Dose versus Response - Biological organisms How Toxicants Enter Biological Organisms

respond differently to the same dose of a toxicant. - These - Toxicants enter biological organisms by the following
differences are a result of age, sex, weight, diet, general routes: - • ingestion: through the mouth into the stomach,
health, and other factors. - For example, consider the • inhalation: through the mouth or nose into the lungs, •
effects of an irritant vapor on human eyes. Given the same injection: through cuts into the skin, • dermal absorption:
dose of vapours, some individuals will barely notice any through skin membrane.
irritation (weak or low response), whereas other
individuals will be severely irritated (high response). -
Consider a toxicological test run on many individuals. -
Everyone is exposed to the same dose and the response is
recorded. - Gaussian distribution, given by the equation

- Of the four routes of entry, the inhalation, and dermal

routes are the most significant to industrial facilities. -
Inhalation is the easiest to quantify by the direct
Were, measurement of airborne concentrations; the usual
f(x) is the probability (or fraction) of individuals exposure is by vapor, but small solid and liquid particles
experiencing a specific response. x is the response. σ is the can also contribute. - Injection, inhalation, and dermal
standard deviation. µ is the mean absorption generally result in the toxicant entering the
bloodstream unaltered. - Toxicants entering through
ingestion are frequently modified or excreted in bile. -
Toxicants that enter by injection and dermal absorption are
difficult to measure and quantify. - Some toxicants are
absorbed rapidly through the skin. Gastrointestinal Tract
The GI tract plays the most significant role in toxicants
entering the body through ingestion. Food or drink is the
usual mechanism of exposure. Airborne particles can also
lodge in the mucus of the upper respiratory tract and be
swallowed. Skin The skin plays important roles in both the
dermal absorption and injection routes of entry. Injection
- The standard deviation and mean characterize the shape includes both entry by absorption through cuts and
and the location of the normal distribution curve, mechanical injection with hypodermic needles.
respectively. They are computed from the original data Mechanical injection can occur as a result of improper
f(Xi) using the equations hypodermic needle storage in a laboratory drawer.
Respiratory System The respiratory system plays a
significant role in toxicants entering the body through
inhalation.
American Institute of CH Code of Professional
Ethics: - Fundamental principles Engineers shall
uphold and advance the integrity, honor, and dignity of the
engineering profession by 1. using their knowledge and
skill for the enhancement of human welfare; 2. being
honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public,
their employers, and clients; 3. striving to increase the
competence and prestige of the engineering profession. -
- where n is the number of data points. The quantity σ2 is
Fundamental canons 1. Engineers shall hold paramount
called the variance.
the safety, health, and welfare of the public in the
performance of their professional duties. 2. Engineers shall
perform services only in areas of their competence. 3.
Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective
and truthful manner. 4. Engineers shall act in professional
matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or
trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. 5. Engineers
shall build their professional reputations on the merits of
their services.6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to
uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the
engineering profession. 7. Engineers shall continue their
professional development throughout their careers.
How Toxicants Are Eliminated from Biological Accident and Loss Statistics - Accident and loss
Organisms - Toxicants are eliminated or rendered statistics are important measures of the effectiveness of
inactive by the following routes: Excretion: through the safety programs. - These statistics are valuable for
kidneys, liver, lungs, or other organs. Detoxification: by determining whether a process is safe or whether a safety
changing the chemical into something less harmful by procedure is working effectively. no single method can
biotransformation. Storage: in the fatty tissue. - The measure all required aspects. - The three systems
kidneys are the dominant means of excretion in the human considered here are 1. OSHA incidence rate - OSHA
body. They eliminate substances that enter the body by stands for the Occupational Safety and Health
ingestion, inhalation, injection, and dermal absorption. Administration of the United States government. OSHA is
The toxicants are extracted by the kidneys from the responsible for ensuring that workers are provided with a
bloodstream and are excreted in the urine. - Toxicants that safe working environment. - The OSHA incidence rate
are ingested into the digestive tract are frequently excreted provides information on all types of work-related injuries
by the liver. In general, chemical compounds with and illnesses, including fatalities.
