The Republic Plato

The Republic
by
Plato
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THE REPUBLIC other of his writings is the attempt made to interweave life
and speculation, or to connect politics with philosophy. The
Republic is the centre around which the other Dialogues
by
may be grouped; here philosophy reaches the highest point
to which ancient thinkers ever attained. Plato among the
Plato Greeks, like Bacon among the moderns, was the first who
(360 B.C.) conceived a method of knowledge, although neither of them
always distinguished the bare outline or form from the sub-
translated by Benjamin Jowett
stance of truth; and both of them had to be content with
THE INTRODUCTION an abstraction of science which was not yet realized. He
was the greatest metaphysical genius whom the world has
The Republic of Plato is the longest of his works with the seen; and in him, more than in any other ancient thinker,
exception of the Laws, and is certainly the greatest of them. the germs of future knowledge are contained. The sciences
There are nearer approaches to modern metaphysics in the of logic and psychology, which have supplied so many in-
Philebus and in the Sophist; the Politicus or Statesman is struments of thought to after-ages, are based upon the
more ideal; the form and institutions of the State are more analyses of Socrates and Plato. The principles of definition,
clearly drawn out in the Laws; as works of art, the Sympo- the law of contradiction, the fallacy of arguing in a circle,
sium and the Protagoras are of higher excellence. But no the distinction between the essence and accidents of a thing
other Dialogue of Plato has the same largeness of view and or notion, between means and ends, between causes and
the same perfection of style; no other shows an equal knowl- conditions; also the division of the mind into the rational,
edge of the world, or contains more of those thoughts which concupiscent, and irascible elements, or of pleasures and
are new as well as old, and not of one age only but of all. desires into necessary and unnecessary—these and other
Nowhere in Plato is there a deeper irony or a greater wealth great forms of thought are all of them to be found in the
of humor or imagery, or more dramatic power. Nor in any Republic, and were probably first invented by Plato. The
3
Plato’s The Republic
greatest of all logical truths, and the one of which writers may judge from the noble commencement of the Timaeus,
on philosophy are most apt to lose sight, the difference from the fragment of the Critias itself, and from the third
between words and things, has been most strenuously in- book of the Laws, in what manner Plato would have treated
sisted on by him, although he has not always avoided the this high argument. We can only guess why the great de-
confusion of them in his own writings. But he does not sign was abandoned; perhaps because Plato became sen-
bind up truth in logical formulae,—logic is still veiled in sible of some incongruity in a fictitious history, or because
metaphysics; and the science which he imagines to “con- he had lost his interest in it, or because advancing years
template all truth and all existence” is very unlike the doc- forbade the completion of it; and we may please ourselves
trine of the syllogism which Aristotle claims to have dis- with the fancy that had this imaginary narrative ever been
covered. finished, we should have found Plato himself sympathizing
Neither must we forget that the Republic is but the third with the struggle for Hellenic independence, singing a hymn
part of a still larger design which was to have included an of triumph over Marathon and Salamis, perhaps making the
ideal history of Athens, as well as a political and physical reflection of Herodotus where he contemplates the growth
philosophy. The fragment of the Critias has given birth to a of the Athenian empire—”How brave a thing is freedom of
world-famous fiction, second only in importance to the tale speech, which has made the Athenians so far exceed every
of Troy and the legend of Arthur; and is said as a fact to other state of Hellas in greatness!” or, more probably, at-
have inspired some of the early navigators of the sixteenth tributing the victory to the ancient good order of Athens
century. This mythical tale, of which the subject was a his- and to the favor of Apollo and Athene.
tory of the wars of the Athenians against the Island of Again, Plato may be regarded as the “captain”
Atlantis, is supposed to be founded upon an unfinished (‘arhchegoz’) or leader of a goodly band of followers; for in
poem of Solon, to which it would have stood in the same the Republic is to be found the original of Cicero’s De Re-
relation as the writings of the logographers to the poems publica, of St. Augustine’s City of God, of the Utopia of Sir
of Homer. It would have told of a struggle for Liberty, in- Thomas More, and of the numerous other imaginary States
tended to represent the conflict of Persia and Hellas. We which are framed upon the same model. The extent to which
4
Aristotle or the Aristotelian school were indebted to him in He is the father of idealism in philosophy, in politics, in
the Politics has been little recognized, and the recognition literature. And many of the latest conceptions of modern
is the more necessary because it is not made by Aristotle thinkers and statesmen, such as the unity of knowledge,
himself. The two philosophers had more in common than the reign of law, and the equality of the sexes, have been
they were conscious of; and probably some elements of Plato anticipated in a dream by him.
