
performance.
Descriptive grading: Teachers write descriptive comments and give examples of students' performance that give students, families, and
other teachers information on the students' skills, learning styles, effort, attitudes, and growth over time. Descriptive grading also can
include copies of students' work and comments about strategies to improve students' performance.
Alternative grading systems.

Sources: Bradley and Calvin (1998), Cohen (1983), Hendrickson and Gable (1997), Kinnison, Hayes, and Acord (1981),
Rojewski, Pollard, and Meers (1992), and Vasa (1981).
How CAN I EVALUATE THE

SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL
PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS?
One premise of inclusion programs is that such programs will have a positive impact on
students' social and behavioral development. For students with disabilities, desired so
cial and behavioral outcomes include making friends, increasing their social and behav
ioral skills, and improving their self-concepts. For students without disabilities, social and
behavioral outcomes include becoming more accepting and understanding of individual
differences, more aware of and sensitive to the needs of others, and more willing to make
friends with students with disabilities.
Observational Techniques
Through direct observations of interactions between students, you can gain insights into
students' interaction patterns, as well as their social and behavioral competence
(Gelzheiser, McLane, Meyers, & Pruzek, 1998). Data collected via observation can be
supplemented by observations and interviews with family members, other teachers, and
students. Still other information sources are documents revealing the number and types
of discipline referrals, behavioral incidents, interruptions caused, and referrals to special
education.
You can examine the interaction patterns of your students by observing them during
various learning and social activities. This information can then be analyzed by consider
ing the following questions:
<>• How often are students with and without disabilities interacting with each other? MATIONAL
How long do these interactions last? The Educational Assessment of Sodal
What is the nature of these interactions (e.g., spontaneous, assistive, reciprocal, Interaction iEASI) (Hunt, Alwell,
instructional, disciplinary, attention-seeking, playful)? Farron-Davis, & Goetz, 1996), the
Interactive Partnership Scale UPS)
•O' Who is beginning and ending the interactions? (Hunt et at, 1996), the Sodal Inter
How many students without disabilities are interacting with their peers with action Checklist (SiO (Kennedy et
disabilities? at, 1997), the Social Contact/Cess
•O" What events, activities, individuals, objects, and other stimuli seem to promote ment Form (Kennedy et at, 1997),
and the School-Based Sodal
interactions? Network Form (Kennedy et at,
<>• What events, activities, individuals, objects, and other stimuli seem to limit 1997) can help you record and cate
interactions? gorize your observations of student
interactions.
What roles, if any, do race, gender, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic factors
play in the interactions among students?
Do the students with and without disabilities have the skills needed to interact
with their peers?
<> What are the outcomes of these interactions?
Observations of students' behavioral and social skills also can be recorded on

checklists and rating scales (Taylor, 1997; Witt, Elliott, Daly, Gresham, & Kramer,
1998). These scales provide a list of behavioral and social skills that guide your obser
vations of your students. To ensure that the results are accurate and representative of
student behavior, you may want to ask several different individuals to rate your stu
dents in various settings. A sample rating scale based on the social and behavioral skills
that teachers believe are important for success in inclusive classrooms is presented in
Figure 12.8.
Sociometric Techniques
Data on the social relationships students prefer can be collected by using sociometric
techniques (Sale & Garey, 1995). A peer-nomination sociogram involves asking stu
dents to respond confidentially to a series of questions that reveal classmates with
whom they would like to perform a social or classroom activity. Because it is important
to obtain information on both popular and unpopular students in the class, sociograms
should include both acceptance (i.e., "Which 5students from this class would you most
like to invite to your birthday party?") and rejection ("Which 5 students from this class
would you least like to sit next to during lunch?") questions. In addition to providing
4^^ PART IV Evaluating Individual and Programmatic Progress
data on the acceptance or rejection of students, sociograms can help yon identify stu
dents who need to improve their socialization skills.
MATIONAL Several structured sociometric rating procedures have been developed for teachers.
Bryan (1997) offers examples of They provide specific questions to ask students and standardized procedures to follow
assessment instruments that assess when administering the rating scale. For example, How I Feel Toward Others (Agard,
students' affective status, seif- Veldman, Kaufman, & Semmel, 1978) is a fixed-choice sociometric rating scale on which
efficacy, social status, and social
skills. each class member rates every other class member as "likes very much" (friend), "all
right" (feels neutral toward), "don't like" (does not want as a friend), or "don't know."
Other structured sociometric rating scales include the Perception of Social Closeness
Scale (Home, 1981), the Peer Acceptance Scale (Bmininks, Rynders, & Gross, 1974) and
the Ohio Social Acceptance Scale (Lorber, 1973). You can supplement data collected via
sociograms by using the Friendship Quality Scale (Bemdt & Perry, 1986), a stmctured
interview that examines various dimensions of student friendships.
Self-Concept Measures
Many strategies have been developed to assess students' self-concepts. You can measure
the academic self-concepts of your students and their perceptions of how they leam by
asking them to complete such instmments as the Student Self-Report System (Meltzer &
Roditi, 1994), the Student Rating Scale (Meltzer & Roditi, 1994), and the Perception of
Ability Scale for Students (PASS) (Boersma & Chapman, 1992). Other instmments used
to measure aspects of the self-concept of students in inclusion programs include the Self-
Perception Profile (Renick & Harter, 1989), the Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction
Scale (Asher, Hymel, & Renshaw, 1985), and the Social Alienation Scale (Seidel &
Vaughn, 1991).
\
Please rate eacti skill using ttie following scale:
Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never

