Bloc

Gender and Ethnicity
BLOCK 3
FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL
PERFORMANCE
147
Cardio-vascular and
Respiratory Endurance
148
Principles of Physical
UNIT 9 PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL Conditioning
CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES* Techniques
Contents
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Importance of Fitness
9.1.1 Physical Fitness
9.1.1.1 Importance of Physical Fitness

9.1.1.2 Physical Activity Components of Physical Fitness
9.1.2 Physical Fitness Variables
9.1.2.1 Importance of Shoulder Strength
9.1.2.2 Importance of Abdominal Strength
9.1.2.3 Importance of Power
9.1.2.4 Importance of Agility
9.1.2.5 Importance of Speed
9.1.2.6 Importance of Endurance
9.1.3 Exercise and Fitness

9.2 Important Aspects of Physical Conditioning
9.2.1 Important Aspects to be kept in Mind While Designing Conditioning
Program
9.3 Training
9.3.1 Meaning of Training
9.3.2 Importance of Training
9.3.3 Types of Training
9.3.3.1 Station Training
9.3.3.2 Set Training
9.3.3.3 Circuit Training
9.3.4 Training and Fitness

9.4 Yoga
9.4.1 Importance of Yoga
9.4.2 Yoga and Fitness

9.5 Summary
9.6 References
9.7 Hints/Answers to Check Your Progress
*
Contributor: Dr Suman Dua, Guest Faculty, Department of Anthropology, University of
Delhi, Delhi. 149
Factors Affecting LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Physical Performance
After going through this unit, you will:
 learn the benefits of physical activity;
 know what is physical fitness and its importance;
 understand how physical conditioning programs be designed;
 identify the types of training methods and their uses; and
 gain knowledge of yoga and use of yoga for fitness.
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Physical fitness refers to the overall individual physical condition. Physical
fitness is of great importance for all human beings irrespective of age. A
person may not be able to perform a particular task if he lacks required
physical strength. It is different for each person and can range from extreme
illness and near death, to peak performance, like top Olympic and decorated
athletes. Modernisation and urbanisation have led to a reduction in physical
activity of both men and women and dependence on modern gadgets has
increased.
For a good performance in any sport, whether it is lacrosse, tennis,

football, taekwondo, track and field, basketball or anything in between,
achievement of a high standard of fitness is a basic requirement. Just the
participation in sports is not enough to improve fitness, because fitness
must be gained only through conditioning programmes. Fitness becomes
even more important in competitive sports.
The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation

(AAPHER) has defined physical fitness as:
Fitness is that state, which characterises the degree to which a person is
able to function,
Fitness is an individual matter. It implies the ability of each person to
live most efficiently with his potential, and
Ability to function depends upon physical, mental, emotional, social and
spiritual components of fitness, all of which is related to each other and
is naturally interdependent (Gorden, 1985).
Habits and attitudes towards physical activity developed during childhood are
assumed to continue through adolescence into adulthood. Physical fitness is a
related construct and it is also often assumed that the more habitually active
are more fit (Malina, 1996).
Physical activity is related to the bodily movements that are produced by

skeletal muscles resulting in energy expenditure whereas physical fitness is
set of attributes that someone has or achieves. The components of physical
fitness which can be measured are related to health and to skills pertaining to
athletic ability.
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Principles of Physical
9.1 IMPORTANCE OF FITNESS Conditioning
Techniques
A player in good physical condition is generally thought to have the ability to
do sustained work. For a good performance in any sport or athletic event,
achievement of a high standard of fitness is a basic requirement which must
be gained only through conditioning programmes.
Evidence is mounting that physically fit persons lead longer lives, have better
performance records than those who are unfit. A totally fit individual has
strength, speed, endurance, power, agility and social and emotional adjustments
appropriate to his life.
9.1.1 Physical Fitness

Physical fitness is the ability to carry out the daily task with vigour and
alertness, without undue fatigue and with ample energy to enjoy the leisure
time and pursuits to meet unforeseen emergency situations. Physical fitness is
a broad term which literally means a hale and healthy physique. The physical
level of an individual indicates as to how one fits into a group. The purpose
of physical fitness is to create a consciousness and enthusiasm among people
and to stimulate these interests for physical welfare which will help them to
have a better and more healthful living (Bucher et al., 1985).
Physical fitness means the ability of an individual to live a happy and well
balanced life. It involves not only physical, but intellectual, emotional, social
and spiritual aspects of an individual. Interaction and interdependence of
these phases of a man's health are such that any deviation from normal in any
aspect of these components of fitness will make a man unable to meet the
demands placed on him by his work or way of life.
Physical fitness includes speed, flexibility, power, strength, co-ordination,

muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance and agility. These characteristics
are all equalised with the healthy functioning of the body. Another, but a
different and important component of physical fitness is the athletic skill. The
various aspects of physical fitness and the skills are inter-related. Physical
fitness is a broad term denoting dynamic qualities that will satisfy the needs
regarding mental and emotional stability. Social consciousness and
adaptability, spiritual and mental fear and organic health are consistent with
heredity. Physical fitness means that organic system of the body is healthy
and it functions efficiently so as to enable the fit persons to engage in
vigorous task and leisure activities beyond organic development, muscular
strength, and endurance (Waynel et al., 1949).
Physical fitness implies efficient performance in exercise. Physical fitness is

a term used to refer to the functional capacity of an individual to perform
certain kinds of tasks requiring muscular activity. Physical fitness is the
ability of the body to adopt and recover from strenuous exercise. It is the
relation of one's ability to work and play with vigour and pleasure without
undue fatigue and with sufficient energy for unforeseen emergencies.
Physical fitness is the ability to last, to bear up and to persevere under
difficult circumstances where an unfit person would give up. It is the opposite
of being fatigued from ordinary efforts (Fleishman, 1985). 151
Factors Affecting Check Your Progress 1
1) What do you understand by physical fitness?
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9.1.1.1 Importance of Physical Fitness

Every individual must know the importance of physical fitness. In other
words one must have a fundamental knowledge of anatomy and physiology.
This fundamental knowledge enables a person to understand physical fitness
that it is the capacity of a person to function steadily and smoothly when a
situation arises. Physical fitness makes one feel mentally sharper, physically
more comfortable with the body and better able to cope with the demands
that every day life makes upon us. Increased physical fitness not only
improves health but improves our performance at work. Hundreds of
American companies have backed this idea financially by employing full
time directors of fitness for the work. It is necessary for every individual to
be physically fit to perform their daily work with ease and to take part in
various activities effectively. Everyone should be fit enough through
participation in physical activities to develop the different physical fitness
components. In the day-to-day living, physical health and nutrition appear to
have gained a place of priority.
Through physical activity, physical fitness is built and maintained. If one has
improved his physical fitness, it can be presumed that he has improved the
efficiency of his heart and lungs. Let us enlist few other benefits of physical
activity that lead to physical fitness, these are: the delay in aging process,
protection of lower back problems, maintenance of body weight, reduction in
the rate of incidence of heart diseases and the reduction in reliance on drugs
that induce sleep.
Physical fitness plays a vital role in any performance. An individual's

physical fitness and performance depends upon the coordinated functioning
of the various factors such as physical, psychological abilities, nutrition,
technique tactics, physique, body size and composition. Thus physical fitness
plays a vital role in all the results of many athletic events and games.
9.1.1.2 Physical Activity Components of Physical Fitness

Physical fitness is more than just how fast you can run or how many pull-ups
you can do. It is more than just how good you are at running ladders, or how
long you can squat. Physical fitness is holistic. Physical fitness encompasses
several areas, including:
Agility
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Endurance Principles of Physical
Conditioning
Power Techniques
Speed
Strength
Co-ordination
Dexterity
Flexibility
A good physical conditioning routine will include exercises that work on

each of these areas. Working on one more than another can cause an
imbalance, therefore causing injuries and decreased performance.
Check Your Progress 2

2) What are the components of physical fitness?
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3) How flexibility can benefit athletes?
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9.1.2 Physical Fitness Variables

The components of physical fitness variables for a particular study may
include shoulder strength, abdominal strength, speed, power, agility and
endurance to analyse the physical fitness variables and the influence of
physical exercises, circuit training and yogic practice on the physical fitness
variables.
9.1.2.1 Importance of Shoulder Strength

Strength is the amount of force that can be exerted by a particular muscle. In
athletic events, putting the shot has been selected for the shoulder strength. In
shot-put one can see the combination of both strength and power. The
importance of selecting shot-put is to reveal the shoulder strength of an
athlete. 153
Factors Affecting Strength is a conditional ability that is, it depends largely on the energy
liberation processes in the muscles. Strength is also perhaps the most
important motor ability in sports as it is a direct product of muscle contractions.
All movements in sports are caused by muscle contractions and therefore,
strength is a part and parcel of all motor abilities, technical skills and tactical
actions. Strength and strength training therefore, assume high importance for
achieving good performance in all sports.
Strength is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against resistance.

Strength should not be considered a product of only muscular contractions. It
is, in fact, a product of voluntary muscle contractions caused by the neuro-
muscular system. In sports, depending on the nature of the movements the
strength abilities can appear in complex form.
In weight lifting and throws the strength required is a combination of

maximum strength and explosive strength. This combination is also known as
power. In volleyball explosive strength appears in combination with strength
endurance and is popularly referred to as power endurance.
9.1.2.2 Importance of Abdominal Strength

The abdominal muscles and oblique muscles that flex and twist the trunk
respectively are referred to as the mid section muscles. Although most mid
section exercise involve hip flexion, this is not really a function of the mid
section muscles. Hip flexion is actually performed by the quadriceps and the
underlying ileopsoas and pectineus muscles. Because traditional sit-ups
involve both trunk flexion and hip flexion, the abdominals are the prime
mover muscle group for the first phase of the movement but the hip flexors
are response for the second phase of the movement. While there is nothing
wrong with exercise that combine trunk flexion and hip flexion, specialised
movements will be presented for those people who prefer to train the mid
section muscles independently. The tightened abdominal muscles help to
produce a streamlined appearance. A sit up is basically an exercise for the
lowerback but it also brings abdominal muscles into action. Since it is
difficult to isolate these muscles with a particular movement sitting up is
commonly used to strengthen the abdominal wall. The abdominal strength is
very much useful in the field of sports and games. When an individual
possesses a high degree of abdominal strength he will be able to perform
better any type of activity such as running, jumping, and throwing.
The physical educationist also should possess a very good abdominal strength
as they are fully engaged in the field in various types of activities and to
perform certain level they need to possess the abdominal strength. The
abdominal strength helps to maintain the body posture thereby involving in
many activities in the field of sports and games. Lifting a load or moving an
inanimate or animate object essentially depends on the abdominal muscular
strength (Waynel, 1949).
9.1.2.3 Importance of Power

Power is another variable chosen for the study. Performance in standing
broad jump reveals the explosive power of an individual. Need of power in
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standing broad jump is highly essential in relation to the energy used in Principles of Physical
Conditioning
jumping, sprinting, kicking, etc. The strengthening exercise like weight Techniques
training, running up hill at speed, etc. will give explosive power. Explosive
power is the ability to release maximum muscular force in the shortest time
as in executing a standing broad jump. The explosive power measurement is
expressed in terms of the distance through which the body or an object is
propelled through space. The standing broad jump includes projecting the
body into air. The main propulsive force comes from the legs in standing
broad jump. Leg explosive power is most important for field events like
standing broad jump, running broad jump and high jump (Dietrich, 1982).
9.1.2.4 Importance of Agility

"Agility may be explained as the physical ability which enables an individual
rapidly change body position and direction in a precise manner". Agility
plays an important role in physical activities especially in such events as
gymnastics, basketball, pole-vaulting and some other major games. It is
revealed to a great extent in sports involving efficient footwork and quick
changes in body position. Agility is more effective when it is combined with
high levels of strength endurance and speed. In any physical activity or in a
game situation, the controlled ability to stop, to start and to change direction
rapidly and more quickly, is a very essential factor and this quality decides
one's performance level and the speed of acquiring any skill. The absence of
that ability among the participants would spoil the original game score
(Baumgartner and Jackson, 1987).
9.1.2.5 Importance of Speed

