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Block 3

Developmental Processes
Psychology of Individual
Differences BLOCK 3 DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES
Introduction
The third block of the course consists of three units. The first unit of the block
discusses the nature and principle of human development. The unit discusses the
meaning of development, issues and stages in development of humans, and then
put forward different conception of stages involved in development. It also
explains the importance of critical period in development. The second unit
discusses about stages of development. Human development starts even before
the infant is borned (pre-natal stage). Life span development deals with important
common developmental stages that human beings pass through: birth, infancy,
adolescence, adulthood, old age and finally death. As the humans grow up from
stage to stage they learn to make use of their body parts, learn how to express
themselves and communicate with others, how to form relationship with others,
how to care for others, how to love and how to work. In this unit we will discuss
two prominent theories of human development namely, Sigmund Freud’s theory
of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory of development.

The third unit comprises of moral and cognitive development. This unit deals
with two major theories of cognitive development namely, Piaget’s cognitive
theory of development and Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development. Then,
the unit also discusses the moral development with the help of Kohlberg’s theory
of moral development.

100
Theories of Personality
UNIT 7 NATURE AND PRINCIPLE OF
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT*

Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Human Development
7.2.1 Topical Areas of Human Development
7.3 Definition of Life Span Development
7.4 Factors Influencing Development
7.5 Issues of Human Development
7.6 Periods of Development
7.7 Life-Span Perspective on Development
7.8 Contextual Influence on Development
7.9 Critical Period Hypothesis
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.11 Unit End Questions
7.12 Glossary
7.13 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
7.14 References and Suggested Readings
7.15 References for Images

7.0 INTRODUCTION

Fig.7.1: Sujit Kumar- The Chicken Boy of Fiji


Source: http://www.technogypsie.com
Sujit exhibited dysfunctional behaviour as a child. His parents locked him in a
chicken coop. His mother committed suicide and his father was murdered. His
grandfather took responsibility for him but still kept him confined in the chicken
coop. He was eight years old when he was found in the middle of a road, clucking
and flapping. He pecked at his food, crouched on a chair as if roosting, and

* Contributed by Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University,
Patiala & Dr. Arti Singh (IGNOU) (Adapted from BPC-002, Block 1) 101
Developmental Processes would make rapid clicking noises with his tongue. His fingers were turned inward.
He was taken to an old people’s home by care workers, but there, because he
was so aggressive, he was tied with bed sheets to his bed for over 20 years. Now
he is over 40 years old is cared for by Elizabeth Clayton, who rescued him from
the home.
- Source: http://www.technogypsie.com/faerie/?p=2309

Even after getting treatment can care by many psychologists, Sujit kumar is still
not able to talk and walk like other people. Why after so many years staying with
humans Sujit is not able to learn waling and community in human language?
What do you think could be the reason of this failure? According to psychologists
the reason is not able to learn any of the required behaviour within the timeline
of ‘critical period’ of development. But what is critical period of development?
To understand this we need to first understand the concept of development. The
present unit therefore will discuss the meaning of development, issues and stages
in development of humans, and then put forward different conception of stages
involved in development. It also explains the importance of critical period in
development.

7.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Define and describe human development;
Define life span development;
Identify the human developmental periods;
Explain the key issues involved in human development;
Understand contextual influence on development; and
Describe the importance of critical period.

7.2 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT


Development describes the growth of humans throughout the lifespan, from
conception to death. Development does not just involve the biological and physical
aspects of growth, but also the cognitive and social aspects associated with
development. The scientific study of human development seeks to understand
and explain how and why people change throughout life. This field examines
change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho
physiological processes. Cognitive development involves areas such as problem
solving, moral understanding, and conceptual understanding; language
acquisition; social, personality, and emotional development; and self-concept
and identity formation. The scientific study of development is important not
only to psychology, but also to sociology, education, and health care. By better
understanding how and why people change and grow, one can then apply this
knowledge to helping people live up to their full potential.

7.2.1 Topical Areas of Human Development


In this section, we will briefly discuss those areas which are the part of
investigation among developmental or lifespan psychologists. Following are the
102 major four such areas:
Physical Development: It involves studying those aspects of our body that Nature and Principle of
Human Development
are responsible for physical development such as brain, nervous system,
genes, harmones and availability of nutrition etc.
Cognitive Development: The focus of this area is to understand how
intellectual capacity changes with growth and physical changes.
Personality Development: This area studies the development or change in
one’s personality throughout the lifespan. Further, it aims at understanding
the individual differences among people w.r.t. their personality structure.
Social Development: Under this area, psychologists attempts to understand
how people interact with other people and forms relationship with each other.
It also focuses on those factors that affect social development.

A point to remember here is that these four domains or areas are not independent
but are overlapping.

7.3 DEFINITION OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT


We can define life span development as given below:
“The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life
cycle.”
Lifespan development can also be defined as a methodical, intra-individual change
associated with progressions corresponding to age. The development progresses
in a manner implicating the level of functioning. Life-span developmental
psychology is the field of psychology which involves the examination of both
constancy and change in human behaviour across the entire life span, that is,
from conception to death (Baltes, 1987). Development occurs in different
domains, such as the biological (changes in our physical being), social (changes
in our social relationships), emotional (changes in our emotional understanding
and experiences), and cognitive (changes in our thought processes). Some
developmental psychologists prefer to restrict the notion of development only to
changes which lead to qualitative reorganisation in the structure of a behaviour,
skill or ability (Crain, 2000). According to one other view (Educational
Foundation, 2001) life span development is a process beginning at conception
that continues until death. The progression initiates with the emergence of a
fetus from a one celled organism. As the unborn child enters the world, the
environment in which the child exists begins to influence the child’s development.
According to Levinson, the life cycle consists of four 25 year eras. The main
developmental periods are child and adolescence, early adulthood, middle
adulthood and late adulthood. Each era’s transition involves a necessary change
in the character of the individual’s life and sometimes takes up to six years to
complete the change (Smith, 2009). The study of human development began
with Darwin and other evolutionists. Darwin thought if he studied human
development he could further prove his theory of evolution (Boyd & Bee, 2006).
Rutter and Rutter (1992) used the following as a working definition of
development in relation to humans. They stated that life span development is a
systematic, organised, intra-individual change that is clearly associated with
generally expected age related progressions and which is carried forward in some
way that has implications for a person’s pattern or level of functioning at some
later time.
103
Developmental Processes
7.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT
According to developmental psychologists, a number of factors can affect human
growth and development. Some of the major factors are as follows:
1) Heredity: The genes that we inherent from our parents and ancestors certainly
plays important role in development. Not just physical attributes but social
attributes are also transmitted from parents to off-springs through these genes.
Colour of your eyes, height, hair, intelligence and aptitude everything depends
significantly on your genes.
2) Sex: Sex is a very important factor which influences human growth and
development. Difference in sex leads to difference in growth pattern and
development pattern. Studies have suggested that teenage girls’ physical
growth is faster than boys.
3) Socioeconomic: Socioeconomic factors have been found to influence at
multiple levels. Children from better socioeconomic level were found to
have better intelligence level, better height and better mental health. The
most important reasons behind this are better nutrition, better facilities, regular
meals, sleep, and exercise.
4) Hormones: Our body is regulated by a number of hormonal activities. One
of such important group of hormones is known as endocrine glands. These
glands secrete hormones directly into our bloodstream and thus regulate the
process of growth and development. Undersecretion or oversecretion of any
hormone can lead to abnormal developmental growth.
5) Nutrition: Our body requires a good amount of calories and nutrition for
optimal growth. Since, growth is directly related to nutrition, poor nutrition
or malnutrition may lead to many problems such as being underweight,
shorter height, and of low height for age, known as stunting. Further,
malnourished may also slows down overall growth process.
6) Race: Every race has its unique physical characteristics. Therefore,
depending on your race, height, weight and colour your skin varies.
7) Culture: Every culture have their unique values, customs, code of conduct,
expectations and appropriate rearing methods. These differences in culture
significantly affect developmental processes.