molecular weights greater than about 300 are excreted by
the liver into bile. Compounds with lower molecular
weights enter the bloodstream and are excreted by the
kidneys. The digestive tract tends to selectively detoxify
certain agents, whereas substances that enter through
inhalation, injection, or dermal absorption generally arrive 2. Fatal Accident Rate (FAR) - The FAR is used mostly
in the bloodstream unchanged. - The lungs are also a by the British chemical industry. This statistic is used here
means for elimination of substances, particularly those that because there are some useful and interesting FAR data
are volatile. Chloroform and alcohol, for example, are available in the open literature. - The FAR reports the
excreted partially by this route. - Other routes of excretion number of fatalities based on 1000 employees working
are the skin, hair, and nails. These routes are usually minor their entire lifetime. The employees are assumed to work a
compared to the excretion processes of the kidneys, liver, total of 50 years. Thus, the FAR is based on 10' working
and lungs. - The liver is the dominant organ in the hours. - The resulting equation is
detoxification process. The detoxification occurs by
biotransformation, in which the chemical agents are
transformed by reaction into either harmless or less
harmful substances. Biotransformation reactions can also
occur in the blood, intestinal tract wall, skin, kidneys, and 3. Fatality Rate or Deaths Per Person Per Year. - This
other organs. - The final mechanism for elimination is system is independent of the number of hours worked and
storage. This process involves depositing the chemical reports only the number of fatalities expected per person
agent mostly in the fatty areas of the organism but also in per year. This approach is useful for performing
the bones, blood, liver, and kidney. Storage can create a calculations on the general population, where the number
future problem if the organism's food supply is reduced of exposed hours is poorly defined. The applicable
and the fatty deposits are metabolized; the stored chemical equation is
agents will be released into the bloodstream, resulting in
possible damage. - For massive exposures to chemical
agents, damage can occur to the kidneys, liver, or lungs,
significantly reducing the organism's ability to excrete the
substance. - Both the OSHA incidence rate and the FAR depend on
Explain Inherent Safety Techniques - The types the number of exposed hours. An employee working a ten-
of inherent safety techniques that are used in the chemical hour shift is at greater total risk than one working an eight-
industry are 1. minimize (intensification) - Change from hour shift. A FAR can be converted to a fatality rate if the
large batch reactor to a smaller continuous reactor - number of exposed hours is known.
Reduce storage inventory of raw materials - Improve runaway is not possible - Place control rooms away from
control to reduce inventory of hazardous intermediate operations - Separate pump rooms from other rooms -
chemicals - Reduce process hold-up 2. substitute Acoustically insulate noisy lines and equipment -
(substitution) - Use mechanical pump seals vs. packing - Barricade control rooms and tanks 4. simplify
Use welded pipe vs. flanged - Use solvents that are less (simplification and error tolerance). - Keep piping
toxic - Use mechanical gauges vs. mercury - Use systems neat and visually easy to follow - Design control
chemicals with higher flash points, boiling points, and panels that are easy to comprehend - Design plants for easy
other less hazardous properties - Use water as a heat and safe maintenance - Pick equipment that requires less
transfer fluid instead of hot oil 3. moderate (attenuation maintenance - Pick equipment with low failure rates - Add
and limitation of effects) - Use vacuum to reduce boiling fire- and explosion-resistant barricades - Separate systems
point - Reduce process temperatures and pressures - and controls into blocks that are easy to comprehend and
Refrigerate storage vessels - Dissolve hazardous material understand - Label pipes for easy "walking the line" - Label
in safe solvent - Operate at conditions were reactor vessels and controls to enhance understanding.
Explain the importance of Industrial Hygiene Identification - One of the major responsibilities of the
- Here are some of the key reasons why industrial hygiene industrial hygienist is to identify and solve potential health
is so important: - Protecting worker health: Industrial problems within plants. - Chemical process technology,
hygiene helps to identify and mitigate workplace hazards however, is so complex that this task requires the concerted
that can lead to health problems such as respiratory efforts of industrial hygienists, process designers,
illnesses, cancer, hearing loss, and musculoskeletal operators, laboratory personnel, and management. - Many
disorders. By controlling these hazards, industrial hygiene hazardous chemicals are handled safely daily within
can prevent or reduce the incidence of occupational chemical plants. To achieve this operating success, all
diseases. - Improving productivity: A healthy workforce potential hazards must be identified and controlled. - The
is a productive workforce. By implementing measures to identification step requires a thorough study of the
protect workers' health, industrial hygiene can reduce chemical process, operating conditions, and operating
absenteeism and turnover, improve morale, and job procedures. The sources of information include process
satisfaction, and increase productivity. - Compliance with design descriptions, operating instructions, safety reviews,
regulations: Industrial hygiene is a critical component of equipment vendor descriptions, information from chemical
compliance with occupational health and safety suppliers, and information from operating personnel. -
regulations. Employers have a legal and ethical During the identification step, the potential hazards and
responsibility to provide a safe and healthy work methods of contact are identified and recorded. - This list
environment for their employees, and industrial hygiene is of potential hazards together with the required data for
essential to meeting these obligations. - Protecting the hazard identification is commonly used during the
environment: Industrial hygiene is not just about identification step of industrial hygiene projects. -
protecting workers; it also helps to prevent environmental Determining the potential for hazards to result in an
contamination and reduce the impact of industrial accident is frequently part of the identification step. - This
activities on surrounding communities. list of potential hazards and them risk is used during the
Evaluation - The evaluation phase determines the extent evaluation and control phase of the project.