Speed, another variable chosen, is the capacity of the individual to perform in
100 Mts. sprint running a short distance at as much peak speed as possible.
Therefore to measure the speed 100 Mts. sprint is selected. Speed of
movement and quick reactions are praised quality in athletics. Coaches are
frequently heard to praise certain players or an entire team for their
quickness. In football a player who is extremely fast poses a constant threat
to the opponents. In baseball the fast runner causes hurried throws and
adjustments in pitching and defensive strategy, the full court press is a potent
weapon in basketball, if the team has the speed.
Speed is the capacity of the individual to perform successive movement of

the same pattern of fast rate. Speed is defined as the ability to move the entire
body rapidly from one place to another (Conolly and Einzeing, 1986). Even
though speed and reactions time are somewhat related, they are distinct
characteristics and it is possible for people to be lacking one of the traits and
still have an abundance of the others. There are different forms of speed:
i) Speed of every movement of body segments,
ii) Running speed for a very short distance (acceleration rate), and
iii) Maximum Running Speed (Hardayal Singh, 1991).
Speed is a determining factor in the explosive sports such as sprints, jumps

and most field sports. However, despite these common place observations the
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Factors Affecting study of speed of movement, speed of reaction is much more complex than it
might appear. Speed of movement for example entails much more than mere
running speed. The speed with which a wrestler execute a reversal, the
lighting flash of a boxer’s job, the explosive spring of the shot putters move
across the throwing circles, the swimmers and skater are but a few of the
many different kinds of movement speeds that are involved in physical
performance. Speed of movement shall thus be defined as the rate at which a
person can propel his body or parts of his body through space.
9.1.2.6 Importance of Endurance

Endurance is another variable chosen for the study. Endurance is a very
important ability in sports. But at the same time, it is an ability the
importance of which is often overlooked in several sports. Endurance is the
product of all psychic and physical organs and systems. Endurance is a
conditional ability. It is primarily determined by energy liberation processes.
The ability of the human body to maintain a certain level of energy

production forms the biological basis of endurance. Endurance is directly or
indirectly of high importance in all sports. Endurance is the ability to do
sports movements, with the desired quality and speed, under conditions of
fatigue. In sports, endurance ensures optimum speed of motor actions. The
ability to maintain pace or tempo of an exercise or during a competition is
impossible without the requisite level of endurance. In sports, endurance
ensures optimum speed of motor actions. The ability to maintain pace or
tempo of an exercise or during a competition is impossible without the
requisite level of endurance. Endurance training results in the improvement
of functioning of various organs and systems of the human body. Endurance
activities have been found to be high value for maintenance of good organic
health, for increasing the general resistance against infection and for cure and
treatment of various diseases and metabolic disorders. Endurance represents
the capacity of the athlete for continuous performance of relatively heavy
localized activity which may make only small demands on the functions of
respiration and circulation before exhaustion set in. The more often a muscle
performs a movement in training, over the same range, against the same
resistance, and at the same frequency and speed as required in competition,
then the less likely it becomes locally fatigued by that movement during
competition. The improvement is primarily due to the functional involvement
of more muscle fibres (motor units) as a result of overload. Overload also
improves the utilisation of oxygen by involving more capillaries, thus
providing the working muscles with more oxygen and as well as facilitating
the removal of the metabolic waste products of strenuous exercise. General
endurance is the ability to do sports movements of general nature under
conditions of fatigue. General endurance is not specific to any sports and is
developed through general exercises.
9.1.3 Exercise and Fitness

In physical exercise, muscles and limbs of the body and body powers are
exerted. The main aim of this exertion will be either to maintain the health or
to improve the health. All systematic training programmes have originated
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from physical exercises. People, invariably, are interested in keeping good Principles of Physical
Conditioning
physical fitness and thus health, but try to opt for shot-cut methods. The word Techniques
exercise refers to be conscious and purposeful physical activity, usually if
sufficient intensity to increase to some degree of respiratory and circulatory
function. It refers only the actual movement process at the time it occurs and
should not be confused with the conditioning or training.
In the course of physical exertion a number of coordinated and compensatory

adjustments takes place throughout the body which involve metabolic
functions and the nervous muscular, circulatory and respiratory systems.
Exercise ensures better digestion, respiration and efficient blood circulation.
It has been suggested that the improved strength balance flexibility results
from participation in exercise programme.
The purpose of exercise is to increase the circulation of blood and intake of

oxygen. Experts in the field of physical education believe that regular
physical activity helps to improve the strength and functioning of heart, lung
and muscles. Exercise helps to clear the mind and makes for greater alertness
and faster reaction time (Hazeldine, 1987). Exercise is needed all years long.
For proper functioning the human organism needs exercise as an essential
ingredient on a regular basis just as it demands nutritious food.
Regular exercises produce increased strength, endurance and other

characteristics associated with good health, physical fitness is not an end in
itself but means to an end. Though physical fitness is not health, they are very
closely related. There is no physical fitness without health and there is no
health without physical fitness. Fitness differs from being healthy. Health is
defined generally as the freedom from a disease. Fitness relates to the ability
to meet the demands of the environment (Hazeldine, 1987).
Exercise is needed all years long. For proper functioning the human organism
needs exercise as an essential ingredient on a regular basis just as it demands
nutritious food.

4) What are the benefits of Physical Activity?
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5) What types of energy systems are present in the body?
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Factors Affecting
9.2 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL
CONDITIONING
The first step for improving fitness or sports performance through physical
conditioning is to design a program with the goals and needs of the sport in
mind. Not every sport or form of exercise requires each component of
physical conditioning in equal proportion, if at all. The training programs of a
sprinter differ significantly from those of a long-distance runner, for example.
Training program should always be conducted with the help of a strength and
conditioning specialist so as to increase performance and reduce the chance
of injury. Programs based on the specific needs of the athletes can be
developed based on the fitness, strength, and endurance of athletes. Conditioning
programs also involve cross-training using various sports or exercises to
improve overall performance. Cross-training creates different physical
stresses on the athlete’s body than those associated with the athlete’s usual
routine, improving the athlete’s overall performance and also decreasing the
risk of suffering an over use injury.
9.2.1 Important Aspects to be kept in Mind while Designing

Conditioning Programs
The important aspects to be kept in mind while designing conditioning
programs are:
Training programs should always be designed with an end goal in mind.

For instance, a runner planning to run a marathon should allow enough
time to properly accelerate the training to have the body ready for the
race date. Trying to achieve the goal too quickly might force the runner
to increase distance running too rapidly and increase the risk for an
overuse injury such as a stress fracture. Athletes should also consider
adding exercise or resistance programs that differ from their normal
routines. This variability not only can improve strength, power, agility,
or other fitness areas they might lack, but also can decrease the repetitive
stress they apply to the one or two body parts that their maintenance
program applies. For instance, swimmer training for an upcoming meet
might benefit from a long run once a week to decrease stress on
shoulder.
Athletes who use conditioning to lose weight need to ensure that they are
eating enough calories and obtaining the proper vitamins, minerals,
fluids, and supplements to meet their training needs. Athletes should
consider consulting a sports nutritionist for guidance. In addition, getting
enough sleep and rest between exercise sessions may help to optimise
performance.
Before starting any exercise or fitness program, athletes should consult

with their medical doctor or a sports medicine physician. School or team
athletes often undergo pre-participation physicals where any concerns
can be addressed. Athletes recovering from surgery or an injury should
ask the treating physician or physical therapist how to safely work back
158 into sports. Anyone with an underlying medical condition should always
make sure that it does not pose too high a risk with a certain exercise Principles of Physical
Conditioning
program. Athletes should never avoid going to the doctor to address Techniques
aches and pains for fear of being told to stop training. Athletes should
consult with a sports medicine specialist.

6) What should be kept in mind while designing a physical conditioning
program?
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9.3 TRAINING
"Training is a systematic process of repetitive, progressive exercise or work
involving also, learning process and acclimatisation". Sports training is the
physical, technical, intellectual, psychological and moral preparation of an
athlete by means of physical exercise (Harre, 1982).
Training means preparing for something. It maybe an event, a season or

athletic competition, a nursing career, an operatic performance or military
combat. Much growth and change occur during training. It usually involves
learning or polishing skills, changing attitudes, developing and strengthening
organs and their functions when training is given, the sportsperson has
something in mind, that is, a goal, a level of competence, a performance of
some kind. An aspiration is established in the person’s mind which is
systematically pursued. The subject is preparing to meet increased demands
of some kind on the current mental and physical resources. They seek in
some way to change and better the present status to improve on the previous
level of performance.
Without competition, training is meaningless. Today sport training is mostly

based upon the competitive motive. Each nation is trying to achieve top level
of performance and to win the international competitions. Today's records are
proved to be lower to be performance of tomorrow. This is because greater
stress has been given on the quality rather than quantity of training
(Hazeldine, 1987).
9.3.1 Meaning of Training

Training means a systematic scientific programme of conditioning exercises
and physical activities designed to improve the physical fitness and skills of
the players or athletes participated. Training as mentioned earlier, means
preparing for something like an event, a season of athletic competition, a
nursing career or operative performance of militancy combat. Much growth
and change occur during training. 159
Factors Affecting 9.3.2 Importance of Training
Training is done over an extended period of time to achieve training goals.
Training may affect the psychological, emotional and physical status. It is
usually intended to produce positive or desirable change. Training results in
muscle fibre thickening (Greenberg and Pargman, 1989).
Training involves periodic assessment of the athlete’s status and progress.

Training usually varies regular increase in the difficulty of task performance.
Training suggests some form of gradual increase in performance output over
an extended period of time. Most kinds of training essential regularity repeat
and collect trait repetition of the same of original movements. Any invariable
training implies hard work. Training should result in a level of personal
fitness and is associated with good health. Training is a programme of
exercise designed to improve the skills and increase the energy capacities of
an athlete for a particular event (Greenberg and Pargman, 1989).
9.3.3 Types of Training

The organisation of strength training deals with actual process of doing
strength training in a training session. It, basically, comprises of two things-
method of arrangement of strength exercises and loading procedure during a
strength exercise. The method of arrangement of strength exercises has three
variations which are:
9.3.3.1 Station Training

This is the most common variation and is effective for the improvement of
strength abilities especially maximum strength and explosive strength. In
station training the required number of repetitions and sets of an exercise are
completed before starting the next exercise (Dietrich, 1982).
9.3.3.2 Set Training

This variation is suitable for developing strength endurance. But it is also
effective for improving maximum and explosive strength with element of
endurance. Two to three exercises are done in the form of a set. One set of
each exercise is done in rotation before starting the next set. In set training,
the exercises for different muscle groups should be selected. This enables one
to have shorter recovery periods thus reducing the total duration of exercise.
9.3.3.3 Circuit Training