7.5 ISSUES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT


A number of major issues have emerged in the study of human development.
These issues include the following: Is development due more to genetics or
environment? Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes
happen in stages? Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on
development, or are later events equally important?

Continuity and Discontinuity: The question of whether development is solely


and evenly continuous, or whether it is marked by age-specific periods.
Developmental Psychologists who advocate the continuous model describe
development as a relatively smooth process, without sharp or distinct stages,
through which an individual must pass. That is, development is conceived of as
104
a process of the gradual accumulation of a behaviour, skill, or knowledge. In Nature and Principle of
Human Development
contrast, those who hold to the second view would suggest that developmental
change is best characterised as discontinuous in nature. They describe
development as a series of discrete stages, each of which is characterised by
what had gone on in the past and how well the child was able to master the
developmental tasks of that period etc. These theorists suggest that behaviours
or skills often change qualitatively across time, and that new organisations of
behaviours, skills, or knowledge emerge in a rather abrupt or discrete fashion.

Stability and Change: Another issue which is of importance to developmental


psychologists is the issue of stability versus change. Whether development is
best characterised by stability, for example, does a behaviour or trait such as
shyness stay stable in its expression over time or change example: Could a person’s
degree of shyness fluctuate across the life span?

Nature vs. Nurture: Whether the behaviour ultimately developed by the child is
due to hereditary factors or environmental factors. This issue is of great importance
to psychologists. The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and
the environment is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.
This debate concerns the relative degree to which heredity and learning affect
the behaviour of the individual. Both genetic traits and environmental
circumstances are involved in an individual’s development, although the amount
of influence the two has is not clearly evident. In fact it may be stated that the
individual and his or her circumstances decide how much of the behaviour is
influenced by heredity factors and how much by environmental factors. Today,
most psychologists believe that it is an interaction between these two forces that
causes development. Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such
as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors
such as diet and nutrition.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)


Fill in the blanks:
1) ................................................ secrete hormones directly into our
bloodstream and thus regulate the process of growth and development.
2) ...................................................... is a process beginning at conception
that continues until death.
3) The study of human development began with .........................................
4) Growth is directly related to .....................................................................
5) Both .............................................. and ..................................... are involved
in an individual’s development.

7.6 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT


Human development periods span the lifetime from conception to the end of
life. These periods are as follows, prenatal, early, middle and late childhood,
puberty, adolescence, hyhoung adulthood, early, middle and later adulthood old
age. As the child grows and approaches adulthood the periods are adolescence,
early, middle and late adulthood. Numerous theories have been put forward about
the periods of development and the movement from one period to the next stage 105
Developmental Processes of development. Various theories attempt to define how movement from one
level to the next level of development occurs (Boyd & Bee, 2006). The periods
of development are given below. Each period has certain important tasks to
accomplish by the individual and depending on the success or completion of the
tasks, the movement to the next stage of development take place. These periods
are given below:

Table 7.1: Major Periods of Human Development


Period Approximate Brief Description
Age Range
Prenatal Conception to birth The one-celled organism transforms into a
human baby with remarkable capacity to
adjust to the life outside the womb.
Infancy and Birth-2 years Dramatic changes in the body and brain
toddlerhood support the emergence of a wide array of
motor, perceptual, and intellectual
capacities and first intimate ties to others.
Early childhood 2-6 years During the “play years,” motor skills are
refined, thought and language expand at
an astounding pace, a sense of morality is
evident, and children begin to establish ties
to peers.
Middle 6-11 years The school years are marked by advances
childhood in athletic abilities; logical thought
processes; basic literacy skills;
understanding of self, morality, and
friendship;and peer-group membership.
Adolescence 11-18 years Puberty leads to an adult-sized body and
sexual maturity. Thought becomes abstract
and idealistic and school achievement more
serious. Adolescents focuson defining
personal values and goals and establishing
autonomy from the family.
Early adulthood 18-40 years Most young people leave home, complete
their education, and begin full-time work.
Major concerns are developing a career;
forming an intimate partnership;and
marrying, rearing children, or establishing
other lifestyles.
Middle adulthood 40-65 years Many people are at the height of their
careers and attain leadership positions.
They must also help their children begin
independent lives and their parentsadapt to
aging. They become more aware of their
own mortality.
Late adulthood 65-death People adjust to retirement, to decreased
physical strength and health, and often to
the death of a spouse. They reflect on the
meaning of their lives.
Source: Berk, L.E. (2007)
106
Nature and Principle of
7.7 LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ON Human Development

DEVELOPMENT
Life-span perspective, proposed by Paul Baltes (1987) considers development is
the result of multiple factors in different frameworks. Theorists who support the
view of lifespan perspective on development view development as a lifelong
process and give all age period equal importance. Paul Baltes and his colleagues
have identified four underlying principles of the lifespan perspective:
Development is lifelong
Development is multidimensional
Development is multidirectional
Development is highly plastic
Development is influenced by multiple interacting factors
1) Development is Lifelong: This assumption or principle states that all age
period play equally important role in development and no single age period
or developmental stage is supreme in its impact on life course than other.
Therefore, development takes place throughout one’s life instead of taking
place in parts or stages only, proposed by other theorists.
2) Development is Multidimensional: Multidimensionality refers to the fact
that development cannot take place in one dimension rather it is a result of
development in all dimensions (physical, personality, cognitive, and social).
3) Development is Multidirectional: This assumption states that there is no
single and fixed path of development. Development does not mean that there
will always be a growth, rather, at any point of time development may be a
joint expression of growth and decline.
4) Development is Highly Plastic: Plasticity means that we have the ability to
adapt and modify. This means one can develop skills and abilities throughout
one’s life span. Plasticity may vary across individual.
5) Development is influenced by Multiple Interacting Factors: There is no
single factor that can influence developmental trajectory rather there are
multiple interacting factors influencing developmental process. According
to Baltes, three such factors include age-graded influences, history-graded
influences, and non-normative influences.