Behavioral and Social Skill (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1. Follows directions 1 2 3 4 5
2. Asks for tielp when it's appropriate 1 2 3 4 5
3. Begins an assignment after teacher gives assignment to class 1 2 3 4 5
4. Obeys class rules 1 2 3 4 5
5. Doesn't speak when others are talking 1 2 3 4 5
6. Works well with others 1 2 3 4 5
7. Interacts cooperatively with others 1 2 3 4 5
8. Shares with others 1 2 3 4 5
9. Attends class regularly 1 2 3 4 5
10. Seeks teacher's permission before speaking 1 2 3 4 5
11. Works independently on assignments 1 2 3 4 5
12. Seeks teacher's permission before leaving seat 1 2 3 4 5
13. Brings necessary materials to class 1 2 3 4 5
14. Participates in class 1 2 3 4 5
15. Makes friends 1 2 3 4 5
16. Has a sense of humor 1 2 3 4 5
\ J
Inclusive setting behavioral and social skills rating scale.

How CAN I MEASURE PERCEPTIONS

OF MY INCLUSION PROGRAM?
As we saw in Chapter 1, students, teachers, and family members have varied perceptions
of inclusion that are often related to the effectiveness of the inclusion program. Therefore,
any evaluation of your inclusion program must include an examination of the perceptions
and experiences of students, teachers, and family members. This information can help you
analyze the effectiveness of your inclusion program, validate successful inclusive educa
tional pohcies that should be continued, and pinpoint procedures that need to be revised.
Students' Perceptions
Your students' perceptions are crucial in evaluating your inclusion program. Interviews and
questionnaires can be used to collect information from students on the academic and social
benefits of the program, as well as their insights and experiences. When using interviews
and questionnaires, items and directions should be clearly stated and phrased using stu
dents' language rather than professional jargon. When professional terms like inclusion
must be used, these terms should be defined so that your students can understand them.
You also need to consider whether or not it is appropriate to use phrases such as stu MATIONAL
dents with and without disabilities and to tailor specific items for both types of students. Bogdan and Biklen (1992) offer
Because interviews and questionnaires may take a long time to complete, you may choose guidelines for interviewing students.
to administer them over several days. Interviews are particularly appropriate for younger
students and those who have difficulty reading and writing (Best & Kahn, 1998). A list of
potential interview questions is presented in Figure 12.9.
All students can benefit

from inclusive teaching
practices.
r How CAN I MEASURE PERCEPTIONS
OE MY INCLUSION PROGRAM?
•
As we saw in Chapter 1, students, teachers, and family members have varied perceptions
of inclusion that are often related to the effectiveness of the inclusion program. Therefore,
any evaluation of your inclusion program must include an examination of the perceptions
and experiences of students, teachers, and family members. This information can help you
analyze the effectiveness of your inclusion program, validate successful inclusive educa
tional pohcies that should be continued, and pinpoint procedures that need to be revised.
Students' Perceptions
Your students' perceptions are crucial in evaluating your inclusion program. Interviews and
questionnaires can be used to collect information from students on the academic and social
benefits of the program, as well as their insights and experiences. When using interviews
and questionnaires, items and directions should be clearly stated and phrased using stu
dents' language rather than professional jargon. When professional terms like inclusion
must be used, these terms should be defined so that your students can understand them.
You also need to consider whether or not it is appropriate to use phrases such as stu
dents with and without disabilities and to tailor specific items for both types of students.
Because interviews and questionnaires may take a long time to complete, you may choose
to administer them over several days. Interviews are particularly appropriate for younger
students and those who have difficulty reading and writing (Best & Kahn, 1998). A fist of
potential interview questions is presented in Figure 12.9.
INFORMATIONAL
Bogdan and Biklen (1992) offer
guidelines for interviewing students.
All students can benefit