Circuit training is a very popular and effective variation for the improvement
of strength endurance. In circuit training several exercises are done one after
the other. Completing of one set of each exercise in rotation is called one
round. There are normally three or more rounds in circuit training. In circuit
training there are generally 5-12 exercises. It can be done according to any of
the three basic methods of conditioning. But, generally it is done, according
to continuous or interval method.
Circuit training is probably the most common training regime used by a wide
range of sports and activities in order to improve performance. A circuit
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consists of a number of different stations at which the athlete performs a Principles of Physical
Conditioning
given exercise as many times as is possible within a given time period, when Techniques
the time is completed the individual moves on to next station and performs a
different exercise for a similar period of time around the various stations. To
integrate endurance and muscular programme, circuit training incorporated a
number of resistance exercises, in a continuous series, forcing to move in a
set pattern with specific distances in between. The number of type of
exercise, resistance and repetitions vary according to individual level and
expectations (Conolly and Einzeing, 1986).
Each exercise is done at a moderate rate to quick pace before moving to the
next. At specific points there are periods set aside for lighter continued
endurance depending on exercise. A circuit should be completed 2 or 3 times
(Budd, 1982). Circuit training is a method of physical conditioning that
employs both apparatus resistance training and callisthenic conditioning
exercises. It provides a mean of achieving optimal fitness in a systematized
controlled fashion. The intensity and vigour of circuit training are indeed
challenging and enjoyable to the performer. This system produces positive
changes in motor performance, general fitness and muscular power,
endurance and speed. Circuit training is usually used to develop general all
round physical fitness rather than specialized performance in a specific
activity (Arnheim, 1987).
Importance of Circuit Training Circuit training is used to develop general

all round strength and local muscular endurance. A basic circuit should
include exercises aimed at developing the arms, shoulders, trunk and legs.
Fitness is developed by gradually building up the numbers of sets and
repetitions to be completed in each session.
As the subject develops, he can make the circuit more demanding by adding
resistance or by altering each exercise to make it more difficult. Circuits can
also be designed which will make use of the fixed weight machines. A large
number of persons can be accommodated at the same time. The individual
works at her own rate within her capacity. The goals are both immediately
obtainable and easily evaluated (Arnheim, 1987).
Circuit training method has been accepted by physical educators, coaches and
trainers as an excellent and self motivating means of increasing strength,
flexibility and endurance in an orderly fashion within the groups. Circuit
training aims at developing general or basic fitness which is a pre-requisite to
every sport. Circuit training can be used for general fitness purposes or can
be adopted as a conditioning medium for various sports.
9.3.4 Training and Fitness

Once the development of physical fitness is aimed, exercises conditioning
and training strikes the mind. Exercises build confidence, physical and
mental ability, cultivate power of will and determination and promote
personal efficiency and all mental characteristics. Exercises with or without
weight and which are arranged in a circuit may help to develop the physical
fitness level.
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Factors Affecting Training means a systematic scientific programme of conditioning exercises
and physical activities designed to improve the physical fitness and skills of
the players or athletes participated. Training means preparing for something
an event a season of athletic competition a nursing career or operative
performance of militancy combat. Much growth and change occur during
training.

7) What are the benefits of training and what are the types of training
programs?
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9.4 YOGA
Yoga is an ancient health but developed and perfected over the centuries by
the sages of ancient India. Yoga is universal, benefitting all people of all
ages. Yoga is a devised way and means of helping the body and mind to
maintain this state of balance. According to Githananda, yoga is a positive
way of maintaining physical upkeep, mental alertness and spiritual
attainment. It teaches us how to control one's senses, resulting in an
integrated personality, freedom, stress, conflict and the like. It stabilizes one's
behavioural pattern developed will power and ultimately helps one to lead a
healthy happy and balanced life.
All the asanas which have an effect on the diaphragm help to massage the
heart and at the same time massage the abdominal organs. Yoga helps to keep
the body in proper shape and to increase the power of resistance (Githananda
and Bhavani, 1989).
9.4.1 Importance of Yoga

Positive changes in the life style of the people can be brought through yoga.
During the period of education of yoga can make them aware of their bodies
and further make them realise the need of emotional and physical well being.
Their behaviour can also be moulded properly, leading to balanced,
personalities. Yoga plays an important role by bringing the therapeutic effects
in asthma, diabetes, hyper tension, respiratory troubles and the like some
yoga has both preventive as well as curative values. Yoga, was thus the most
devoted and dedicated approach to personality and it is perhaps the promising
pursuit of man and his nature. Yoga therefore, should have an integral place
in the pattern of our education with proper physical, emotional, and mental
capacity so that one may develop into a well adjusted person for his own
benefit of the society around him.
162
9.4.2 Yoga and Fitness Principles of Physical
Conditioning
Techniques
Yoga asanas not only develop muscles and the body but mainly regulate the
proper activities of all the internal organs and glands to affect the nervous
system and that which control our well being to a much greater degree than
we actually suppose. They help to keep the body in proper shape and to
increase the power of resistance (Chinnasamy, 1992).

8) What is the importance of yoga in fitness?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
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9.5 SUMMARY
Physical fitness refers to the overall individual physical condition. Physical
fitness is of great importance for all human beings irrespective of age. A
person may not be able to perform a particular task if he lacks required
physical strength. It is different for each person and can range from extreme
illness and near death, to peak performance, like top Olympic and decorated
athletes A player in good physical condition is generally thought to have the
ability to do sustained work. For a good performance in any sport or athletic
event, achievement of a high standard of fitness is a basic requirement.
Physical fitness includes speed, flexibility, power, strength, co-ordination,

muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance and agility. These characteristics
are all equalized with the healthy functioning of the body. Another, but a
different and important component of physical fitness is the athletic skill. The
first step to improving fitness or sports performance through physical
conditioning is to design a program with the goals and needs of the sport in
mind. Training means a systematic scientific programme of conditioning
exercises and physical activities designed to improve the physical fitness and
skills of the players or athletes participated. Training means preparing for
something an event a season of athletic competition a nursing career or
operative performance of militancy combat. Much growth and change occur
during training.
9.6 REFERENCES
Arnheim, D.D. (1985). Modern principles of athletic training (6th ed.). Saint
Louis: Mirror and Mosby College Publishing.
Arnheim, D.D. (1987). Essential of athletic training. Saint Louis, Toronto,

Santaclara: Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing.
163
Factors Affecting Baumgartner, & Jackson, A.S. (1987). Measurement for evaluation in
physical education and exercise science (3rd ed., p 278). Dubuque, Iowa:
W.M.C. Brown Publications.
Bucher, C.A., & Prentice, W.E. (1985). Fitness for college and life. Toronto:
C.V. Mosby Company.
Budd, B. (1982). Executing guide to fitness (p.190). Canada: Van Nostrand

Reinhold.
Chinnasamy, K. (1992 July). Effects of asanas and physical exercises on

physiological and biochemical variables. Unpublished M.Phil Thesis,
Alagappa University, Karaikudi.
Conolly, C., & Einzeing, H. (1986). The fitness jungle. London: Century
Hutchinson Limited.
Fleishman, E.A. (1985). The structure and measurement of physical fitness.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Greenberg, J.S. and Pargman, D. 1989. Physical Fitness; A Wellness

Approach Prentio Hall
Gothi, E. (1993). Dictionary of sports and physical education. New Delhi:

Academic (India ) Publishers.
Harre et al (1982). Principle of sports training. Berlin: Sports Verlag.
(1987). Principle of sports training. Berlin: Sports Verlag.
Hazeldine, R. (1987). Fitness for sport. Great Britain: The Crowood Press.
(1987). Fitness for sports. Witshine: The Unwood Press.
Jackson, G. (1985). A family guide to fitness and exercise. London:

Salamander Book Limited.
Malina, R. M. (1996 September). Tracking of physical activity and physical

fitness across the life span. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sports,
67(3), p 48
Singh, H. (1991). Science of sports training. New Delhi: D.V. Publications.
Waynel, West Cott, (1949). Strength, fitness, physiological principles and

training techniques. Boston, London, Sydney, Toronto: Allyn and Bacon,
Inc.
9.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Physical fitness refers to the overall individual physical condition. It is
different for each person and can range from extreme illness and near
death, to peak performance, like top Olympic and decorated athletes.
2) Physical fitness is holistic; it encompasses several areas, including:
agility, endurance, power, speed, strength, co-ordination, dexterity and
164 flexibility.
3) Having good flexibility can benefit athletes in several ways such as: Principles of Physical
Conditioning
better performances, fewer injuries, optimal readiness for training and Techniques
competition and enhanced recovery from activity.
4) The top 10 benefits of physical activity

a) Weight management
b) Bone and muscle health
c) Relief from physical pains
d) Protection against health conditions
e) Younger, healthier skin
f) Boosts mental health
g) Energy level boost
h) Improvements in mood
i) More quality sleep
j) Higher libido
5) The body has three very different systems, all working together to
provide working muscles with energy:
Anaerobic a lactic system - requires no oxygen, uses energy stored in the

muscle for fuel and produces no lactic acid. It is the main source of
energy for activity lasting up to 10 seconds.
Anaerobic lactic system - requires no oxygen, uses carbohydrates for fuel

and produces lactic acid. It is the chief source of energy for activity
lasting between 10 seconds and 2 minutes.
Aerobic system - requires oxygen, uses fats and carbohydrates for fuel
and produces no lactic acid. It's the main source of energy for activity
lasting more than 2 minutes.
6) The first step to improving fitness or sports performance through

physical conditioning is to design a program with the goals and needs of
the sport in mind. Not every sport or form of exercise requires each
component of physical conditioning in equal proportion, if at all. The
training programs of a sprinter differ significantly from those of a long-
distance runner, for example. Creating a training program with the help
of strength and conditioning specialist can optimize performance and
minimize the chance of injury. Specialists evaluate athletes and their
current level of fitness, strength, and endurance and design the program
based on the athlete’s specific needs. Conditioning programs also
involve cross-training—using various sports or exercises to improve
overall performance. Cross-training creates different physical stresses on
the athlete’s body than those associated with the athlete’s usual routine,
improving the athlete’s overall performance and also decreasing the risk
of suffering an overuse injury. Athletes should also consider adding
exercise or resistance programs that differ from their normal routines.
For instance, swimmer training for an upcoming meet might benefit from
165
Factors Affecting a long run once a week to decrease stress on her shoulder. Athletes who
use conditioning to lose weight need to ensure that they are eating
enough calories and obtaining the proper vitamins, minerals, fluids and
supplements to meet their training needs. Athletes should consider
consulting a sports nutritionist for guidance.
7) Although every training program is unique to sport, the principles

relevant to all athletes are: specificity, frequency, overload, duration,
progression, rest, monitoring, adaptability, reversibility, overtraining and
maintenance.
Training is done over an extended period of time to achieve training

goals. Training may affect the psychological, emotional and physical
status. It is usually intended to produce positive or desirable change.
Training should result in a level of personal fitness and associated with
good health. Training is a programme of exercise designed to improve
the skills and increase the energy capacities of an athlete for a particular
event.
The method of arrangement of strength exercises has three variations

which are: station training, set training and circuit training.
8) Yoga asanas develop muscles and the body and also regulate the proper
activities of all the internal organs and glands to affect the nervous
system and that which control our well being to a much greater degree
than we actually suppose. All the asanas which have an effect on the
diaphragm help to message the heart and at the same time message the
abdominal organs. They help to keep the body in proper shape and to
increase the power of resistance.
166
Effect of Diverse
UNIT 10 EFFECT OF DIVERSE Conditions
CONDITIONS*
Contents
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Factors Affecting Physical Performances
10.1.1 Impact of Smoking on Physical Performance
10.1.2 Physical Performance and Alcohol
10.1.3 Physical Performance and Drug
10.1.4 Physical Performance and Pollution
10.1.5 Occupation and Physical Performance
10.2 Physical Performance and Environmental Stress

10.3 Physical Performance and Techno-Adaptability
10.4 Physical Performance and Malnutrition
10.5 Physical Performance and Life Style Diseases
10.6 Summary
10.7 References
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to:
 focus on human compatibility to the environment and its diverse nature;
 understand the physiological coordination of the whole body, environmental

adaptability and techno-adaptability;
 understand alterations of cardio-renal functions with respect to physical

performance, malnutrition; and
 learn about life style diseases due to diverse conditions like smoking
behaviour, alcohol use, drug abuse, pollution and occupational conditions.
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Physiological anthropology focuses on the capacity for environmental

adaptation seen in the physiological functions of present-day humans. Areas
of study include physical and cultural aspects related to living environments
as factors that affect the capacity for environmental adaptation.
*
Contibutor: Dr. Sandip Sinha, Assistant Professor, Department of Human Physiology with
Community Health, Vidyasagar University, Paschim Medinipur. 167
Factors Affecting
Physical Performance The underlying approach to physiological anthropological research through
survey work is to investigate from all perspectives the environmental
differences between the hunter-gatherer age, to which humankind is
biologically adapted and the present environment in which we tend to seek
the comforts of a highly technological society. Then, the effects of those
differences on human adaptability are examined through different methods.
In spite of that, survey work plays an important role for the promotion of
physiological as well as anthropological research in respect to biological,
social and cultural heritage of the place around the globe.
Physiological anthropology involves an evolutionary perspective towards the

study of human populations and their diversity. It is a dynamic and
interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the
human experience, past and present. In this unit, it is attempted to explain the
scientific approach, and different fields such as environment, lifestyle factors,
psychology, technology and malnutrition in the light of physiological
anthropology.