Age-graded influences: Age-grade refers to specific age group such as infants,


adolescence, adult etc. People belonging to same age-grade, share similar
experiences due to similar biological changes. However, their experiences can
be similar due to shared social customs and values such as, starting school around
5 years or getting driving license at age 18.

History-graded influences: The time period in which you are born influence
your experiences. Examples include war, any natural calamity, economic
prosperity or depression or any technological advances (such as introduction of
computers, internet or mobile phones). Due to these history-graded influences
people born and brought-up around same time period carry tend to be alike in
many ways.
107
Developmental Processes Non-normative influences: The above discussed influences (age-graded and
history-graded) are normative i.e., shared by a large number of people. Whereas,
there are certain events that can be experienced only by one person or a few
people such as death of parents, divorce or getting affected by some disease.

7.8 CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCE ON


DEVELOPMENT
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979) has proposed one of the most influential theories
explaining the role of context in our development. His theory is known as
“Ecological System Theory”. Now we will discuss this theory in detail:

Ecological Systems Theory


The ecological system theory proposed that human development is influenced
by many socio-cultural or environmental forces. He has envisioned the
environment consisting of five structures namely, microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem.

Fig.7.2: Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory. Please note chronosystem
is not pictured here.
Source: Berk, L. E. (2007)

Microsystem: This is the immediate environmental structure where an individual


have direct interaction with their significant others such as partents, sibling,
teachers, and peers. According to Bronfenbrenner, in this system the relationship
between individual and significant others is bidirectional i.e., if parents are
exerting any influence on a child’s behaviour then child’s behaviour or
characteristic will also affect his parents’ behaviour.

Mesosystem: This is the second level structure of this model. This level is
comprised of connections between microsystems. For example, how parents of
a child relate to the teachers or how parents treat their child’s friends affect child’s
behaviour.
108
Exosystem: It includes those social contexts on which a developing individual Nature and Principle of
Human Development
have no control. Events occurring in this social context can affect mesosystem
and the experiences of developing person such as, parent’s transfer, work schedule,
availability of maternity, paternity leave or availability of hospital.

Macrosystem: It includes cultural values, customs and laws. It is the outermost


level and does not have specific context.

Chronosystem: The term ‘chrono’ refers to time. According to Bronfenbrenner,


it is a temporary level; it changes quickly and refers to any socio-historical events
such as war or economic condition of the country.

Thus, in a nutshell, the ecological model of development suggests that there is


no single factor that affects the development of the individual significantly rather
it is result of interacting factors. Recently Bronfenbrenner have characterized
his perspective as a bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).

7.9 CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS

Fig.7.3: Critical Period


Source: https://en.wikipedia.org

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) states that there is a biologically determined


time period during which children are more sensitive to external stimuli and
environment than at other times. To be more specific, children’s nervous system
is more sensitive to certain environmental stimuli and if for some reason child
does not receive those appropriate stimulus during critical period then the child
will not be able to process those environmental stimuli in his or her future also.
The hypothesis of critical period is not only limited to human only it is equally
applicable on animals also. For instance, newborn mice must experience normal
whisker sensation in the first few days of life or they will develop abnormal
tactile sensitivity in the face region; cats must be allowed normal visual input
during the first three months or their vision will be permanently impaired; and
monkeys need consistent social contact during the first six months or they will
end up extremely emotionally disturbed. Similarly, in humans also if children
won’t receive normal visual stimulus or language stimulus or opportunity for
waking then the child will not be able to see or acquire language or walk normally
like other humans.

Another term similar to ‘critical’ period is known as ‘sensitive’ period- extended


time period during which some learning is still possible. However, many
psychologists consider both terms similar.
109
Developmental Processes
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)
State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) The ecological model of development suggests that there is no single
factor that affects the development of the individual significantly. ( )
2) The ecological system theory proposed that human development is
influenced by many socio-cultural or environmental forces. ( )
3) Mesosystem is the immediate environmental structure where an individual
have direct interaction with their significant others. ( )
4) Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) states that there is a biologically
determined time period during which children are more sensitive to
external stimuli and environment than at other times. ( )
5) Development is unidirectional and unidimensional. ( )

7.10 LET US SUM UP


In this unit we learned the concept of human development. We started with the
meaning of human development and life-span development. Then we moved on
to discuss the factors affecting development and basic issues of development.
Perspective on life-span development was covered followed by ecological model
of development. Lastly, we covered the meaning and importance of critical period
in human development in this unit.

7.11 UNIT END QUESTIONS


1) What do you understand by life-span development? What are the major areas
of studying human development?
2) Write any three major issues of human development.
3) What is lifespan perspective on development?
4) Distinguish among age-graded, history-graded, and nonnormative influences
on lifespan development. Cite an example.
5) What is ecological system model of development?
6) Write a note on the role of critical period in human development with an
appropriate example.

7.12 GLOSSARY
Life Span Development : The pattern of change that begins at conception
and continues through the life cycle.

Multidimensionality : It refers to the fact that development cannot take


place in one dimension rather it is a result of
development in all dimensions (physical,
personality, cognitive, and social).

Plasticity : It refers to our ability to adapt and modify. This


means one can develop skills and abilities
110
throughout one’s life span. Plasticity may vary Nature and Principle of
Human Development
across individual.

Age-graded Influences : Age-grade refers to specific age group such as


infants, adolescence, adult etc. People belonging
to same age-grade, share similar experiences due
to similar biological changes.

The Ecological : It proposed that human development is influenced


System Theory by many socio-cultural or environmental forces.
And our environment consisting of five structures
namely, microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem and chronosystem.

Critical Period : It states that there is a biologically determined time


Hypothesis (CPH) period during which children are more sensitive
to external stimuli and environment than at other
times.

7.13 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT


QUESTIONS (SAQ)
Self Assessment Questions I
1) Endocrine glands
2) Life span development
3) Darwin and other evolutionists
4) nutrition
5) genetic traits and environmental circumstances
Self Assessment Questions II
1) True
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) False

7.14 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING


Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life span developmental
psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental
Psychology, 23, 611-626.

Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (2006). Life span theory in
developmental psychology. In W. Damon, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of
Child Psychology, 6th edition (pp. 569-664). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments


by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
111
Developmental Processes Boyd, D. and Bee, H. (2006). Lifespan Development (4th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson.
Elizabeth B. Hurlock (1980): Developmental Psychology: A Life-Span Approach,
Mc Graw Hill company.
Rutter, M. and Rutter, M. (1992). Developing Minds. Challenge and Continuity
Across the Life Span, London: Penguin.
Smith, M. (2009). Life Span Development and Lifelong Learning. WGBH
Educational Foundation (2001). Life Span Development Our Amazing Capacity
for Change.
David R. Shaffer and Katherine Kipp: Developmental Psychology: Childhood
and Adolescence, Holt, Rurehart and Watson New York.
Elizabeth B. Hurlock(1980) Developmental Psychology. A Life-Span Approach,
Prentice Hall, New York.
Berk, L. E. (2007). Development through the lifespan, 4/E. Pearson, Boston,
MA, ISBN: 0-205-49125-1, 24, 25.
John W. Santrock : Life-Span Development. Holt Rinehart, New York

7.15 REFERENCE FOR IMAGES


Sujit Kumar- The Chicken Boy of Fiji. Retrieved October 23, 2018, from http:/
/www.technogypsie.com/faerie/?p=2309
Structure of the environment in ecological systems theory. Retrieved from Berk,
L. E. (2007). Development through the lifespan, 4/E. Pearson, Boston, MA, ISBN:
0-205-49125-1, 24, 25.
Critical Period. Retrieved October 24, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Critical_Period.png

112
Nature and Principle of
UNIT 8 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT* Human Development

Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Stages of Development
8.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
8.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
8.3 Let Us Sum Up
8.4 Glossary
8.5 Unit End Questions
8.6 Answers to Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)
8.7 References and Suggested Readings
8.8 References for Images

8.0 INTRODUCTION
From the moment the human child is first conceived, to the day the individual
dies, they keep changing constantly and developing. While some of the changes
humans undergo are as a result of chance incidents and personal choices, the
vast majority of life changes and stages the human passes through are due to
certain common biological and psychological factors partly inherited and partly
environmental and are shared by all people.
Life span development deals with important common developmental stages that
human beings pass through: birth, infancy, adolescence, adulthood, old age and
finally death. As the humans grow up from stage to stage they learn to make use
of their body parts, learn how to express themselves and communicate with others,
how to form relationship with others, how to care for others, how to love and
how to work. In this unit we will discuss two prominent theories of human
development namely, Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and
Erikson’s theory of development.

8.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Articulate the importance of stage in human development;
Know the Freud’s contribution in understanding developmental process; and
Understand the eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of developmental
process.

8.2 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT


A number of psychologists endorse the view that human development takes place
in stages which can be characterised by qualitative differences in behavior. Piaget
and Erikson are two most prominent names who supported the stage model of
* Contributed by Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University,
Patiala & Dr. Arti Singh (IGNOU) (Adapted from BPC- 002, Block 1) 113
Developmental Processes human development. In this section we will see how cognitive and psychosocial
development takes place throughout one’s life according to both of these theorists.

8.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory


Sigmund Freud, physician by profession, was the major contributor of
psychoanalytic theory. He developed his theory while doing clinical practice
with patients. “Unconscious mental processes” is central to his theory. It refers
to those desires, needs and motivations for which we are not aware. Further,
according to Freud, darker aspect of human behaviour such as aggression and
sexual desires also plays important role in our personality.
In order to explain how our psyche (mind) works, Freud proposed;
A topographic model of the psyche (explains how our mind is organised)
A structural model of our personality
Psychosocial Stages of Development

A topographic model of the psyche


In the view of Sigmund Freud, our mind can be divided into three levels;
conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

According to him, our conscious mind is that part which deals with the current
information. That is, all the thoughts, feelings and actions of which you are aware
at the very moment are part of conscious mind. Preconscious mind deals with all
those information for which you are not currently aware but can become only if
you pay attention. The last level of mind is unconscious. This part of mind stores
those socially unacceptable needs, desires, motivations and feelings for which
you are unaware of. According to him, this unconscious part of mind plays vital
role in influencing our actions.

A structural model of personality


Freud proposed that our personality consist of three elements; id, ego and
superego. Before explaining in details, it is important to mention here that id,
ego and superego are just concepts and they do not have any physical or
physiological basis.

Id: This part of personality operates unconsciously. It deals with basic instincts,
biological needs and aggressive impulses. It is the most primitive part of human
personality present since birth. From id other parts of the personality (ego and
superego) develop. It works on pleasure principle-tendency to avoid pain and
seek pleasure. The aim of the id is to gratify one’s need immediately without
considering the moral values of the society and individual. Eros and Thanatos
are the two driving forces of Id. Eros was the God of love in Greek mythology.
According to Freud, in context of id, Eros is the life force. It is responsible for
our life instinct and survival, which includes sexual desire, reproduction desire
and pain avoidance. The counterpart of Eros is Thanatos-the death force or
instinct. It is responsible for violence, aggression and hate like negative feelings.
The aim of Thanatos is to balance the drive of Eros by driving us towards death
and destruction. When personality is dominated by id, then individual tend to
become more impulsive, such people will do what they want irrespective time,
place and situation, just like a kid.
114
Ego: Suppose a 10-year-old child wants to eat a scoop of ice-cream kept in the Stages of Development
refrigerator. But he knows that eating ice-cream without seeking permission from
parents will be punished. The part of the personality responsible for this reality
check is known as Ego. So, ego works on reality principle-delaying id’s
gratification need will be delayed until an appropriate and more realistic situation
is not found. This part of personality emerges from id and its main objective is to
strike a balance between id’s impulsive needs and reality of this world. It is the
decision making component of our psyche and works on logic only. In the words
of Freud, “ego is that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence
of the external world” (Freud, 1923). If ego would not be able to resolve the
conflict between impulsive demands of the id and realistic demands of this world,
then it would lead to the development of anxiety and stress. To ward off this
anxiety, individual will be motivated to use unconscious defense mechanisms
(we will talk about this in later section).

Superego: It is the moral master or moral guru of our personality. Let us continue
the same example referred in the last section. Whether that 10-year-old kid will
ask permission from his parents or not for eating a scoop of ice-cream depends
on the development of his superego. Since, seeking permission is morally correct
behaviour; it will indicate the presence of superego in the child. Role of the
superego is to internalise the moral and ethical value of the society through the
process of socialisation. It controls the impulsive urges of the id and pursue ego
to choose morally appropriate behaviour instead of only realistic behaviour. This
part of our psyche develops between the ages of three to five years. Further,
according Freud, our superego consists of two systems: (i) conscience and (ii)
ideal self. The conscience’s role is to punish or reward ego, through the feeling
of pride or guilt, depending on its behaviour. For example, if ego gives in id’s
demand and breaks the moral code of conduct, superego will make you feel
guilty about your behaviour. The second system, the ideal self-idealised picture
of your own self, also do the job of making you feel guilty or pride, depending
on your behaviour.

