Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab Manuals

AERODYNAMICS LAB
PRACTICAL HANDOUTS
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS
2|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS – AERODYNAMICS LAB
Exp. Experiments Page

No. No.
1 IST-ARO-FLWT-N01-01/00 Measurement of wind tunnel test section velocity 4
2 IST-ARO-FLWT-N01-02/00 To determine the coefficient of pressure Cp at different points 10

on airfoil at different angle of attack.
3 IST-ARO-FLWT-N01-03/00 Lift prediction for NACA airfoil vs. Angle of attack using Cp 17
4 IST-ARO-FDWT-N02-01/00 Flight demonstration of a model to understand different phases 24

of flight such as Take-Off, level flight and landing and to
illustrate the phenomenon of flow separation and stall
5 IST-ARO-FDWT-N02-02/00 To study the relationship between lift coefficient and Angle of 29
attack
6 IST-ARO-ARWT-N03-01/00 Measurement of Drag for models with different shapes having 33

same equatorial diameter. (Armfield Wind Tunnel C2)
7 IST-ARO-ARWT-N03-02/00 To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil 43

(without flaps) at various angles of attack and plot
CL vs α curve and Drag polar for given airfoil
8 IST-ARO-ARWT-N03-03/00 To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil (with 49
flaps) at various angles of attack and plot CL vs α curve and
Drag polar for given airfoil
9 IST-ARO-SDWT-N04-01/00 Flow visualization using Smoke demonstration wind tunnel 55
10 IST-ARO-HBFV-N05-01/00 Hydrogen bubble flow visualization experiment over different 61

bodies

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
MEASURMENT OF WIND TUNNEL TEST SECTION

VELOCITY

INSTITUTE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY
ISLAMABAD
Experiment No - 01 IST-ARO-FLWT-N01-01/00
Experiment No. 01
Measurement of wind tunnel test section velocity
Objective
To obtain an accurate test section air velocity value from a static pressure reading.
Apparatus
Flow Tech Wind Tunnel 1440
Figure 1: Flotek wind tunnel 1440 (Available at subsonic aerodynamics lab
Safety & Precautions

1. Check model mounting security.
2. Check test section for loose items.
3. Check fan screen for obstructions.
4. Verify that fan and exhaust area clear.
5. Check inlet section for loose items.
6. Rotate speed adjust knob to zero.
Theory
Wind tunnel
Wind tunnels are ground based experimental facilities designed to produce flows of air
sometimes gases), which simulate the natural flows occurring outside the laboratory.
Some important features of wind tunnels are as follows.

• Produces controlled airflow in a confined area
• Small scaled-down models can be placed in this confined area and tested under near
natural conditions.
• It incorporates principle of relative motion making easy to take measurements and record
different parameters.

• It has certain arrangement for measuring forces and moments or pressure distribution
over the body
Types of wind tunnel

Two basic categorizations of wind tunnels are:
• Open Circuit Wind Tunnels (Eiffel Type, NPL tunnel)
➢ No Guided return of the air
➢ After the air leave the diffuser, it circulates back to intake
➢ Some Open Circuit tunnels draws entirely fresh air
Figure 2 Open circuit wind tunnel flow demonstration
• Closed Circuit Wind Tunnels (Prandtl Gottingen or return flow type)

➢ Continuous path of the air
➢ Superior flow quality in the test section
➢ Low operating costs.
➢ Less power requirement
Figure 3 Closed circuit wind tunnel

Wind tunnel components

Several components of a generic wind tunnel are listed as follows. (Different wind tunnels have
different modifications, thus the below listed components are for a general case)
• Honey-comb structure
• Contraction section
• Test section
• Diffuser
• Turning vanes (for close circuit wind tunnel)
• Drive motor/fan
• Seconday turning vanes (for close circuit wind tunnel)
Figure 4: Different components of a wind tunnel
Air velocity calculation of wind tunnel using Bernoulli Equation

The pressure at various locations in the wind tunnel is related to the velocity via Bernoulli
equation keeping the incompressible nature of flow into consideration.
A liquid-based manometer is used to measure the pressure difference by giving a change in the
liquid column height.
Where
(P1 – P2) = w.Δh

Procedure
Steps in sequence for the calculation of air velocity using wind tunnel are as follows.
Steps to be performed by lab incharge
• Check for the smooth electricity supply of lab.
• Check the circuit breakers and supply switches of wind tunnel.
• Check for any potential hazard in terms of electrical and mechanical manner before
letting the students to perform the experiment.
Steps to be performed by the students
1. Connect a static port with the manometer tube.
2. Fill in the manometer reservoir with colored liquid (mostly colored water in our case).
3. Maintain a zero-reading level to the manometer column with which the static port is
connected.
4. Now operate the wind tunnel after checking the preliminary safety procedures.
5. Start increasing the velocity by using speed knob and keep on noting the raise in
manometer liquid level.
6. Measuring the change in height of liquid in the manometer the air velocity can be
calculated using the above-mentioned formulations.
Tables and Graphs

Speed setting Column lever Velocity Velocity
measurement (mph) (fps)
(Inches of water)

Results
Calculated air velocities at different rotor knob locations are as follows.
Rotor knob reading Air velocity in test section
Observation and Conclusion

The observations according to the performed experiment should include the following aspects.
• Basic independent quantities of experiment
• Relations between those quantities as the course of experiment advanced.
• Deduction based on the trend of respective quantities variation.
Report by the Student

For assessment/grading of students lab activity, students will submit a Lab report (which is
required to be made according to the pattern provided by the Lab instructor. It in general
includes
• Observations
• Explanation of phenomenon
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion

EXPERIMENT NO. 02
To determine the coefficient of pressure Cp at different points on

airfoil at different angle of attack.