1) What is the focus of physiological anthropology?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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10.1 FACTORS AFFECTING PHYSICAL

PERFORMANCE
In this modern era, variations in human performance depend on an
individual‟s well being and adaptability to environment. Human biology,
cultural and physiological anthropology, laboratory research and bio-cultural
methods, all together solve the problems of human adaptability in this world.
Physical performance is mainly a function of an individual's size, shape, sex,
and age, though not entirely so. Success in physical performance at whatever
level also depends on fitness. Let us have a look at the essential regulatory
factors.
10.1.1 Impact of Smoking on Physical Performance

Anthropologists have long studied tobacco, what is today the world‟s greatest
cause of preventable death. Tobacco addiction remains a substantial problem
in India and worldwide. Smokers are compelled to smoke by addiction to
nicotine but the harm is largely done by the 4,000 plus other chemicals in the
tar and gases produced by burning tobacco. It is this combination that makes
168 tobacco so deadly. Although not all smokers become nicotine dependent, the
prevalence of individuals diagnosed as nicotine dependent is higher than that Effect of Diverse
Conditions
for any other substance abuse disorder (Anthony et al., 1994; CDC, 1995b;
Kandel et al., 1997). Nicotine (from any tobacco substance) has structural
similarity to a body neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) which conveys
information from one neuron to another. Acetylcholine is an important
neurotransmitter involved in systems concerned with mental and physical
arousal, learning and memory, and several aspects of emotion.
Tobacco is considered as a major behavioural risk factor for non-

communicable diseases (like ischemic heart diseases, cancers, diabetes,
chronic respiratory diseases) one of the leading causes of death globally and
associated with tobacco use. According to WHO statistics for 2010 in India,
NCDs are estimated to account for 53% of all deaths. Of these deaths,
cardiovascular diseases and diabetes are the most common cause of deaths in
India.
Smoking acts synergistically with other risk factors like high cholesterol and
blood pressure to increase the risk of Coronary Heart Diseases (CHD),
respiratory disease like Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). It
includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema, asthma: smoking is associated
with acute attacks of asthma and tuberculosis. Smoking also affects pregnant
mothers and newborns resulting in impact on childhood.
Figure 1: Different diseases due to direct and indirect smoking

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion,
Office on Smoking and Health, 2014
169
2) Write about the impact of smoking on physical performance.
…………………………………………………………………………….
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10.1.2 Physical Performance and Alcohol

Alcohol, like many other global commodities, is an agent and symbol of the
overall forces of globalisation that affect common people; at the same time
alcohol and drinking are actions and symbols that are part of forces that seek
to inhibit external interference in local and national matters. The recognition
and acceptance worldwide should stimulate more anthropological and
sociological research into the production and consumption of drinking than
has been done in the past.
Figure 2: Physiological effects of alcohol drinking

Source: www.alcohol-focus-scotland.org.uk
Basically alcohol is a diuretic, drinking too much can lead to dehydration

because alcohol makes your kidneys produce more urine. Exercising soon
after drinking alcohol can make this dehydration worse because you sweat as
your body temperature rises. Combined, sweating and the diuretic effect of
exercise make dehydration much more likely. We all know that dehydration
leads to reduced performance and that hydration also helps control our body
170 temperature so we are more likely to overheat if we have been drinking
alcohol. On the other hand, alcohol interferes with the way our body makes Effect of Diverse
Conditions
energy. When you‟re metabolising, or breaking down alcohol, the liver can‟t
produce as much glucose, which means you have low levels of blood sugar.
As a result, our coordination, dexterity, concentration and reactions could be
adversely affected too.

3) “Alcohol interferes with the physical performance of sports persons”.
Justify the statement.
…………………………………………………………………………….
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4) How alcohol is responsible for the disruption of physiological functions?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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10.1.3 Physical Performance and Drug

When a person uses drugs, many changes occur in his/her body, both
physically and psychologically. Some of these changes occur immediately,
while others only happen over time. Every side effect of drug use has the
potential to be severe, but the physical effects can be especially dangerous.
One should therefore try to avoid combining drug use with any type of
physical activity. The National Institute on Drug Abuse lists several common
physical side effects of drug use like change in appetite, confusion, dilated
pupils, distortions in perception, dizziness, dry mouth, flushing of skin,
impaired coordination and balance, increased energy and alertness, increased
heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature and nausea.
Drug use and physical performance are most often associated with a variety
of substances designed to improve athletic performance (e.g. anabolic
steroids, human growth hormone). Many of these substances are illegal
without a prescription and/or banned by sporting agencies. Rates of
performance enhancing drug use may be higher among elite athletes, where
the stakes and incentives for optimal performance are quite high. These
estimates are consistent with several anecdotal reports in the popular press
estimating that performance-enhancing drug (PED) use rates are relatively
high among elite adult athletes, particular in certain sports e.g., football or
track and field. 171
Factors Affecting
Figure 3: Performance enhancing drugs

Source: Freudenrich & Allen (2000), www. entertainment.howstuffworks.com/athletic-drug-
test.htm

5) Write a short note on drug abuse and physical performance.
…………………………………………………………………………….
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6) Describe briefly the negative effects of performance enhancing drugs in

athletic sports.
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172
10.1.4 Physical Performance and Pollution Effect of Diverse
Conditions
It is well established that contaminated air is killing 7 million people
annually, and harming billions more. In this situation the rate of respiratory
and the cardiovascular diseases with respect to short-term and long-term are
developed due to inhalation of air pollution. Physical performances are
closely associated with these cardio-respiratory disturbances. Exposure to
freshly generated mixed combustion emissions such as those observed in
proximity to roadways with high volumes of traffic and those from ice
resurfacing equipment are of particular concern. This is because there is a
greater toxicity from freshly generated whole exhaust than from its
component parts. The particles released from emissions are considered to
cause oxidative damage and inflammation in the airways and the vascular
system, and may be related to decreased exercise performance (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Schematic overview of the air pollution and physical activity interactions
Source: Tainio et al., 2021, www.entertainment.howstuffworks.com/athletic-drug-test.htm
The effects of air pollutant (e.g. sulfur dioxide) during exercise are much
higher than during rest because of a higher ventilatory rate and both nasal and
oral breathing in the former case. However, with oral pharyngeal breathing,
the amount of sulfur dioxide that is absorbed is significantly less, and with
exercise and oral pharyngeal breathing a significant decrease in upper airway
absorption occurs, resulting in a significantly larger dosage of this pollutant
being delivered to the tracheobronchial tree.

7) Describe how air pollution of an environment causes lowering of
physical performance?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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173
Factors Affecting …………………………………………………………………………….
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10.1.5 Occupation and Physical Performance

Occupation is a major contributor to physical injuries and disease as well as
economic loss amounting to 4%-5% of GDP. The World Health Organisation
(WHO) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimate that there are
around 2.2 million work-related deaths per year. Globally only 10%-15% of
workers have access to a basic standard of occupational health services
(http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/programs/global/risks.html). Different findings show
that physical requirements of tasks are reflected in job analyses. Principal
components analyses of both, job analysis and test performance data suggest
that the structure of physical abilities has 3 major components: strength,
endurance, and movement quality. This structure appears to be independent of
job type or level of incumbents' performance (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Relation between occupation and physical performance
Source: Townsend & Polatajko, 1997. Enabling occupation II: Advancing an occupational
therapy vision for health, well-being and justice through occupation.
Using risk measures applied to the proportions of the population exposed to

selected occupational hazards, the WHO has estimated attributable fractions,
deaths, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for selected occupational
risk factors. Worldwide, these selected risk factors were estimated to be
responsible for back pain (37%), hearing loss (16%), chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) (13%), asthma (11%), injuries (8%), lung cancer
(9%), leukaemia (2%) (WHO, 2019).
174
Check Your Progress 6 Effect of Diverse
Conditions
8) Explain the correlation between occupation and physical performance.
…………………………………………………………………………….
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10.2 PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
Stress generally is a situation or condition which places an individual under
some pressure, involves adjustment in behaviour and can cause changes
which are unpleasant, sometimes maladaptive and even associated with
physical damage. Environmental stress can be defined as pressure on the
environment caused by human activities (such as generation of pollution) or
by natural events (such as occurrence of a drought). "The environment" is
often seen as leading to damage to mental and physical health by contributing
to stress (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Relation between the environmental stress and behavioral response

Source: Stress Response Process, Reilly & Williams, 2003
175
Factors Affecting The most important environmental stresses today are those that have resulted
from housing and other attempts to ameliorate the thermal environment.
These include air pollution, physical injuries from building surfaces and the
extremes of confinement. Physical performance is primarily a function of
subject demographic profile, but not entirely so. Physical fitness is sport
specific and in many sports it is also position specific as well as depends on
many factors like thermo-regulatory, cardiovascular, and metabolic stress,
may contribute for the reduction in physical performance capacity during
exercise in the heat due to increases in core temperature, heart rate, rate of
perceived exertion (Marino et al., 2001; Peiffer et al., 2011) and metabolic
rate (Parkin et al., 1999) as well as dehydration (Gonzalez-Alonso et al.,
2008).

9) Explain the correlation between environmental stress and physical
performance.
…………………………………………………………………………….
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10.3 PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND TECHNO-

ADAPTABILITY
Presently technological environment has developed rapidly, when we
consider the time scale of human history, and rapid advances in science and
technology are thought to be exerting profound effects on the human
community, in terms of not only lifestyle and culture, but also the
physiological capabilities of the human body (Yasukouchi, 2014).
Engagement in physically simulated sport games yielded benefits to cognitive

and physical skills that are directly involved in functional abilities, older
adults need in everyday living (Maillot et al., 2012). Physical activity pro
files, goal setting, real time feedback, social support networking, and online
expert consultation were found as the most beneficial ways to drive physical
activity change. The range of novel and engaging intervention strategies used
by smartphones, and user perceptions on their usefulness and viability,
highlights the potential such technology has for physical activity promotion
(Bort Roig et al., 2014).
10.4 PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND

MALNUTRITION
Malnutrition has been defined “a state resulting from lack of uptake or intake
of nutrition that leads to altered body composition (decreased fat free mass)
176
and body cell mass leading to diminished physical and mental function and Effect of Diverse
Conditions
impaired clinical outcome from disease” and, in this definition, is
synonymous with under nutrition. Nutritional status deteriorates with aging,
leading to several changes in body composition, which may include depletion
of body fat stores and muscle wasting and contribute to a loss of muscle
strength and symptoms such as fatigue. Numerous studies have demonstrated
that nutritional status has an important influence on physical performance and
disability in older subjects (Singh et al., 2014; Ferreira et al., 2013; Sergi et
al., 2007; Zuliani et al., 2001). Prerequisites to optimum physical perfor
mance include muscle strength, muscle and cardiovascular endurance, flex-
ibility, fitness, agility, and balance depends on nutrition. Nutritional status
also acts as a determination factor for physical performance with aging
(Alipanah et al., 2009). Physiologically, under nutrition causes depletion of
body fat stores, muscle wasting (Vellas et al., 1992) and symptoms such as
fatigue or tiredness (Furman, 2006) leads to poor physical performance.

