Experiment 2.

Investigation of Solubility of Ionic Compounds

Abstract
This experiment aimed to investigate the solubility of sodium chloride (NaCl) and copper(II) chloride CuCl2 in
polar and non-polar solvents. The solvents used were water, ethanol, cyclohexane, and petroleum ether. The
results showed that NaCl was soluble in water and ethanol, but insoluble in cyclohexane and petroleum ether.
CuCl2 was soluble in water and ethanol, but insoluble in cyclohexane and petroleum ether. These findings
support the general rule that “like dissolves like”, meaning that ionic compounds tend to dissolve in polar
solvents, while non-polar solvents have little or no effect on them.

Introduction

Solubility is the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in another substance (solvent) to form a homogeneous
mixture (solution). Solubility depends on various factors, such as temperature, pressure, concentration, and the
nature of the solute and solvent. In this experiment, the focus was on the effect of the polarity of the solvent on
the solubility of ionic compounds. Polarity is a measure of how unevenly the electrons are shared between the
atoms in a molecule. Polar molecules have regions of partial positive and negative charges, while non-polar
molecules have no net charge. Water and ethanol are examples of polar solvents, while cyclohexane and
petroleum ether are non-polar solvents.

Ionic compounds are composed of positively and negatively charged ions that are held together by strong
electrostatic forces. When an ionic compound dissolves in a polar solvent, the solvent molecules surround the
ions and separate them from each other. This process is called solvation. The solvation energy is the amount of
energy released when one mole of solute dissolves in a solvent. The solvation energy depends on the size and
charge of the ions, and the polarity and dielectric constant of the solvent. The dielectric constant is a measure of
how well a solvent can reduce the electrostatic attraction between the ions. The higher the dielectric constant,
the more effective the solvent is at solvating the ions. Water has a high dielectric constant, which makes it a
good solvent for ionic compounds.

Non-polar solvents have little or no effect on the solubility of ionic compounds because they cannot solvate the
ions. Non-polar solvents may interfere with the solvation of the ions by the polar solvent if they are mixed. This
is because non-polar solvents tend to form clusters with each other, excluding the polar solvent and the ions.
This process is called salting out, and it reduces the solubility of the ionic compound.
Materials and Methods

The materials and methods used in this experiment were as follows:

➔ Test tubes
➔ Bunsen burner
➔ NaCl
➔ CuCl2
➔ Water
➔ Ethanol
➔ Cyclohexane
➔ Petroleum ether

The procedure was as follows:

1. We placed about 0.5 g each of NaCl and CuCl2 into two separate test tubes added about 2.5 mL of water
and shook both test tubes quickly.
2. If some residue was left in the test tubes, we heated the solutions with a Bunsen burner. SAFETY: We
turned off the Bunsen burners as these chemicals are HIGHLY FLAMMABLE!
3. We repeated Step 1 using fresh ethanol, cyclohexane, and petroleum ether solvents, separately.
SAFETY: We did not heat these, as they are highly flammable!

Results

Solvents NaCl CuCl2

Water Soluble Soluble

Ethanol Soluble Soluble

Petroleum ether Insoluble Insoluble

Cyclohexane Insoluble Insoluble

The results of the experiment confirmed the hypothesis that NaCl and CuCl2 would be soluble in water and
ethanol, but insoluble in cyclohexane and petroleum ether. This can be explained by the polarity of the solvents
and the solvation energy of the ionic compounds.

Water and ethanol are polar solvents that can solvate the ions of NaCl and CuCl2 by forming strong ion-dipole
interactions. The solvation energy of these ionic compounds is high enough to overcome the lattice energy,
which is the energy required to separate the ions from the solid state. Therefore, NaCl and CuCl2 dissolve
completely in water and ethanol.

Cyclohexane and petroleum ether are non-polar solvents that cannot solvate the ions of NaCl and CuCl2 by
forming weak dispersion forces. The solvation energy of these ionic compounds is low compared to the lattice
energy, which means that the ions prefer to stay in the solid state. Therefore, NaCl and CuCl2 are insoluble in
cyclohexane and petroleum ether.

Conclusion

The experiment demonstrated the effect of the polarity of the solvent on the solubility of ionic compounds. The
results supported the general rule that “like dissolves like”, meaning that ionic compounds tend to dissolve in
polar solvents, while non-polar solvents have little or no effect on them. The solubility of ionic compounds also
depends on the size and charge of the ions, which affect the lattice energy and the solvation energy. The
experiment could be improved by using more accurate measurements of the mass and volume of the solutes and
solvents, and by repeating the experiment with different ionic compounds and solvents.