from inclusive teaching
practices.
^4^ PART IV Evaluating individual and Programmatic Progress
Others sometimes call your class an Inclusion classroom. This means that students who leam, act, look, and speak in different ways are
learning together in the same class. It also means that other teachers work with students in this classroom rather than taking them to
another classroom.
I am going to ask you some questions about your class.
1. Do you think that all types of students teaming in the same class is a good idea? Why or why not?
2. What things do you like about being in this class?
3. What things don't you like about being in this class?
4. What have you teamed from being in this class?
5. In what areas are you doing well? Having difficulty?
6. Are you completing all your schoolwork and homework? If so, what things are helping you to complete your work? If not, what
things are keeping you from completing your work?
7. What are your teachers doing to help you in your class?
8. How do you get along with other students in this class? How has being in this class affected your friendships and popularity?
9. In what afterschool activities do you participate? If none, why?
10. How do you think your classmates feel about being in this class?
11. What do you think your classmates learned from being in this class?
12. What changes have you observed in your classmates since being in this class?
13. What parts of being in this class have been hard for you? For your classmates? For your teacher(s)? Why?
14. What would you tell other students about being in this class?
15. What ways can you think of to make this class work better?
Sample student interview.
VIDEO INSIGHT
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Inclusion:
A Video Case Study of Memorial High School
View these video segments online by visiting our companion web
site, located at http://www.prenhall.coin/salend. Once you enter the site, select the
Video Case Study module on the navigation bar. There you will be able to down
load and view the video clips as well as respond to reflective questions. You can
print out your answers or submit them via e-mail to a professor or study partner.
In these video segments, we take a virtual field trip to Memorial High School,
which has recently implemented an inclusion program. Watch interviews with
Angie, Elizabeth, Blaine, David, and Efren—a mix of students with and without
disabihties—as they discuss the principles of inclusion, and share their opinions of
how well the inclusion program works at Memorial High School. After listening to
their comments, use the guidelines presented in this chapter to provide your own
assessment of the effectiveness of Memorials inclusion program.
Questionnaires also allow you to investigate your students' feelings about and reac
tions to various aspects of inclusion programs. It is best to use a closed-form question
naire that is easy for them to complete. This type of questionnaire has a yes-no or true-
false format or asks students to mark a number or a statement that best indicates their
response. For students who have reading and/or writing difficulties, you may need to read
items for them as well as record their responses. A sample questionnaire is presented in
Figure 12.10.
CHAPTER 12 Evaluating Student Progress and the Effectiveness of Your Inclusion Program
A
Please circle the word that best describes your feelings about your class:
1. 1 like being in a class with different types of students. Yes Maybe No

2. 1 learned a lot, and so did others. Yes Maybe No
3. 1 am more likely to help other students. Yes Maybe No
4. 1 saw other students making fun of their classmates. Yes Maybe No
5. 1 have improved at teaching others. Yes Maybe No
6. 1 am more understanding of the behaviors and feelings of others. Yes Maybe No
7, 1 was made fun of by my classmates. Yes Maybe No
8. 1 feel better about myself. Yes Maybe No
9. 1 feel that 1 belong in this class. Yes Maybe No
10. 1 improved my schoolwork and grades. Yes Maybe No
11. 1 am better at making friends. Yes Maybe No
12. 1 improved at learning from others. Yes Maybe No
13. 1 am less likely to make fun of others. Yes Maybe No
14. 1 felt the same as the other students in my class. Yes Maybe No
15. 1 received help from my teacherfs) when 1 needed it Yes Maybe No
16. 1 did most of my schoolwork without help. Yes Maybe No
17. 1 liked having several teachers in the classroom. Yes Maybe No
18. 1 liked working with other students. Yes Maybe No
19. 1 enjoyed being in this classroom. Yes Maybe No
20. 1 would like to be in a class like this next year. Yes Maybe No
Sample student inclusion survey.

Note: See Companion Website for additional survey questions.
Teachers' Perceptions
Teachers are vital to the success of inclusion programs. Therefore, in evaluating inclusion
programs, their perceptions of and experiences with inclusion are very important. This
information can help school districts assess the impact of their inclusion programs on stu
dents, evaluate various aspects of these programs, and design and implement effective
inclusion programs.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires and interviews can be used to elicit teachers' feelings about and reactions
to inclusion programs, including their beliefs and concerns, as well as their feelings about
the impact of the programs. Questionnaires and interviews also can address teachers' sat
isfaction with (1) their roles in implementing inclusion programs; (2) the quality of the
resources they have received to implement inclusion; (3) their experiences in collaborat
ing and communicating with others; (4) their skills and training to implement inclusion
successfully; and (5) the policies and practices concerning inclusion of the school and the
district.
Questionnaires have several advantages that make them particularly suitable for use
with teachers. They are easily and quickly completed, and they maintain the confiden
tiality of the respondents. To make it easy to complete surveys, they should be presented
using a yes-no or true-false format, or as a Likert-type scale that asks individuals to select
a number or statement that best indicates their response. A sample questionnaire de
signed to assess teachers' perceptions of and experiences with inclusive education is pre
sented in Figure 12.11.
4^^ PART IV Evaluating Individual and Programmatic Progress
Please Indicate your feelings about and experiences with Inclusion using the following scale:
Strongly Disagree (SD) Degree (D) Neutral (N) Agree (A) Strongly Agree (SA)
1 2 3 4 5
SD D N A SA
1. 1 feel that Inclusion Is a good Idea. 1 2 3 4 5