10) How is malnutrition status and physical performance associated?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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10.5 PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND LIFE

STYLE DISEASES
Physical fitness is the general capacity to adapt and respond favorably to
physical effort. Wellness is the search for enhanced quality of life, personal
growth, and potential through positive lifestyle behaviours and attitudes. It is
an active process of becoming aware of and making choices toward a more
successful existence. To live long and successful happy life, fitness and
wellness is must. Lifestyle change, more than any other factor, is considered
to be the best way of preventing illness and early death in our society. TV,
computer, video games are spoiling the health of our children. With all the
medical facilities available today, physical problems are increasing. Besides
obesity, cardiovascular diseases, cancers, high blood pressure, joint pains and
spondylitis etc. are increasing because of modern lifestyle (Baroa et al.,
2016).
Malnutrition, an unhealthy diet, smoking, alcohol consumption, drug

addiction, stress, and so on are examples of unhealthy lifestyles that are
widely practiced. Hundreds of millions of individuals are caught into it. As a
result, individuals face illness, incapacity, and even death. An unhealthy
lifestyle can lead to issues such as metabolic disorders, joint and bone
problems, cardio-vascular diseases, hypertension, obesity, violence, and so
177
Factors Affecting on. Metabolic syndrome is associated with lower physical capacity, and
physical fitness and healthy lifestyle behaviours play a determinant role in
coronary heart disease risk factors. For instance, Rheumatoid arthritis is
associated with an increased risk of developing comorbidities, some of which
are also known to be associated with lifestyle habits such as physical activity,
diet, smoking, and alcohol. There has been an augmented focus on the
implementation and maintenance of healthy lifestyle habits even for patients
with Rheumatoid arthritis in the past decade. Obesity afflicts older adults and
contributes significantly to poor physical and mental health outcomes
Suboptimal quality of life (QOL) and mental health conditions, including
depression, often co-occur with obesity and this co-occurrence may be
especially likely in the presence of impaired physical function. The obesity-
mental health association appears to be stronger in late life than early or
middle adulthood. Diabetic patients experience various types of psychosocial
and emotional problems due to which the monitoring of own state of health is
not the priority in life. In the process of treatment of both sole diabetes and
concomitant anxiety and depression it is important to adjust and motivate
patients to apply widely understood therapeutic recommendations. The link
between lifestyle and health should be carefully considered. Resilience and
active coping styles are beneficial to prevent chronic illnesses and increases
self-perceived quality of life (Tabish, 2017).
Figure 7: Relation between life style and chronic diseases management

Source: School of Medical Sciences: Lifestyle Clinic (2012)

11) How do physical activities protect you from lifestyle diseases?
…………………………………………………………………………….
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178
Effect of Diverse
10.6 SUMMARY Conditions
Physical performance depends upon several factors which can directly or

indirectly influences on it. Age, sex, gender, malnutrition, body weight and
height have some crucial role for predicting the physical fitness, at the same
time environmental issues (mainly all types of pollution), occupational
hazards cause changes in physical performances. On the other hand lifestyle
factors like lack of physical exercise, taking too much fast food, daily food
habit, smoking, drinking alcohol, techno-adaptability and several drug abuses
have a huge impact on physical performance. Therefore, in near future if we
do not maintain all these things properly then maximum loss will be in terms
of population health, facing high risk of existence throughout the globe.
10.7 REFERENCES
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in walking speed in older women. J Nutr Health Aging, 13(5), 170–175
Anthony, J.C., Warner, L.A., & Kessler, R.C. (1994). Comparative

epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances, and
inhalants: Basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey.
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2(3), 244–68
Baroa, M., Jiten, S.O., Thapaa, S.K., & Sonowalb, A. (2016). Physical fitness
and wellness-challenge in the 21 st century. Int. J. Phys. Ed. Fit. Sports. 5,
29-32
Bort-Roig, J., Gilson, N.D., Puig-Ribera, A., Contreras, R.S., & Trost, S.G.
(2014). Measuring and influencing physical activity with smart phone
technology: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 44(5), 671-686
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Symptoms of substance

dependence associated with use of cigarettes, alcohol, and illicit drugs United
States 1991–1992. 1995b. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 44(44),
830–31
Christiano, E., Guilherme, P., & Thiago, T. (2016). Physical performance and
environmental conditions: Lifestyle disease. MedicineNet. Retrieved, 05-12
Dos Anjos Souza Barbosa et al (2016) Relationship between physical

activity, physical fitness and multiple metabolic risk in youths from
Muzambinho's study. European Journal of Sport Science 16 (5), 618-623
Ferreira, R.S., Silva Coqueiro, R., & Barbosa, A.R. (2013). Relationship
between BMI and physical performance among older adults. Geriatr Nurs,
34, 465–468
Filgueira et al (2021). The relevance of a physical active lifestyle and

physical fitness on immune defense: Mitigating disease burden, with focus on
COVID-19 consequences. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, 587146. Retrieved
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10.8 HINTS/ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Physiological anthropology focuses on the capacity for environmental
adaptation seen in the physiological function of present-day humans.
2) In smokers, less oxygen is delivered to the body's cells and to the heart
and lungs. This decrease in oxygen reduces a smoker's physical
endurance, causing the heart to work harder and increases heart rate.
3) Alcohol can have many effects on exercise physiological performance,

so it is important to distinguish between chronic use, moderate use, and
abuse. In case of sports persons it can also impede muscle growth. Long-
term alcohol use diminishes protein synthesis, resulting in a decrease in
muscle growth. Even short-term alcohol use can affect muscles.
4) Alcohol interferes with the body's metabolism; its consumption causes

an increase in insulin secretion, which leads to low blood sugar
(otherwise known as hypoglycemia). Alcohol is a mind-altering drug that
reduces thinking ability, distorts judgment, and acts as a depressant on
the body.
5) When a person uses drugs, many changes occur in his body, both
physically and psychologically. There are several types of performance
enhancing drugs (PED) are available in the market, various researches
reported that little amounts of androgen (e.g. testosterone) above those
normally found in the human body have been shown to increase muscle
strength and mass.
6) It is presumed that most if not all doping agents have potential short-term
and/or long-term side effects. It was already established that use of PED
causes increase heart palpitations, heart rhythm abnormalities, weight
loss, tremors, mild high blood pressure (hypertension), hallucinations,
stroke, heart attack and other circulatory problems. It also causes lots of
side effects such as insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, diabetes mellitus,
cardiomegaly, hastened, Hypertension, tachycardia, myocardial
infarction, stroke, heat stroke, weight loss, headache, nausea, tremor,
insomnia, anxiety/panic attacks, agitation, aggression, psychosis,
bradycardia, increased airway resistance etc.
7) Air pollution levels are found to be negatively associated with physical

activity. The health effects of air pollution are serious- one third of
deaths from stroke, lung cancer and heart disease are due to air pollution
along with some other diseases such as asthma, lung cancer, ventricular
hypertrophy, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, psychological
complications, autism, retinopathy, fetal growth, and low birth weight.
182
8) Work-related problems can affect our physical, emotional and mental Effect of Diverse
Conditions
health. Common issues include job dissatisfaction, workplace injury,
stress, discrimination and bullying, violence, accidental death and
retirement. Occupation factors may give rise to a very wide range of
injuries and diseases. Job loss, retrenchment or unexpected loss of
income can also cause distress and hardship. Increased working hours
can cause reduced sleep hours. The effects of sleep deprivation include
fatigue, increased stress and weight gain. Increase stress levels are also
associated with long working hours. Stress can cause heart conditions,
mental health disorders, high blood pressure and more.
9) There are a number of factors within a particular environment that can

contribute to the performance outcome of an athlete‟s effort.
Environmental stress factors include temperature, food, pollutants,
population density, sound, light, and parasites. In between these factors
like extreme heat or cold, high altitude and air pollution can elevate heart
rates, make it harder to breathe, and impair the ability to exercise. In
either case, the athlete is at risk for hyperthermia and significant
physiological performance stress.
10) Malnutrition and poor physical performance are two highly prevalent
conditions in all peoples specially athlete that are associated with poor
health outcomes, such as higher morbidity, mortality, and lower quality
of life. Muscle is a key linking substrate between malnutrition and
physical performance. Decreased muscle mass has been found to be an
outcome of malnutrition and decreased muscle power has been found to
be a predictor of physical performance. At the same time athletes can
increase their stores of glycogen by regularly eating high-carbohydrate
foods.
11) Regular physical activity can improve muscle strength and boost
endurance. Exercise delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and helps
cardiovascular system work more efficiently. Regular physical activity
can help prevent heart disease, stroke by strengthening the heart muscle,
improving blood flow, lowering blood pressure, raising HDL levels,
lowering LDL cholesterol levels, can help insulin more effectively lower
blood sugar level hence control diabetes.
183
Factors Affecting
Physical Performance UNIT 11 PHYSIQUE, NUTRITION AND
PERFORMANCE*
Contents
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Body Physique
11.2 Body Composition
11.3 Nutrition
11.4 Relation between Body Physique and Composition with Performance
11.5 Role of Nutrition in Performance
11.6 Summary
11.7 References
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will:
 know the concept of body physique and body composition;
 realise about the role of human physique and body composition in sports/
activity performance;
 know various aspects of nutrition including its importance during
exercise; and
 have reasonable knowledge about the relationship between diet and
performance.
11.0 INTRODUCTION
In present day sports, performance demands are continually increasing. It is
crucial to note here that sports performance of athletes is highly regulated by
their age, stature, weight and body structure. Body composition and body
physique play crucial role in sports and activities by directly influencing the
biomechanics of movement and performance. It is obvious to have
differences in body size, body proportion, height and weight among different
people.
Individuals of same age group vary in body size and shape; those of same
height differ in their body weight; while others with similar weight differ on
their relative proportion of muscle, fat and bone mass. However, the
demand for body size, structure and composition vary markedly for sports
and activities. Body size and composition could enhance or limit
performance in sport events or any other form of activity.
*
Contributor: Dr. Meenal Dhall, Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology,
184 University of Delhi, Delhi.
It could be elucidated that an individual‟s morphological profile provides a Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
baseline to plan and monitor their performance.
Somatotyping is essentially important here for examining developmental

dynamics of specific shape and size of human body, in accordance with the
function of skill and training, for both competitive and leisure time-phases. It
also helps to decide whether a performer would be suitable to participate in
the particular type of sport/ activity with their body profile. It is then that the
person with particular body type best suited for an activity/sport could be
motivated to follow/take part in that pursuit. It is significant to note here that
functional/technical/training, physiological/tactical, biochemical and motor
capabilities along with environmental factors and genetic endorsements are
equally instrumental as much as somatic characteristics. All these aspects
behave differently among different performers giving up variety in body
composition and structure that becomes ideal for addressing varying demand
for specific body physique, size and proportion in diverse sports and activity
arenas.
Kinanthropometry, not a widely circulated term, deals with current status or

phenotype of body of an individual. It focuses on measurement of personnel
for morphological perspectives like components of body build and maturation;
body measurements, proportions, composition, shape; motor abilities; cardio-
respiratory capacities; and their application during movement for physical
activity, recreational or of specialized sports kind. It acts as a dynamic
interface between assessment of structure/ anatomy and function/ movement
in/of human. It is used as a performance prediction tool rather than just of a
diagnostic nature for selection process but also giving hold for tracking and
recognizing the highest success rate. Study of body physique and
morphology is indispensable so as to decide upon the ideal standards for
championing the respective events at activities and sports. So, kinanthropometry
aids at estimating body size differences, somatotyping and body composition.
Body physique that refers to the shape and size of the body of being has a
critical role to play in attaining better performance. Human physique differs
according to the requirement for a specific sport or activity or an unsuitable
body may rather become a barrier in enhancing performance. As for example,
specific athletic demands for a different body type, body composition along
with an exact range of height and weight for maximum performance. Human
physique is under constant influence of fat mass and fat-free mass ratio, apart
from environmental and genetic factors. Classification of body physique
termed as somatotyping put forth by various scholars and researchers like
Hippocrates, Kretschmer, Viola, Sheldon, Parnell to the much recent and
widely accepted one proposed by Heath and Carter have helped
comprehending the concept and its role much better in day-to-day activities.
Somatotyping makes use of adiposity, musculo-skeletal robustness and
linearity outlook of a physique rather than for just considering simple linear
anthropometric measurements. It is one of the best biological identification
tags of an individual. Somatotype of an individual is presented as a combined
rating of each of these components, where one of the components being
dominant is described to be as the somatotype of the person in terms of that
particular component. 185
1) Elaborate the benefits of somatotyping.
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11.1 BODY PHYSIQUE