and degree of employee exposure to toxicants and physical Explain 1. Hazard - A hazard is a potential source of
hazards in the workplace environment. - During the harm. Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute
evaluation phase, the various types of existing control hazards when their nature would allow them, even just
measure the evaluation phase determines the extent and theoretically, to cause damage to health, life, property, or
degree of employee exposure to toxicants and physical any other interest of value. - Ex. Chemical Exposure
hazards in the workplace environment. - During the 2. Toxicity - Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical
evaluation phase, the various types of existing control substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage
measures Sudden exposures to high concentrations, an organism. - Ex. Exposure to a toxic substance such as
through large leaks, may lead to immediate acute effects. gasoline 3. Threshold Limit Value - The threshold limit
such as unconsciousness, burning eyes, or fits of coughing. value is believed to be a level to which a worker can be
- There is rarely lasting damage to individuals if they are exposed per shift in the worktime without adverse effects.
removed promptly from the contaminated area. In this case 4. Safety - Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition
ready access to a clean environment is important. - Chronic of being protected from harm or other danger. 5.
effects, arise from repeated exposures to low Flammability - Flammability is the ease with which a
concentrations, mostly by small leaks. - Many toxic material is ignited, the intensity with which it burns and
chemical vapors are colorless and doorless. - Small leaks releases heat once ignited, its propensity to spread fire, and
of these substances might not become obvious for months the rate at which it generates smoke and toxic combustion
or even years. There may be permanent and serious products during gasification and burning.
impairments from such exposures. - Special attention must
be directed toward preventing and controlling low
concentrations of toxic gases.
Material Safety Data Sheets - One of the most
important references used during an industrial hygiene
study involving toxic chemicals are the material safety
data sheet (MSDS). - The MSDS lists the physical
properties of a substance that may be required to determine
the potential hazards of the substance. - MSDSs are
available from (1) the chemical manufacturer, (2) a
commercial source, or (3) a private library developed by
the chemical plant. - The industrial hygienist or safety
professional must interpret the physical and toxicological
properties to determine the hazards associated with a
chemical. These properties are also used to develop a
strategy for the proper control and handling of these
chemicals.
Describe Evaluation procedure for Exposures Safety Culture and storage of dangerous
to Volatile Toxicants - A direct method for material Safety culture :- 1) An enduring set of
determining worker exposures is by continuously values, norms, attitudes, and practices within an
monitoring the air concentrations of toxicants on-line in a organization concerned with minimizing exposure of
work environment. For continuous concentration data C(t) workforce and the general public to dangerous or
the TWA (time-weighted average) concentration is hazardous conditions. 2) In a positive safety culture, a
computed using the equation. shared concern for, commitment to, and accountability for
safety is promoted. 3) Employees at all levels understand
the hazards & risk inherent in their operation and those
with whom they interface. 4) Employees continuously
Where - C(t) is the concentration (in ppm or mg/m3) of the work to identify & control / manage hazards or potential
chemical in the air and - t, is the worker shift time in hours. hazards. 5) Employees understand errors, make efforts to
- The integral is always divided by 8 hours, independent of eliminate potential errors from the system. 6) Employees
the length of time worked in the shift. Thus, if a worker is and management understand and agree on what is
exposed for 12 hours to a concentration of chemical equal acceptable and unacceptable. 7) Management encourages
to the TLV-TWA, then the TLV-TWA has been exceeded, employees to report safety hazards. Storage of
because the computation is normalized to 8 hours. - Dangerous material : - 1) Bulk stocks must be stored
Continuous monitoring is not the usual situation because in a separate building. 2) A spill or fire involving bulk
most facilities do not have the necessary equipment containers will be difficult to tackle when compared with
available. - The more usual case is for intermittent samples that involving smaller bottles. 3) Chemicals must not be
to be obtained, representing worker exposures at fixed placed indiscriminately in the storage shelf. They must be
points in time. If we assume that the concentration C1 is grouped based on their compatibility. 4) Separate
fixed over the period T1 the TWA concentration is chemicals into compatible groups and store alphabetically
computed by within compatible groups. 5) In the event of an accidental
breakage or seismic activity, incompatible chemicals that
are stored in close proximity can mix to start a fire,