remain still undetected in Aristotle. In English philosophy
too, many affinities may be traced, not only in the works ARGUMENT
of the Cambridge Platonists, but in great original writers
The argument of the Republic is the search after Justice,
like Berkeley or Coleridge, to Plato and his ideas. That there
the nature of which is first hinted at by Cephalus, the just
is a truth higher than experience, of which the mind bears
and blameless old man—then discussed on the basis of pro-
witness to herself, is a conviction which in our own genera-
verbial morality by Socrates and Polemarchus—then cari-
tion has been enthusiastically asserted, and is perhaps gain-
catured by Thrasymachus and partially explained by
ing ground. Of the Greek authors who at the Renaissance
Socrates—reduced to an abstraction by Glaucon and
brought a new life into the world Plato has had the great-
Adeimantus, and having become invisible in the individual
est influence. The Republic of Plato is also the first treatise
reappears at length in the ideal State which is constructed
upon education, of which the writings of Milton and Locke,
by Socrates. The first care of the rulers is to be education,
Rousseau, Jean Paul, and Goethe are the legitimate descen-
of which an outline is drawn after the old Hellenic model,
dants. Like Dante or Bunyan, he has a revelation of another
providing only for an improved religion and morality, and
life; like Bacon, he is profoundly impressed with the unity
more simplicity in music and gymnastic, a manlier strain of
of knowledge; in the early Church he exercised a real influ-
poetry, and greater harmony of the individual and the State.
ence on theology, and at the Revival of Literature on poli-
We are thus led on to the conception of a higher State, in
tics. Even the fragments of his words when “repeated at
which “no man calls anything his own,” and in which there
second-hand” have in all ages ravished the hearts of men,
is neither “marrying nor giving in marriage,” and “kings are
who have seen reflected in them their own higher nature.
philosophers” and “philosophers are kings;” and there is
5
another and higher education, intellectual as well as moral and sophistical notions of justice, and concluding, like some
and religious, of science as well as of art, and not of youth of the earlier Dialogues, without arriving at any definite
only but of the whole of life. Such a State is hardly to be result. To this is appended a restatement of the nature of
realized in this world and would quickly degenerate. To the justice according to common opinion, and an answer is de-
perfect ideal succeeds the government of the soldier and manded to the question—What is justice, stripped of ap-
the lover of honor, this again declining into democracy, and pearances? The second division (2) includes the remainder
democracy into tyranny, in an imaginary but regular order of the second and the whole of the third and fourth books,
having not much resemblance to the actual facts. When “the which are mainly occupied with the construction of the first
wheel has come full circle” we do not begin again with a State and the first education. The third division (3) con-
new period of human life; but we have passed from the best sists of the fifth, sixth, and seventh books, in which phi-
to the worst, and there we end. The subject is then changed losophy rather than justice is the subject of inquiry, and
and the old quarrel of poetry and philosophy which had the second State is constructed on principles of commu-
been more lightly treated in the earlier books of the Re- nism and ruled by philosophers, and the contemplation of
public is now resumed and fought out to a conclusion. Po- the idea of good takes the place of the social and political
etry is discovered to be an imitation thrice removed from virtues. In the eighth and ninth books (4) the perversions
the truth, and Homer, as well as the dramatic poets, having of States and of the individuals who correspond to them
been condemned as an imitator, is sent into banishment are reviewed in succession; and the nature of pleasure and
along with them. And the idea of the State is supplemented the principle of tyranny are further analyzed in the indi-
by the revelation of a future life. vidual man. The tenth book (5) is the conclusion of the
The division into books, like all similar divisions, is prob- whole, in which the relations of philosophy to poetry are
ably later than the age of Plato. The natural divisions are finally determined, and the happiness of the citizens in this
five in number;—1) Book I and the first half of Book II life, which has now been assured, is crowned by the vision
down to the paragraph beginning, “I had always admired of another.