Body physique refers to the shape and size of body. Human physique differs
in many ways, whereby various human physiques play important role in
attaining better performance in particular sports. Every sport demands a
specific type of body physique whereas an unsuitable body type in sports
may become a great barrier in the progress of sports performance. Realising
the importance of different physiques, during ancient times great Greek
Philosopher, Hippocrates during 5th century B.C. for the first time introduced
the method of body classification under which the individuals were divided
into two body types as „habitus phthisicus‟, one who has a thin and lean body
with long extremities, and the other „habitus apoplecticus‟, having short,
thick and massive body.
Much later, at the beginning of 12th century, one of the earliest researchers in
this field, a German psychiatrist named Kretschmer classified human
physique into three categories as asthenic or thin type; athletic or muscular
type; and the final as pyknic or fatty type. Further, Viola, an Italian
researcher, also in the12th century developed a method to categorise humans
into four types as Longitype, with long limbs; Brachitype, with broad limbs,
Normotype, having limbs within normal range and the Mixe type, with mixed
characteristics. Sheldon and his associates, in 1940, devised a method to
analyze and quantify human body type to which they referred it to as
somatotyping, for which they used photoscopic way to identify different
physiques. This technique used a 7-scale method for categorising the body
physique as Endomorphs, those more with fatty content in them; Mesomorphs,
more with muscle content in them; and Ectomorphs, as those who lack both
muscle and fat content in them.
Later in 1967, Heath and Carter modified this method of Sheldon‟s into
a more objective method of somatotyping employing anthropometric
measurements. According to them “a somatotype is a description of the
present morphological conformation. It is expressed in a numeral rating
consisting of three sequential numerals always recorded in the same manner.
Each numeral represents the evaluation of the three primary components of
physique which describe individual variations in human morphology and
composition”. As a means for assessing body shape and composition,
independent of size, somatotyping is applied to the description of groups of
186 outstanding athletes. Somatotyping began to be practiced among the Olympic
athletes in 1951 by Cureton. Somatotype studies were done by Tanner (1964) Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
at the Rome Olympics, Garay et al. (1974) carried out the largest study on the
athletes at the Mexico Olympics and Carter et al. studied athletes at the 1976
Montreal Olympics.
11.2 BODY COMPOSITION

Constitutional make-up of body i.e. body composition is another important
ingredient for enhancing sport/activity accomplishments. Physical performance
components/physical fitness abilities like speed, strength, agility and
coordination are also interwoven in the development of body structure. Skill,
psychological features, powerful and capacious energy production systems
are important factors in sports performance but body size, shape, proportion,
composition and morphology are the major success related factors in sports.
Distribution of body weight as a function of different components could be
determined in terms of the major constituents of body as fat mass, muscle
mass and bone mass. Body composition of athletes is an important tool for
evaluating their health, for monitoring the effects of training program and to
decide upon the optimal competitive body weight and other components of
body composition. Understanding the effects of training on body composition
can help athletes in controlling weight and adjust their body composition
safely. Seasonal variations in body composition can also be studied and used
to find the optimal body composition levels for health, recovery, training and
competition. Following body composition trends in specific sports enable
coaches to accurately prepare the athletes for specific events or positions.
Due to the great significance of body composition in athletic health and
performance, it is crucial to ensure a safe, practical and efficient method of
computing body composition.
Body fat percentage is specifically of greater interest to athletes while talking

about body composition, since it is often negatively associated with athletic
performance. Athletes for a specific sport represent a unique body
composition. Density of fat free mass alters with changes in proportions of fat
free mass components. Greater lean body mass, strength, power, lower body
fat percentage and earlier maturation are associated with young, elite male
athletes. While on the other hand, young, elite female athletes have lower
percentage of body fat, later maturation and a less “curvy” physique.
Sportspersons and athletes have a different physiology and health
consequences associated with their body composition compared to the
general non-sports playing group, making body composition is an important
field of study in sports physiology. For achieving excellent performance in
sports and athletics, physical characteristics and body composition have been
known to be instrumental to refine and work upon. Body composition can act
as a predictor of athletic performance, making it relevant for both athletes and
coaches. Physical performance tends to decline with increasing body mass
and fat percentage, one or the other reaching to extreme levels. However,
complementary nature of a higher or lower body fat content is driven by the
type of sports activity that has to be performed. That is why, the body
composition trends specific to different sports could provide a way out for
187
Factors Affecting identifying and categorizing the potential participants for a particular
event/activity.
Body composition becomes a safety issue in weight-dependant sports, like

wrestling. Body fat percentage is an important factor in endurance events
because extra fat increases the demand of energy needed for running without
giving any extra energy in return. There exists a significant relationship
between body fat percentage and running performance. Lean body mass, on
the other hand, acts as a better predictor of performance than fat mass in
strength events. Excess of body fat has harmful effects on the performance in
most of the sports whereas, fat free body mass, specifically muscle mass, and
is generally related with highly refined performance.
11.3 NUTRITION
It is the intake of food, in relation to the dietary demands of an organism
which is dealt under the scope of nutrition and nutrition-based studies and
researches. Good nutrition in an adequate amount or what is popularly known
as the „balanced diet‟ when combined with regular, adequate physical activity
forms one of the cornerstones of sound health. Basic understanding of
nutrition and its effects upon health, weight control and physical performance
is a matter of immense significance. Poor nutritional condition majorly
reduces immunity, increase susceptibility to diseases, lead to impaired
physical and mental development, and reduce productivity.
Following Nutrients form Constituents of Every Diet:
Carbohydrates furnish energy to the millions cells within the human body.
They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.
The most common monosaccharide carbohydrate is glucose which is
oxidized and used directly by the body for energy, broken down by the
digestive system, converted into glycogen (a polysaccharide) and stored in
the muscle and liver for later use. However, if the storage capacity for
glycogen is exceeded in muscles and liver, the excess glucose is converted
into fat and stored in the fatty adipose tissue of the body. Therefore, if
a person is on a high carbohydrate and low fat diet, it is still possible for that
person to increase his/her fat level.
Fats have several major functions in the body, such as- (i) energy storage
which can be used as fuel as the body needs it, (ii) carrier for soluble
vitamins A, D, E and K throughout the body, (iii) providing soft cushion
against inside and outside shocks or blows to vital organs such as the heart,
lungs, kidneys, liver, spinal cord, etc., (iv) heat insulator to protect
body against cold weather and (v) retarding or depressing hunger pangs. Fat
molecule consists of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Fats contain lesser
oxygen and more carbon and hydrogen than carbohydrates, thus acting as
greater fuel provider but has a greater oxidation cost. Chemically, a fat
molecule is made up of fatty acids and glycerol. Fats are stored in the body in
the form of triglycerides.
188
Proteins contain nitrogen in addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
Proteins are „building blocks‟ of tissue, so every cell in the body needs
protein. They furnish the basic material for muscular contraction. Proteins are
made up of nitrogenous compounds called amino acids which are of 20
different types, of which 8 are essential and are not synthesized within body.
The essential amino acids are obtained directly from diet are: isoleucine,
leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine.
Vitamins are organic substances that are essential for human life. Living cell
cannot manufacture vitamins, so they are to be provided either in diet or
through supplements. They are generally classified as water soluble and fat
soluble. Fat soluble vitamins are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
whereas water soluble vitamins contain nitrogen, cobalt and sulphur in
addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored
in body whereas water soluble vitamins could not be stored in body.
Minerals, like vitamins, provide no energy however each mineral has a

diverse function which is vital for proper functioning of the body. Minerals
are essential for the formation and maintenance of bones, teeth, muscles, cells
and certain connective tissues, body fluids, hormones and enzymes. They
make up approximately 4% of the body weight. Mineral deficiency can lower
an athlete‟s efficacy. Depleted minerals during exercise can be replaced by
diet or through supplementation.
Water makes up 40%-60% of the total body weight but it is not classified as
an energy nutrient. Water not only provides the medium for all chemical
processes to take place in but it also assists in forming blood plasma,
digestion of foods, glandular secretion and in waste elimination.
Recommendations on current energy, nourishment-demands and

optimum liquid-intake for active adults and competitive athletes:
For high-intensity training, adequate energy needs are critical to keep a check
over body weight, maximize effects of training and maintain a healthy state.
Otherwise, the lower energy intakes would result into degeneration of muscle
mass, menstrual dysfunctioning, loss of bone mineral density, and failure to
regain the bone density. It may also lead to increased frequencies of fatigue,
injury and illness relating events. Body weight and its composition have an
upper-hand in exercise performance, significantly influencing it. But those
being the sole criteria for deciding participation in sports this consideration
could later prove to a fallacy. Therefore, daily weighing is and should be
discouraged. Age, sex and hereditary factors play key role at deciding, along
with the type of sports they are to play, the varying levels of optimal body-fat
among players. However, desired management of weight and fat should start
early before the competitive season, under close supervision of a trained
health and nutrition-professional.
Carbohydrates chiefly regulate the glucose levels in bloodstream and muscle

glycogen replacement mechanism. During exercise, the recommended
quantities of carbohydrates for athletes range from 6 to 10 grams for per
kilogram of the body weight, per day. Required nutritional count is decided
upon by an athlete‟s total energy expenditure that they are about to make 189
Factors Affecting during the activity event, type of sports activity to be performed, gender-
based differences and environmental conditions. Protein requirements are
recorded to be considerably more in highly active people. Protein
recommendations for endurance athletes tend to be 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg of the
body weight on a per day basis. While for resistance and strength trained/
training athletes, it should be as high as 1.6 to 1.7 g/kg of the body weight,
per day. Even without the use of protein or amino acid supplements, such
recommended protein intake amounts could generally be met through diet
alone, provided that the energy intake is adequate to maintain body weight.
Now, it is important to note here that no significant benefit is added to the

