DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY | 216 | 4 Credit Units

This course focuses on providing insights to the progressive and maturational

nature of human sense organs, motor and cognitive development, from
cradle to adulthood.

This course intends to help students understand the physical, social,

emotional, and intellectual development throughout the lifespan of humans.
In addition, Language and personality development will be covered.

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this this course, students should be able to:

1. Give at least one (1) definition of developmental psychology and explain
it.

2. Identify and explain at least two (2) goals of developmental psychology,

3. Identify and explain at least three (3) methods of developmental
psychological research.
4. Clearly explain at least five (5) concepts in developmental psychology.
5. Define sexual development and differentiate from sexual orientation.
6. Identify and explain the role of sex chromosomes in determining
gender.
7. Identify and explain the various roles of male and female hormones in
sexual development.
8. Identify and explain at least three (3) factors responsible for sexual
orientation.
9. Identify and explain at least five (5) factors that influence prenatal
development.
10. Identify and explain at least two (2) brain parts involved in sexual
behavior.
 11. Identify and explain at least three (3) theories of moral development.
12. Identify and briefly describe at least three(3) theories of intellectual
development and their implications on child education
13. identify and describe at least two (2) types of special intellectual
development.
14. Give at least one (1) definition of language, identify and briefly
explain at least five (5) functions of language.
15. Clearly explain the origins of reading, language comprehension and
speech production.
16. Give at least one (1) definition of personality, identify and briefly
explain at least three (3)theories of personality development.

OUTLINE

MODULE 1: MEANING, NATURE AND GOALS OF DEVELOPMENTAL

PSYCHOLOGY.

a. Meaning of developmental psychology.

b. Nature of developmental Psychology.
c. Goals of developmental psychology
d. Scope of human development
e. Methods of studying childhood development

MODULE 2: PRENATAL AND SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT.

a. Genetic basis of sex determination.

b. The role of hormones in sexual development
c. Factors affecting prenatal development
d. Sexual orientation
MODULE 3: MORAL / SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT.

a. Meaning of moral development

b. Theories of moral development

MODULE 4: INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

a. Meaning of intelligence
b. Theories of intellectual development
c. Mental retardation and giftedness

MODULE 5: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

a. Meaning and functions of language

b. Reading and speech
c. Language comprehension
d. Speech production

MODULE 6: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

a. Meaning of personality
b. Theories of personality

LINK TO PERSONAL READINGS

MODULE ONE

MEANING OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Life begins with conception which provides a process of continuous changes.

Birth is a milestone of the end of one stage in the change chain and marks
the beginning of another. The terminal end in the change process is death.

DEFINITION
Developmental psychology is a subfield in psychology that is concerned with
the study of the development of human beings; their physical, cognitive,
emotional, intellectual and social capabilities, over a course of normal lifespan.
It is concerned with the changes that take place from conception to death.
These changes are both qualitative and quantitative.
Developmental psychologists focus on human growth and changes across
the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual,
personality and emotional growth.

QUANTITATIVE CHANGES:
Quantitative changes simply refer to the shared increase in size or mass while
as the organism continues to grow, it acquires the capacity to perform more
complex functions. The quantitative changes are changes in structures while
the qualitative changes are the changes in functions.

Developmental psychology is the science of human development that seeks

to understand how and why people of all ages change or remain the same.
According to Bremmer 2011, developmental psychology is the discipline that
attempts to describe, explain, and optimize changes that occur over time in
thoughts. behaviors, reasoning, and functioning of a person due to biological,
individual, and environmental influences. It seeks to understand the changes
that occur throughout a lifespan.

GOALS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The three main goals of developmental psychology are also included in the
definition of developmental psychology given by Bremmer (2011).
Developmental psychology seeks to describe, explain, and optimize human
development.

