Philosophy 112: Elementary Logic

3. What is an argument?

Abstract: 1. The concept of an argument is discussed together with the

related concepts of premise, conclusion, inference, entailment, proposition or
statement, 2. the difference between arguments and nonarguments is
explained.

1. Logic
Classical elementary philosophical Logic is most basically defined as the
study of the methods and principles used in distinguishing correct from
incorrect reasoning, good arguments from poor arguments.

2. Definition of an argument
An argument is any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow
logically from the others.
- In the everyday sense an "argument" is a dispute or disagreement or
quarrel, e.g., a couple fighting about money, or neighbours clashing about
noise. In Logic this is not turned as an argument.
- By "argument" we don’t mean any of those, but rather we mean a
demonstration or a proof of some statement. E.g., "That bird is a crow; as it is
evidently a crow and all crows are black, it follows that it's black."
3. The structure of an argument
The chief concern of logic is the structure of an argument. Every argument in
logic has a structure, and every argument can be described in terms of this
structure.
The central parts of an argument include:
a. Premise: (sometimes spelled "premiss") a proposition which gives
reasons, grounds, or evidence for accepting some other proposition, called
the conclusion.
b. Conclusion: a proposition, which is purported to be established on the
basis of other propositions.
Exercises:
Identify the premises and conclusions in the following passages, each of
which contains just one argument. Mark the premise with a P and the
conclusion with a C.
Example:
Forbear to judge, for we are sinners after all.
(C) Forbear to judge, (P) for we are sinners after all.
Remember, premises are reasons for conclusions to follow. A tip: look for
conclusions first, and identify conclusions as the answer to questions such as
“what do you want to prove?” or, “what is stated and how can one state that?”,
or “what gives one reason to claim something?”
The premises give reasons for the conclusion to follow. So, the conclusion is
what follows from given premises; the conclusion states what the premises
prove.
For instance, the reason that we should “forbear to judge?” is that “we are all
sinners”.
More exercises:
• Since there are no mental diseases, there can be no treatments of
them.
• All people deserve to be treated with respect. It is disrespectful to
deceive someone. Therefore, it is never ok to lie.
• Dogs do not like being alone, for they are a sociable species.
• Movie X is the highest grossing movie of all time. This follows from its
being the best movie of all time.
• Parents are often ignorant of how much the world has changed since
their youth, therefore misunderstandings often arise between them and
their children.

• The government has a duty to provide shelter for every citizen. There
are many people without homes. Thus, people are right to say, the
government is not doing its duty.
• Thinking is a function of man’s immortal soul. God has given an
immortal soul to every man and woman, but not to any other animal or
to machines. Hence, no animal or machine can think.
• Monopoly is the enemy of good management, since it destroys
incentive to control corporate expenses and maintain maximum
production.
• Forty percent of the world’s people live in India and China. Therefore,
government policies bearing on population growth in the two countries
have a significant relevance to the size and well-being of the human
population as a whole.
4. Statements
We have spoken in the previous sections about an argument as consisting of
premises and conclusions. Premises are statements or propositions, which
give reasons for other statements or propositions, the conclusion, to follow.
But what is a statement?
A statement or proposition (we will use these words interchangeably) is a
verbal expression that can be regarded as true or false (but not both).

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Hence, a statement or a proposition is a sentence with a truth-value. We can
still regard a sentence as a statement even if the truth-value of the statement
is not known, that is, then the statement claims to be true.
Logic is just concerned with those statements that have truth-values, that is,
that claim to be true. (There is very much of life that is irrelevant to logic.)
Consider the confusion that would result if we mistake the following sentences
for statements, that is, if we take them to claim something that is believed to
be true:
1. Someone says: "Good morning." You answer: “What's good about the
morning?” or, “Bad morning!” To say good morning does not meant to claim
that the morning is good rather than bad such that this claim can be true or
false.
2. To a waiter: "I'd like a cup of coffee." The waiter answers: “I’d think bigger,
take a BMW.” To request something of one’s preference does not mean to
judge it in a way that can be true or false.
3. William Blake says: “To see a World in a Grain of Sand / And a Heaven in a
Flower / Hold eternity in the palm of your hand / And Infinity in an hour”. You
respond: “How can the world be a grain of sand, or how can infinity be an
hour long?” To describe things poetically does not mean to make any truth
claims about it.
Greetings, requests, and poetry, among other uses of language, are not
meant to be taken as statements that can be true or false.
Which of the following sentences are statements?
1. There is iron ore on the other side of Pluto.
2. Tomorrow, it will rain.
3. Open the door, please.
4. Whales are reptiles.
5. Pegasus has wings.
6. You should vote in all important elections.
7. God is love.
8. The winner takes it all.
9. Alice is in wonderland.