Fig.8.1: Diagram of Freud’s Psyche Theory

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Structural-Iceberg.svg

Ego Defence Mechanisms


One of the roles of ego is to protect the person from anxiety and stress. So when
the anxiety and stress from the forbidden desires and motives become
overwhelming, we tend to use some psychological strategies, known as ego
115
Developmental Processes defence mechanisms. According to Freud, the sole aim of employing these ego
defence mechanisms is to protect our psyche from anxiety. A brief description of
eight important defence mechanisms has been described below:

Table 8.1: A Summary of Ego-defence Mechanisms


Mechanism Description
Repression Excluding from conscious awareness impulses or memories
that are too frightening or painful.
Rationalization Assigning logical or socially desirable motives to what we
do so that we seem to have acted rationally.
Reaction formation Concealing a motive from ourselves by giving strong
expression to the opposite motive.
Projection Assigning our own undesirable qualities to others in
exaggerated amounts.
Intellectualization Attempting to gain detachment from a stressful situation by
dealing with it in abstract, intellectual terms.
Denial Denying that an unpleasant reality exists.
Displacement Directing a motive that cannot be gratified inone form into
another channel.
Source: Atkinson & Hilgard (2009), pp. 469

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development


Freud proposed a five stage model of development of personality. According to
him, core aspects of one’s personality developed by the age of five and remain
unchanged throughout. Further, he stated that to move from one stage to another,
a child needs to resolve conflicts of each stage successfully. Unless, it will lead
to fixation- a continuation of an early mode of satisfaction in later life (The
Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology, 2009). For example, individual fixated at
oral stage may have drinking or smoking habits. In the following section, we
will talk about five stages of psychosexual development in brief:

Stage I: Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)


Mouth is the source of pleasure during this stage. Children completely depend
on their caregivers especially mother. They drive pleasure and understand the
world around them through sucking and swallowing. Over gratification or under
gratification may lead to the fixation at this early oral stage resulting into the
development of over eating behaviour, drinking or smoking in adulthood. Freud
called these people as oral-incorporative or oral-ingestive. Later during this stage,
children experience pleasure from chewing and biting. Unable to resolve the
psychological conflict of this stage may develop the habit of nail biting and
object chewing in adulthood. Freud further pointed out that these people are
more critical and sarcastic in nature. He referred such people as oral-aggressive
or oral-sadistic.

Stage II: Anal Stage (18 months to three years)


During this stage, children face the demand of their society for the first time; to
control and delay the expulsion of urine and faeces. Children experience pleasure
in this stage from their bowel and bladder movement. Freud believed that too
116
harsh or too lenient toilet training may cause fixation at this stage. Resulting into Stages of Development
either being messy, lesser self-control but generous (called as anal expulsive
characters by Freud) or being tidy, orderly but mean (called as anal retentive
characters by Freud).

Stage III: Phallic Stage (three to five years)


Genitals become the erogenous region during this stage. Children knowingly or
unknowingly touch their genitals for pleasure. During this stage, they understand
the difference between males and females. Freud proposed that male child
experience Oedipus complex-which involves sexual feeling towards their mother,
feeling of rivalry for the father, as well as a threat of getting punished by the
father for having a desire for mother. The counterpart of Oedipus complex is
Electra complex-experienced by female child. It involves the sexual attraction
for father, feeling of rivalry for mother and a threat of getting punished by the
mother for having this feeling towards father. Successful resolution of this
complex develops mature sexual identity. According to Freud, by the end of this
stage personality is formed completely.

Stage IV: Latency Stage (six to twelve years)


The sexual energy during this stage is channelised towards educational, sports
and social activities. This leads to no or little interest for the opposite gender.

Stage V: Genital Stage (thirteen years to adulthood)


The sexual energy returns again in this stage. Successful completion of previous
stages will help in developing a mature intimate relationship with the opposite
sex. Whereas, unresolved issues of previous psychosexual stages will start
exhibiting during adulthood; leading to difficulty in establishing healthy intimate
relationship with the opposite sex.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)


State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Mouth is the source of pleasure during phallic stage. ( )
2) Freud proposed a five stage model of development of personality. ( )
3) Ego has no role in protecting the person from anxiety and stress. ( )
4) Ego works on reality principle-delaying id’s gratification need will be
delayed until an appropriate and more realistic situation is not found. ( )
5) In the view of Sigmund Freud, our mind can be divided into three levels;
conscious, preconscious and unconscious. ( )

8.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory


Erikson was a psychoanalytic like Freud, but differs from Freud in regard to
psycho sexual development. This means that he accepts Freud’s ideas as basically
correct. Erikson was much more culture-oriented than Freud and his theory is
labeled Psychosocial instead of Psychosexual.
The epigenetic principle
Development functions by the epigenetic principle which means that our
personality develops through a predetermined order i.e., one stage after another 117
Developmental Processes only. In his theory he proposed that this unfolding of personality takes place in
eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success,
or lack of success, in all the previous stages.

Psychosocial virtues or strengths (positive outcomes)


Each stage involves certain developmental tasks that are psychosocial in nature
and has a certain optimal time as well. If a stage is managed well, we carry with
us certain virtue or psychosocial strength that will help us through the rest of the
stages of our lives.

Psychosocial maladaptations and malignancies (negative outcomes)


If a child is able to pass successful through the different stages and development,
one can expect a positive healthy person. However if the person faces more
failure than success, his personality will be unhealthy. Maladaptations’ and
‘Malignancies’ represent the negative outcomes arising from an unhelpful
experience through each of the crisis stages. If we do not manage the task well,
we may develop maladaptations and malignancies, which will endanger all
our future development. A malignancy involves too little of the positive and too
much of the negative aspect such as a person who does not trust at all whereas
maladaptation involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative,
such as a person who trusts too much.

The Eight stages of development


Erik Erikson explained eight stages of development through which a healthy
developing person would pass. These are:

1) Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)


In this stage, the role of caregiver is most important. If the behaviour and
care provided to the child by the primary caregiver is consistent, predictable
and reliable then the child will develop a sense of trust. This sense of trust
will be carried over by the child throughout his life and make him perceive
this world as secure place and other people trustworthy who will always
there to help him. On the other hand, inability of parents or primary caregiver
in providing secure environment and consistent love then it will lead to
mistrust. According to Erikson, successful completion of this stage will
develop the virtue of hope in the growing child.