the genius of Glaucon and Adeimantus,” which is introduc- Or a more general division into two parts may be adopted;
tory; the first book containing a refutation of the popular the first (Books I - IV) containing the description of a State
6
framed generally in accordance with Hellenic notions of re- dence, this uncertainty about any single Dialogue being com-
ligion and morality, while in the second (Books V - X) the posed at one time is a disturbing element, which must be
Hellenic State is transformed into an ideal kingdom of phi- admitted to affect longer works, such as the Republic and
losophy, of which all other governments are the perversions. the Laws, more than shorter ones. But, on the other hand,
These two points of view are really opposed, and the oppo- the seeming discrepancies of the Republic may only arise out
sition is only veiled by the genius of Plato. The Republic, of the discordant elements which the philosopher has at-
like the Phaedrus, is an imperfect whole; the higher light of tempted to unite in a single whole, perhaps without being
philosophy breaks through the regularity of the Hellenic himself able to recognize the inconsistency which is obvious
temple, which at last fades away into the heavens. Whether to us. For there is a judgment of after ages which few great
this imperfection of structure arises from an enlargement writers have ever been able to anticipate for themselves. They
of the plan; or from the imperfect reconcilement in the do not perceive the want of connection in their own writ-
writer’s own mind of the struggling elements of thought ings, or the gaps in their systems which are visible enough
which are now first brought together by him; or, perhaps, to those who come after them. In the beginnings of litera-
from the composition of the work at different times—are ture and philosophy, amid the first efforts of thought and
questions, like the similar question about the Iliad and the language, more inconsistencies occur than now, when the
Odyssey, which are worth asking, but which cannot have a paths of speculation are well worn and the meaning of words
distinct answer. In the age of Plato there was no regular precisely defined. For consistency, too, is the growth of time;
mode of publication, and an author would have the less and some of the greatest creations of the human mind have
scruple in altering or adding to a work which was known been wanting in unity. Tried by this test, several of the Pla-
only to a few of his friends. There is no absurdity in sup- tonic Dialogues, according to our modern ideas, appear to be
posing that he may have laid his labors aside for a time, or defective, but the deficiency is no proof that they were com-
turned from one work to another; and such interruptions posed at different times or by different hands. And the sup-
would be more likely to occur in the case of a long than of position that the Republic was written uninterruptedly and
a short writing. In all attempts to determine the chrono- by a continuous effort is in some degree confirmed by the
logical he order of the Platonic writings on internal evi- numerous references from one part of the work to another.
7
The second title, “Concerning Justice,” is not the one by The virtues are based on justice, of which common honesty
which the Republic is quoted, either by Aristotle or gener- in buying and selling is the shadow, and justice is based on
ally in antiquity, and, like the other second titles of the the idea of good, which is the harmony of the world, and is
Platonic Dialogues, may therefore be assumed to be of later reflected both in the institutions of States and in motions
date. Morgenstern and others have asked whether the defi- of the heavenly bodies. The Timaeus, which takes up the
nition of justice, which is the professed aim, or the con- political rather than the ethical side of the Republic, and is
struction of the State is the principal argument of the work. chiefly occupied with hypotheses concerning the outward
The answer is, that the two blend in one, and are two faces world, yet contains many indications that the same law is
of the same truth; for justice is the order of the State, and supposed to reign over the State, over nature, and over
the State is the visible embodiment of justice under the man.