5. Inference and entailment

Consider the following example from Perl:
If we set our ideals too high, then we will not meet those ideals.
If we do not meet those ideals, then we are less than we could be.
If we are less than we could be, then we feel inferior.
If we set ideals too high, then we feel inferior.
By convention, the reasons or premises are set above a line that separates
the premises from the conclusion. The line is sometimes thought of as
symbolizing the word "therefore" in ordinary language.
As you read the passage and come to understand it, you are undergoing a
reasoning process called "making the inference."

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a. An inference is the reasoning process by which a logical relation is
understood.
b. The logical relation is considered valid (good) or not valid (not good) even if
we do not understand the inference right away. In other words, it is convenient
to consider the logical relation as not being dependant for its validity on the
psychological process of an inference.
c. In this manner, logic does not describe the psychological processes of
thinking. Rather logic prescribes the argumentative structure of reasoning.
So, this logical relation between the premises and conclusion of Perl's
argument holds regardless of whether we pay attention or not.
d. Using the bold letters, we can symbolize his argument as follows:
H→N
N→L
L→I
H→I
e. This kind of logical relation is called an entailment.
An entailment is a logical relation between or among propositions such that
the truth of one proposition is determined by the truth of another proposition or
other propositions, and this determination is a function solely of the meaning
and syntax of the propositions concerned.
c. Another way to remember the difference between an inference and an
entailment is to note that people infer and propositions entail.
d. The argument structure is the sum and substance of logic. All that remain in
this course is to sketch out a bit of what this means. (Note that Perls',
argument has a good structure, so if the conclusion is false, one of the
premises has to be false.)

6. Arguments and Non-Arguments

Given these characterizations, then, how do we sort out arguments from other
linguistic forms of expression?
In effect, what we are doing is separating the territory of logic from the rest of
the world.
In order to know to what we can apply our powerful methods of analysis, we
need to learn how to separate argumentative discourse from non-
argumentative discourse.
Typical argumentative "look-a-likes" fall into four main categories.

6.1. Fiction
Fiction includes poetry, imagined and emotional discourse: the purpose is
not factual truth.
a. Even though good fiction has a good internal logic, there is usually no proof
involved.

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The work of fiction, as a whole, can be thought of as a very large conditional
statement:
If {we assume characters, plot, etc.) then {such and such statements logically
follow}.
This proceeding is the sort of thing that is done in thought-experiments.
Consider: if my brain would be transplanted into the skull of another person,
then I would take myself to be that person.
If good, then fiction has good internal logic, but still, it does not claim to proof
anything by that logic.
b. Poetry's purpose is not to prove or demonstrate, but to appeal to our
emotions or insight.
Often these insights are a-logical, paradoxical, hyperbolic, analogical etc., not
to give us any crooked demonstration of truth but to offer us insight.
6.2. Emotional Discourse
In common parlance, "heated arguments" are a-logical--the standards of logic
are not meant to apply.
a. E.g., "One man was shot, one man was injured after a heated argument in
a bar."
b. From a logical point of view, the heated exchange of views is often settled
by the doctrine: "Might makes right."
Note the difference between emotive expressions (which are not meant to be
statements/arguments) and an emotional way of arguing (being emotional but
employing proper arguments).
6.3. Commands
Commands are not statements because they have no truth-value.
a. Commands are imperatives and normally function as directive, e.g.,
"Study hard",
"Have a nice day”, or
"Study pages 25-140 for the test".
b. Commands are not statements, but they can be subjected to a "logic of
commands". We could evaluate a series of commands for logical consistency
(as when we are told to do different things by the same authority). However,
commands, strictly speaking, are neither true nor false, so they are not
normally part of arguments.
c. But note: Sometimes you should look at the context—although imperatives
are used, the passage might be meant to be an argument (e.g., study hard,
for if your study hard, then you will be able to get an A).
6.4. Conditionals
Conditionals look very much like arguments and intuitively "feel" very much
like arguments, but as their antecedents (see below) need to be affirmed (see