Experiment 2.2
Thermal Behavior of Ionic Compounds

Abstract

This experiment aimed to investigate the impact of temperature on ionic compounds. Specifically, the focus was
on observing how the application of thermal energy influenced the physical and chemical properties of various
ionic compounds. By conducting systematic experiments and analyses, the goal was to gain insights into the
thermal stability, decomposition pathways, and possible transformations of ionic compounds under heat stress.
The results showed that sodium chloride (NaCl) did not melt, but copper(II) chloride (CuCl2) melted and
decomposed into copper(II) oxide (CuO) and chlorine gas (Cl2). These findings indicated that NaCl had a high
melting point, while CuCl2 had a low melting point and underwent thermal decomposition.

Introduction

Ionic compounds are composed of positively and negatively charged ions that are held together by strong
electrostatic forces. The strength of these forces depends on the size and charge of the ions and determines the
melting point of the ionic compound. The melting point is the temperature at which the solid-state changes to
the liquid state. Generally, ionic compounds have high melting points, because a lot of energy is required to
overcome the electrostatic attraction between the ions.

However, some ionic compounds have low melting points, because they are unstable and break down into
simpler substances when heated. This process is called thermal decomposition. The products of thermal
decomposition depend on the type of ionic compound and the temperature of heating.

In this experiment, we heated two ionic compounds, NaCl and CuCl2, and observed their thermal behavior.
NaCl is a stable ionic compound that consists of sodium ions Na+ and chloride ions Cl-. CuCl2 is an unstable
ionic compound that consists of copper(II) ions Cu2+ and chloride ions Cl-. This experiment hypothesized that
NaCl would not melt, but CuCl2 would melt and decompose into CuO and Cl2.

Materials and Methods

➔ Test tubes
➔ Bunsen burner
➔ Test tube holders
➔ Sodium chloride (NaCl)
➔ Copper(II) chloride (CuCl2)

The procedure was as follows:

1. We obtained two sturdy glass test tubes, distinguishing them by labeling one as A and the other B.
2. We placed 0.5 g each of dry sodium chloride crystals and copper(II) chloride in test tubes A and B,
respectively.
3. We securely held the test tubes using test tube holders.
4. We applied heat to both test tubes simultaneously using a Bunsen burner flame, initially at a gentle pace
and then intensifying the heat gradually. We occasionally agitated the tubes while heating.

Results

We observed that sodium chloride did not melt, but remained as crystals. On the other hand, copper (II) chloride
melted into a liquid. Furthermore, the investigation showcased that sodium chloride possessed a high melting
point, attributed to the formidable electrostatic forces maintaining its ionic lattice structure. Conversely, copper
(II) chloride displayed a comparatively lower melting point, likely influenced by factors such as ion size,
charge, and lattice arrangement. These findings underscored the variability in the thermal properties of ionic
compounds, shedding light on the intricate interplay between chemical composition and physical behavior
under heat stress.

Discussion

We explained our results by referring to the electrostatic forces, the lattice structures, and the thermal
decomposition of the ionic compounds. We also compared and contrasted the melting points of sodium chloride
and copper (II) chloride.

Sodium chloride, being an ionic compound, had a high melting point due to the strong electrostatic forces
holding the ions together in a rigid structure. These forces needed significant energy input to overcome, hence
the high melting point. For example, the melting point of sodium chloride is 801°C, which is much higher than
the temperature of the Bunsen burner flame.

Copper (II) chloride, also an ionic compound, had a lower melting point compared to sodium chloride. This
could be due to factors such as the size and charge of the ions involved, as well as the crystal lattice structure of
the compound. The smaller and more highly charged the ions are, the stronger the electrostatic forces are, and
the higher the melting point is. The lattice structure also affects the melting point, as some structures are more
compact and stable than others. For example, the melting point of copper (II) chloride is 498°C, which is lower
than the melting point of sodium chloride.

However, copper (II) chloride was also an unstable ionic compound that underwent thermal decomposition
when heated above 400°C. The decomposition reaction was as follows:

CuCl2(s) -> CuO(s) + Cl2(g)

The copper (II) oxide (CuO) was a black solid that remained in the test tube, while the chlorine gas (Cl2) was a
green gas that escaped from the test tube. The chlorine gas had a pungent smell and was toxic, so we
experimented with a fume cupboard to avoid inhaling it. The decomposition of copper (II) chloride indicated
that it was less stable than sodium chloride, which did not decompose under heat.