conditions of human society. The one is the soul and the Too much, however, has been made of this question both
other is the body, and the Greek ideal of the State, as of in ancient and in modern times. There is a stage of criticism
the individual, is a fair mind in a fair body. In Hegelian in which all works, whether of nature or of art, are referred
phraseology the State is the reality of which justice is the to design. Now in ancient writings, and indeed in literature
ideal. Or, described in Christian language, the kingdom of generally, there remains often a large element which was
God is within, and yet develops into a Church or external not comprehended in the original design. For the plan grows
kingdom; “the house not made with hands, eternal in the under the author’s hand; new thoughts occur to him in the
heavens,” is reduced to the proportions of an earthly build- act of writing; he has not worked out the argument to the
ing. Or, to use a Platonic image, justice and the State are end before he begins. The reader who seeks to find some
the warp and the woof which run through the whole tex- one idea under which the whole may be conceived, must
ture. And when the constitution of the State is completed, necessarily seize on the vaguest and most general. Thus
the conception of justice is not dismissed, but reappears Stallbaum, who is dissatisfied with the ordinary explana-
under the same or different names throughout the work, tions of the argument of the Republic, imagines himself to
both as the inner law of the individual soul, and finally as have found the true argument “in the representation of
the principle of rewards and punishments in another life. human life in a State perfected by justice and governed
8
according to the idea of good.” There may be some use in ets and sophists and tyrants who are the false teachers and
such general descriptions, but they can hardly be said to evil rulers of mankind—about “the world” which is the em-
express the design of the writer. The truth is, that we may bodiment of them—about a kingdom which exists nowhere
as well speak of many designs as of one; nor need anything upon earth but is laid up in heaven to be the pattern and
be excluded from the plan of a great work to which the rule of human life. No such inspired creation is at unity
mind is naturally led by the association of ideas, and which with itself, any more than the clouds of heaven when the
does not interfere with the general purpose. What kind or sun pierces through them. Every shade of light and dark, of
degree of unity is to be sought after in a building, in the truth, and of fiction which is the veil of truth, is allowable
plastic arts, in poetry, in prose, is a problem which has to in a work of philosophical imagination. It is not all on the
be determined relatively to the subject-matter. To Plato same plane; it easily passes from ideas to myths and fan-
himself, the inquiry “what was the intention of the writer,” cies, from facts to figures of speech. It is not prose but
or “what was the principal argument of the Republic” would poetry, at least a great part of it, and ought not to be
have been hardly intelligible, and therefore had better be judged by the rules of logic or the probabilities of history.
at once dismissed. The writer is not fashioning his ideas into an artistic whole;
Is not the Republic the vehicle of three or four great truths they take possession of him and are too much for him. We
which, to Plato’s own mind, are most naturally represented have no need therefore to discuss whether a State such as
in the form of the State? Just as in the Jewish prophets the Plato has conceived is practicable or not, or whether the
reign of Messiah, or “the day of the Lord,” or the suffering outward form or the inward life came first into the mind of
Servant or people of God, or the “Sun of righteousness with the writer. For the practicability of his ideas has nothing to
healing in his wings” only convey, to us at least, their great do with their truth; and the highest thoughts to which he
spiritual ideals, so through the Greek State Plato reveals to attains may be truly said to bear the greatest “marks of
us his own thoughts about divine perfection, which is the design”—justice more than the external frame-work of the
idea of good—like the sun in the visible world;—about State, the idea of good more than justice. The great science
human perfection, which is justice—about education be- of dialectic or the organization of ideas has no real con-
ginning in youth and continuing in later years—about potent; but is only a type of the method or spirit in which the
9
higher knowledge is to be pursued by the spectator of all culties, such, for example, as the conjecture of C. F. Hermann,
time and all existence. It is in the fifth, sixth, and seventh that Glaucon and Adeimantus are not the brothers but the
books that Plato reaches the “summit of speculation,” and uncles of Plato, or the fancy of Stallbaum that Plato inten-
these, although they fail to satisfy the requirements of a tionally left anachronisms indicating the dates at which
modern thinker, may therefore be regarded as the most some of his Dialogues were written.
important, as they are also the most original, portions of
the work. CHARACTERS
It is not necessary to discuss at length a minor question
The principal characters in the Republic are Cephalus,
which has been raised by Boeckh, respecting the imaginary
Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, Socrates, Glaucon, and
date at which the conversation was held (the year 411 B. C.
Adeimantus. Cephalus appears in the introduction only,
which is proposed by him will do as well as any other); for a
Polemarchus drops at the end of the first argument, and
writer of fiction, and especially a writer who, like Plato, is
Thrasymachus is reduced to silence at the close of the first
notoriously careless of chronology, only aims at general
book. The main discussion is carried on by Socrates, Glaucon,
probability. Whether all the persons mentioned in the Re-
and Adeimantus. Among the company are Lysias (the ora-
public could ever have met at any one time is not a diffi-
tor) and Euthydemus, the sons of Cephalus and brothers of
culty which would have occurred to an Athenian reading
Polemarchus, an unknown Charmantides—these are mute
the work forty years later, or to Plato himself at the time
auditors; also there is Cleitophon, who once interrupts,
of writing (any more than to Shakespeare respecting one
where, as in the Dialogue which bears his name, he appears
of his own dramas); and need not greatly trouble us now.
as the friend and ally of Thrasymachus.