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below), they cannot stand on their own as arguments. They are no more than
complex statements.
a. The parts of a conditional:
If {antecedent} then {consequent}
b. If I say, "If someone fails this class, then I will eat the textbook," I do not
affirm that what will follow if someone’s fails is that I will really eat the
textbook.
c. A conditional is not yet an argument. A conditional only states that: if A is
the case, then B will follow; it does not affirm that A is the case and then
conclude that B will follow as in an argument. In an argument the affirmation
of the conditional looks as follows:
If A is the case, then B will follow
A is the case
Therefore, B follows
d. Since conditionals are statements, then, of course, they can be an essential
part of arguments:
Consider an argument form called modus ponens (we will return to it in a
following lecture, you do not need to understand it fully now).
If you study hard, then you make an A in logic.
You study hard.
Therefore, you make that A.
In an argument the antecedent of the conditional is affirmed by a following
premise and a conclusion.
7. Explanations and arguments
1. Arguments and explanations do overlap, on occasion, but there are at
least the following differences.

Argument Explanation

(1) has the purpose to establish the Has the purpose to give an
truth of a statement (in other words, account of something (in other
the purpose is to prove something) words, the purpose is to
describe or clarify or elucidate
something)

(2) offers evidence, grounds or offers an account or description

reasons – by means of which the truth or clarification of a statement or
of some proposition (the conclusion) is reasons that clarify it
establish

(3) draws a logical connection between describes a causal connection

statements

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 All in all:

(4) an argument answers the question: an explanation answers the

How can you say that something is the question: Why do you say that
case, can you prove it? something is the case, can you
clarify it?

Consider the following difference between the explanation in A and the

argument in B:
A. (1) The Roman Empire lacked the spirit of liberalism and free
enterprise. (2) Therefore the Roman Empire collapsed.
B. (1) If a society lacks the spirit of liberalism, it will collapse. (2) The
Roman Empire lacked the spirit of liberalism. (3) Therefore the Roman
Empire collapsed
In explanation A, statement (1) clarifies why statement (2) is the case. A
clarification is given as to why the Roman Empire collapsed.
In argument B, statement (1) is affirmed by (2). Statement 2 affirms that the
Roman Empire lacked the spirit of liberalism. This affirmation makes it
possible for (1) and (2) to prove (3). An argument is thus given as to how it
came that the Roman Empire collapsed.

8. Exercises
Which of the following are arguments? For the ones that are arguments,
identify the premises and the conclusion. See end of the exercises for
answers.

1. All people deserve to be treated with respect. It is disrespectful to

deceive someone. Therefore, it is never ok to lie.
2. If I spend all my money today, then I won’t have any left tomorrow.
3. All girls like chocolate. Therefore, Thabo’s sister likes chocolate.
4. Only kind people succeed in life. Mean people always end up unhappy.
5. It takes a lot of hard work to get your Matric. So if you want to get your
Matric you better work hard.
6. Every country in the world has a legal system. Thus, China must have
a legal system.
7. We all have a responsibility to help our parents in their old age. Our
parents looked after us when we were children, and it is only right that
we look after them when they are old.
8. School education is a waste of time. The skills that a person really
needs to survive in the world are not taught at school.
9. I never smoke cigarettes because I know smoking is bad for my health.
10. The government has a duty to provide shelter for every citizen. There
are many people without homes. Thus, the government is not doing its
duty.
11. The weekend should be one day long. More work would get done and
the country’s economy would improve.