- All monitoring systems have drawbacks because (1) the hazardous fumes or explosions. 6) The following chemical
workers move in and out of the exposed workplace and (2) groups must be separated by storing them in different
the concentration of toxicants may vary at different cabinets/shelves or by providing secondary containment
locations in the work area. - Industrial hygienists play an (trays).1) Oxidizers, including peroxides 2) Acids 3) Bases
important role in the selection and placement of workplace 4) Flammable materials 5) Reproductive toxins 6)
monitoring equipment and the interpretation of the data. - Carcinogens 7) Any incompatibles within the above group
If more than one chemical is present in the workplace, one must be stored separately. 8) To prevent accidents caused
procedure is to assume that the effects of the toxicants are by overreaching do not store chemicals on shelves higher
additive. - The combined exposures from multiple than 1.5 meter. 9) Fix the shelf to the wall to prevent its
toxicants with different TLV-TWAs is determined from fall. 10) Store heavier or larger bottles on lower racks. 11)
the equation. Store flammable chemicals in approved safety cabinets.
12) There must be a fixed storage place for each chemical
and the same must be returned to that location after each
use. 13) Toxic or odoriferous chemicals must be stored in
Where - n is the total number of toxicants, - C1 is the
a ventilated cabinet. 14) Chemicals must not be exposed to
concentration of chemical i with respect to the other
heat or direct sunlight. 15) Heat and sunlight can degrade
toxicants, and (TLV-TWA), is the TLV-TWA for
chemicals, deteriorate storage containers and labels. 16)
chemical species - If the sum in Equation 3-3 exceeds 1,
Chemicals must not be stored at locations where they can
then the workers are overexposed. The mixture TLV-TWA
be knocked over. 17) Rim guards must be fixed on the edge
can be computed from
of shelves to prevent bottles from falling. 18) Flammable
chemicals must not be stored on bench tops. 19) After use
they must be immediately removed to a safety cabinet. 20)
Flammable solvents must not be left open in containers or
beakers. 21) Same must be stored and handled away from
- If the sum of the concentrations of the toxicants in the sources of ignition and oxidizers. 22) Flammable
mixture exceeds this amount, then the workers are chemicals must not be stored in domestic refrigerators. 23)
overexposed. - For mixtures of toxicants with different Vapors can leak out from the bottles and form a flammable
effects the TLVs cannot be assumed to be additive. vapor air mixture. 24) The bulb or thermostat can be a
source of ignition. 25) Flammable chemicals must be
stored only in intrinsically safe lab purpose refrigerators.
Worker exposure to dust, noise and toxic Government reputation in industrial hygiene Laws and
vapour 1) Dust Toxicological theory teaches that dust Regulations Congress is responsible for passing laws that
particles that present the greatest hazard to the lungs are govern the United States. To put these laws into effect,
normally in the respirable particle size range of 0.2-0.5 pm. Congress authorizes certain government organizations,
Particles larger than 0.5 pm are usually unable to penetrate including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
the lungs, whereas those smaller than 0.2 pm settle out too OSHA, to create and enforce regulations. Creating a Law
slowly and are mostly exhaled with the air. The main A law is created with a three-step process: Step 1: A
reason for sampling for atmospheric particulates is to member of Congress proposes a bill. A bill is a document
estimate the concentrations that are inhaled and deposited that, if approved, becomes a law. Step 2: If both houses of
in the lungs. Sampling methods and the interpretation of Congress approve the bill, it is sent to the president, who
data relevant to health hazards are relatively complex; has the option to either approve it or veto it. If approved, it
industrial hygienists, who are specialists in this becomes a law that is called an act. Step 3: The complete
technology, should be consulted when confronted with this text of the law is published in the United States Code. The
type of problem. Dust evaluation calculations are code is the official record of all federal laws. Creating a
performed in a manner identical to that used for volatile Regulation set specific rules about what is legal and what
vapours. Instead of using ppm as a concentration unit, is not legal. For example, a regulation relevant to the Clean
mg/m3 or mppcf (millions of particles per cubic foot) is Air Act will specify levels of specific toxic chemicals that
are safe, quantities of the toxic chemicals that are legally
more convenient. 2) Noise problems are common in
emitted into the air, and what penalties are given if the legal
chemical plants; this type of problem is also evaluated by
limits are exceeded. After the regulation is in effect, the
industrial hygienists. If a noise problem is suspected, the
EPA has the responsibility (1) to help citizens comply with
industrial hygienist should immediately make the
the law and (2) to enforce the regulation. The process for
appropriate noise measurements and develop
creating a regulation and/or standard has two steps: Step 1:
recommendations. Noise levels are measured in decibels.