Yet this may be a question having no answer “which is still
Cephalus, the patriarch of house, has been appropriately
worth asking,” because the investigation shows that we
engaged in offering a sacrifice. He is the pattern of an old
can not argue historically from the dates in Plato; it would
man who has almost done with life, and is at peace with
be useless therefore to waste time in inventing far-fetched
himself and with all mankind. He feels that he is drawing
reconcilements of them in order avoid chronological diffi-
nearer to the world below, and seems to linger around the
10
memory of the past. He is eager that Socrates should come His “son and heir” Polemarchus has the frankness and im-
to visit him, fond of the poetry of the last generation, happy petuousness of youth; he is for detaining Socrates by force
in the consciousness of a well-spent life, glad at having es- in the opening scene, and will not “let him off” on the sub-
caped from the tyranny of youthful lusts. His love of conver- ject of women and children. Like Cephalus, he is limited in
sation, his affection, his indifference to riches, even his gar- his point of view, and represents the proverbial stage of
rulity, are interesting traits of character. He is not one of morality which has rules of life rather than principles; and
those who have nothing to say, because their whole mind he quotes Simonides as his father had quoted Pindar. But
has been absorbed in making money. Yet he acknowledges after this he has no more to say; the answers which he makes
that riches have the advantage of placing men above the are only elicited from him by the dialectic of Socrates. He
temptation to dishonesty or falsehood. The respectful at- has not yet experienced the influence of the Sophists like
tention shown to him by Socrates, whose love of conversa- Glaucon and Adeimantus, nor is he sensible of the neces-
tion, no less than the mission imposed upon him by the Oracle, sity of refuting them; he belongs to the pre-Socratic or
leads him to ask questions of all men, young and old alike, pre-dialectical age. He is incapable of arguing, and is bewil-
should also be noted. Who better suited to raise the ques- dered by Socrates to such a degree that he does not know
tion of justice than Cephalus, whose life might seem to be what he is saying. He is made to admit that justice is a
the expression of it? The moderation with which old age is thief, and that the virtues follow the analogy of the arts.
pictured by Cephalus as a very tolerable portion of existence From his brother Lysias we learn that he fell a victim to the
is characteristic, not only of him, but of Greek feeling gener- Thirty Tyrants, but no allusion is here made to his fate, nor
ally, and contrasts with the exaggeration of Cicero in the De to the circumstance that Cephalus and his family were of
Senectute. The evening of life is described by Plato in the Syracusan origin, and had migrated from Thurii to Athens.
most expressive manner, yet with the fewest possible touches. The “Chalcedonian giant,” Thrasymachus, of whom we have
As Cicero remarks (Ep. ad Attic. iv. 16), the aged Cephalus already heard in the Phaedrus, is the personification of the
would have been out of place in the discussion which fol- Sophists, according to Plato’s conception of them, in some
lows, and which he could neither have understood nor taken of their worst characteristics. He is vain and blustering, re-
part in without a violation of dramatic propriety. fusing to discourse unless he is paid, fond of making an
11
oration, and hoping thereby to escape the inevitable sion when he has been once thoroughly beaten. At first he
Socrates; but a mere child in argument, and unable to fore- seems to continue the discussion with reluctance, but soon
see that the next “move” (to use a Platonic expression) with apparent good-will, and he even testifies his interest
will “shut him up.” He has reached the stage of framing at a later stage by one or two occasional remarks. When
general notions, and in this respect is in advance of Cephalus attacked by Glaucon he is humorously protected by Socrates
and Polemarchus. But he is incapable of defending them in “as one who has never been his enemy and is now his friend.”
a discussion, and vainly tries to cover his confusion in ban- From Cicero and Quintilian and from Aristotle’s Rhetoric we
ter and insolence. Whether such doctrines as are attributed learn that the Sophist whom Plato has made so ridiculous
to him by Plato were really held either by him or by any was a man of note whose writings were preserved in later
other Sophist is uncertain; in the infancy of philosophy se- ages. The play on his name which was made by his contem-
rious errors about morality might easily grow up—they are porary Herodicus, “thou wast ever bold in battle,” seems to
certainly put into the mouths of speakers in Thucydides; show that the description of him is not devoid of verisimili-
but we are concerned at present with Plato’s description of tude.