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 12. All Japanese people like Sushi. Sheara is a Japanese person.
Therefore she also likes Sushi.
13. Most cats have tails. Max is a cat. He thus probably has a tail.
14. I have met two Australians in my life, and both have been rude and
unpleasant. This gives me reason to believe that all Australians are
rude and unpleasant.
15. Whenever I have gone to my class, the teacher has been there.
Therefore, if I go there at 12 o’clock tonight, she will probably show up.
16. Drunk drivers and deadly car accidents often go together. Thus there is
a good reason to say that drunk driving kills.
17. More milk is drunk in Gauteng than in any other province, and Gauteng
has the highest crime rate. Milk thus causes crime.
18. I have gone to checkers three times after 9 pm and it has been closed.
It must therefore close sometime before 9pm.
19. I’ve never passed a Maths test, and this means I will always fail.
20. Every time I eat peanuts I find it hard to breath and have to be taken to
hospital. Thus, peanuts cause me to have an allergic reaction.
21. Most crimes go unpunished. Thus, if you are a criminal it is unlikely that
you will get caught.
22. My wrinkles disappeared. The doctor injected the area with an extract.
The extract caused the muscle to become paralyzed, thus eliminating
the wrinkles.
23. Trevor Noah is great. He draws huge audiences and does excellent
imitations.
24. Million Dollar Baby won the Academy Award because people are
suckers for sappy stories about underdogs.
25. I gave my dog a treat when he sat down because I wanted to reward
him.

1.e 2.e 3.a 4.e 5.a 6.a 7.e 8.e 9.e 10a 11.e 12.a 13.a 14.e 15.a 16.a 17.e 18.e
19.a 20.e 21.a 22.e 23.a 24.e 25.e

Further going exercises

http://avconline.avc.edu/cgratton/documents/distinguishargexpl_000.pdf
INSTRUCTION: Identify the arguments and the explanations (see end of the
exercises for answers).

Tips:
- Remember that arguments claim to prove the truth of a case, while
explanations assume and then explain a case. So, in the case of
arguments look out for truth claims. Check the hints in the examples
below for such claims.
- Recall that arguments draw logical connections and explanations
causal relations. So, in the case of arguments look wat is claimed to be
for any future hypothetical cases (what is claimed will be the case),
while with explanations check out what is explained as temporary
causes of present states of affairs (what is clarified to have caused
things).

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1. The door is shut because of the strong wind. PARAPHRASED: The
door is shut. There is/was a strong wind.
2. The door is shut because I no longer feel a draft
3. Dogs do not like being alone, for they are a sociable species.
4. Dogs do not like being alone, for they bark loudly when alone.
5. Movie X is the highest grossing movie of all time. Hence, it is the best
movie of all time [HINT: value claim].
6. Movie X is the highest grossing movie of all time. This follows from its
being the best movie of all time.
7. In the light of the fact that water was such a common resource, it was
not used efficiently.
8. Inasmuch as water is such a common resource, it will not be used
efficiently.
9. The popular press gave the inventors a lot of press coverage. This is
based on the fact that it described their inventions in many pages for
ten consecutive days.
10. The popular press gave the inventors a lot of press coverage. Here’s
why: their invention will have a dramatic impact on everyone in society.
11. The pipes burst due to the fact that the water in them froze.
12. There was water in the pipes, and the pipes are located in the outside
walls. The temperature got down to zero degrees F last night. The
house was not heated. Water freezes at 32 degrees F. Water expands
when it freezes. So the pipes burst.
13. I know what a cracked pipe looks like. When I installed the pipes they
were not cracked. I examined them yesterday, and noticed that they
were cracked. A cracked pipe is a burst pipe. So the pipes burst.
14. The Opera House profits have declined for the reason that it brought
obscure or unpopular operas without big-name stars.
15. The Opera House profits have declined. The proof: this year’s profits
are smaller than last year’s.
16. Minority groups live apart from whites. This is established from the fact
that one does not see any people from minority groups living in the
white neighborhoods.
17. Minority groups live apart from whites, for that’s what whites want.
18. The plane crashed on account of the fact that its pilot was intoxicated.
19. The plane crashed for the simple reason that all its parts were
scattered over a distance of three hundred meters.
20. The core cause of homophobia is that even the most virulent
homophobes are themselves repressed sexually, even with same sex
attraction. PARAPHRASED: There is homophobia. Even the most
virulent homophobes are themselves repressed sexually. Homophobes
are sexually repressed even with same sex attraction.