2. 1 feel that 1 have the time and the training to 1 2 3 4 5
Implement Inclusion successfully.
3. 1 feel that Inclusion helps students develop friendships. 1 2 3 4 5
4. 1 feel that Inclusion Is working well In my class. 1 2 3 4 5
5. 1 feel that 1 receive the necessary support and assistance 1 2 3 4 5
to Implement Inclusion successfully.
6. 1 feel that It Is difficult to modify Instruction and my teaching 1 2 3 4 5
style to meet the needs of students with disabilities.
7. 1 feel that Inclusion helps students academically. 1 2 3 4 5
8. 1 feel that having other adults In the classroom Is an asset. 1 2 3 4 5
9. 1 feel that the demands of the curriculum make It difficult to 1 2 3 4 5
Implement Inclusion.
10. 1 feel that 1 have been sufficiently Involved In the Inclusion 1 2 3 4 5
process In my school.
11. 1 feel that 1 perform a subordinate role as a result of Inclusion. 1 2 3 4 5
12. 1 feel that 1 do not have enough time to communicate and 1 2 3 4 5
collaborate with others.
13. My students' academic performance has been negatively 1 2 3 4 5
affected.
14. My students have become more accepting of Individual 1 2 3 4 5
differences.
15. My students feel better about themselves. 1 2 3 4 5
16. My students have picked up undesirable behaviors from 1 2 3 4 5
their classmates.
17. My students have received less teacher attention. 1 2 3 4 5
18. My students have been teased by their classmates. 1 2 3 4 5
19. My students have grown socially and emotionally. 1 2 3 4 5
20. My students feel that they belong In my class. 1 2 3 4 5
21. My students feel positive about my class. 1 2 3 4 5
22. My students show pride In their work. 1 2 3 4 5
Sample teacher's inclusion survey.

Interviews
Interviews give teachers the opportunity to provide rich and descriptive examples, in
sights, and suggestions that can be valuable in evaluating inclusive educational
programs (Panyan, Hillman, & Liggett, 1997). In addition to individual interviews,
focus group interviews can be used (Stanovich, 1999). Potential interview questions that
can he used to examine teachers' experiences in inclusion programs are presented in
Figure 12.12.
Interviews with teachers also can provide valuable information that can pinpoint stu
dents' strengths and existing or potential problems in their academic, behavioral, and
social-emotional performance by addressing the following questions:
1. How is inclusion working in your class? Your school? What is working well? What is not working well?
2. What factors have contributed to the success of inclusion in your class? At your school?
3. What factors have prevented inclusion from working in your class? At your school?
4. What are your biggest concerns about and frustrations with inclusion?
5. What things do you enjoy most about inclusion?
6. Do you have difficulty meeting the needs of students with certain types of disabilities? If so, what types of disabilities do these
students have and what problems are you experiencing?
7. Do you feel that you have the support, resources, and time to implement inclusion effectively? If not, what support, resources, and
scheduling arrangements would be helpful to you?
8. Do you feel that you have the skills and training to implement inclusion effectively? If not, what skills would you like to develop and
what training would you like to receive?
9. Which individuals (give titles, not names) have been most helpful in assisting you to implement inclusion? How have these individuals
assisted you? What additional assistance would you like to receive?
10. How has inclusion affected your students with disabilities? Please describe any benefits and/or negative consequences you have
observed in these students.
11. What accommodations have been provided to meet the cultural and linguistic needs of your students? How effective have these
accommodations been?
12. Have your students participated in the statewide testing program? If yes, what were the results? What, if any, alternative testing
techniques were employed? Where they effective? If no, why not and what alternative assessment strategies have been employed?
13. How has inclusion affected your students without disabilities? Please describe any benefits and/or negative consequences you have
observed for these students.
14. How has indusion affected you as a professional and a person? Please describe any benefits and/or any negative consequences for you.
15. In what ways has your role changed as a result of your school's effort to implement inclusion? What do you enjoy about your new
roles? What concerns do you have about your new roles?
16. How did it feel to collaborate with another professional? What was most difficult? Most enjoyable? Most surprising?
17. How did the collaboration process change throughout the school year?
18. What did you learn from collaborating with another professional?
19. What suggestions would you have for other professionals who are planning to work collaboratively?
20. If another professional asked you for advice about inclusion, what advice would you give?
21. What things has your school district done to facilitate inclusion in your school? To hinder inclusion in your school?
22. What schoolwide and districtwide inclusion practices would you like to see retained? What practices would you like to see revised?
23. What additional information would you like to have about inclusion?
Sample interview questions to examine the experiences of educators

working in inclusive classrooms.
Sources: Banerji and Dailey (1995), Bennett et at (1997), Downing et at (1997), Giangreco et al. (1993), Janney, Snell,
Beers, and Raynes (1995), Phillips et at (1995), and York and Tundidor (1995).
How is the student performing academically, .socially, and behaviorally in your class?
To what extent has the student achieved the goals listed in the lEP? If the goals
have not been achieved, what is an explanation?
Does the student complete classwork, homework, and other assigned projects?
What methods, materials, instructional adaptations, and alternative testing
techniques have been successful? Unsuccessful?
What accommodations have been provided to meet the student's cultural and
language needs? How effective have these accommodations been?
How does the student get along with classmates?
In what extracurricular activities does the student participate?
Is the student receiving the necessary supportive services?
How is the communication system with other personnel and the student's family
working?
Teachers also can provide feedback on students' performance by completing a weekly or
monthly rating scale such as the one presented in Figure 12.13.
DATE DISTRIBUTED:-
DATE COMPLETED:_
DATE RETURNED:
CLASS:
How are you feeling about - s:
(student's name)
Please Rate Comments