performance upon consuming diet that contains less than 15% of energy
compared with 20% to 25% of energy sourced from fats, for which its intake
should not be restricted. Fats form an important portion in the diets of
athletes. Reason being, it not just provides energy but also supplies with fat-
soluble vitamins (vitamin A, D, E, K) and some very essential fatty-acids.
Additionally, there is lack of research and data on which scientific basis using
recommended levels of fat could be used for athletes furnishing them in their
diets. Practices like restricting energy intake, using severe weight-shedding
practices, excluding one or more food groups or items from diet, consuming
more of carbohydrate-rich diets with reduced micronutrient density could
pose bigger risk of developing micronutrient deficiencies among the athletes.
For this, they should consume diets providing at least the Recommended
Dietary Allowances/ Dietary Reference Intakes RDAs/DRIs for ensuring that
different micronutrients in the food are reaching to the body.
Adequate intake of liquids before, during and after exercise is crucial for
optimal health and performance as dehydration decreases exercise
performance. That is why athletes are advised to drink enough fluid to
balance the fluid losses. They should consume 400 to 600 ml (14 to 22 oz) of
fluid two hours before exercise and another 150 to 350 ml (6 to 12 oz) of
fluid contents should be taken in every 15 to 20 minutes while doing the
exercise depending up on its tolerance (i.e. frequency, intensity and duration
of the exercise). Once an exercise gets over, it highly advisable for an athlete
to drink adequate quantity of fluids to replace exhausted mineral and
electrolytes with sweat losses occurred while exercising. At least 450 to 675
ml (16 to 24 oz) of fluid intake is again suggestible for every pound (0.5 kg)
of body weight to replenish as it gets lost during exercise through
perspiration. Meal/snack provided before exercise should consist of sufficient
amounts of fluid for maintaining hydration levels, optimally. Such items
should be relatively low in fat and fiber as then it enables gastric emptying
and reduced gastro-intestinal distresses. Rather the diet should be relatively
carbohydrate rich enough to promote proper maintenance of glucose
concentration in bloodstream. In addition to this, the diet requires being
moderately rich in proteins and composed of foods familiar and well tolerated
by the athlete‟s body and digestive tract.
In nutrient consumption the primary goal during exercise is to maintain the
blood glucose levels by replenishing fluid and essential-mineral losses and
further supply sufficient carbohydrates (approximately 30 to 60 g per h) to
190 the active ends and muscles in body. All of these guidelines about the
nutritional know-how are important, especially for endurance events that may Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
generally last for longer than an hour. Following these nutritional cautions is
even more vital when the athlete could not consume adequate food or fluid
before starting with their exercise. It is instrumental to abide by these
guidelines when the athlete is exercising in an extremely distressing
environment (that could be heat, cold or altitude). Major dietary goal, after
exercise, is to keep offering sufficient dynamism from the carbohydrates
count for ensuring rapid recovery and regain of muscular glycogen.
Carbohydrate intake of 1.5 g/kg of body weight during the first 30 minutes is
much-needed when the athlete is glycogen-depleted after an exercise and
then again after every 2 hours for 4 to 6 hours is sufficient for replacing the
glycogen stores. Protein consumed during an exercise or after an exercise
generates amino acids for building and repairing tissues at different muscular
regions. Therefore soon after a strenuous competition or training session
athletes should willingly consume a mixed or what is generally known as the
„balanced‟ meal that must be supplying enough carbohydrates, protein and
fat.
It implies that no extra vitamin and/or mineral supplements would actually be

required if the athlete takes necessary energy share from various food items,
ultimately contributing to the maintenance of ideal body weight with respect
to the concerned sports/activity. Supplementation recommendations unrelated
to exercise demands such as those for folic acid use in women of childbearing
potential and among others requiring it should be followed, if needed. A
multivitamin/mineral supplement is the most appropriate demand for if an
athlete is following diet planning and charting/looking for eliminating foods
or food groups when unwell or recovering from any sort of injury, or bearing
some specific micronutrient deficiency. No supplementation of nutrients is
advisable except for specific medical or nutritional reason/ prescription such
that in the case of iron deficiency anemia where iron supplements are
prescribed and used to reverse its affects.
It is here that the athletes should be counseled about utilising nutritional
„ergogenic‟ aids and assistance; that must be employed with great caution. It
should only after careful evaluation of such products on the grounds of their
safety, efficacy, potency as well as legality affairs that they can be utilised. It
is only after careful review of health, diet, supplement and drug use, and
energy requirements of the athlete by a qualified nutrition expert that the
nutritional advice is provided and should be seek upon. On dietary grounds,
vegetarian athletes have been found at a higher risk for being a deficient of
energy, protein contents and other vital micronutrients. It is mainly attributed
to the tendency of high intakes of low-energy-dense foods and the exclusion
of meat and dairy foodstuffs from essential meals and diet. Consultation with
a registered dietitian for possible substitutes of the lacking nourishment could
help to avoid these nutritional problems.
191
Factors Affecting
11.4 RELATION BETWEEN BODY PHYSIQUE
AND COMPOSITION WITH
PERFORMANCE
Athletes meant for a specific sport denote a unique body composition.
Athletic talent, accomplishments and propensity for a particular sport greatly
depend upon physical characteristics, proportionalities and body composition
that are instrumental to refine and to be worked upon. Sports persons and
athletes have a different physiology and health consequences associated with
their body composition compared to the non-athletic group. Body
composition acts as a predictor of athletic performance. Ratios of different
body dimensions with stature are extremely vital in sports as for they are
related to a person‟s physical ability to meet the biomechanical demands of a
particular sport or the playing position. Body weight and fat percentage, at
extreme levels, associates with declining/negative sports performance,
whereas, fat-free mass specifically muscle mass relates closely with highly
refined performance. Quality of an individual‟s movement and efficiency of
skills about its utilization is directly proportional to the level of performance.
Body fat percentage is noteworthy in endurance events. Extra fat intensifies

the demand of energy needed for functioning without giving any extra energy
in return. Excess fat at a given level of applied force resists change in
velocity. So, excess of fat adds non-force producing mass to total body
weight, eventually reducing performance. Body composition trends hence,
help in categorising the potential of participants for particular sports event.
Body mass index is used widely among adults for clinical and epidemiological
assessments. However, it is important to note here that BMI is influenced by
both fat mass and fat free mass. Most of the heavy weight boxers are
overweight according to BMI standards but not fat. This is the reason BMI
alone is not a reliable index for assessment of the status of body constitution
of a sports person. On the other hand, skinfold thicknesses are much easier
and economical to obtain, constituting part of subcutaneous fat density used
to predict total body fat; forming about half of the total body fat percentage
ratio.
Studies conducted over Olympic players indicated that successful sports

performance is often obstructed by lack of appropriate physique. Morphological
optimisation is associated with success in different sports. Studies on athletes
have revealed sprinters are usually muscular, while marathon runners are
small in size and leaner. Throwers are taller and heavier, with higher levels of
fat being favorable for their excellence. Defensive linemen in football tend to
have higher body fat than defensive backs. In track and field events, sprinters
are supposed to have lower body fat than a thrower. Having higher body fat
and body mass is supported among the athletes involved in events like
swimming and kayaking. Athletes trained in weight bearing, or anaerobic
sports like running/sprinting, it is instrumental for them to have much lower
body fat percentage.
In sports specifically requiring body projection such as jumping movements

against gravity, excess fat and body weight has been found hampering sports
192
performance. For long distance swimming and water polo, moderate level of Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
fat is considered as an asset to performance as it provides additional
buoyancy. This is the reason elite swimmers have optimal level of fat in their
body. Jumpers are selected and later trained mainly for their long legs, short
trunk and broader feet because height and long legs help them to have their
center of gravity at a higher level which helps them in crossing greater
height. Power to weight ratio is significant for jumpers, thence maximizing
muscle mass and maintaining low body fat level is desirable. Throwers are
must to have greater body weight because when an object is thrown forward
and upward, an equal and opposite force is exerted on the thrower which
disturbs his/her body balance. Effect of this reaction will consequently be
more if the athlete does not have higher body weight. Further to make the
flight of the throwing object longer in air, greater height is also advantageous
for such athletes. Height gives an edge to basketball and volleyball players
helping them to excel as it is an advantageous factor for these players.
It has been witnessed that shorter body frame helps athletes to excel in the
field of gymnastics, weight-lifting class in boxing. China, Korea and Japan
have produced more sports persons in the field of gymnastics as shorter
height is more favorable in gymnastics. In the field of throwing events and
heavy weight class in boxing bulky musculature helps the sports person in
bringing laurels. Europeans have proved their sports acumen in volleyball,
basketball, swimming, long jump, shot-put; credited to their taller height.

2) What is the importance of body composition in performance?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
3) Name the components taken care of in body composition.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
4) Why body fat is not favourable in performance activities?

…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………. 193
Factors Affecting
11.5 ROLE OF NUTRITION IN PERFORMANCE
High physical activity based performances are feasible only with the
procurement of considerable amount of energy and essential macronutrients,
in advance. Here carbohydrate based energy and protein intake demands
specially must be addressed wisely to uphold the standard body weight,
replenish the depleted glycogen reserves stored in body and offer ample of
proteins for the maintenance and restoration of used and worn-out tissues and
muscles. Intake of fatty contents monitored carefully, has to be plenty enough
to endow the body with all the essential fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins,
crucial for upholding sufficient stock of energy for maintenance of weight.
So, overall diets given to athletes should provide them with moderate
amounts of energy from fat, i.e. up to 20% to 25% of energy. Body weight
and composition though tend to affect performance during exercise but that
should not be considered as the only criterion for gauging performance in
sports; hence daily weighing should be avoided.
Having sufficient energy and fluid content before an exercise, during its
achievement and after its completion has crucial role to play in maintaining
the well-being and enhancing performance of player. This ensures retaining
normal blood glucose concentrations during exercise, which thus maximises
exercise performance and improves recovery time from the mechanically
stressful event. Athletes should be taken care for being well hydrated before
beginning with the exercise. To balance the fluid losses they must drink
adequate amount of fluid during and after exercise. During exercise muscles
must be provided with required amount of fuel, blood glucose and thirst
mechanism needs to be maintained so as to decrease risk of dehydration or
hyponatremia. Sport drinks containing carbohydrates and electrolytes can be
consumed for this. Athletes do not need any further vitamin and mineral
supplementation if an adequate amount of energy, to keep up with an
appropriate body weight, is consumed from various sources and foods.
However, additional supplements may be needed by those specifically
restricting their energy intake by employing severe weight loss practices and
also the ones looking at eliminating one or more food groups completely
from their diet. Moreover those consuming foods high on carbohydrates but
lower micronutrient density would specially need to rely upon additional
supplementation, for sure.
The effects of nutrition on exercise performance have been clearly

documented in various researches. Whatever an athlete eats or drinks,
undoubtedly it has an impact over their health, body physique and
composition, substrate the exercise duration, its recovery time and ultimately
the performance too. For optimisation of exercise performance one needs to
follow good nutrition and hydration practices, follow careful use of ergogenic
aids and supplements, avoid severe weight shedding practices and eat foods
from different sources in adequate measures. Addressing nutritional and
energy needs holds a priority for athletic performers. An efficient energy-
balance is crucial to maintain optimal tissue masses, immune functions and
desired athletic performance. Energy balance refers to the state when energy
intake meaning the sum of energy gained from food, fluids and supplements
194
gets equal to the energy expenditure which is the sum of energy expended at Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
basal metabolism by the „thermic‟ effect of food as a result of digestive
processes and any form of voluntary physical activity, if undertaken. Energy
intakes when remain inadequate relative to the magnitude of energy to be
expended leads to compromising with desirable performance results and
benefits associated with the training regimes. Fat masses are used by the body
as reservoirs of fuel when there are limited energy intakes. This is the time
when loss of muscle in such situations takes place which then results into the
loss of muscular strength and endurance. Continual low energy intake after a
point of time will lead to deficiency of nutrients, particularly of the essential
micronutrients.
RDAs‟ (Recommended Dietary Allowances, 2010) mean energy requirements

put forth for women and men who are just slightly to moderately active in 19 to
50 years of age are defined as 2,200 and 2,900 kcal per day, respectively. For
normally active people, they are counseled to consume an energy equivalent of
1.5 to 1.7 times of resting energy expenditure or at a rate of 37 to 41 kcal/kg of
the body weight, per day. Expenditure of energy is under constant influence
from heredity, age, sex, body size and composition, the intensity, frequency
and duration of exercise. These numeric guidelines for energy intake can
ultimately only estimate a crude approximation of the average energy
requirements of an individual athlete that does not fit to the other performer,
as one solution here does not fit all.
Every athlete must consume sufficient energy contents to maintain

appropriate weight and body composition essential while obtaining training
for a particular kind of sport. Usual energy intakes recommended for male
endurance athletes ranges between 3,000 to 5,000 kcal on per day basis. And
for female athletes, though the usual energy intakes (per kg of body weight)
are dependent upon the training regimens intensely match those of male
athletes, but some female athletes consume lesser energy sources than they
expend. Such low energy intakes, like less than 1,800 to 2,000 kcal per day,
over a longer run tend to cause reduction in weight. Resistance exercises
usually require less energy than endurance exercises. But the total energy
demand of athletes, for their increased body size and high levels of fat free
mass, participating in strength training and body-building may be as high as
those of endurance athletes. Instances where an increased lean body mass is
the prime goal, energy intakes must be considered sufficient to meet the
needs for growth of the respective muscles, that is why many of the strength
athletes need is about 44-50 kcal/kg body weight on per day base, while those
in serious training may have and experience even much higher energy
requirements; even more than 50 kcal/kg body weight per day!
Physical activity, exercise/activity performance and finally swift recovery

from exercise test phase could be improved a lot by optimal nutrition it has
been suggested by the „American Dietetic Association‟, the „Dietitians of
Canada‟ and the „American College of Sports Medicine‟. These organisations
have actually provided recommendations for selecting food and fluids
appropriately. Timing of food intake and supplement choices are highly
significant for achieving optimal health and exercise performance. However,
sport nutrition experts can further modify these general recommendations to 195
Factors Affecting meet even the unique concerns of individual athletes about matters like health
and well-being, sports, nutritional needs, dietary preferences, and body
weight and composition goals.