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No 02
To determine the coefficient of pressure Cp at different points on airfoil at different angle of
attack.
Objective
To calculate the pressure distribution using obtained static pressure at different ports on airfoil.
Apparatus
• Flow Tech Wind Tunnel 1440
• Liquid manometer
• Measuring scale
• Airfoil with static ports
Figure 5: Flotek wind tunnel 1440 (Available at subsonic aerodynamics lab)

Theory
As the flow passes over the wing or airfoil it modifies the flow owing to its unique shape. This
modification of flow ultimately results in the generation of a pressure distribution over the
airfoil. This practical deals with the calculation of that specific pressure profile.
Generic trend of a positively cambered airfoil is demonstrated as follows.
11 | S u b s o n i c A e r o d y n a m i c s L a b
Figure 6 Generic pressure distribution

The specification of the flow modification while passing over the airfoil includes the increase in
the speed of air molecules passing over the upper surface of the airfoil and the relatively less
change in the speed of lower surface of the airfoil. As we are working in the incompressible
regime so the Bernoulli Equation relates the flow speed with its pressure distributions as:
Figure 7 Modified flow over airfoil

There is low pressure region in the upper surface of airfoil in comparison to the lower surface.
This net change in pressure results in the generation of lift force in the upward direction. In this
way lift force is generated by the airfoil.
Figure 8 Lift force demonstration over the airfoil
Change in Cp due to AoA variation

Overall pressure distribution varies due to 02 basic parameters.
• Angle of attack variation
• Free stream velocity
A generic trend in the variation of Cp because of AoA variation is represented in the figure
below,
Figure 9 variation of pressure distribution with AoA
Figure 10 Cp variation with AoA
There is an advance in the Cp location with reference to leading edge with the increase in the
AoA and vice versa. A similar variation in the Cp distribution is observed with the air speed
alteration.
Procedure
Procedure for the experiment is as follows.

• Attach the tubes coming from the airfoil to the liquid manometer.
• Adjust the zero level of the manometer
• Adjust the airfoil to zero angle of attack and set the speed know setting to a specific value
at which the practical is advised to be performed.
• Measure the liquid column level for the port mounted with reference to the static ports of
airfoil.
• This will give us the change in pressure at desired port of the airfoil.
• Find the velocity at each port using Bernoulli Equation reformulation.
• Repeat the same experiment for different values of angle of attack i.e. 4°, 8°, 14° etc.
• Compute the pressure profile across cord position for each α.
• Compute Cp profile for the cord positions across each α.
Tables and Graphs
Tube no Initial Final Pressure Velocity at Cp = x/c

column column difference port 1-(v/v∞)^2
level level ΔP = V=
(ρgΔh)/1000 (2*ΔP/P)^0.5
h1 (mm) h2 (mm) N/m2 (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Same table is made for values at some other Angle of attack.
Calculations
The equation of pressure coefficient is as follows.
Where
P = ρgΔh
Dynamics pressure = q = ½ ρV∞
Generally, P∞ and V∞ are the pressure and velocity upstream of the airfoil. During the
experiment there is are ports available in the wind tunnel for the calculation of upstream pressure
and velocity. The pressure differential is transferred in the velocity using Bernoulli Equation.
We have the Bernoulli equation as:
Where P1 and V1 are the pressure and velocity at the specific static port at which we are eager to
perform the calculation. Reformulation of above equation can be done as
Calculation of measured pressure

Pressure difference = ρgh
Where
ρ water = 1.94 slug/ft3
g = 32.174 ft/sec2
Density of air is considered constant during the whole experiment.
Airfoil Geometry
With reference to the airfoil available in our lab the cord and span for each one is measured as is
as follows.
Cord = c = 15cm
Span = b = 29.7cm
Results
The trend of Cp vs x/c graphs is observed for a specific angle of attack. Moreover, the same
trend for different angle of attack is compared and overall shifting of Cp for increase and
decrease of AoA is noted in the experiment.

For assessment/grading of student’s lab activity, students will submit a Lab report (which is
includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 03
Lift prediction for NACA airfoil vs. Angle of attack using Cp

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No 03
Lift prediction for NACA airfoil vs. Angle of attack using Cp
Objective
To obtain the total lift generated by the airfoil by using center of pressure at different AoA.
Apparatus
Specified NACA airfoil
Flotek Wind tunnel 1440
Liquid manometer
Measuring scale
Figure 11: Flotek wind tunnel 1440 (Available at subsonic aerodynamics lab)

Theory
This experiment is related with the last experiment in which we calculated the pressure
distribution about an airfoil and then ultimately calculated the pressure coefficient at various
ports about the airfoil.
In this experiment we will use the Cp distribution over the airfoil to predict the total lift
generated by the same airfoil. Cp data is used to calculate the coefficient of lift. Area between
the curves of Cp when plotted against (x/c) gives lift coefficient as can be seen in fig below.
Figure 12 Cp vs x/c graph
If the airfoil used for the experiment is symmetric then the characteristic lift slope curve of
NACA 0015 airfoil can be used for reference as follows.
Figure 13 Cl vs α graph for symmertic and positively cambered airfoil

Sectional lift
In order to calculate the total lift (Ltotal = Lls - Lg), pressure information from each tap is
multiplied with their respective areas to give sectional lift (P x A). The area that each x/c point is
assumed to measure is the sum of 1/2 the distance between each pair of taps. Then multiply by
the chord x span. e.g.
À = {[(x/c)3 - (x/c)2)/2 + [(x/c)2 - (x/c)1]/2} x {c x s}
Figure 14 Segmented pressure profile calculation

Calculation of Coefficient of Pressure Cp
The equation for the pressure distribution is given as
Where
P = ρgΔh
Dynamics pressure = q = ½ ρV∞
Where P∞ and V∞ are the upstream pressure and velocity, these values are obtained through the
pressure difference obtained corresponding to each static port about the airfoil.
The pressure difference (Pamb - P) is translated into velocity through Bernoulli Equation.
Bernoulli equation
Where P1 and V1 are the pressure and velocity at the specific static port at which we are eager to
perform the calculation. Reformulation of above equation can be done as
Calculation of measured pressure

Pressure difference = ρgh
Where
ρ water = 1.94 slug/ft3
g = 32.174 ft/sec2
Density of air is considered constant during the whole experiment.
Airfoil Geometry
With reference to the airfoil available in our lab the cord and span for each one is measured as is
as follows.
Cord = c = 15cm
Span = b = 29.7cm
Procedure
Procedure for the experiment is as follows.
• Attach the tubes coming from the airfoil to the liquid manometer.
• Adjust the zero level of the manometer
• Adjust the airfoil to zero angle of attack and set the speed know setting to a specific value
at which the practical is advised to be performed.
• Measure the liquid column level for the port mounted with reference to the static ports of
airfoil.
• This will give us the change in pressure at desired port of the airfoil.
• Find the velocity at each port using Bernoulli Equation reformulation.
• Repeat the same experiment for different values of angle of attack i.e. 4°, 8°, 14° etc.
• Compute the pressure profile across cord position for each α.
• Compute the lift on airfoil for each α
Results
Angle of attack ______
Upper surface
Tap no Area (ft2) Pressure Actual Pressure Sectional lift
reading Pressure coefficient (N)
(inches of (Pa)
H2O)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Lower surface
2
Tap no Area (ft ) Pressure Actual Pressure Sectional lift
reading Pressure coefficient (N)
(inches of (Pa)
H2O)
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Graphical representation
Generically the trend for symmetrical NACA 0015 airfoil, following trends for the cp graphs are
obtained.
Figure 15 Cp vs x/c graphs for 0 and 4α
Conclusion
Mentions the basic independent quantities of the experiment along with their relation with each
other, how one quantity influences the complete set of interlinked variables.
• Relation of speed with Cp distribution for provided airfoil.
• Relation of angle of attack with the Cp distribution for the provided airfoil.
• Trend of Cl vs speed and AoA
• Variation of sectional lift with change in angle of attack and speed.

includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
Flight demonstration of a model to understand different phases of

flight such as Take-Off, level flight and landing and to illustrate the
phenomenon of flow separation and stall.