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21. Communication in a court of law differs from communication on a
basketball court. This is explained by the fact that people know from
experience that these “courts” are very different.
22. As a planet orbits a star, its gravity tugs on the star, creating a slight
wobble.
23. Ready for anything under the sky. Ready because you’re that kind of
guy.
24. S/he is disgusting [Hint: the conclusion is a value claim]. The reason is
that s/he had an affair with someone married.
25. Parents are often ignorant of how much the world has changed since
their youth, and thus misunderstandings often arise between them and
their children.
26. Our lower back muscles are put under a lot of stress in everyday life.
For that reason we should maintain strong backs [HINT: prescriptive
claim].
27. Our lower back muscles are put under a lot of stress in everyday life.
For most of us spend a lot of time sitting, and have bad sitting
postures.
28. Players of sport X are the best-paid athletes among all the professional
sports. This indicates that they are the best athletes among all
professional sports. [HINT: the conclusion is a value claim.]
29. Players of sport X are the best-paid athletes among all the professional
sports. This follows from the fact that they are the best athletes among
all professional sports.
30. A high percentage of body fat is associated with an increased risk of
heart disease. Then body fat is an important aspect of physical health
for the reason. [HINT: the conclusion is a value claim.]
31. The combination of both primary and secondary sources in one’s
research is valuable because primary sources provide a check against
inaccuracies that may exit in a secondary source. [HINT: the
conclusion is a value claim.]
32. As physics focuses on properties that are truly basic to the way nature
works, it can be applied fruitfully to objects as different as subatomic
particles, distant stars, and speeding automobiles.
33. Here is why water is effective as a heat bank: it can absorb or release
a relatively large amount of heat with only a slight change in its own
temperature.
34. Foreign businessmen should be very cautious about trying to keep up
with their Japanese hosts at business drinking rituals. [HINT: the
conclusion is a prescriptive claim.] It is all too common to see visiting
businessmen being returned to their hotels well after midnight, sodden
drunk.

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35. Modernization theory uses the world’s most economically developed
countries as the standard for judging the rest of humanity, thus
modernization theory has an ethnocentric bias.
36. Most people have a very limited understanding of the design of
musculoskeletal system for balance; this state of ignorance is, in itself,
an impediment to the improvement of posture. PARAPHRASED: Most
people have a very limited understanding of the design of
musculoskeletal system for balance. Most people have difficulty
improving their posture.
37. Fat is an efficient storage form for energy. The evidence is that each
gram contains over twice the energy content of either carbohydrate or
protein.
38. Electrical power outages caused by bad weather or equipment failure
do happen. Hence, people who depend on electrically operated
medical equipment should take measures to protect themselves
against occasional interruptions of electrical service by providing for an
alternate power supply. [HINT: the conclusion is a prescriptive claim.]
39. Since honey is quickly absorbed by the body, it’s a popular pick-me-up
for athletes.
40. As the sale of honey to athletes has increased dramatically, it’s a
popular pick-me-up for athletes.
41. The participating narrator is telling his story in the first person. This
being so, some details in the story stand out more than others.
42. The same kind of recurring details of the story are mentioned by the
readers of the story. I would have to say that some details of the story
stand out more than others.
43. The public response to criminal violence has become correspondingly
bitter. 3/5 of the American public expressed their support for a self-
styled vigilante who shot down four young black men after they asked
him for $5.
44. John R. Craise M.D., a professor at Wale Forest University, Winston-
Salem North Carolina recently discovered that a daily intake of soy
protein high in soflavones can lower LDL (bad) cholesterol by as much
as 10 percent. If we consume a diet with a high intake of soy protein,
our cholesterol level will be lowered.
45. We need you to work longer hours because we have insufficient
workers.

1. e 2. a 3. e 4. a 5. a 6. e 7. e 8. a 9. a 10. e 11. e 12. e 13. a 14. e 15.

a 16. a 17. e 18. e 19. a 20. e 21. e 22. e 23. e 24. a 25. e 26. a 27. e
28. a 29. e 30. a 31. a 32. e 33. e 34. a 35. a 36. e 37. a 38. a 39. e 40.
a 41. e 42. a 43. a 44. a 45. e

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