2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)


The second stage is the anal-muscular stage of early childhood. This is an
important period of “hold and let go”. As children gain control over
eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their
surroundings. If parents and caregivers encourage self-sufficient behaviour,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy that is a sense of being able to handle
many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon,
refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, children may
instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems. If
a child gets proper, positive balance of autonomy the person will develop
the virtue of willpower, or else, the maladaptive tendency of impulsivity
and the malignant tendency of compulsion will develop. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of will.
118
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years) Stages of Development

During this stage a child start exerting his assertive abilities. He learns to
take initiatives- “a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on
responsibilities, feeling purposeful and learning new skills” (Tandon, 2002).
Play is central to this stage. It gives a child to take initiative and have a
control over his or her surroundings. If parents encourage and support
children’s activities and imagination, then it will make child confident of
his abilities. This will help the child in leading others in future and taking
decision on its own. On the other hand, if the child’s initiative is criticised
and controlled by parents then it will develop a sense of guilt. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.

4) Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)


At this stage, the child learns to develop various skills such as, reading,
writing, doing math etc. Peer group and teachers plays vital role during this
stage. If the child’s initiative is accepted, encouraged and reinforced then he
or she will feel competent and confident i.e., industrious. While, on the
other hand if the child is continuously criticized and ridiculed of his initiatives
then it will make him feel inferior of his abilities. The right balance of
industry and inferiority will develops the virtue called competency. If the
child experiences failure then he may develop maladaptive tendency of
narrow virtuosity and the malignant tendency of inertia.

5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years)


The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence,
from about 12-18 years. “This is the crossroad between childhood and
maturity” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). The goal of this stage is to develop social
identity and occupational identity. During this stage children have become
more independent and try to become part of the society by developing their
social and occupational identity. If society provides clear guideline and rites
of passage then it will help the adolescent in achieve clear role identity. If
failed to negotiate this stage, the individual may develop maladaptive
tendency of fanaticism and the malignant tendency of repudiation. Further,
success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years)


This stage takes place in young adulthood i.e. between 18 years to 40 years.
In this stage, individual tries to establish stronger friendship and to have an
intimate relationship with other individuals. Failure to develop an intimate
relationship with another person may lead to loneliness, alienation, social
withdrawal, and maladaptive behaviour. Success in this stage will develop
the virtue of love.

7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years)


Generativity vs. stagnation is the seventh stage of Erikson’s theory. This
stage occurs during the middle adulthood i.e., from 35 years to 65 years.
The healthy aim of this stage is to develop an extension of love and care for
future generation. During this stage an individual tries to become productive
for work and for his or her society by raising family and kids and being
sensitive for their needs and requirements. These standards of generativity
are defined and shaped by one’s culture. On the other hand, if an individual 119
Developmental Processes is unable to be productive w.r.t. work and society, it will lead to stagnation
and self-indulgence. Success in this stage will develop the virtue of care.

8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Seniors, 65 years onwards)


This is the last stage and according to Erikson this is a stage of review in
which the older adult looks back at one’s life and review it as a whole. If the
older adult perceives his life consist of meaning and happy experience then
it will lead to integrity- feeling at peace with oneself and world. Whereas,
on the other hand if the older adult perceive his life full of disappointments,
unaccomplished goals and negative experiences then it will develop despair
which will lead to the feeling of depression and hopelessness. Success in
this stage will develop the virtue of wisdom.

Table 8.2: Stage wise summary of Erikson’s psychosocial theory


Stage (age) Psychoso Significan- Psychosoci- Psychoso- Maladaptations
cialcrisis trelations almodalities cialvirtues &
malignancies

I (0-1) – trust vs Mother to get, to give in hope, faith Sensory


infant mistrust return distortion –
withdrawal

II (2-3) – autonomy vs Parents to hold on, tolet will,deter- Impulsivity


toddler shame go mination compulsion
anddoubt

III (3-6) – initiative vs Family to go after, purpose, ruthlessness


preschooler guilt toplay courage –inhibition

IV (7-12 or industry vs neighbor- to complete,to competence Narrow


so) –school- inferiority hoodand make virtuosity –
age child school thingstogether inertia

V (12-18 or ego-identity peer groups, to be oneself,to fidelity, fanaticism —


so) – vs role models share oneself loyalty repudiation
adolescence roleconfusion

VI (the intimacy vs partners, to lose andfind love promiscuity


20’s) – isolation friends oneselfin a –exclusivity
young adult another

VII (late generativity household, care to make overextension


20’s to 50’s) vs workmates be,to take –rejectivity
–middle selfabsorption careof
adult
mankind to be, wisdom presumption
VIII(50’s integrity vs
or”my kind” throughhaving –despair
and beyond) despair
–old adult been,to face
notbeing

Source: Chart adapted from Erikson’s 1959 Identity and the Life Cycle: Psychological Issues
vol.1, #1)

8.3 LET US SUM UP


We started this unit with the concept of stage model of development. To understand
the stage model in more depth, we covered two theories namely, Sigmund Freud’s
theory and Erik Erikson’s theory of development. According to Freud’s theory
our development takes place in five stages whereas according to Erik Erikson
120 our developmental process consists of eight stages.
Stages of Development
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)
Fill in the blanks:
1) In ................................... stage, the role of caregiver is most important.
2) .......................................... is a stage of review in which the older adult
looks back at one’s life and review it as a whole.
3) ......................................... principle means that our personality develops
through a predetermined order i.e., one stage after another only.
4) If we do not manage the task well, we may develop ................. and
...............................................................
5) Each stage involves certain .............................................. tasks that are
psychosocial in nature.

8.4 GLOSSARY
Id : That part of personality which operates
unconsciously. It deals with basic instincts,
biological needs and aggressive impulses
Pleasure Principle : Tendency to avoid pain and seek pleasure.
Projection : Assigning our own undesirable qualities to others
in exaggerated amounts
Oedipus complex : It involves sexual feeling of male child towards
his mother, feeling of rivalry for the father, as well
as a threat of getting punished by the father for
having a desire for mother.
Electra complex : It is the counterpart of Oedipus complex. It is
experienced by female child. It involves the sexual
attraction for father, feeling of rivalry for mother
and a threat of getting punished by the mother for
having this feeling towards father.
Epigenetic principle : This principle states that our personality develops
through a predetermined order i.e., one stage after
another only.

8.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS


1) What do you mean of stage w.r.t. development? What is the basic assumption
of stage theorists?
2) Explain psycho-sexual stages of Freud’s theory.
3) What is epigenetic principle of Erikson’s theory? Write any five stages of
your choice from his theory.