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No - 04 IST-ARO-FDWT-N02-01/00
Experiment No 04
Flight demonstration of a model to understand different phases of flight such as Take-Off, level
flight and landing and to illustrate the phenomenon of flow separation and stall.
Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the graphical relationship between lift and angle
of attack for the complete dummy aircraft model fixed in the aircraft. As it is known that with the
change in the angle of attack, lift starts to increase until stall is experiences beyond a certain
point. At this point, the flow separates from the surface of the lifting body (i.e. airfoil and wing)
which causes decrease in lift and increase in drag. So it is also required of this experiment to
experimentally check the stalling angle of the model airplane inside flight demonstration wind
tunnel.
• To understand the concepts of some aerodynamics fundamentals like lift, drag,
freestream velocity,
Apparatus
AF41 Flight Demonstration Wind Tunnel
The apparatus is an open-circuit wind tunnel with a model aircraft suspended in the working
section. The model is supported by linkages that allow it to move vertically and to pitch about
the quarter chord point independently. The working section is brightly illuminated and the
aircraft model is clearly visible through a large transparent window. The operator flies the
aircraft manually using a control column and throttle. These are positioned directly in front of the
window and are arranged typically as found in a light aircraft, providing realistic simulation of
flight and the effect of the control surfaces. To fly the aircraft, the operator pushes the throttle
lever forward to increase the tunnel airspeed. When the airspeed reaches a certain level the
aircraft may be made to 'take-off by drawing the control column slowly back. A digital display
shows air velocity (pressure) in the working section, attitude, altitude or lift force on the aircraft.
Figure 16 Flight demonstration wind tunnel (available in lab)
Net dimensions 2300 mm x 1000 mm x 1600 mm

Net weight 262 kg
Working section 4450 mm x 225 mm
Tunnel fan Axial flow type
Maximum air velocity 21 m/s-1 (41 knots)
Air speed regulation Hand throttle connected to three-phase inverter
Model wing section NACA 2412
Model length 440 mm
Model wing span 220 mm
Model aircraft Fixed main wing, pivoted tail plane and two-
blade propeller
Aircraft effective weight 5 Newton
Theory
All the forces and moments on the bodies are produced by the two basic ways:
• Pressure distribution
• Shear stress distribution
The net effect of these forces when integrated over whole body results into Resultant
aerodynamic force and moment. The resultant force 'R' can be split into two parts:
➢ Lift - component of R, perpendicular to the free-stream velocity

➢ 2- Drag - component of R, parallel to the free-stream velocity
Lift
Lift is the force that directly opposes the weight of an airplane and holds the airplane in the air.
Lift is generated by every part of the airplane, but most of the lift on a normal airliner is
generated by the wings. Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force produced by the motion of the
airplane through the air. Because lift is a force, it is a vector quantity, having both a
magnitude and a direction associated with it. Lift acts through the center of pressure of the object
and is directed perpendicular to the flow direction. There are several factors which affect the
magnitude of lift.
Lift is given by the formula:
Figure 17 Lift, Normal and Reactional force of airfoil at an angle α

Here,
N= component of R, perpendicular to the chord

A = component of R, parallel to the chord
Α = angle of attack
For a 2D airfoil, normal and axial forces per unit span can be calculated by the formulas
Co-efficient of Lift
Lift co-efficient is a dimensionless coefficient that relates the lift generated by a lifting body, the
dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the body, and a reference area associated with the
body. A lifting body is a foil or a complete foil-bearing body such as a fixed-wing aircraft.
Angle of Attack
The angle of attack is the angle between an airfoil and the oncoming air. A symmetrical airfoil
will generate zero lift at zero angle of attack. But as the angle of attack increases, the air is
deflected through a larger angle and the vertical component of the airstream velocity increases,
resulting in more lift. As seen from the graph below, the value of CL increases with the increase
in the angle of attack
Figure 18 Generic Cl vs α graph

Stall angle
In fluid dynamics a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack
increases. This occurs when the critical angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle
of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but is may vary significantly depending on the fluid, foil,
and Reynolds number. Stalls in fixed wing flight are often experienced as sudden reduction in lift
as the pilot increases angle of attack and exceeds the critical angle of attack (which may be due
to slowing down below stall speed in level flight). A stall does not mean that the engine or
engines have stopped working or that the aircraft has stopped moving. Air no longer flows
smoothly over the wings during a stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst
simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases.
Procedure
This is the first experiment on Flight demonstration wind tunnel and it is a demonstration
practical, lab instructor will operate the wind tunnel and subsequently explain the experiment to
students.
Step which should be considered by lab incharge while performing the experiment are as
follows.
• Two basic controls of the apparatus are the throttle lever for alteration in the air speed in
the test section and lateral column for changing in the elevator angle
• The outputs for altitude, angle of attack, air speed are observable from the digital display
in the test section.

includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 05
To study the relationship between lift coefficient and Angle of attack

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No 05
To study the relationship between lift coefficient and Angle of attack
Objective
The basic aim of this practical is to understand the relationship between the change of angle of
attack due to stimulus from elevator and then to account for the change in overall lift of the
aircraft dummy model respective to change in AoA.
• To comprehend relation between lift and angle of attack for whole dummy aircraft model.
Apparatus
AF41 Flight Demonstration Wind Tunnel
The apparatus is an open-circuit wind tunnel with a model aircraft suspended in the working
section. The model is supported by linkages that allow it to move vertically and to pitch about
the quarter chord point independently. The working section is brightly illuminated and the
aircraft model is clearly visible through a large transparent window. The operator flies the
aircraft manually using a control column and throttle. These are positioned directly in front of the
window and are arranged typically as found in a light aircraft, providing realistic simulation of
flight and the effect of the control surfaces. To fly the aircraft, the operator pushes the throttle
lever forward to increase the tunnel airspeed. When the airspeed reaches a certain level the
aircraft may be made to 'take-off by drawing the control column slowly back. A digital display
shows air velocity (pressure) in the working section, attitude, altitude or lift force on the aircraft.
Figure 19 Flight demonstration wind tunnel (available in lab)