him, and not with the historical reality. The inequality of When Thrasymachus has been silenced, the two principal
the contest adds greatly to the humor of the scene. The respondents, Glaucon and Adeimantus, appear on the scene:
pompous and empty Sophist is utterly helpless in the hands here, as in Greek tragedy, three actors are introduced. At
of the great master of dialectic, who knows how to touch first sight the two sons of Ariston may seem to wear a fam-
all the springs of vanity and weakness in him. He is greatly ily likeness, like the two friends Simmias and Cebes in the
irritated by the irony of Socrates, but his noisy and imbe- Phaedo. But on a nearer examination of them the similarity
cile rage only lays him more and more open to the thrusts vanishes, and they are seen to be distinct characters. Glaucon
of his assailant. His determination to cram down their is the impetuous youth who can “just never have enough
throats, or put “bodily into their souls” his own words, of fechting” (cf. the character of him in Xen. Mem. iii. 6);
elicits a cry of horror from Socrates. The state of his temper the man of pleasure who is acquainted with the mysteries
is quite as worthy of remark as the process of the argu- of love; the “juvenis qui gaudet canibus,” and who improves
ment. Nothing is more amusing than his complete submis- the breed of animals; the lover of art and music who has all
12
the experiences of youthful life. He is full of quickness and garded by mankind in general only for the sake of their
penetration, piercing easily below the clumsy platitudes of consequences; and in a similar vein of reflection he urges at
Thrasymachus to the real difficulty; he turns out to the the beginning of the fourth book that Socrates falls in mak-
light the seamy side of human life, and yet does not lose ing his citizens happy, and is answered that happiness is
faith in the just and true. It is Glaucon who seizes what not the first but the second thing, not the direct aim but
may be termed the ludicrous relation of the philosopher to the indirect consequence of the good government of a State.
the world, to whom a state of simplicity is “a city of pigs,” In the discussion about religion and mythology, Adeimantus
who is always prepared with a jest when the argument of- is the respondent, but Glaucon breaks in with a slight jest,
fers him an opportunity, and who is ever ready to second and carries on the conversation in a lighter tone about mu-
the humor of Socrates and to appreciate the ridiculous, sic and gymnastic to the end of the book. It is Adeimantus
whether in the connoisseurs of music, or in the lovers of again who volunteers the criticism of common sense on the
theatricals, or in the fantastic behavior of the citizens of Socratic method of argument, and who refuses to let Socrates
democracy. His weaknesses are several times alluded to by pass lightly over the question of women and children. It is
Socrates, who, however, will not allow him to be attacked Adeimantus who is the respondent in the more argumenta-
by his brother Adeimantus. He is a soldier, and, like tive, as Glaucon in the lighter and more imaginative por-
Adeimantus, has been distinguished at the battle of Megara. tions of the Dialogue. For example, throughout the greater
The character of Adeimantus is deeper and graver, and part of the sixth book, the causes of the corruption of phi-
the profounder objections are commonly put into his mouth. losophy and the conception of the idea of good are dis-
Glaucon is more demonstrative, and generally opens the cussed with Adeimantus. Then Glaucon resumes his place of
game. Adeimantus pursues the argument further. Glaucon principal respondent; but he has a difficulty in apprehend-
has more of the liveliness and quick sympathy of youth; ing the higher education of Socrates, and makes some false
Adeimantus has the maturer judgment of a grown-up man hits in the course of the discussion. Once more Adeimantus
of the world. In the second book, when Glaucon insists that returns with the allusion to his brother Glaucon whom he
justice and injustice shall be considered without regard to compares to the contentious State; in the next book he is
their consequences, Adeimantus remarks that they are re- again superseded, and Glaucon continues to the end.