1. Goals Not Clear- Very Clear
12 3 4
2. Participation Passive Active
in class 12 3 4
3. Befiavior Unmanageable Manageable
12 3 4
4. Progress Unnotlceable Noticeable
12 3 4
5. Impact on Negative Positive
classroom atmosptiere 12 3 4
6. Peer connections Isolated Connected
12 3 4
7. Request for my time/ Too Demandlnq-Reasonable Amount
attention 12 3 4
Please list tfiree positive comments and three concerns that you may have for.
(class)
POSITIVES CONCERNS Please list any initial thougtit you may have
that address your concerns.
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Sample student progress rating form.

Source: Measuring perceptions about inclusion by M. Prom. Teaching Exceptional Children, vol. 31, 1999, pp. 38-42.
Copyright 1999 by The Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted by permission.
Journals
The needs, experiences, and feelings of teachers concerning inclusive education also can
be examined through the use of journals (Phillips et ah, 1995; Salend et al., 1997). In their
journals, teachers can record their thoughts, observations, achievements, frustrations,
conflicts, and reactions to their experiences, including their interactions with each other,
students, family members, and other professionals. The journals can then be analyzed to
identify and understand emerging patterns and recurring themes with respect to the con
cerns, needs, successes, perspectives, and experiences of educators.
Family Members' Perceptions

Famdy members are particularly affected by the impact of inclusion programs on their chil
dren. Therefore, they too can provide feedback on the academic, social, and behavioral de-
velopment of their children. They can also assess the effectiveness of the school district s in
clusion practices and pohcies, as weU as identify and make recommendations about policies
and practices that need revision (Giangreco, Edelman, Cloninger, & Dennis, 1993; Ryndak
et al., 1995). Famihes can be especially informative about the social and emotional adjust
ment of their children, as well as their children's reactions to the inclusive setting and rela
tionships with classroom peers. For example, family members may notice that their child is
reluctant to go to school and has little contact with classmates outside of school. Similarly,
family members can inform teachers that their child is spending too much time on home
work and thus is having difficulty with the academic requirements of the inclusive class.
Interviews and Questionnaires

Schools should not assume that families are satisfied with the inclusion program. Their
experiences with and perceptions of the program should be assessed as part of the eval
uation of the program (Palmer et al., 1998). Interviews with or surveys of family mem
bers can focus on the following issues: (1) their beliefs and concerns about inclusion;
(2) the experiences and perceptions of their children regarding the inclusion programs;
and (3) the impact of the inclusion program on their children, other students, them
selves, other families, and teachers (Davem, 1999). Interviews and surveys also can ad
dress their satisfaction with the quality of the educational program, their communica
tion with school personnel, and the inclusion practices of the school and the district. A
sample interview and a questionnaire on the perceptions and experiences of families
concerning inclusion programs are provided in Figures 12.14 and 12.15, respectively.
1. Do you think that placing students with disabilities in general education classrooms with their peers who do not have disabilities is a
good idea? Why or why not?
2. What things do you like about your child being in an inclusion classroom?
3. What concems do (did) you have about your child being in an inclusion classroom? Do you still have these concems?
4. How does your child feel about being in an inclusion classroom? What things does your child like about being in an inclusion
classroom? What concerns, if any, does your child have about being in an inclusion classroom? How could these concerns be
addressed?
5. How do you feel about the educational program your child is receiving in his or her inclusion classroom?
6. How do you feel about the special education and supportive services your child is receiving in his or her inclusion classroom?
7. How has being in an inclusion classroom affected your child academically, socially, and behaviorally? Please describe any benefits
and/or negative consequences you have observed in your child. What factors led to these changes?
8. How has your child's placement in an inclusion classroom affected other students? His or her teachers? Other families? Other
professionals who work with your child? Please describe any benefits and/or any negative consequences for these individuals.
9. How has your child's placement in an inclusion classroom affected you? Please describe any benefits and/or any negative
consequences for you.
10. Have your goals for your child's future changed as a result of your child's being placed in an inclusion classroom? If yes, in what ways?
11. What roles have you performed in the inclusion process? Are you satisfied with your roles in the inclusion process? If so, what roles
have been particularly important and satisfying? If not, why not, and what roles would you like to perform?
12. What things seem to make inclusion work well at your child's school? What things seem to prevent inclusion from working well at
your child's school? In what ways can inclusion be improved in your child's class and school?
13. What schoolwide and districtwide inclusion practices would you like to see retained? What practices would you like to see revised?
14. What do you think of the access to, timeliness, and coordination of the services your child is receiving?
15. How is the communication system between you and the school working?
16. What additional information would you like to have about inclusion and your child's class?
Sample family interview questions concerning inclusive education programs.