NATURE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Development refers to change. The human changes constantly from the

moment of conception, until the time of death.
Two types of changes are being described; Those changes caused by the
biological growth of the body are called maturation while those changes that
result from the person’s experience of the environment whether they are a
product of cognitive growth or learning are called cognitive changes.
Simply stated, development refers to the systematic changes in the individual
that occur between the moment of conception until the day one dies. The
word systematic implies that developmental changes are somehow orderly or
patterned.
To fully appreciate the concept of development, we must seek to understand
the
processes that underlie developmental changes.

a. Maturation

Maturation is the biological unfolding of individuals according to the

plan contained in the genes. Evidence of maturation can be seen at
 many points throughout the lifespan and also contributes heavily to
important developmental milestones such as an infant’s ability to walk,
utter meaningful words, dramatic transformation of their bodies as they
reach sexual maturation. However, since the brain undergoes many
maturational changes, maturation is partly responsible for not only
readily observable physical changes but also cognitive changes such as
increased ability to concentrate and solve problems. Our maturational
blueprint ensures that all of us undergo many of the same
developmental changes at about the same point in our lives.

b. Learning

Learning is seen as a critical developmental process. It is referred to as a

relatively lasting change in behavior that is a result of experience. It is a
means by which our experiences produce changes in our feelings,
thoughts, and patterns of behavior. It means however, that most of our
abilities and habits do not simply unfold as part of nature’s grand plan.
We often learn to feel, think, and behave in new ways from our
observations and interactions with others. Meaning, we change in
response to the environment we live in

CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

The general characteristics in development includes the following:

a. It is characterized by constant changes from the time of birth to the

time of death.

b. It follows the sequence in human beings, meaning all humans follow a

similar development sequence with one stage leading to another.
 c. Irregularity of time: Development does not occur at a uniform rate. For
instance, growth does not stop until maturity. The first growth occurs in
the prenatal period while the second occurs at the adolescent period.

d. Irregularity of proportion: The rate of development for various parts of

the body as well as mental functions are not uniform rather there are
variations. For instance, in the prenatal period, the head grows faster
and thereafter the rate of growth slows down rapidly and the rest of the
body catches up. Similarly, intellectual capacities develop at different
rates. For example, creative imagination develops rapidly in childhood
and reaches the peak in early adulthood. While reasoning on the other
hand, develops slowly.

e. Differentiation: This simply means movement from a simple state to a

complex state or from a general to a specific characteristic. Growth for
instance is always in the direction from simple to complex. Human
development starts as a single undifferentiated cell and grows into a
complex human being with many different kinds of tissues, such as the
brain serving different functions .

f. Development is accumulative: This means that development involves

the influence of all earlier experiences the developing organism has
had, particularly in terms of accumulation of behavior, skills, and ideas.

METHODS OF STUDYING DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

There are many hundred ways designed to study and analyze results from
childhood development. However, developmental psychology uses those that
are specific and use accurate data and conclusions that are valid.
 1. OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

This is the scientific method that requires researchers to record and

observe behaviors systematically and objectively. Observation often
occurs in a natural setting and it simply means carefully taking notes of
events and trying to make sense out of them. Direct observation is one
of the oldest methods of studying developmental psychology. It has
been used to observe children in their homes and school settings.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION.

a. Naturalistic Observation: The scientist carefully observes behavior

in the real world or natural setting without any form of
manipulation.

b. Participant Observation: The scientist engages in interactions

with other members of the setting in order to gain knowledge of
how people in that setting experience the world.

DISADVANTAGES OR WEAKNESS OF OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

a. It is often difficult to establish agreement among observers about

exactly what happened.

b. The presence of researchers may change the nature of the

behavior.

2. LONGITUDINAL METHOD

In this method, the researcher carries out different observations at

different times. In this method, people are tested repeatedly as they grow
older.
 ADVANTAGES
a. It helps the scientist measure changes that occur within the
individual.
b. It helps the researcher to know when the behavior increases,
decreases, or discontinues.
c. It helps the researcher to know the continuity of certain behaviors
in the several stages of development.

DISADVANTAGES
a. The participants may drop out willingly.
b. Participants may die.
c. The researcher may influence the cause of development.

3. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The experimental method stands out as one of the only methods that
has the capacity to demonstrate the cause-effect relationship between
and among variables. An important quality of the experimental method
is the ability to control

4.
MODULE TWO

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Reproductive behaviors make up the most important category of social

behavior. Without reproduction, a human species cannot survive. Usually,
when we encounter people, the first thing we often notice is whether they are
male or female. This means that our sexual identity is important. The
distinction of being male or female is accompanied by a widely and deeply
held belief about our psychological make-up and behavior belonging to each
sex. The development of the reproductive system is controlled by the
gonadotropic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. The
gonadotropic hormones control the development of the testes in males and
the ovaries in females. A person’ s sex is determined at the time of fertilization.
New individuals are created when two special cells called the sex cells are
combined together. Ejaculation contains several hundred million sperm cells.
The sperm has a head which contains genetic materials necessary for
reproduction and the tail which moves as a whip as the sperms move
through the cervix, uterus, and the fallopian tubes. . The sperm swims one
inch every 8 minutes and may reach the egg in 30 minutes but the journey
usually takes about six hours and can stay alive in the uterus for up to five
days.