13
Thus in a succession of characters Plato represents the Socrates, who had passed his whole life in philosophy, to
successive stages of morality, beginning with the Athenian give his own opinion and not to be always repeating the
gentleman of the olden time, who is followed by the practi- notions of other men. There is no evidence that either the
cal man of that day regulating his life by proverbs and saws; idea of good or the conception of a perfect State were com-
to him succeeds the wild generalization of the Sophists, prehended in the Socratic teaching, though he certainly
and lastly come the young disciples of the great teacher, dwelt on the nature of the universal and of final causes (cp.
who know the sophistical arguments but will not be con- Xen. Mem. i. 4; Phaedo 97); and a deep thinker like him in
vinced by them, and desire to go deeper into the nature of his thirty or forty years of public teaching, could hardly
things. These too, like Cephalus, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, have falled to touch on the nature of family relations, for
are clearly distinguished from one another. Neither in the which there is also some positive evidence in the Memora-
Republic, nor in any other Dialogue of Plato, is a single bilia (Mem. i. 2, 51 foll.) The Socratic method is nominally
character repeated. retained; and every inference is either put into the mouth
The delineation of Socrates in the Republic is not wholly of the respondent or represented as the common discovery
consistent. In the first book we have more of the real of him and Socrates. But any one can see that this is a mere
Socrates, such as he is depicted in the Memorabilia of form, of which the affectation grows wearisome as the work
Xenophon, in the earliest Dialogues of Plato, and in the advances. The method of inquiry has passed into a method
Apology. He is ironical, provoking, questioning, the old of teaching in which by the help of interlocutors the same
enemy of the Sophists, ready to put on the mask of Silenus thesis is looked at from various points of view.
as well as to argue seriously. But in the sixth book his en- The nature of the process is truly characterized by Glaucon,
mity towards the Sophists abates; he acknowledges that when he describes himself as a companion who is not good
they are the representatives rather than the corrupters of for much in an investigation, but can see what he is shown,
the world. He also becomes more dogmatic and construc- and may, perhaps, give the answer to a question more flu-
tive, passing beyond the range either of the political or the ently than another.
speculative ideas of the real Socrates. In one passage Plato Neither can we be absolutely certain that, Socrates him-
himself seems to intimate that the time had now come for self taught the immortality of the soul, which is unknown
14
to his disciple Glaucon in the Republic; nor is there any sixth book, or the drones and wasps in the eighth and ninth
reason to suppose that he used myths or revelations of books, also form links of connection in long passages, or
another world as a vehicle of instruction, or that he would are used to recall previous discussions.
have banished poetry or have denounced the Greek my- Plato is most true to the character of his master when he
thology. His favorite oath is retained, and a slight mention describes him as “not of this world.” And with this repre-
is made of the daemonium, or internal sign, which is al- sentation of him the ideal State and the other paradoxes
luded to by Socrates as a phenomenon peculiar to himself. of the Republic are quite in accordance, though they can
A real element of Socratic teaching, which is more promi- not be shown to have been speculations of Socrates. To
nent in the Republic than in any of the other Dialogues of him, as to other great teachers both philosophical and reli-
Plato, is the use of example and illustration (‘taphorhtika gious, when they looked upward, the world seemed to be
auto prhospherhontez’): “Let us apply the test of common the embodiment of error and evil. The common sense of
instances.” “You,” says Adeimantus, ironically, in the sixth mankind has revolted against this view, or has only par-
book, “are so unaccustomed to speak in images.” And this tially admitted it. And even in Socrates himself the sterner
use of examples or images, though truly Socratic in origin, judgment of the multitude at times passes into a sort of
is enlarged by the genius of Plato into the form of an alle- ironical pity or love. Men in general are incapable of phi-
gory or parable, which embodies in the concrete what has losophy, and are therefore at enmity with the philosopher;
been already described, or is about to be described, in the but their misunderstanding of him is unavoidable: for they
abstract. Thus the figure of the cave in Book VII is a reca- have never seen him as he truly is in his own image; they
pitulation of the divisions of knowledge in Book VI. The are only acquainted with artificial systems possessing no
composite animal in Book IX is an allegory of the parts of native force of truth—words which admit of many applica-
the soul. The noble captain and the ship and the true pilot tions. Their leaders have nothing to measure with, and are
in Book VI are a figure of the relation of the people to the therefore ignorant of their own stature. But they are to be
philosophers in the State which has been described. Other pitied or laughed at, not to be quarrelled with; they mean
figures, such as the dog in the second, third, and fourth well with their nostrums, if they could only learn that they
books, or the marriage of the portionless maiden in the are cutting off a Hydra’s head. This moderation towards
15
those who are in error is one of the most characteristic fea- sight of us from a distance as we were starting on our way
tures of Socrates in the Republic. In all the different repre- home, and told his servant to run and bid us wait for him.
sentations of Socrates, whether of Xenophon or Plato, and The servant took hold of me by the cloak behind, and said:
the differences of the earlier or later Dialogues, he always Polemarchus desires you to wait.
retains the character of the unwearied and disinterested I turned round, and asked him where his master was.
seeker after truth, without which he would have ceased to There he is, said the youth, coming after you, if you will
be Socrates. only wait.