121
Developmental Processes
8.6 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS (SAQ)
Self Assessment Questions I
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True

Self Assessment Questions II


1) Ego Integrity vs. Despair
2) Trust Vs Mistrust
3) Epigenetic
4) Maladaptations and malignancies
5) Developmental

8.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS


Bjorklund D. (1997). In search of a meta-theory for cognitive development. Child
Development 68(1), 144–148.
Dixon R.A. and Lerner R.M. (1999). History and systems in developmental
psychology. Developmental Psychology: An Advanced Textbook (ed. M.H.
Bornstein and M.E. Lamb), 4th edn., pp. 1–46. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Geary D.C. and Bjorklund D.F. (2000). Evolutionary developmental psychology.
Child Development 71(1), 57–65.
Lerner R.M. (1998). Theories of human development: contemporary perspectives.
Handbook of Child Psychology. Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human
Development (ed. R.M. Lerner), 5th edn., pp. 1–24. New York: Wiley.
Lerner R.M., Fisher C.B., and Weinberg R.A. (2000). Toward a science for and
of the people: promoting civil society through the application of developmental
science. Child Development 71(1) 11–20.
Lewis M.D. (2000). The promise of dynamic systems approaches for an integrated
account of human development. Child Development 71(1), 36–43.
Nelson C.A. and Bloom F.E. (1997). Child Development and Neuroscience. Child
Development 68(5), 970–987.
Pellegrini A.D. and Bjorklund D.F. (1998). Applied Child Study: A Developmental
Approach, 3rd edn., 243 pp. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbuam.
Tandon, R. K. (2002). Child Psychology. APH Publishing Corporation.

8.8 REFERENCES FOR IMAGES


Diagram of Freud’s psyche theory. Retrieved October 31, 2018, from https://
122 commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Structural-Iceberg.svg
Stages of Development
UNIT 9 COGNITIVE AND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT*
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Theories of Cognitive Development
9.2.1 Jean Piaget Theory
9.2.2 Vygotsky’s Theory
9.3 Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory
9.4 Let Us Sum Up
9.5 Unit End Questions
9.6 Glossary
9.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
9.8 References and Suggested Readings
9.9 References for Images

9.0 INTRODUCTION
In laymen’s language, cognition refers to your knowledge about the world.
Whereas, cognitive processes are those mental processes through which we
acquire information about the world around us. Thus, cognitive development
refers to a child’s development in terms of information processing, conceptual
resources, perceptual skill, language learning etc. This unit deals with two major
theories of cognitive development namely, Piaget’s cognitive theory of
development and Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development. Then, the unit
also discusses the moral development with the help of Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development.

9.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of cognitive development;
Describe the Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development;
Elucidate the Vygotsky’s contribution in cognitive development; and
Explicate the Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

9.2 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT


9.2.1 Jean Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development in children. Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget’s view,
early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later
progresses into changes in mental operations.
* Contributed by Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University,
Patiala (adapted from BPC-002, Block 1)
123
Developmental Processes Key concepts of Piaget’s Theory
a) Schemas: Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world.
b) Adaptation: Piaget saw adaptation as a fundamentally biological process.
All living things adapt, even without a nervous system or brain. Assimilation
and accommodation are the two sides of adaptation process.
c) Assimilation: The process of taking in new information into our previously
existing schemas is known as assimilation.
d) Accommodation: Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or
ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may
also be developed during this process.
e) Equilibration: Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism
Piaget called equilibration.

Stages of cognitive development


Piaget concerned the cognitive development in terms of stages.

Stage I: Sensory motor stage: The first stage is the sensorimotor stage which
lasts from birth to about two years old. The infant uses his or her senses and
motor abilities to understand the world, beginning with reflexes and ending with
complex combinations of sensorimotor skills. This stage can be divided into six
separate sub-stages as given below.
i) Reflexes (0-1 month): The child understands the environment purely through
inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
ii) Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Between one and four months,
the child works on an action of his own which serves as a stimulus to which
it responds with the same action, and around and around we go.
iii) Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): The child becomes more focused
on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger
a response in the environment.
iv) Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8-12 months): Develop certain focuses
on the demand object. Responses become more coordinate and complex.
v) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-24 months): Children begin a period of trial-
and-error experimentation during this sub-stage.
vi) Early Representational Thought: Children begin to develop symbols to
represent events or objects in the world in the final sensory motor sub-stage.
Stage II- Preoperational stage: The preoperational stage lasts from about two
to about seven years old. Now that the child has mental representations and is
able to pretend, it is a short step to the use of symbols. Language development is
one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children are unable to take
the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism. Egocentrism is
when children experience difficulty in experiencing other person’s perspective.
Stage III- Concrete operations stage: The concrete operational stage begins
124 around age seven and continues until approximately age twelve. During this
time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. They begin Cognitive and Moral
Development
thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract
or hypothetical concepts.

Logic
Piaget stated that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at
the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific
experience to a general principle.

Conservation
It refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.
If you show a child four marbles in a row, then spread them out, the preoperational
child will focus on the spread, and tend to believe that there are now more marbles
than before. The concrete operations child, on the other hand, will know that
there are still four marbles.

Reversibility
By seven or eight years of age, children develop conservation of substance: If a
ball of clay is taken and roll it into a long thin rod, or even split it into ten little
pieces, the child knows that there is still the same amount of clay. And he will
know that, if you rolled it all back into a single ball, it would look quite the same
as it did — a feature known as reversibility. In addition, a child also learns
classification and seriation during this stage.

Stage IV- Formal operational stage: The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people
develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, deductive reasoning, and
systematic planning.

Logic
Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal
operational stage and this requires the ability to use a general principle to
determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical
situations and is often required in science and mathematics.

Abstract Thinking
The ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during this stage. Instead of
relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible
outcomes and consequences of actions.

Problem Solving Approach


In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. The ability to
systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children
are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solve a problem.

9.2.2 Vygotsky’s Theory


Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and a contemporary of Jean Piaget proposed
a theory of cognitive development known as ‘Socio Cultural Theory’.

125
Developmental Processes Key Principles:
Society and culture of the children plays a vital role in the development of
their cognition.
Sign system or the language of the society works as a tool in gaining
knowledge.
Inputs from others and especially from more knowledgeable people and
adults have the capacity to affect the development of cognition.
Central Concepts
More Knowledgeable Others (MKO): He defined intelligence as “the capacity
to learn from instruction”. According to him, these are those people, who are
more knowledgeable and have better expertise in a particular domain. These
MKO can help in improving the skill of the children. MKO need not to be a
person in all instances. Sometimes, MKO can be computers also.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): It is the key feature of the Vygotsky’s


theory. The concept of MKO is closely related to ZPD. According to Vygotsky,
ZPD is the difference between the present level of development attained without
anyone’s assistance and potential level of development which can be attained
under the guidance of MKO. However, the level of provided knowledge should
be appropriate according to the child’s comprehensive ability.