The woman releases just an egg each month mid-way through the menstrual
cycle and by menopause, the average woman has released about 450 eggs.

CHROMOSOMES AND SEXUAL IDENTITY

All cells in the human body contain 23 pairs of identical chromosomes except
for the sperm and the ova (egg) - sex chromosomes. These chromosomes are
located in the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). The DNA harbors the genetic
information that programs the development of the human. 22 of these
chromosomes are matching pairs called the autosomes, the 23rd pair consists
of the sex chromosomes. The autosomes determine the organism’s physical
development while the last pair contains genes that determine whether the
offspring could be a male or a female.
The two types of the sex chromosomes are the X chromosome and the Y
chromosome. The female has two X chromosomes (XX) while the male has
the X and the Y chromosome. When a man’s sex chromosome is divided, half
of the sperm contains an X chromosome and the other half contains a Y
chromosome. When an X bearing sperm produces and fertilizes the ovum, a
girl child is produced (XX). However, if a Y bearing sperm produces and
fertilizes the ovum, a boy child is produced (XY).

It is important to observe that although the sex chromosomes determine sex,

exposure to hormones - especially sex hormones - is also responsible for
sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism refers to the differences between the
male and female characteristics. This happens ‘because of the following
reasons;
a. The bodies are different.
b. Parts of the brain are different.
c. Reproductive behaviors are different.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEX ORGANS

28/04/2023

There are 3 categories of sex organs.

a. Gonad sex organ
b. Internal sex organ
 c. External sex organ.

1. GONAD SEX ORGAN

The Gonad are the testis in males and the ovaries in females. They are
the first organs developed and they have 2 main functions.

a. They produce sperm in the males.

b. They produce oval in the females.

The Serotonin Hormones

Once the Gonad is developed, they begin to secrete hormones that
affect development in two ways:

a. They organize the development of the sex organs and the brain.
b. They activate sexual behavior later in life.

During prenatal development, the hormones excerpt an organizing

effect that leads to the development of the sex organs and the brain.
This organizing effect is permanent and once a particular effect takes
place, there is no going back. Activating effects of hormones occur later
in life after the sex organs have been developed.

2. INTERNAL SEX ORGAN

The internal sex organs are the fallopian tube, uterus, and inner part of
the vagina in females; the seminal vessel, epidemy, and the vas
deferens in males. The sex of the internal sex organ is determined by
the present or absence of the hormones secreted by the testis. The
hormones are estrogen and testosterone.

3. EXTERNAL SEX ORGAN

These are the visible sex organs and they are the penis and scrotum, in
males; labial (minor or major), and clitoris in females. After development
 of the sex organ, the secondary sexual characteristics emerge at
puberty. Evidence of puberty in females include enlarged breasts and
widened hips, while evidence of puberty in males include bears and
deep voice.
At puberty, the biological clock causes the Gonad to produce the
hormones responsible for sexual maturation.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Heterosexual means having sexual attraction to the opposite sex other than
the homosexuals (gay, lesbians). Transgender or bi-gender are people who
have changed their biological sex to another.

WHY PEOPLE ARE ATTRACTED TO THEMSELVES.

a. Genetics
b. Hormones
c. The order of birth: Researchers have found out that younger brothers
who have a greater number of older brothers are likely to exhibit
homosexual mutation.
d. Maternal stress and the use of alcohol.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

There are many factors that affect prenatal development and these factors
are:

a. Teratogens:
These are factors or agents that can produce malfunctioning in the
fetus while tissues and organs are forming. During the first trimester,
 particularly week 3 and week 9, the embryo is very sensitive and can be
influenced by Teratogens that can lead to congenital malfunctioning.
i. Virus
ii. Alcohol
iii. Environmental toxins:
Smoking cigarettes is one of the most common causes of
reduced fertility, delay conception, and it also has some negative
effects.

b. Maternal Nutrition
Providing adequate nutrients for the fetal development requires a
balanced diet of the capacity to transform a nutrient into forms the
fetus can inject into the placenta.

c. Maternal Stress
Prolonged exposure to stress by the mother during pregnancy can lead
to consequences in prenatal development.

d. Age of the mother.