Sources: Gibb et al. (1997), Green and Shinn (1995), Peck et al. (1992), Ryndak et al. (1995), and York and Tundidor (1995).
Please Indicate your feelings about and experiences with Inclusion using the following scale:
Strongly Disagree (SD) Disagree (D) Neutral (N) Agree (A) Strongly Agree (SA)
1 2 3 4 5
SD D N A SA
1. 1 feel satisfied with the educational and supportive services 1 2 3 4 5
my child Is receiving.
2. 1 feel satisfied with the school's communication with families. 1 2 3 4 5
3. 1 feel that being In an Inclusion class has been positive for 1 2 3 4 5
my child.
4. 1 feel that Inclusion helps children academically and socially. 1 2 3 4 5
5. 1 feel that families are adequately Involved In the 1 2 3 4 5
Inclusion process.
6. 1 feel that the school district did a good job of explaining the 1 2 3 4 5
Inclusion program to me.
7. My child learned a lot. 1 2 3 4 5
8. My child talks positively about school. 1 2 3 4 5
9. tAs) child feels proud of his/her classwork.
10. tAy child has learned to feel comfortable Interacting
with other students.
11. My child has grown socially and emotionally.
12. My child's education has been negatively affected.
13. My child has received fewer services.
14. My child has made more friends.
15. My child has become more confident and outgoing.
16. My child has become more accepting of Individual differences.
17. My child has picked up undesirable behavior from classmates.
18. My child has been teased by classmates.
19. My child has teased classmates.
20. My child would like to be In an Inclusion class next year.
m
Sample family inclusion survey.
How CAN I IMPROVE THE

EFFECTIVENESS OF MY
INCLUSION PROGRAM?
After you have collected data on students' progress and on students', teachers', and fam
ily members' perceptions of your inclusion program, members of the school or school dis
trict's comprehensive planning team or inclusive educational program planning commit
tee can analyze them. The data can be used to examine the impact of the program on
student performance and to improve the program's effectiveness.
Examine the Impact on Student Performance

First, the committee can examine the impact of your inclusion program on the aca
demic, social, and behavioral performance of your students by reviewing the results of
standardized tests and the findings of alternative assessments. For example, your stu
dents' academic progress can be assessed by examining their statewide test results, as
well as their progress in mastering their lEP goals. This information can he supple
mented by an examination of other indicators of student progress and program effec
tiveness. Such indicators include data on graduation rates, participation in statewide
tests, attendance patterns, participation in extracurricular activities, behavioral refer
rals, course failures, and accrual of credits (Sinclair et ah, 1998; Thurlow, Ysseldyke, &
Reid, 1997). For secondary students, data on the types of diploma students are receiv
ing, as well as their success in attending college, finding a job, living independently, and
being socially integrated into their communities can be measures of the ability of the
inclusion program to help students make the transition from school to adulthood (SRI
International, 1993).
Determine Program Strengths,

Concerns, and Possible Solutions
The data on the perceptions of students, teachers, and family members regarding
your inclusion program also can be analyzed to determine the strengths of the pro
gram and validate aspects of the program that appear to be working well. In addi
tion, these data can be used to identify components of the program that need revi
sion, as well as determining potential solutions. Possible concerns associated with
inclusion programs and potential solutions to address these concerns are presented
in Table 12.1 (pages 450-451).
SUMMARY
This chapter offered a variety of strategies for evaluating the progress of students and the
effectiveness of inclusion programs. As you review the questions posed in this chapter,
remember the following points.
How Can I Evaluate the Academic Performance of Students?

You can use standardized tests, testing accommodations, curriculum-based measure
ment, authentic/performance assessment, portfolio assessment, rubrics, technology-
based testing, dynamic assessment, observation, and teacher-made tests. You also can
gather additional information about students' academic progress by using error analysis,
think-aloud techniques, student joumals/leaming logs, and self-evaluation question
naires/interviews. Students' academic progress can he assessed by examining their lEPs
and report card grades.
How Can I Evaluate the Social