Fig.9.1: Diagram to Demonstrate the ZPD


Source: https://psychohawks.wordpress.com

Scaffolding: Scaffolding is a temporary structure, made up of wooden planks


and metal poles, to support the workmen in constructing, maintaining and
repairing a building. Vygotsky used this term to describe social and instructional
support provided by MKO to students to learn new concepts and skills. Once the
skill is learned by student, the instructional support is withdrawn, just like
scaffolding after completing the construction.
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)
State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Society and culture of the children plays a vital role in the development
of their cognition. ( )
2) Logic refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes
in appearance. ( )
126
Cognitive and Moral
3) Vygotsky used the term- scaffolding, to describe social and instructional Development
support provided by MKO to students to learn new concepts and skills.
( )
4) Assimilation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of
new information or new experiences. ( )
5) In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. ( )

9.3 MORAL DEVELOPMENT: KOHLBERG’S


THEORY
Extending the idea of moral development proposed by Jean Piaget, Lawrence
Kohlberg worked throughout his life to develop a complete theory of moral
development. Using story telling technique, he conducted many studies on
children. The stories of his studies usually revolve around some kind of moral
dilemmas. At the end of every story, he used to ask some questions from his
participants (children) and analysed their answers for underlining reasoning.
Based on his studies, he proposed that moral development consist of six stages
and these six stages can be further grouped into three levels. These three levels
are as follows:

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality


It consists of first two levels of moral development. Here morality is judged
based on the standards of adults and consequence of an action.

Stage I (Obedience and Punishment Orientation) — An action is immoral if it is


punished by the authority.

Stage II (Individualism and Exchange) — This stage is self-interest driven and


children understood for the first time that different individual may have different
viewpoints. An action is considered morally correct if it is in the best interest of
the individual.

Level 2: Conventional Morality


This level consists of stage three and four. During this level, children start
internalising the value of the society to judge morality.

Stage III (Good Interpersonal Relationship) — Intention of the actor is more


important in terms of judging the moral values. If the intention is to gain the
consensus of others or approval of the society then the actor will be judged morally
right.

Stage IV (Maintaining the Social Order) — Judgment of morality is based on


one’s duty, law and social order.

Level 3: Post Conventional Morality


The last level consist of stage five and six of moral development. According to
Kohlberg, very few people are able to reach at this level. Here, individual
perspective is given more importance over social rule and order. Individual judge
morality based on basic human rights and justice.

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Developmental Processes Stage V (Social Contract and Individual Rights) – In this stage, individual or
child understands that different people and community may hold different views
and laws. Laws of the society are not rigid edicts and should be change with the
change in the time and need of the society.

Stage VI (Universal Principles) – Individual judge morality of the actor based on


some universal principles that transcends beyond the society’s rules and
regulations.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)


Fill in the blanks:
1) Judgment of morality is based on one’s ................................................
2) During ........................................ level, children start internalising the value
of the society to judge morality.
3) ........................................ proposed that moral development consist of six
stages and these six stages can be further grouped into three levels.
4) .............................................. stage is self-interest driven and children
understood for the first time that different individual may have different
viewpoints.
5) Intention of the actor is more important in terms of judging the ................
values.

9.4 LET US SUM UP


In this Unit, different thoughts and theories regarding cognitive development
were covered. This Unit starts with the meaning, characteristic and of life cognitive
development. Then, we discussed Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive
devlopment. In the last section, we talked about moral development with the
help of Kohlberg’s theory.

9.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS


1) What do you understand by cognitive development?
2) Write a note on the stages of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget.
3) What do you mean by:
a) Schema
b) Assimilation
c) Accommodation
d) Adaptation
4) What do you understand by ‘zone of proximal development’? How this
concept is related to the concept of scaffolding?
5) Explain different stages of moral development explained by Kohlberg.

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Cognitive and Moral
9.6 GLOSSARY Development

Schemas : Schemas are categories of knowledge that help


us to interpret and understand the world.
Adaptation : Piaget saw adaptation as a fundamentally
biological process. All living things adapt, even
without a nervous system or brain. Assimilation
and accommodation are the two sides of
adaptation process.
Assimilation : The process of taking in new information into
our previously existing schemas is known as
assimilation.
Conservation : It refers to the idea that a quantity remains the
same despite changes in appearance.
More Knowledgeable : These are those people, who are more
Others knowledgeable and have better expertise in a
particular domain than the learner.
Accommodation : Part of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. It is a cognitive process by which
we develop or change a schema in order to deal
with new object or situation.

9.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT


QUESTIONS (SAQ)
Self Assessment Questions I
1) True
2) False
3) True
4) False
5) True
Self Assessment Questions II
1) duty, law and social order
2) conventional morality
3) kohlberg
4) Individualism and Exchange
5) moral

9.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS


Ormrod, J. E. (2008). Educational Psychology: Developing Learners (6th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Smith, P., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (2003) Understanding Children’s Development.
Oxford: Blackwell.
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Developmental Processes Light, P., Sheldon, S. & Woodhead, M. (1991) Learning to Think. London;
Routledge.
Keil, F. (2013). Developmental Psychology: The Growth of Mind and Behavior.
WW Norton & Company.
Berger, K. S. (2009). Invitation to the Life Span. Macmillan.
Bremner, J. G. (2017). An Introduction to Developmental Psychology. John Wiley
& Sons.
Geary D.C. and Bjorklund D.F. (2000). Evolutionary Developmental Psychology.
Child Development 71(1), 57–65.
Lerner R.M. (1998). Theories of human development: contemporary perspectives.
Handbook of Child Psychology. Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human
Development (ed. R.M. Lerner), 5th ed., pp. 1–24. New York: Wiley.
Lerner R.M., Fisher C.B., and Weinberg R.A. (2000). Toward a science for and
of the people: promoting civil society through the application of developmental
science. Child Development 71(1) 11–20.
Lewis M.D. (2000). The promise of dynamic systems approaches for an integrated
account of human development. Child Development 71(1), 36–43.
Nelson C.A. and Bloom F.E. (1997). Child Development and Neuroscience. Child
Development 68(5), 970–987.
Pellegrini A.D. and Bjorklund D.F. (1998). Applied Child Study: A Developmental
Approach, 3rd edn., 243 pp. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbuam.
Tandon, R. K. (2002). Child Psychology. APH Publishing Corporation.

9.9 REFERENCES FOR IMAGES


Diagram to demonstrate the ZPD. Retrieved November 2, 2018, from https://
psychohawks.wordpress.com/2010/11/03/theories-of-cognitive-development-
lev-vygotsky/

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