The authorized organization or agency decides when a
A decibel (dB) is a relative logarithmic scale used to
regulation is needed. The organization then researches,
compare the intensities of two sounds. If one sound is at
develops, and proposes a regulation. The proposal is listed
intensity I and another sound is at intensity Io, then the
in the Federal Register so that the public can evaluate it and
difference in intensity levels in decibels is given by
send comments to the organization. These comments are
used to revise the regulation. Step 2: After a regulation is
rewritten, it is posted in the Federal Register as a final rule,
Thus, a sound 10 times as intense as another has an and it is simultaneously codified by publishing it in the
intensity level 10 dB greater. An absolute sound scale (in Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). A Few Laws (USC)
dBA for absolute decibels) is defined by establishing an and Regulations (CFR) 1) 29 USC 651- Occupational
intensity reference. For convenience, the hearing threshold Safety and Health Act (1970) 2) 42 USC 7401-Clean Air
is set at 0 dBA. Table 3-7 contains dBA levels for a variety Act (1970) 3) 33 USC 1251- Clean Water Act (1977) 4) 42
of common activities Noise evaluation calculations are USC 7401- Clean Air Act Amendments (1990) Federal
performed identically to calculations for vapours, except Legislation Relevant to Chemical Process Safety 1)
that dBA is used instead of ppm and hours of exposure is 1899 - RHA - River and Harbor Act 2) 1906 - FDCA -
used instead of concentration. 3) Toxic Vapour The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 3) 1947 - FIFRA -
best procedure to determine exposures to toxic vapors is to Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 4)
measure the vapor concentrations directly. For design 1952 - DCA - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
purposes estimates of vapor concentrations are frequently Rodenticide Act
required in enclosed spaces, above open containers, where equals mass in minus mass out, the dynamic mass balance
drums are filled, and in the area of spills. on the volatile species is

At steady state the accumulation term is 0,

This enclosure is ventilated by a constant volume airflow.
Volatile vapors are evolved within the enclosure. An
estimate of the concentration of volatile in the air is Let m represent mass, ρ represent density, and
required. Let, C be the concentration of volatile vapor in the subscripts v and b denote the volatile and bulk gas
the enclosure, V be the volume of the enclosure, Q, be the species, respectively.
ventilation rate (volume/time), k be the nonideal mixing
factor, and Q, be the evolution rate of volatile material.
The nonideal mixing factor k accounts for conditions in the Where, R, is the ideal gas constant, T is the absolute
enclosure that are less than well mixed. It follows that ambient temperature, P is the absolute pressure, and M is
Total mass of volatile in volume = VC, Accumulation of the molecular weight of the volatile species.
mass of volatile =d(VC)/dt = V dC/dt, Mass rate of volatile
material resulting from evolution = Qm, Mass rate of
volatile material out = kQv,C. Because accumulation
Definition a)Relative Toxicity:-Toxicants are Define Fire Explosion1)Fire1)Combustion or fire:
compared for relative toxicity based on the LD, ED, or TD Combustion or fire is a chemical reaction in which a
curves. If the response-dose curve for chemical A is to the substance combines with an oxidant and releases energy.