Net dimensions 2300 mm x 1000 mm x 1600 mm
Net weight 262 kg
Working section 4450 mm x 225 mm
Tunnel fan Axial flow type
Maximum air velocity 21 m/s-1 (41 knots)
Air speed regulation Hand throttle connected to three-phase inverter
Model wing section NACA 2412
Model length 440 mm
Model wing span 220 mm

Model aircraft Fixed main wing, pivoted tail plane and two-
blade propeller
Aircraft effective weight 5 Newton
Theory
As this practical is an extension of the previous practical so the basic theory part of this practice
is relatively identical to that of practical 04. So moving on to procedural and calculation steps.
Procedure
1. Start the wind tunnel and increase the test section air speed until about 12 knots so the
model is level.
2. Increase the speed until 35 knots
3. Change the attitude of the model with an increment of 2 degrees, not the attitude angle.
4. Not the corresponding attitude angle reading for the digital display inside the test section
and then the angle of attack reading by adding 2.5 degrees to the attitude reading from the
digital display.
5. Not the value of lift corresponding to that angle of attack.
6. Repeat step-3 to step -5 for 9 values.
7. Complete the calculations on the table provided and draw a graph with angle of attack on
the horizontal axis and Cl on the vertical axis.
8. Indicate the stall point on the graph.
Calculations and readings
Where
CL = Coefficient of Lift
L = Lift
Ρ = density of test section = 1.1695 kg/m3
V = velocity of test section = 1 knots = 0.514 m/s
S = wing area = 0.033m2
Results
Tail plane angle Attitude Angle of attack Lift/Altitude Coefficient of
(Degrees) (Degrees) (Attitude +2.5 (Newton) Lift
Degrees)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Graphical representation of results

General values for the model placed in the flight demonstration wind tunnel make the following
trend.
Figure 20 Coefficient of Lift vs AoA for dummy model inside the wind tunnel
Conclusion
Provide the details of graph obtained after performing the practical and explain the reason for the
specific trend of this graph.
• What is relation between the angle of attack and lift generated by the model.
• What is phenomenon for the graph trend obtained.
• Briefly mention the stall phenomenon in your own understanding.
includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
Measurement of Drag for models with different shapes having same

equatorial diameter. (Armfield Wind Tunnel C2)

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No - 06 IST-ARO-ARWT-N03-01/00
Experiment No 06
Measurement of Drag for models with different shapes having same equatorial diameter.
(Armfield Wind Tunnel C2)
Objective
In this experiment, the effect of drag on various objects of different shapes is to be analyzed
qualitatively, quantitatively and graphically, when an air flow passes across each of them.
Moreover, a comparison is to be done on how the different shape of object causes the resistive
nature of flow to vary.
Apparatus
• Armfield subsonic wind tunnel C2 (available in lab)
• Streamlined body
• Hemisphere (Concave to flow)
• Hemisphere (Convex to flow)
• Sphere
• Flat plate
• Arm field Subsonic Wind Tunnel
Figure 21 Armfield wind tunnel C2
Figure 22 Different models for Experiment

Wind tunnel specifications
The Armfield Wind Tunnel provides a comprehensive facility for the study of subsonic
aerodynamics. The performance of the tunnel and its instrumentation also make it suitable for
simple research projects.
• Self-contained wind tunnel for the study of subsonic aerodynamics, complete with two-
component balance system and air speed indicator
• Special features:
➢ Contraction and Diffuser: precision glass fiber mouldings
➢ Test Section: clear acrylic, which retracts to permit access to the models.
➢ Adjustment of models can be made with the tunnel in operation.
➢ Fan: Variable speed motor driven unit downstream of the working section permitting
stepless control of airspeed between 0 and 26ms-1
➢ Balance: Lift and drag Lift
➢ 7.0N, Drag
➢ 2.5N, Sensitivity ±0.01N
➢ Air speed: Indicated on inclined manometer directly calibrated in m/s
➢ Support structure: A strong steel frame including working surface and fitted with
castors for easy movement
• Suitable for undergraduate and simple research work.
• Working section: 304mm wide x 304mm high x 457mm long (octagonal cross- section)
Components of Armfield wind tunnel C2

1- 02 balance systems
2- Aluminum honeycomb flow straightener
3- Low angle diffuser
4- 05 bladed fan
5- AC motor
6- Control Unit
7- Sliding weights
Theory
The effects of drag exist in everyone's life. Simply driving a car across town means that you have
experienced drag. Your car engine must work a little harder to overcome the force present with
drag and get you to your location on time. Just walking down the street as well will confront a
person with drag.
Although this drag is small and the speed at which you can walk is small, the effects still exist.
Drag, or more specifically air drag, is a phenomenon that occurs as an object passes through a
fluid. There are a few factors that determine the drag force that an object experiences. Some of
the more obvious factors are shape, speed, fluid medium, and surface of the object. In some
instances, these factors are manipulated in order to either minimize or maximize drag. In other
cases, the drag forces must simply be known in order to design for other parameters possibly
such as engine horsepower, structural strength, etc.
Regardless of the need for finding the drag force, the need for an accurate calculation of this
force persists. With this in mind, we experiment with shapes, speeds, and methods in order to
draw insight on the ability to predict drag. In this experiment, we study the effect of shapes on
drag during an air flow.
Pressure gradient
As seen from the figure of an airfoil, there is a curvature present on the top side of an airfoil that
can be easily visualized if we replace the airfoil with a thin plate having the upper surface of the
airfoil on its top.
As the particle start moving on it the slope increases and hence the velocity increases and
pressure decreases. After a specific point over an airfoil, for a given angle of attack, the flow will
start to separate from the top and leads to the wake region.
Figure 23 Generic airflow over airfoil
Boundary layer
It is obvious that the air very close to the airfoil "rubs" against the solid surface and is slowed
down. In other words, starting downstream of the impact point, the air loses some of its
momentum, or velocity. And it loses more and more as we follow it along the path close to the
solid airfoil. We can see that friction creates an area where there is less speed. The reduced speed
area just outside of the airfoil becomes thicker and thicker as we follow it from the leading edge
to the trailing edge. This area is called the boundary layer, its thickness is increasing as described
and is defined as the thickness at which the local free stream speed is finally reached. A typical
boundary layer thickness is 1/2" near the trailing edge. The friction, which obviously, is a loss,
results in the friction drag of the airfoil.
Again the theory of fluid dynamics shows that there are two possible types of stable boundary
layers:
1- The first, to build up, is called 'laminar" because the flow is nice and steady and the
friction drag is relatively low.
2- The second is called 'turbulent" because the flow is rather rough and the friction drag is
higher.
The unfortunate thing is that the "laminar boundary layer" will automatically become turbulent
(with associated higher drag) close to the leading edge of the airfoil unless very special
precautions are taken.
Drag
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance or fluid resistance) refers to forces
which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative fluid flow velocity. Unlike other
resistive forces, such as dry friction, which is nearly independent of velocity, drag forces depend
on velocity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid's
path.
Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories:
1- Parasitic drag, consisting of
a. Form drag
b. Skin friction
c. Interference drag
2- Lift-induced drag
3- Wave drag (aerodynamics) or wave resistance (ship hydrodynamics).
Flow separation point and contribution of individual drag type towards the total drag
Figure 24 Drag profile (skin friction and pressure drag) for different models of experiment
Working of wind tunnel balance