and Behavioral Performance of Students?
You can evaluate the impact of your inclusion program on your students' social and be
havioral performance by using observational techniques, sociometric techniques, and
self-concept measures.
TABLE 12.1 Possible Concerns About Inclusion and Potential Solutions
Possible Concerns Potential Solutions
Students are not benefitting academically, socially, ' Collect and examine data on the impact of the program on students (see
and behaviorally Chapter 12)
' Meet with families (see Chapter 4)
' Revise students' lEPs (see Chapter 2)
' Use strategies to promote the academic development of students, such as
teaching students to use learning strategies, adapting large- and small-group
instruction, modifying instructional materials and techniques, employing
technology, and using culturally relevant instructional strategies (see
Chapters 2, 3, 5, and 8-11)
Use strategies to promote acceptance of individual differences and
friendships (see Chapter 5)
Use strategies to modify classroom behavior (see Chapter 7)
Modify the classroom environment to promote students' academic, social,
and behavioral development (see Chapter 7)
Students with disabilities are having a difficult time Help students with disabilities make the transition to inclusive settings (see
adjusting to inclusive classrooms Chapter 6)
Learn about the needs of students with disabilities (see Chapter 2)
Students with disabilities are not participating in Identify and use appropriate testing accommodations (see Chapter 12)
statewide and districtwide assessments Differentiate instruction to promote the learning of all students (see
Chapters 8-11)
Students from various cultural and language Learn more about the unique needs of students from various cultural and
backgrounds are having difficulties in inclusive language backgrounds (see Chapter 3) and about disproportionate
settings and are disproportionately represented representation (see Chapter 1)
Promote interactions among students (see Chapters 5 and 9)
Use culturally relevant instructional strategies and instructional materials,
cooperative learning, and a diversified curriculum (see Chapters 8-11)
Communicate and collaborate with families and community organizations
(see Chapter 4)
Teacfiers express negative attitudes about working Give teachers information and research about inclusion programs (see
in inclusion programs Chapter 1)
Identify the sources of teachers' negative attitudes and plan activities to
address these concerns (see Chapters 1, 4, and 12)
Provide opportunities to talk with teachers, family members, and students
who have experience with successful inclusion programs (see Chapter 4)
Involve teachers in planning and evaluating all aspects of inclusion programs
(see Chapters 1, 4, and 12)
Family and community members have negative Give family and community members information and research about
attitudes about inclusion programs inclusion programs (see Chapter 1)
Identify the sources of these negative attitudes and plan activities to address
these concerns (see Chapters 1, 4, and 12)
Invite family members, other professionals, and community members to visit
inclusion programs (see Chapter 4)
Offer family and community members data on the impact of the inclusion
program (see Chapter 12)
Involve family and community members in planning and evaluating all
aspects of the inclusion program (see Chapters 1, 4, and 12)
General education teacfiers report that they are not Examine existing arrangements for providing teaching support (see
receiving enough support from others Chapter 4)
Provide general education teachers with greater support from special
educators, paraeducators, and ancillary support personnel (see Chapter 4)
(continued)
450
TABLE 12.1 (continued)
Possible Concerns Potential Solutions
Teachers report difficulty meeting the requirements Give teachers appropriate curriculum materials, technology, and equipment
of the general education curriculum (see Chapters 8-11)
Explore ways to diversify and modify the curriculum (see Chapters 2, 3, and
7-11)
Teachers indicate that the large class size reduces Make sure that the class size is appropriate (see Chapters 1 and 4)
the success of the program and their ability to Encourage teachers to differentiate instruction, and use cooperative learning
meet the needs of students arrangements and peer-mediated instructional and behavior management
techniques (see Chapters 7-11)
Teachers express concerns about educating Identify teachers' specific concerns (see Chapters 1 and 12)
students with certain types of disabilities in Provide teachers with training and information to understand and address
inclusive settings the educational, social, medical, physical, cognitive, and behavioral needs of
students (see Chapters 2 and 3)
Make sure that teachers and students are receiving the necessary assistance
(see all chapters)
Teachers report that they do not have the expertise Conduct a needs assessment to identify teachers' training needs (see
and training to implement inclusion effectively Chapter 12)
Offer systematic, ongoing, coordinated, and well-planned staff development
activities (see Chapter 4)
Encourage teachers to visit model programs and attend professional
conferences (see Chapter 4)
Provide teachers with access to professional journals and other resources
addressing current trends, models, research and strategies (see all chapters)
Teachers report that there is not enough time for Use flexible scheduling to give teachers the time to collaborate and
collaboration and communication among staff communicate (see Chapter 4)
members Maintain appropriate caseloads for teachers (see Chapters 1 and 4)
Schedule regular meetings (see Chapter 4)
Cooperative teaching teams report that they are Examine the mechanism and variables used for matching teachers in
having problems resolving problems involving cooperative teaching teams (see Chapter 4)
teaching style, personality, and philosophical Offer training to help teachers work collaboratively (see Chapter 4)
differences Provide mechanisms for resolving disagreements among teachers working in
teaching teams (see Chapter 4)
Establish mechanisms for ensuring equal-status, cooperative teaching
relationships among teachers, and for sharing accountability for educational
outcomes for all students (see Chapter 4)
Provide time for teachers to collaborate and coordinate instructional activities
and supportive services (see Chapter 4)
How Can I Measure Perceptions of My Inclusion Program^

You can measure students', teachers', and family members' perceptions of your inclu
sion program by using questionnaires, interviews, and journals.
How Can I Improve the Effectiveness of My Inclusion Program?