A woman has approximately 35 years of fertility. WOmen who are
between the ages of 16 and 35 tend to provide a better, uterine
environment for the developing foetus and give birth with fewer
complications that women who are under 16 and above 35.

e. The impact of poverty.

ROLES OF HORMONES IN SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Hormones are chemicals that travel through the bloodstream tissue. They are
chemical messages that are secreted directly into the blood which carries
them to the organs and tissues. They coordinate different functions in the
body, carry messages through the blood to organs, skin , muscles, and other
tissues. Those signals or messages tell your body what to do and when to do
it. The hormones are essential for life. They work slowly, overtime, and affect
many different processes which include:
a. Growth and development
b. Metabolism
c. Sexual functions
d. Reproduction
e. Mood.

TYPES OF SEXUAL HORMONES

Sex hormones are chemical substances produced by the sex gland that have
an effect on your sexual interest. They are hormones secreted by the gonad
and are involved in the regulation of sexual functions such as the
development of the reproductive circle and organs. Sex hormones are
primarily produced in the ovaries and testes.

TYPES OF SEX HORMONES

a. Estrogen
b. Testosterone
c. Progesterone.
216 MR GANA’S NOTES

LANGUAGE BEHAVIOR
Language serves many critical functions within the human experience, from
keeping us safe to social engagements. While communication certainly exists
in other species, depth and complexity of the human language is second to
none. Linguists and psychologists tend to agree about the importance of
language but there exists some disagreement about how language is
acquired.
Are we born with a clean slate when it comes to language or do we enter the
world with a set of language skills ready to be put to use?
Before the naturists, led by Noan Chomsky, it was widely agreed that
language skills were developed solely through watching and learning our
parents and other people in our environment. Naturists believe that the brain
is pre-wired (born language potential), for language was quite a contrast to
the beliefs held at that time.

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

According to the APA dictionary, language is

a. A system for expressing or communicating thoughts and feelings
through speech, sounds or written symbols.
b. The specific communicative system used by a particular group of
speakers with its distinctive vocabulary, grammar, and phenological
system.
c. Any comparable non-verbal means of communication as sign language
or the language used in computer programming.
Roger Brown in 1965 defined language as an arbitrary system of symbols
which, taken together, makes it possible for a creature with limited memory
to transmit and understand an infinite variety of messages and to do this in
spite of noise and distraction.
Language development (acquisition) is the process through which children
acquire the ability to process speech and communicate. During this process, a
child may slowly understand basic linguistic patterns and expand their
vocabulary gradually before achieving fluency.

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE

As educators, childcare providers, language pathologists, and other child

development experts, understanding the stages of language development
helps promote the child’s healthy development. You can then create goals for
them and intervene if they have not achieved the proper milestones of their
age.
Language development has the following importance:
a. Promotes Social Interaction:
How well a child is able to interact with friends, family, and other
members of the society is an important concern of language
development. Well-developed language can improve a child’s ability to
engage in social interaction, meaning that their social and interpersonal
skills can also develop as they learn to use language effectively.
b. Improves Cognitive Development:
Learning a new language aids in brain development and increases
intelligence and creativity in the children. The more developed the
language skills of the child, the less the risk of cognitive impairment.
They find it easier to understand basic concepts that can help them in
 school when learning to read and write. Encouraging healthy language
development promotes a child’s ability to learn.
c. Aids Self Expression:
Language development allows children to express themselves and
communicate with their siblings, parents, and baby sitters daily. Kids
also benefit from language skills to express themselves while playing
with friends or in a classroom situation outside their homes.
d. Enhance Literacy:
Language development is necessary for a child’s literacy skills so that
they can comprehend books and school assignments. It is also
important for children to understand instructions from teachers and
subject materials in class.
e. Improves Self Esteem:
Well developed language skills can help develop self-esteem. When
children find that they can use their language skills effectively, they
might have more confidence in school work, communicate and
strengthen bonds with others. If a child can communicate with peers,
they are likely to have a higher self-esteem because they can make
friends more easily and be more successful at getting jobs in the future.
For child psychologists for example, one’s work might involve helping
children with language development issues to improve their self
confidence.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

1. Behavioral Theory:

Behaviorists such as B.F Skinner (1904 - 1990) argued that language

acquisition and development are learned behaviors. Behaviourists
believed that we learn by associating events in a process called or
 known as classical conditioning. We also learn through rewards and
punishments, a process known as operant conditioning. Other
behaviorists such as Albert Banctura also believe we learn by
observation and imitation. Behaviorists argue that we learn language
skills by imitating others who encourage or discourage the behavior by
their actions or by rewards and punishments. For behaviorists, we are
the products of our environment therefore children have no intendant
mechanism or ability to develop language by themselves.