Main equipment comprises the tunnel with a two-component balance system and an air speed
indicator. The two-component balance consists of a pair of balances supported on knife edges on
mutually perpendicular axes parallel to and normal to the axial center of the tunnel. Lift and drag
components of force exerted on the models under test are balanced by sliding weights along the
arms of the balance until a state of null deflection is reached.
Graduations in units of force allow lift and drag to be read directly. The complete assembly is
linked to a simple oil filled damping pot. Models are mounted on the balance within the working
section and a protractor with cursor allows angles of incidence to be changed quickly and
accurately while the tunnel is running. The accuracy of the tunnel and its instrumentation make it
suitable for undergraduate and simple research work.
Figure 25 C2 Armfield wind tunnel balance
Drag models installation guide

• Fit the lift and drag balance as described previously, if not already fitted.
• Position the spare spindle in the lift and drag balance so the two locating pins at the base
of the support rod fit into the balance socket.
• Cover the remaining exposed slot in the tunnel base as much as possible using the cover
plates provided.
• Adjust the drag counterbalance weight to give null deflection with no air flow.
• Use the spindle to determine the drag of the support spindles of the drag models. The
spindle drag may then be subtracted from the total drag measured for each model. Once a
drag velocity curve has been established this may be kept with the wind tunnel and used
for future calculations.
• Each model is mounted in the balance in the same way as the spare spindle. The locating
pins ensure that axis-symmetric flow will occur over the model with the height between
model center line and balance knife edges correct for the balance calibration.
• The remaining slot area must be covered with the plates provided.
• Adjustment of the drag counterbalance weight will be necessary for each model to
achieve null deflection with no air flow. This is due to weight differences between the
models.
Drag models operation

Mount the required drag model in the lift and drag balance. Two pins are situated at the base of
the support rod of each model. These locate in the balance socket in such a way that axis-
symmetric flow will occur over the model with the height between model's center line and
balance knife edges correct for the balance calibration.
Each model is mounted in the balance in the same way. Adjustment of the drag counter balance
weight will be necessary for each model to achieve null deflection with no air flow. This is due
to weight differences between the models.
In order to give accurate results for drag, it is necessary to take in to account the drag of the
support spindle. To give a close approximation of this effect, a spare spindle is provided, for
which a separate drag-velocity curve may be determined. The appropriate drag of the spindle
may then be deducted from the total drag measured, for a particular model and support at a given
velocity.
Whilst taking results it is important to reduce the slot in the tunnel base as much as possible,
using the cover plates provided.
Procedure
The experiment can be performed following these steps:
• Check for smooth functioning of wind tunnel balance
• Check for smooth air flow passage for wind tunnel operation
1- Check that all the inlet/test section/exhaust etc. are clear.
2- After doing all the preliminary checks set the model inside the test section. 3- Fit the
model firmly at a given angle of attack, and close the test section gently.
4- Make sure all the components are firmly attached.
5- Set the speed of the motor and turn the apparatus ON.
6- Let the flow passes till it become smooth and un-balance the overall system.
7- Note the readings of the columns of manometer.
8- Repeat the entire experiment for other specimen.
Important consideration:
Horizontal scale, in the direction of flow, is the Drag scale, that is produced in the same direction
of the flow and the scale perpendicular to the flow is the Lift scale.
Tables and graphs

Streamline body
Controller Velocity Drag Null Deflection Net Drag force
(Speed) (m/s) (N) (Force N) (N)
Sphere body
Hemisphere body(Convex to airflow)

Circular Disc
Hemisphere body(Concave to airflow)

Following graphs are required to be made in result of this experiment.

• Graph is between lift and AoA at constant speed
• Graph is between drag and AoA at constant speed
• Graph is between lift and air speed at constant AoA
• Graph is between Drag and airspeed at constant AoA
Important consideration
Best fit curve techniques can be employed to obtain smooth graphs for this experiment. A
generic example for this method is demonstrated below.
Figure 26 Curve fitting for obtained numerical data

Trend for drag vs speed graphs for assistance is demonstrated as follows.
Figure 27 Drag vs speed graphs for different models

includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil (without flaps) at
various angles of attack and plot CL vs α curve and Drag polar for
given airfoil