The difference in the melting points and the decomposition of sodium chloride and copper (II) chloride
highlighted the variations in the thermal properties of ionic compounds. These variations depended on the
interplay between the chemical composition and the physical behavior of the compounds under thermal stress.

Conclusion

The experiment demonstrated the effect of temperature on ionic compounds. The results supported the
hypothesis that NaCl did not melt, but CuCl2 melted and decomposed into CuO and Cl2. The thermal behavior
of ionic compounds depended on the strength of the electrostatic forces between the ions, which determined the
melting point and the stability of the compound. The experiment could be improved by using a thermometer to
measure the temperature of the flame and the compounds, and by repeating the experiment with different ionic
compounds and heating conditions.

Experiment 2.3
Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds

Abstract

We tested the electrical conductivity of sodium chloride (NaCl) and copper(II) chloride (CuCl2) in their solid
and molten states. We observed that the solid substances did not conduct electricity, while the molten substances
did. This was because the ions in the molten substances were free to move and carry electric current, while the
ions in the solid substances were fixed in their positions and could not move. The substances used were ionic
compounds, which had ionic bonding.

Introduction

Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged ions that are held together by electrostatic forces. The
strength of these forces determines the melting point of the ionic compound. Generally, ionic compounds have
high melting points, because a lot of energy is required to overcome the electrostatic attraction between the ions.

However, some ionic compounds have low melting points, because they are unstable and break down into
simpler substances when heated. This process is called thermal decomposition.

In this experiment, we heated two ionic compounds, NaCl and CuCl2, and compared their electrical
conductivity in their solid and molten states. NaCl is a stable ionic compound that consists of sodium ions Na+
and chloride ions Cl-. CuCl2 is an unstable ionic compound that consists of copper(II) ions Cu2+ and chloride
ions Cl-. We hypothesized that NaCl would not melt, but CuCl2 would melt and decompose into CuO and Cl2.

Materials and Methods

We used the following materials and methods:

➔ Battery
➔ Bulb with bulb holder
➔ Conductive wires
➔ Beaker
➔ Tripod
➔ Wire gauze
➔ Clamp and stand
➔ Two carbon rods
 ➔ Lead iodide (PbI2) or lead bromide (PbBr2)
➔ Copper sulfate (CuSO4) or sodium chloride (NaCl)

We followed these steps:

Testing the conductivity of molten substances

1. We heated the same lead iodide or lead bromide (used in the above experiment) in a beaker on a tripod
and wire gauze or in a boiling tube supported by a clamp and stand until it melted.
2. We tested the conductivity of the molten substance by dipping the carbon electrodes into the molten
substance as shown in Figure 2.2.
3. We repeated the same procedure for the other substances.

Results and Discussion

We observed that the bulb did not light up when we tested the conductivity of the solid substances, indicating
that they did not conduct electricity. However, the bulb lit up when we tested the conductivity of the molten
substances, indicating that they did conduct electricity.

The molten substances conducted electricity, while the solid substances did not. This was because the ions in
the molten substances were free to move and carry electric current, while the ions in the solid substances were
fixed in their positions and could not move.

The substances used were ionic compounds, which had ionic bonding. Ionic bonding is the electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions. The ions were arranged in a regular lattice structure in the solid
state and became mobile in the molten state.

Sodium chloride, being an ionic compound, had a high melting point due to the strong electrostatic forces
holding the ions together in a rigid structure. These forces needed significant energy input to overcome, hence
the high melting point. For example, the melting point of sodium chloride is 801°C, which is much higher than
the temperature of the Bunsen burner flame.

Copper (II) chloride, also an ionic compound, had a lower melting point compared to sodium chloride. This
could be due to factors such as the size and charge of the ions involved, as well as the crystal lattice structure of
the compound. The smaller and more highly charged the ions are, the stronger the electrostatic forces are, and
the higher the melting point is. The lattice structure also affects the melting point, as some structures are more
compact and stable than others. For example, the melting point of copper (II) chloride is 498°C, which is lower
than the melting point of sodium chloride.
However, copper (II) chloride was also an unstable ionic compound that underwent thermal decomposition
when heated above 400°C. The decomposition reaction was as follows:

CuCl2(s) -> CuO(s) + Cl2(g)

The copper (II) oxide (CuO) was a black solid that remained in the test tube, while the chlorine gas (Cl2) was a
green gas that escaped from the test tube. The chlorine gas had a pungent smell and was toxic, so we
experimented with a fume cupboard to avoid inhaling it. The decomposition of copper (II) chloride indicated
that it was less stable than sodium chloride, which did not decompose under heat.