2. Cognitive Theory:

Cognitive theory of language acquisition suggests that the primary

drive behind our actions are our thoughts and internal processes. Lean
Piaget 1993 assumes that children are born with relatively little
cognitive ability but their minds develop and build new schemes (ideas
and understanding on how the world works) as they age and
experience the world around them.
Eventually, they can apply language to their schemes through
assimilation (fixing new information to what is already known) and
accommodations (Changing new schemes). Believing that cognitive
development had to come before language development, Piajet said it
will be impossible for children to express things that they do not yet
understand. He proposed four stages of cognitive development.

a. Sensorimotor Stage:

This takes place within 2 years of the child’s birth. At this stage,
the child develops sensory coordination and interacts with the
environment by feeling and playing with things. Their use of
language extends primarily to babbling and infusing spoken
words.
 b. Pre-operational stage:

This takes place from ages 2 - 7 years. Children are able to use
language with a better grasp of grammatical structure, context
and syntax (arrangements of words and phrases to create
well-formed sentences in language). Their thinking at this stage is
still egocentric (how it affects only them).

c. Concrete Operational Stage:

This stage covers between ages 7 and 11. Children now

understand concepts such as time, reasoning, and logic which
allows them to rationalize their beliefs about their own thoughts
and the world around them. They can also speak to others about
their beliefs and understand how outcomes and views may differ.

d. Formal Operational Stage:

This takes place from ages 12 - adulthood. They can now engage
in higher reasoning and think and speak about the abstracts such
as hypotheticals, morals and political systems. Language is
essentially unlimited and there’s no cognitive unit to one’s world.

3. Nativism Theory

Propounded by the American Linguist, cognitive scientists, social critic

and the political activist Noam Chomsky, this theory views language
development as a biologically determined process that uses neural
circuits in the brain which has evolved to certain linguistic signals.
Chomsky concluded that language acquisition requires an inborn
faculty in children in concepts known as Language Acquisition Device(
LAD). In other words, humans are born with an innate language device
that enables them to learn any given language and is located in the
brain, serving as an encoder that provides us with baseline
 understanding or grammatical structure. He suggested that LAD
contained knowledge of universal grammar as the basic stored
grammar rules that all human languages share.

4. Interactionist Theory:

Prominently argued by Jerome Brunner (1964), this theory believed that

children are born with the ability to develop language but require
regular interaction with the caregivers or teachers to learn and
understand it to the level of full fluency. This idea is known as the
Language Acquisition Support System (LASS).
Caregivers correct mistakes made and regularly teach what objects are
and what their purposes are. Brunner suggests that this helps to build
scaffolding that children will rely on later when further developing
languages.

STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

1. Pre-linguistic Stage (Screaming):

This stage begins with the theory of reflex action that occurs due to the
mechanism of blood regeneration.
Pre-linguistic stage often occurs between 0 and 6 months. Children in
this stage don’t have developed language skills so they communicate
with sounds. Their cry, makes cooing sounds and utter nasal murmurs
as their vocal tracts develop. Infants can also recognize voices and
sound in addition to facial expressions and voice tones.
Crying occurs naturally and intensely, but gradually decreases in the
third or fourth month. Crying helps in respiration in children. Many
parents become quite skilled in ‘reading’ these cries to diagnose the
 baby’s particular need. Sick and low-birth weight babies and those
rated as having difficult temperaments are likely to make unpleasant or
gritting crying sounds. So, the quality of a child’s cry may turn out to be
a helpful diagnostic tool for parents, teachers, and caregivers.

2. Babbling:

During the babbling stage, infants make seemingly random and

spontaneous sounds, cooing, squealing, and gurgling. At this point,
outsiders listening in will not be able to tell what language the child is
learning. Here, vowels predominate the sounds the child makes which
serves as raw materials for development of language.

3. The First Word stage:

This happens when the child turns 1 and begins to utter sounds that
have meaning like ‘mam or mom’ and ‘da da or dad’ and ‘wa wa’. They
begin to speak simple words like ‘dog’. Words like ‘moma’ and ‘dada’
appear to be universal responses.