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No 07
To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil (without flaps) at various angles of attack and
plot CL vs α curve and Drag polar for given airfoil
Objective
In this experiment only the lift and drag profile along with respective drag polar of wing is
calculated. The flap of the airfoil NACA 0015 is set at four stages but in this practical flap
deflection is kept zero.
Apparatus
• Wind tunnel with force balance
• NACA 0015 airfoil
As this practical is an extension of the previous one, therefor wind tunnel specification and
operating procedures are the same. Only difference is that now the wing is placed inside the wind
tunnel test section in place of different models as before.
Theory
Drag and lift of an airfoil depends on two basic factors
• Angle of attack
• Upstream velocity
As the air passes over the airfoil, the airfoils modifies the flow around it. Eventually the air
interacts with the airfoil in two manners
• Pressure distribution
• Shear stress distribution
With the change in angle of attack the pressure distribution about the airfoil changes and
eventually it results in the modification of lift and drag forces acting on the airfoil or wing.
LIFT TO DRAG RATIO (L/D) AND IT'S VARIATION WITH ANGLE OF ATTACK
There are four forces that act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Forces are
vector quantities having both a magnitude and a direction. The motion of the aircraft through the
air depends on the relative magnitude and direction of the various forces.
Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces, the ratio of lift to drag is an indication of the
aerodynamic efficiency of the airplane. Aerodynamicists call the lift to drag ratio the L/D ratio,
pronounced "L over D ratio," An airplane has a high L/D ratio if it produces a large amount of
lift or a small amount of drag, under cruise conditions lift is equal to weight, A high lift aircraft
can carry a large payload. Under cruise conditions thrust is equal to drag. A low drag aircraft
requires low thrust, thrust is produced by burning a fuel and a low thrust aircraft requires small
amounts of fuel be burned. As discussed on the maximum flight time page, low fuel usage allows
an aircraft to stay aloft for a long time, and that means the aircraft can fly long range missions.
So an aircraft with a high L/D ratio can carry a large payload, for a long time, over a long
distance, for glider aircraft with no engines, a high L/D ratio again produces a long range aircraft
by reducing the steady state glide angle at which the glider descends.
Figure 28 Generic Cl/ Cd vs α graphs
The L/D ratio is also equal to the ratio of the lift and drag coefficients. The lift equation indicates
that the lift L is equal to one half the air density r times the square of the velocity V times the
wing area A times the lift coefficient CL:
Similarly, the drag equation relates the aircraft drag D to a drag coefficient Cd:
Lift and drag coefficients are normally determined experimentally using a wind tunnel. But for
some simple geometries, they can be determined mathematically.
Procedure
The experiment can be performed following these steps
• Check that all the inlet/ test section/ exhaust etc. are clear
• After doing all the preliminary checks set the model inside the test section gently
• Fit the model firmly at the given angle of attack and close the test section
• Make sure all the components are firmly attacked
• Set the speed of the motor and turn the apparatus ON
• Let the flow passes till it become smooth, unbalancing the whole system
• Move the sliding weights and balance the whole system
• Note the reading when the system is balanced
• Repeat the same experiment with making the angle of attack variable
Important point to notice is that the horizontal scale in the direction of airflow is for the drag
measurement and the scale perpendicular to the flow of air is for the calculation of lift.
Tables and graphs

Air speed _________
Chord respective to the airfoil available = 54.34mm
Span of the airfoil available = 250mm
ρ = 1.23 kg/m3
Angle of Fan nob Test Lift force Coefficient Drag force Coefficient
attack speed section (N) of lift (N) of drag
(α degrees) setting velocity
(m/s)
Result
Relation of lift and drag with changing angle of attack is obtained from the experiment. Generic
graphs showing the experiment output are as follows.
Figure 29 Cl vs α curve for symmetric airfoil
Similarly,
Figure 30 Cd vs α graph
By using Cl and Cd we plot the drag polar as follows
Figure 31 drag polar for and uncambered wing
Conclusion
Write down the basic aerodynamic phenomena’s involved in the experiment and how they are
related to the modification of lift and drag curves over a range of angle of attack.
• Provide the independent variables of the experiment
• Notice the relation between these different quantities
• What does the trend of variation for above mentioned quantities depict for an
incompressible flow.

includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 08
To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil (with flaps) at
various angles of attack and plot CL vs α curve and Drag polar for
given airfoil

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No – 08
To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil (with flaps) at various angles of attack and
plot CL vs α curve and Drag polar for given airfoil
Apparatus
• Wind tunnel with force balance
• NACA 0015 airfoil
As this practical is an extension of the previous one, therefor wind tunnel specification and
operating procedures are the same. Only difference is that now different flaps angles are
employed for the wing placed inside the wind tunnel test.
Theory
In this practical the lift modification respective to the flaps deployment is studied. Flaps are high
lift devices. A flap is a high-lift device used to reduce the stalling speed of an aircraft wing at a
given weight. Flaps are usually mounted on the wing trailing edges of a fixed-wing aircraft.
An air plane normally encounters its lowest flight velocities at takeoff or landing two periods
that are mostly critical for aircraft safety. The slowest speed at which an airplane can fly in
straight and level flight is defined as the stalling speed Vstall . Hence the calculations of Vstall, as
well as aerodynamic methods of making V as small as possible, are of vital importance.
The stalling velocity is readily obtained in terms of the maximum lift co efficient as follows.
From the definition of CL.
Examining the above equation, for an airplane of given weight and size at a given altitude, we
find the only recourse to minimize V is to maximize Cl. Hence Stalling speed corresponds to the
angle of attack that produce CL max.
Figure 32 Illustration of single flap

In order to decrease Vstall, CL,max must be increased. However, for a wing with a given airfoil
shape. CL,max is fixed by nature, i.e. the lift properties of an airfoil, including maximum lift,
depend on the physics of the flow over airfoil . In order to assist nature, the lifting properties of a
given airfoil can be greatly enhanced by the use of " artificial high lift devices. The most
common of these devices is the simple flap at trailing edge of the wing. When the flap is rotated
downward, the camber of the airfoil is effectively increased, with a consequent increase in for
the wing, At the same time the zero-lift angle of attack is shifted to a more negative value. These
trends are illustrated in the figure
Complete modification of lift profile due to the employment of flaps is depicted in the graph as
follows.
Figure 33 Lift modification due to flaps
Figure 34 Different types of flaps and their effect on lift coefficient
The increase in CL,max due to flaps can be dramatic. If the flap is designated not only to rotate
downward but also to translate reward as so as to increase the effective wing area, CL,max can be
increased by approx. a factor of 2. If additional high lift are devices are used, such as slats at the
leading edge, slots in the surface, or mechanical means of boundary layer control, then CL,max can
sometimes be increased by a factor of 3 or more.
Procedure
The experiment can be performed following these steps
• Check that all the inlet/ test section/ exhaust etc. are clear
• After doing all the preliminary checks set the model inside the test section gently
• Make sure all the components are firmly attacked
• Set the speed of the motor and turn the apparatus ON
• Employ some flap angle by first loosening the screws on the airfoil flaps and set one of
the 5 divisions available on the airfoil.
➢ These 5 markings at the airfoil show different flaps angles which can be
employed. It includes 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 respectively.
• Let the flow passes till it become smooth, unbalancing the whole system
• Move the sliding weights and balance the whole system
• Note the reading when the system is balanced
• Repeat the same experiment with making the angle of attack variable
Important point to notice is that the horizontal scale in the direction of airflow is for the drag
measurement and the scale perpendicular to the flow of air is for the calculation of lift.
Tables and graphs