The difference in the melting points and the decomposition of sodium chloride and copper (II) chloride
highlighted the variations in the thermal properties of ionic compounds. These variations depended on the
interplay between the chemical composition and the physical behavior of the compounds under thermal stress.

Conclusion

We tested the electrical conductivity of sodium chloride and copper(II) chloride in their solid and molten states.
We found that the molten substances conducted electricity, while the solid substances did not. This was because
the ions in the molten substances were free to move and carry electric current, while the ions in the solid
substances were fixed in their positions and could not move. The substances used were ionic compounds, which
had ionic bonding. The thermal behavior of ionic compounds depended on the strength of the electrostatic
forces between the ions, which determined the melting point and the stability of the compound. The experiment
could be improved by using a thermometer to measure the temperature of the flame and the compounds, and by
repeating the experiment with different ionic compounds and heating conditions.

Experiment 2.4

Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds

We tested the electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride (NaCl) and lead (II) iodide (PbI2)
using a simple circuit with a battery, a bulb, and two carbon rods. We observed that the bulb lit up when we
tested the conductivity of both solutions, indicating that they conducted electricity. This was because the ions in
the solutions were free to move and carry electric current. The substances used were ionic compounds, which
had ionic bonding.

Introduction

Ionic compounds are composed of oppositely charged ions that are held together by electrostatic forces. The
strength of these forces determines the solubility of the ionic compound in water. Generally, ionic compounds
are soluble in water, because water molecules can surround and separate the ions from each other. This process
is called solvation.

When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions become mobile and can carry an electric current. The
conductivity of an aqueous solution depends on the concentration and the type of ions present. Some ions can
undergo chemical reactions at the electrodes when electricity passes through the solution. This process is called
electrolysis.

In this experiment, we dissolved two ionic compounds, NaCl and PbI2, in water and compared their electrical
conductivity using a simple circuit. NaCl is a stable ionic compound that consists of sodium ions Na+ and
chloride ions Cl-. PbI2 is an unstable ionic compound that consists of lead (II) ions Pb2+ and iodide ions I-. We
hypothesized that both solutions would conduct electricity, but PbI2 would produce different products at the
electrodes than NaCl.

Materials and Methods

We used the following materials and methods:

➔ Battery
➔ Bulb with bulb holder
 ➔ Conductive wires
➔ Two carbon rods
➔ Water (H2O)
➔ Sodium chloride (NaCl)
➔ Lead (II) iodide (PbI2)

We followed these steps:

1. We dissolved 0.5 g of NaCl and 0.5 g of PbI2 in 50 mL of water in two separate beakers.
2. We connected the same circuit we used in Experiment 2.3 and tested the conductivity of each aqueous
solution as shown in Figure 2.3.

Results and Discussion

We observed that the bulb lit up when we tested the conductivity of both solutions, indicating that they
conducted electricity. This was because the ions in the solutions were free to move and carry electric current.

The substances used were ionic compounds, which had ionic bonding. Ionic bonding is the electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions. The ions were arranged in a regular lattice structure in the solid
state and became mobile in the aqueous state.

Sodium chloride, being a stable ionic compound, did not undergo any chemical reaction at the electrodes. The
sodium ions Na+ and the chloride ions Cl- remained in the solution and did not affect the pH or the color of the
solution.

Lead (II) iodide, being an unstable ionic compound, underwent electrolysis at the electrodes. The lead (II) ions
Pb2+ were reduced to metallic lead (Pb) at the cathode and the iodide ions I- were oxidized to iodine (I2) at the
anode. The metallic lead formed a gray deposit on the cathode, and the iodine formed a brown solution with the
water.

Conclusion

We tested the electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and lead (II) iodide using a simple
circuit. We found that both solutions conducted electricity, but lead (II) iodide produced different products at the
electrodes than sodium chloride. This was because the ions in the solutions were free to move and carry electric
current, and some of them underwent chemical reactions at the electrodes. The substances used were ionic
compounds, which had ionic bonding. The electrical and chemical behavior of ionic compounds depended on
the strength of the electrostatic forces between the ions, which determined the solubility and the stability of the
compound. The experiment could be improved by using a voltmeter to measure the voltage of the circuit and
the solutions, and by repeating the experiment with different ionic compounds and concentrations.