4. The Two Word Stage:

By the child’s second birthday, the sentences created are short and
direct, that is why this stage is called telegraphic stage. Words like ‘want
milk, want water, go outside’.

5. Verbal (Multiword) Utterance Stage:

Is generally by the second year. Hence, the child acquires an active

vocabulary not being content with the imitation of other people’s
sound. The child says ‘Bho’ when he sees a dog. Speech is acquired
through association theory, learning plays a major role here. Stimulus
variables, response variable and reinforced variable play significant role
in the development of language.
PERSONALITY
The lay person's personality refers to components of an individual's makeup
that can elicit positive or negative reactions from others. The individual who
consistently tends to elicit positive reactions from others is thought to have a
good personality. The individuals who consistently tend to elicit not-so-good
reactions from others are thought to have a bad personality or perhaps, worse
yet, low personality.
Descriptive epithets such as aggressive personality, cold personality, and
warm personality also enjoy widespread usage. For behavioral scientists, the
terms employed tend to be more rigorous than those describing simple social
skills and are more precise and all encompassing adjectives. But what indeed
is the nature of human nature, does man even have a nature? Why do people
behave the way they do? Do people have some choice in shaping their own
personality? What accounts for similarities and differences among people?
What makes people act in unpredictable ways? Why are they unpredictable?
Do hidden and unconscious focus control people? Is human behavior shaped
more by heredity or by environment?
Freud was the first among the behavioral scientists to answer the above
questions. He was the first to develop a truly modern theory of personality for
all people. His ‘Grand Theory’ attempted to explain all personalities for all
people. Many other theorists guided by diverse points of view have also
developed alternative theories. Most of these are based on scientific
observations rather than clinical ones. Both sources, however, have valid
foundations for theories of personality.

WHAT IS PERSONALITY?

Dozens of different definitions of personality exist in the psychology literature

(Allport 1937). Psychologists differ among themselves as to the true meaning
of personality. Most agree that the word ‘personality’ originated from the latin
‘persons’ which refers to a theatrical mask worn by roman actors in Greek
dramas. The actors wore the masks (persona) to project a role or false
appearance. For the purpose of this course however, we shall take some
definitions that appear to be all-inclusive.
1. McClelland (1951) defines personality as the most adequate
conceptualization of a person’s behavior in all his detail.
2. Menninger (1953) defines it as the individual as a whole; his height,
weight, love, hate, blood pressure, reflexes, smiles, hopes, bowlegs, and
enlarged tonsils. It means all that anyone is and he or she hopes to
become.
3. Roberts and Mroczek (2008) defines it as a pattern of relatively
permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency
and individuality to a person’s behavior. Psychologists who specialize in
the study of personality differ and indeed behave alike. They are
referred to as Personality Psychologists.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

The word ‘theory’ has the dubious distinction of being one of the misused
and misunderstood words in the English Language. Some people contrast
theory to truth or fact. Such an antithesis demonstrates the fundamental lack
of understanding of the three terms. In science, theories are tools used to
generate research and organize observations but neither truth nor facts has a
place in scientific terminology.
A scientific theory is therefore defined as a set of related assumptions that
allow scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable
hypotheses.
1. Psychodynamic Theory of Personality:

Drawing its strength from the clinical observations of Sigmund Freud is

a process described as ‘Psychoanalysis’ also a type of therapy that
attempts to reveal unconscious thoughts and desires (mainly a
tripeptide: id ,ego, and superego. Psychodynamic theory therefore is a
view that explains personality in terms of conscious and unconscious
forces such as unconscious desires and beliefs mediating and shaping
behavior. Psychodynamic theories hold that childhood experiences
shape personality (sum acts of the individual). It is one of the highly
persistent for its lack of supportive scientific data but has till date
remained fashionable in the discipline of psychology as a whole. Some
theories and their postulations that are grouped under the
psychodynamic theory include:
- Sigmund Freud - Atler - Horney
- Jung - Alein - Fromm
- Erikson
Most of them were followers of and active collaborators with the
legendary Sigmund Freud. Others had causes to deviate and dispute
some of the assumptions and postulations of Freud. Psychodynamic
theory holds that childhood experiences are the basis of adult
personality and relationships. Most of which we cannot control.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