Stage 1, 2, 3,4 and 5 corresponds to flap angles of 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 respectively
Lift force with flaps deflection at stages

Stage 1 Coefficient Stage 2 Coefficient Stage 3 Coefficient Stage4 Coefficient
of lift (CL) of lift (CL) of lift (CL) of lift (CL)
Drag force with flaps deflection at stages

Stage 1 Coefficient Stage 2 Coefficient Stage 3 Coefficient Stage4 Coefficient
of lift (CD) of lift (CD) of lift (CD) of lift (CD)
Calculation of L/D ratio at constant test section velocity
Test section velocity ______

Flap angle Stage 1
Angle of attack (α) Lift force (N) Drag force (N) Lift to Drag ratio
(L/D)
Flap angle Stage 2
(L/D)
Flap angle Stage 3
(L/D)
Flap angle Stage 4
(L/D)
Flap angle Stage 5
(L/D)
Conclusion
Mention the independent and dependent quantities of the experiment and the relation with which
they relate to each other.
• Effect of flaps employment on the overall aerodynamic performance
• Changes in the L/D profile due to flaps deflection
• Briefly explain the High lift devices

includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 09
Flow visualization using Smoke demonstration wind tunnel

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No - 09 IST-ARO-SDWT-N04-01/00
Experiment No 09
Flow visualization using Smoke demonstration wind tunnel
Objective
The aim purpose to perform this experiment is to understand that how models of proposed
aircraft and engine components are tested using flow visualization techniques. The study will
help us to learn more accurate way to visualize free stream flow by using smoke tunnel. The
assumption is made that the smoke moves exactly with the flow and therefore gives some
indication of how the flow moves around the model.
Apparatus
Smoke demonstration wind tunnel
The flow visualization device to be used in this experiment is the smoke tunnel. This is a two-
dimensional wind tunnel with a test section. The sides of the wind tunnel are made of glass. Air
is pulled through the test section at a low velocity by means of a small blower at the exhaust end
of the tunnel. test section is lit with flood lamps from the top and bottom. Smoke is generated in
a reservoir. which is in a compartment beneath the wind tunnel. Oil in the reservoir saturates a
wick wrapped around a heating element that vaporizes the oil. An air tube, which originates from
the downstream end of the blower, forces air through the reservoir and picks up the oil producing
a fine smoke.
The reservoir is connected to a streamlined feeder pipe that stands vertically in the middle of the
flow at the upstream end of the wind tunnel test section. Smoke emerges from the small tubes
and enters the main airstream, so that at the test section an observer sees the flow streamlines as
discrete bands of white smoke. Various models may be mounted in the test section and the
resulting flow pattern can be observed or recorded photographically. The flow is kept low so that
the smoke particles in the free stream will stay in layers or lamina maintain their identity; smoke
in turbulent flow tends to dissipate and makes observation difficult.
Available smoke demonstration wind tunnel accessories are as follows.
Figure 35 Smoke wind tunnel accessories available in lab
Theory
Wake region
A wake is the region of recirculating flow immediately behind a moving or stationary solid body,
caused by the flow of surrounding fluid around the body.
In fluid dynamics, a wake is the region of disturbed flow (usually turbulent) downstream of a
solid body moving through a fluid, caused by the flow or the fluid around the body. In
incompressible fluids (liquids) such as water, a bow wake is created when a watercraft moves
through the medium; as the medium cannot be compressed, it must be displaced instead,
resulting in a wave. As with all wave forms, it spreads outward from the source until its energy is
overcome or lost, usually by friction or dispersion.
Figure 36 Flow separation about a spherical body

Flow visualization
Flow visualization is the process of making the physics of fluid flows (gases, liquids) visible. In
fluid dynamics is used to make the flow patterns visible, in order to get qualitative or quantitative
information on them.
Figure 37 Smoke flow depiction over airfoil

Streakline, pathline, timeline and streamline
Time lines, streak lines and path lines play an important role in experimental fluid flow
visualization techniques.
• Time lines are lines that, once released in the fluid, are moved and transformed by the
fluid flow. The motion and formation of the line, which is often released perpendicular to
the flow, shows the fluid flow. In practice, time lines often consist of a row of small
particles, such as hydrogen bubbles.
• A streak line arises when dye is injected in the flow from a fixed position. Injecting the
dye for a period of time gives a line of dye in the fluid, from which the fluid flow can be
seen.
• A path line is the path of a particle in the fluid. Imagine a light-emitting particle in the
flow. A path line is obtained when a photographic plate is exposed for several seconds.
Surface flow visualization

This reveals the flow streamlines in the limit as a solid surface is approached. Colored oil applied
to the surface of a wind tunnel model provides one example (the oil responds to the surface shear
stress and forms a pattern).
Particle tracer methods

Particles, such as smoke or microspheres, can be added to a flow to trace the fluid motion. We
can illuminate the particles with a sheet of laser light in order to visualize a slice of a
complicated fluid flow pattern. Assuming that the particles faithfully follow the streamlines of
the flow, we can not only visualize the flow but also measure its velocity using the particle image
velocimetry methods. Particles with densities that match that of the fluid flow will exhibit the
most accurate visualization.
Optical methods
Some flows reveal their patterns by way of changes in their optical refractive index. These are
visualized by optical methods known as the shadowgraph, Schlieren photography, and
interferometry. More directly, dyes can be added to (usually liquid) flows to measure
concentrations: typically employing the light attenuation or laser-induced fluorescence
techniques.
Procedure
This is a demonstration practical, lab instructor will operate the wind tunnel and subsequently
explain the experiment to students.
Step which should be considered by lab incharge while performing the experiment are as
follows.
1. Check for the smooth electricity supply of lab.