You can work with others to analyze data on the impact of your program on student per
formance, to validate program strengths, to identify program components that need re
vision, and to determine strategies for improving the program.
5^ PART IV Evaluating Individual and Programmatic Progress
Your inclusion classroom includes some of the students we met earlier in this book:
•<^ Mary enjoys social studies, science, and socializing with her friends during lunch. She has
difficulty communicating orally and in writing, and difficulty remembering content and
applying it to new situations (see Chapter 1).
Marty knows a lot about a variety of different topics and likes to share his knowledge
with others. However, he struggles to complete his assignments and has difficulties with
reading and math. Marty likes to interact with others but sometimes gets carried away,
which bothers some of his friends (see Chapter 2).
Carol has had a difficult time adjusting to the culture and language of the United States.
She appears to be shy and withdrawn and has had some difficulties completing her as
signments. Her difficulties in school appear to be having a negative effect on her self-
esteem (see Chapter 3).
Jaime exhibits a variety of behaviors that interfere with his learning. He has difficulty pay
ing attention and completing assignments because he shifts from one activity to another
(see Chapter 7).
Tom's abilities and skills are significantly below those of his peers. He speaks in one-, two-
or three-word sentences and often has difficulty understanding others. It takes him a
while to learn things and generalize his new learning to new situations (see Chapter 8).
1. What would be the goals of your inclusion program for these students?
2. How would you evaluate the effectiveness of your inclusion program based on the ac
ademic, behavioral, and social performance of these students?
3. Would you include these students in your school's statewide and districtwide testing
programs? If yes, what testing accommodations might they need? If no, what alterna
tive techniques would you use to assess their progress?
4. What roles would the perceptions of students, other teachers, and family members
play in your evaluation of your inclusion program? How would you gather information
from these groups about the program?
5. How would you assess your perceptions of your inclusion program?
6. What difficulties might arise in educating these students in your inclusion program? How
could you address these difficulties to improve the effectiveness of the program?
As a member of your grade level team, you are asked to prepare questions for a unit your
team has been teaching. Using a unit you have developed or a textbook you use in your class,
develop one essay, two multiple-choice, one matching, two true-false, two sentence completion
items for inclusion in your team's test. How would you adapt the content and format
of the test items for different types of students? What altemative testing procedures would you
use for students with disabilities? For students from various cultural and language backgrounds?

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CREATING INCLUSIVE

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

Vice President and Publisher: ]effery W. Johnston

Ms. Charles and Ms. Mackey

outcomes. In addition to looking for strategies and resources in professional journals,

How CAN I EVALUATE THE ACADEMIC

Norm-Referenced Testing Norm-referenced tests provide measures of perform­

Types of Standardized Tests

Criterion-Referenced Testing In contrast to norm-referenced testing, criterion-

Testing Accommodations for Diverse Learners

Presentation of Items and Directions Alternative testing techniques may in­

Alternative testing tech­

Scheduling and Setting Alternatives

Alternatives to Standardized Testing

WHEN WORKING ON MULTIPLE-CHOICE ITEMS

WHEN WORKING ONMATCHING ITEMS

CESmSB Recommencied student test-taking skills. (continued)

WHEN WORKING ON TRUE-FALSE ITEMS

WHEN WORKING ON SENTENCE COMPLETION ITEMS

WHEN WORKING ON ESSAY QUESTIONS

Graph of CBM of spelling.

^ji^FOR MATI ONAT

Name;. Ann Demo-Student

Sex: O Male ® Female Ethnic: • Caucasian

Year:| 90-91 Grade: I 5 W Scholastic History

Attendance: 0 davs missed

Student Information Add History Show Notes [2] Cr

Figure 2. Student Information Pop-Up Menu.

Figure 3. Reading Sample Card.

Name: Ann Demo-Student

Sample hypermedia-based electronic portfolio.

Sample caption statement.

REFLECTING ON PROFESSIONAL PRACTICES

Criteria Focus on and Grammar, Usage,

MAn-AMM Sample writing rubric.

Directions: Use the following system to record student behavior:

Narratives Behavior Datets) Comments

Describes the setting

Predicts story outcomes

Describes author's view

States theme of story

Observation checklist of students' understanding of narrative text.

Multiple-Choice Items Students' performance on multiple-choice items can be

Sentence Completion Items Sentence completion items can be especially difficult

REFLECTING ON YOUR PRACTICES

Multiple-Choice Items Essay Questions

Cooperative Group Testing In cooperative group testing, students work collabora­

Gathenng Additional Information About the

Student Journals/Learning Logs

Reporting Information About the

Report Card Grades

Alternate Grading Systems When grading students in inclusive classrooms, a va­

Alternative grading systems.

How CAN I EVALUATE THE

Observations of students' behavioral and social skills also can be recorded on

Always Usually Sometimes Rarely Never

Inclusive setting behavioral and social skills rating scale.

How CAN I MEASURE PERCEPTIONS

All students can benefit

All students can benefit

Norm-Referenced Testing Norm-referenced tests provide measures of perform

Presentation of Items and Directions Alternative testing techniques may in

Alternative testing tech

Cooperative Group Testing In cooperative group testing, students work collabora

Alternate Grading Systems When grading students in inclusive classrooms, a va