To Freud, life was built around tension and pleasure due to the build up
of libido (psychic energy or sexual energy) and that all pleasure came
from discharge.
a. Oral Stage (0 - 1 year): Pleasure here is centered around the
mouth and the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts
of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido and it demands
 activities such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. Frustration
at this stage could lead to some negative behaviors such as
smoking, nail biting, overeating, thumb sucking, and excessive
drinking.
b. Anal Stage: This occurs between the ages of 18 months to 3 years.
Here, libido becomes focused on the anus and the child desires
great pleasure from defecating especially in potty training
accompanied by adult restrictions, where and when the child can
defecate.
The first conflict with authority determines the child’s future
relationship with all forms of authority. Unresolved conflict from
this stage also called Anal Retentive Personality can lead to hate
of mess, obsessive tidiness, punctuality and respect for authority.
The flip side is that they can be stubborn and tight-fisted with
their money (cash or and possessions) all in relation to strictness
in potty training. The Anal Repulsive are those who had liberal
toilet training, share things, give away things (symbolizes sharing
their shit), they can also be messy, disorganized, and rebels.
c. Phallic Stage: This is usually 2 - 6 years. Libido (desire, pleasure)
centers around their genitalia and their erogenous zone. Here,
children become more aware of their bodies and develop
fascination for their genitals as well as with those of the opposite
sex.
Children become aware of anatomical sex differences that sets
this stage for conflict between erotic attraction, resentment,
jealousy, rivalry, and fear which Freud calls the oedipus complex
in boys and electra complex in girls.
This is resolved through identification - a child adopts the
characteristics of the same sex parent. Unresolved conflicts here,
 leads to sexual dysfunction, gender identity issues or difficulty
with relationships.
d. Latency Stage ( 6 - Puberty): Here, libido is dormant. Children’s
sexual impulses become suppressed and no further psychosexual
development takes place. Children focus on developing social
and intellectual skills including alcohol, friendship, and hobbies
instead of sexual or romantic interest. Sexual interests are
repressed and redirected towards school work. (Unresolved
conflict during latency can lead to difficulty in expressing
emotions or forming healthy relationships in later life.
e. Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood): this is the final stage when
individuals start to become sexually mature and begin to explore
their sexual feelings and desires and act maturely and
responsibly. People now experience romantic or sexual feelings to
begin to form intimate relationships with others. This is a period
of sexual experimentation such that successfully resolving the
inherent conflicts leads to settling down in a loving one-to-one
relationship with another person in our twenties. Sexual instincts
are directed to heterosexual pleasure rather than self-pleasure (as
in phallic stage).
Sexual perversions may develop when conflicts at this stage are
unresolved. Such as some gaining sexual pleasure primarily from
kissing and oral sex rather than sexual intercourse. Unresolved
conflict can also lead to sexual dysfunction, inability to form
healthy relationships and have emotional problems. Note that,
these stages may not be thoroughly and strictly followed.
Freud also proposed three levels of personality; id, ego, and
superego. These stages influence how people behave.
2. Humanistic / Existential Theory of Personality:

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to

prominence in the mid 20th century. In response to the psychoanalytic
and biological theory. It emphasizes an individual's inherent drive
towards self-actualism and creativity (often described as third force).
Two prominent humanistic theories who made advancements in the
field of humanistic psychology were: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Humanistic psychologists try to see people’s lives as those people will
see them. They tilt towards optimistic objectives on human nature and
focus on the ability of human beings to think consciously, and rationally
to control their biological nature and to achieve their full potential.
Existential and humanistic theorists are as varied as the progenitors
associated with them. Existential psychology is based on existential
philosophy and has its rules to the world of Sore Kierkegaard (1813 -
1855). Existentialism as a popular movement in Europe began after
World War II. It is concerned with issues such as freedom, responsibility
and authenticity even though existence is devoid of ultimate; meaning
individuals can create meaning authentically through the choices they
make.
Freedom mis what makes us human, it is not biology. It’s our destiny.
Through freedom, we can transcend our genes, our past history and
the environment. Our capacity to choose how we exist determines what
kind of people we will become. Thus existence precedes essence. The
experience of being in the world points to the experience of not being.
The trait of nothingness is one of a human for yearning.

3. Dispositional Theory of Personality:

Also known as the ‘trait’ theory describes or emphasizes something

similar to mood. It is a personality trait or overall tendency to respond to
situations in stable, predictable ways (characteristic attitude of an
individual).