2. Check the circuit breakers and supply switches of wind tunnel.
3. On the front panel, turn the main power on, then turn on the power lights and smoke.
4. Allow the smoke generator to start producing the smoke (~5-10 seconds), then turn the
blower on.
5. To start, set the speed control about halfway - you will not need to know the air velocity,
but it varies approximately linearly with the setting of the speed control.
6. Before opening the front door/window of the test section, turn the smoke generator and
blower off,
7. Open the front door of the test section and mount the following models one by one:
a. The model of a car and a truck for comparative study of flow around the two
bodies
b. The cross section of a wing (the airfoil)
8. This is a flow visualization experiment. That means one should feel free to adjust the
wind tunnel's speed and geometry of the models in order to see what happens the
conditions are changed.
9. When the observations have been completed, turn off the smoke first, then the lights.
10. Allow the blower to run for about five minutes to clear the smoke out of the tunnel, then
turn off the blower and the main power.
Pictorial representation
Figure 38 Generic flow representation over a car

The available smoke generation wind tunnel with a streamline car and a truck in the test section
depict the flow in the following manner.
Figure 39 Picture from smoke generation wind tunnel (available in lab)

includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Hydrogen bubble flow visualization experiment over different

bodies

ISLAMABAD
Experiment No - 10 IST-ARO-HBFV-N05-01/00
Experiment No 10
Hydrogen bubble flow visualization experiment over different bodies
Objective
To provide a visual picture of the flow over objects of various shapes utilizing Hydrogen Bubble
Apparatus. Basic objectives of the experiment include:
• Observe the flow over two given bodies
• Compare the flow characteristics of these two given bodies
• Conclude observation summarizing the above two mentioned steps
Apparatus
Hydrogen bubble flow visualization system F14-MKⅡ
The assembly basically includes:

• A Hydrogen Bubble Pulse Generator which is contained in a compact metal cabinet
suitable for bench mounting with all controls clearly annotated on the front face. At the
rear of the cabinet are positioned all the electrical connecting points which are color
coded and are made either by means of a shielded plug or by jack plugs.
• A lamp assembly, light guide, supporting rods, rail and clamps. The lamp assembly
comprises a 55w, 12v, Tungsten Halogen bulb backed by a concave mirror. The light
guide is made of polished clear acrylic resin (Perspex) which enables a beam of light to
be directed below the fluid surface by total internal reflection. The whole assembly may
be moved horizontally and vertically by adjustment of the clamps on the horizontal
supporting rods and rail.
• A cathode assembly consisting of a fine stainless-steel wire supported in tension by a
forked holder with insulated tips. The forked holder is carried by a support bar by means
of a crocodile clamp. The support bar is clamped to the horizontal member of a tripod
and insulated from it by a P.V.C two-way clamp block.
• An anode assembly comprising a stainless-steel block with terminal connection.
• A removable, reversible backboard having a black finish on one face and a striped
surface for setting-up purpose on the reverse face
Figure 40 Hydrogen bubble flow visualization apparatus (available at lab)
Experiment No - 10 IST-ARO-HBFV-N05-01/00
Procedure
Startup procedure
• Check the circuit breakers and supply switches of apparatus.
• Check for any potential hazard in terms of electrical and chemical manner before letting
the students to perform the experiment.
• Fill the channel with water and place glass marbles in the bottom of the tube.
• Attach and adjust the amp assembly and light guide to the horizontal rail.
• Assemble the cathode holder support bar and tripod and place the assembly at the
required position in the channel.
• Connect the red cable from the anode block to the red terminal and pulse generator.
• Connect the black cable from the terminal on the support bar to the black terminal on the
pulse generator
• Connect the lamp assembly to the generator using the yellow terminal.
• Carefully install the tungsten wire with the cathode holder support bar
• Connect the pulse generator to the single-phase electric supply.
• Switch ON the main power supply (Student's experiment will start here)
• Put ON the pump and lamp switches.
• Rotate the lower central switch to continuous position.
• Rotate the lower left hand rheostat switch from min to max position.
• Adjust the pump delivery value to provide a fluid flow which is commensurate with
stable two-dimensional conditions.
• Place the model in the channel to observe the flow pattern around it, and repeat the
experiment by replacing models.
Shut down procedure
• Put OFF the lamp and main switches
• Switch OFF the main Power Supply
• Disconnect the pulse generator from the electric supply
• Carefully remove the Tungsten wire from the cathode holder support bar
• Disconnect all the cables
• Remove cathode holder support bar and tripod from the channel
• Remove lamp assembly and light guide from the horizontal rail
• Drain the water and remove the glass marbles o Dry the equipment
• Dry the equipment
For assessment/grading of student’s lab activity, students will submit a Lab report (which is
includes
• Observations
• Graphs
• Results
• Conclusion

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AERODYNAMICS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

2|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

Exp. Experiments Page

2 IST-ARO-FLWT-N01-02/00 To determine the coefficient of pressure Cp at different points 10

4 IST-ARO-FDWT-N02-01/00 Flight demonstration of a model to understand different phases 24

6 IST-ARO-ARWT-N03-01/00 Measurement of Drag for models with different shapes having 33

7 IST-ARO-ARWT-N03-02/00 To measure the lift and drag of NACA 0015 airfoil 43

10 IST-ARO-HBFV-N05-01/00 Hydrogen bubble flow visualization experiment over different 61

3|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

MEASURMENT OF WIND TUNNEL TEST SECTION

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

Figure 1: Flotek wind tunnel 1440 (Available at subsonic aerodynamics lab

Safety & Precautions

Some important features of wind tunnels are as follows.

5|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

Types of wind tunnel

Figure 2 Open circuit wind tunnel flow demonstration

• Closed Circuit Wind Tunnels (Prandtl Gottingen or return flow type)

Figure 3 Closed circuit wind tunnel

6|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

Wind tunnel components

Figure 4: Different components of a wind tunnel

Air velocity calculation of wind tunnel using Bernoulli Equation

7|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

Tables and Graphs

8|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

Rotor knob reading Air velocity in test section

Observation and Conclusion

Report by the Student

9|Subsonic Aerodynamics Lab

To determine the coefficient of pressure Cp at different points on

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

Figure 5: Flotek wind tunnel 1440 (Available at subsonic aerodynamics lab)

Safety & Precautions

Figure 6 Generic pressure distribution

Figure 7 Modified flow over airfoil

Figure 8 Lift force demonstration over the airfoil

Change in Cp due to AoA variation

Figure 9 variation of pressure distribution with AoA

Figure 10 Cp variation with AoA

Steps to be performed by lab incharge

Tables and Graphs

Tube no Initial Final Pressure Velocity at Cp = x/c

Same table is made for values at some other Angle of attack.

Calculation of measured pressure

Report by the Student

Lift prediction for NACA airfoil vs. Angle of attack using Cp

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

Safety & Precautions

Figure 12 Cp vs x/c graph

Figure 13 Cl vs α graph for symmertic and positively cambered airfoil

À = {[(x/c)3 - (x/c)2)/2 + [(x/c)2 - (x/c)1]/2} x {c x s}

Figure 14 Segmented pressure profile calculation

Calculation of measured pressure

Figure 15 Cp vs x/c graphs for 0 and 4α

Report by the Student

Flight demonstration of a model to understand different phases of