right of the response-dose curve for chemical B, then 2)Ignition: Ignition of a flammable mixture may be caused
chemical A is more toxic. Care must be taken when by a flammable mixture coming in contact with a source of
comparing two response-dose curves when partial data are ignition with sufficient energy or the gas reaching a
available. If the slopes of the curves differ substantially, temperature high enough to cause the gas to auto ignite. 3)
the situation shown in Fig might occur. If only a single data Autoignition temperature: A fixed temperature above
point is available in the upper part of the curves, it might which adequate energy is available in the environment to
appear that chemical A is always more toxic than chemical provide an ignition source. 4)Flash point: The flash point
B. The complete data show that chemical B is more toxic of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which it gives off
at lower doses. B)Threshold Limit Values (TLV) The enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air. There
lowest value on the response versus dose curve is called are several different experimental methods used to
the threshold dose. Below this dose the body is able to determine flash points. Each method produces a somewhat
detoxify and eliminate the agent without any detectable different value. The two most commonly used methods are
effects. In reality the response is only identically zero open cup and closed cup, depending on the physical
when the dose is zero, but for small doses the response is configuration of the experimental equipment. The open-
not detectable. The TLV refers to airborne concentrations cup flash point is a few degrees higher than the closed-cup
that correspond to conditions under which no adverse flash point. 1)Fire point: The fire point is the lowest
effects are normally expected during a worker's lifetime. temperature at which a vapor above a liquid will continue
The exposure occurs only during normal working hours, to burn once ignited; the fire point temperature is higher
eight hours per day and five days per week. The TLV was than the flash point. 2)Flammability limits: Vapor-air
formerly called the maximum allowable concentration. mixtures will ignite and burn only over a well-specified
There are three different types of TLVs with precise range of compositions. 2)1)Explosion An explosion is a
definition provided in Table. More TLV-TWA data are rapid expansion of gases resulting in a rapidly moving
available than TWA-STEL or TLV-C data. Definitions pressure or shock wave. 2)Mechanical explosion: An
TLV-TWA: - Time-weighted average for a normal 8-hour explosion resulting from the sudden failure of a vessel
workday or 40-hour work week, to which nearly all containing high-pressure nonreactive gas. 3)Deflagration:
workers can be exposed, day after day, without adverse An explosion in which the reaction front moves at a speed
effects. Excursions above the limit are allowed if less than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium
compensated by excursions below the limit. TLV-STEL: 4)Detonation: An explosion in which the reaction front
- Short-term exposure limit. The maximum concentration moves at a speed greater than the speed of sound in the
to which workers can be exposed for a period of up to 15 unreacted medium. 5)Confined explosion: An explosion
minutes continuously without suffering (1) intolerable occurring within a vessel or a building. These are most
irritation, (2) chronic or irreversible tissue change, (3) common and usually result in injury to building inhabitants
narcosis of sufficient degree to increase accident and extensive damage. 6)Unconfined explosion:
proneness, impair self-rescue, or materially reduce worker Unconfined explosions occur in the open. Unconfined
efficiency, provided that no more than 4 excursions per explosions are rarer than confined explosions because
day are permitted, with at least 60 minutes between explosive material is frequently diluted below LFL by wind
exposure periods, and provided that the daily TLV-TWA dispersion. 7)Boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosion: A
is not exceeded. TLV-C: - Ceiling limit. The concentration BLEVE occurs if a vessel that contains a liquid at a
that should not be exceeded. Toxicology A major temperature above its atmospheric pressure boiling point
objective of a toxicological study is to quantify the effects ruptures. 8)Dust explosion: This explosion results from
of the suspect toxicant on a target organism. For most rapid combustion of fine solid particles.
toxicological studies animals are used, usually with the selection depends on the effects considered and other
hope that the results can be extrapolated to humans. Once factors such as the cost and availability of the test
the effects of a suspect agent have been quantified, organism. For studies of genetic effects, single-cell
appropriate procedures are established to ensure that the organisms might be satisfactory. For studies determining
agent is handled properly. Before undertaking a the effects on specific organs such as the lungs, kidneys, or
toxicological study, the following items must be liver, higher organisms are a necessity. The dose units
identified: 1) the toxicant, 2) the target or test organism, 3) depend on the method of delivery. For substances delivered
the effect or response to be monitored, 4) the dose range, directly into the organism, the dose is measured in
5) the period of the test. The toxicant must be identified milligrams of agent per kilogram of body weight. This
with respect to its chemical composition and its physical enables researchers to apply the results obtained from small
state. For example, benzene can exist in either liquid or animals such as mice to humans. For gaseous airborne
vapor form. Each physical state preferentially enters the substances the dose is measured in either parts per million
body by a different route and requires a different or milligrams of agent per cubic meter of air. For airborne
toxicological study. The test organism can range from a particulates the dose is measured in milligrams of agent per
simple single cell up through the higher animals. The cubic meter of air.