5) Briefly describe the role of nutrition in performance.
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
6) Which component of diet does not hold any nutritive value?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
11.6 SUMMARY
There are various factors which affect performance in sports and games-
physique, training, skill, age, motivation, etc. physique is the most fundamental
of all the factors. The physique of an individual can be evaluated from body
dimensions, proportions, components and by somatotyping. To excel in a
physically competitive sport, the player must possess dimensions of body
characteristics which suit in his/her sport. It is because of this reason; the
kinanthropometric or physical characteristics are known to be of fundamental
importance for individual development to achieve high level performance in
sports. Physical activity, athletic performance and recovery from exercise
relating stress can be improved upon by optimum nutritional intakes. As part
of nutritional conditioning, suitable selection of foodstuffs and liquids,
timings of their intake and supplement nutrition choices is crucial for
achieving optimal health and exercise performance.s
11.7 REFERENCES
Alburquerque, F., Sánchez, F., Prieto, J.M., López, N., & Santos, M. (2005).
Kinanthropometric assessment of a football team over one season. European
Journal of Anatomy, 9(1), 17-22
American Dietetic Association. (1992). Handbook of clinical dietetics. Yale
University Press.
196
Bell, W. & Rhodes, G. (1975). The morphological characteristics of the Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
association football player. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 9(4), 196
Brechue, W. F., & Abe, T. (2002). The role of FFM accumulation and
skeletal muscle architecture in power lifting performance. European Journal
of Applied Physiology, 86(4), 327-336
Carter, J. L. (1985). Morphological factors limiting human performance.

Limits of human performance. PubMed, 106-117
Carter, J. L., Aubry, S. P., & Sleet, D. A. (1982). Somatotypes of Montreal

Olympic athletes. Physical structure of Olympic athletes (Vol. 16, pp. 53-80).
Karger Publishers.
Carter, J.L., Carter, J.L., & Heath, B.H., (1990). Somatotyping: Development
and applications (Vol. 5). Cambridge university press.
Claessens, A.L., Hlatky, S., Lefevre, J., & Holdhaus, H., (1994). The role of
anthropometric characteristics in modern pentathlon performance in female
athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 12(4), 391-401
Cureton, T. K. (1951). Physical fitness of champion athletes. Urbana:

University of Illinois Press.
Duquet, W. & Carter, J.E.L. (1996). Somatotyping. Kinanthropometry and

exercise physiology laboratory manual. London.
Evans, E.M., Arngrimsson, S.A., & Cureton, K.J. (2001). Body composition
estimates from multicomponent models using BIA to determine body water.
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 33(5), 839-845
Fleck, S.J. (1983). Body composition of elite American athletes. The

American Journal of Sports Medicine, 11(6), 398-403
Garay, A. L., Levine, L., & Carter, J.E.I. (1974). Genetic and anthropological
studies of Olympic athletes. Academic Press.
Gomez et al (2004). Relationship between 25-(OH) D3, the IGF-I system,

leptin, anthropometric and body composition variables in a healthy, randomly
selected population. Hormone and Metabolic Research, 36(01), 48-53
Grandjean, A.C., (1997). Diets of elite athletes: Has the discipline of sports
nutrition made an impact?. The Journal of Nutrition, 127(5), pp.874S-877S
Gray, H. (1936). Body-build in football players. Research Quarterly.

American Physical Education Association, 7(3), 47-57
Gualdi-Russo, E., & Graziani, I. (1993). Anthropometric somatotype of

Italian sport participants. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical
Fitness, 33(3), 282-291
Heath, B.H., & Carter J.E. (1967). A modified somatotype method. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology, 27(1), 57-74
Jonnalagadda, S.S., Benardot, D., & Nelson, M., (1998). Energy and nutrient
intakes of the United States national women's artistic gymnastics 197
Factors Affecting team. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise
Metabolism, 8(4), pp.331-344
Katch, F.I., & McArdle, W.D., (1993). Introduction to nutrition, exercise,

and health (4th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa: Lea & Febiger.
Keogh J. (1999). The use of physical fitness scores and anthropometric data
to predict selection in an elite under-18 Australian rules football team.
Journal of Sport Science and Medicine. 2, 125–133
Krakower, H. (1935). Skeletal characteristics of the high jumper. Research

Quarterly, 6(2), 75-84
Malina, R. M. (2007). Body composition in athletes: assessment and

estimated fatness. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 26(1), 37-68
Manore, M.M. (1999). Nutritional needs of the female athlete. Clinics in

Sports Medicine, 18(3), 549-563
Manore, M.M., Thompson, J., & Russo, M., (1993). Diet and exercise
strategies of a world-class bodybuilder. International Journal of Sport
Nutrition, 3(1), 76-86
National Research Council, (1989). Recommended dietary allowances (10th

ed.). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Norton, K. & Olds, T. (2001). Morphological evolution of athletes over the

20th century. Sports Medicine, 31(11), 763-783
Norton, K., Olds, T., Olive, S., & Craig, N. (1996). Anthropometry and
sports performance. Anthropometrica, 287-364
Prior et al (2001). Muscularity and the density of the fat-free mass in

athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 90(4), 1523-1531
Rico-Sanz, J. (1998). Body composition and nutritional assessments in
soccer. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 8(2), 113-123
Rienzi, E., Reilly, T., & Malkin, C. (1999). Investigation of anthropometric

and work-rate profiles of Rugby Sevens players. Journal of Sports Medicine
and Physical Fitness, 39(2), 160
Ross, W.D., Brown, S.R., Hebbelinck, M., & Faulkner, R.A. (1978).
Kinanthropometry terminology and landmarks. Physical fitness assessment.
Principles, practice and application. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C.
Thomas.
Shaver, L.G. (1981). Essentials of exercise physiology. Ohms Lane,

Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company.
Singh, S.P., & Malhotra, P. (1989). Human size, shape, proportion,

composition, maturation and gross function. Kinanthropometry. Patiala:
Lunar Publications.
Singh, S.P., & Malhotra, P. (1989). Kinanthropometry. Patiala: Lunar

198 Publications.
Sodhi, H.S. (1991). Sports anthropometry (A kinanthropometric approach). Physique, Nutrition
and Performance
Mohali, Chandigarh: Anova Publications.
Sodhi, H.S., & Sidhu, L.S. (1984). Physique and selection of sportsmen: A
kinanthropometric study. Punjab Publishing House.
Swinburn, B., & Ravussin, E. (1993). Energy balance or fat balance? The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(5), 766S-771S
Tanner, J.M. (1964). The physique of the Olympic athlete, Rome, 1960.
George Allen and Unwin Limited.
Toriola, A.L., Adeniran, S.A., & Ogunremi, P.T. (1987). Body composition
and anthropometric characteristics of elite male basketball and volleyball
players. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 27(2), 235-239
Toriola, A.L., Salokun, S.O., & Mathur, D.N. (1985). Somatotype

characteristics of male sprinters, basketball, soccer, and field hockey
players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(06), 344-346
Wilmore, J.H., & Costill, D.L. (1999). Physiology of sports and exercise.
Champaign: Human Kinetics.
11.8 HINTS/ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Somatotyping is important for examining developmental dynamics of
specific shape and size of human body, in accordance with the function
of skill and training, for both competitive and leisure time phases. It also
helps to decide whether a performer would be suitable to participate in
the particular type of sport/activity with their body profile.
2) Body composition is an important tool for evaluating their health, for

monitoring the effects of training program and to decide upon the
optimal competitive body weight and other components of body
composition.
3) Fat mass, fat free mass-muscles, bones, water
4) Extra fat increases the demand of energy needed for running without
giving any extra energy in return. Lean body mass, on the other hand,
acts as a better predictor of performance than fat mass in strength events.
Excess of body fat has harmful effects on the performance in most of the
sports whereas, fat free body mass, specifically muscle mass, and is
generally related with highly refined performance.
5) Nutrition is vital to maintain the optimal lean tissue mass, immune and
reproductive functions; and desired athletic performance.
6) Water
199
Factors Affecting
200

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Gender and Ethnicity

CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES* Techniques

9.1.1.1 Importance of Physical Fitness

9.1.2 Physical Fitness Variables

9.1.2.1 Importance of Shoulder Strength

9.1.2.2 Importance of Abdominal Strength

9.1.2.3 Importance of Power

9.1.2.4 Importance of Agility

9.1.2.5 Importance of Speed

9.1.2.6 Importance of Endurance

9.1.3 Exercise and Fitness

9.3.2 Importance of Training

9.3.3 Types of Training

9.3.3.1 Station Training

9.3.3.2 Set Training

9.3.3.3 Circuit Training

9.3.4 Training and Fitness

9.4.2 Yoga and Fitness

For a good performance in any sport, whether it is lacrosse, tennis,

The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation

Physical activity is related to the bodily movements that are produced by

9.1.1 Physical Fitness

Physical fitness includes speed, flexibility, power, strength, co-ordination,

Physical fitness implies efficient performance in exercise. Physical fitness is

9.1.1.1 Importance of Physical Fitness

Physical fitness plays a vital role in any performance. An individual's

9.1.1.2 Physical Activity Components of Physical Fitness

A good physical conditioning routine will include exercises that work on

Check Your Progress 2

3) How flexibility can benefit athletes?

9.1.2 Physical Fitness Variables

9.1.2.1 Importance of Shoulder Strength

Strength is the ability to overcome resistance or to act against resistance.

In weight lifting and throws the strength required is a combination of

9.1.2.2 Importance of Abdominal Strength

9.1.2.3 Importance of Power

9.1.2.4 Importance of Agility

9.1.2.5 Importance of Speed

Speed is the capacity of the individual to perform successive movement of

Speed is a determining factor in the explosive sports such as sprints, jumps

9.1.2.6 Importance of Endurance

The ability of the human body to maintain a certain level of energy

9.1.3 Exercise and Fitness

In the course of physical exertion a number of coordinated and compensatory

The purpose of exercise is to increase the circulation of blood and intake of

Regular exercises produce increased strength, endurance and other

Check Your Progress 3

5) What types of energy systems are present in the body?

9.2.1 Important Aspects to be kept in Mind while Designing

Training programs should always be designed with an end goal in mind.

Before starting any exercise or fitness program, athletes should consult

Check Your Progress 4

Training means preparing for something. It maybe an event, a season or

Without competition, training is meaningless. Today sport training is mostly

9.3.1 Meaning of Training

Training involves periodic assessment of the athlete’s status and progress.

9.3.3 Types of Training

9.3.3.1 Station Training

9.3.3.2 Set Training