Leaving the characters we may now analyze the contents Certainly we will, said Glaucon; and in a few minutes
of the Republic, and then proceed to consider (1) The gen- Polemarchus appeared, and with him Adeimantus, Glaucon’s
eral aspects of this Hellenic ideal of the State, (2) The mod- brother, Niceratus the son of Nicias, and several others who
ern lights in which the thoughts of Plato may be read. had been at the procession.
BOOK I SOCRATES - POLEMARCHUS - GLAUCON -

ADEIMANTUS
SOCRATES - GLAUCON
Polemarchus said to me: I perceive, Socrates, that you
I went down yesterday to the Piraeus with Glaucon the and our companion are already on your way to the city.
son of Ariston, that I might offer up my prayers to the You are not far wrong, I said.
goddess; and also because I wanted to see in what manner But do you see, he rejoined, how many we are?
they would celebrate the festival, which was a new thing. I Of course.
was delighted with the procession of the inhabitants; but And are you stronger than all these? for if not, you will
that of the Thracians was equally, if not more, beautiful. have to remain where you are.
When we had finished our prayers and viewed the spec- May there not be the alternative, I said, that we may
tacle, we turned in the direction of the city; and at that persuade you to let us go?
instant Polemarchus the son of Cephalus chanced to catch But can you persuade us, if we refuse to listen to you? he said.
16
Certainly not, replied Glaucon. his head, for he had been sacrificing in the court; and there
Then we are not going to listen; of that you may be as- were some other chairs in the room arranged in a semicircle,
sured. upon which we sat down by him. He saluted me eagerly,
Adeimantus added: Has no one told you of the torch-race and then he said:—
on horseback in honour of the goddess which will take place You don’t come to see me, Socrates, as often as you ought:
in the evening? If I were still able to go and see you I would not ask you to
With horses! I replied: That is a novelty. Will horsemen come to me. But at my age I can hardly get to the city, and
carry torches and pass them one to another during the race? therefore you should come oftener to the Piraeus. For let
Yes, said Polemarchus, and not only so, but a festival will me tell you, that the more the pleasures of the body fade
he celebrated at night, which you certainly ought to see. away, the greater to me is the pleasure and charm of con-
Let us rise soon after supper and see this festival; there will versation. Do not then deny my request, but make our house
be a gathering of young men, and we will have a good talk. your resort and keep company with these young men; we
Stay then, and do not be perverse. are old friends, and you will be quite at home with us.
Glaucon said: I suppose, since you insist, that we must. I replied: There is nothing which for my part I like better,
Very good, I replied. Cephalus, than conversing with aged men; for I regard them
as travellers who have gone a journey which I too may have
GLAUCON - CEPHALUS - SOCRATES to go, and of whom I ought to enquire, whether the way is
smooth and easy, or rugged and difficult. And this is a ques-
Accordingly we went with Polemarchus to his house; and
tion which I should like to ask of you who have arrived at
there we found his brothers Lysias and Euthydemus, and
that time which the poets call the ‘threshold of old age’—
with them Thrasymachus the Chalcedonian, Charmantides
Is life harder towards the end, or what report do you give
the Paeanian, and Cleitophon the son of Aristonymus. There
of it?
too was Cephalus the father of Polemarchus, whom I had
I will tell you, Socrates, he said, what my own feeling is.
not seen for a long time, and I thought him very much aged.
Men of my age flock together; we are birds of a feather, as
He was seated on a cushioned chair, and had a garland on
17
the old proverb says; and at our meetings the tale of my tempers; for he who is of a calm and happy nature will hardly
acquaintance commonly is—I cannot eat, I cannot drink; feel the pressure of age, but to him who is of an opposite
the pleasures of youth and love are fled away: there was a disposition youth and age are equally a burden.
good time once, but now that is gone, and life is no longer I listened in admiration, and wanting to draw him out,
life. Some complain of the slights which are put upon them that he might go on—Yes, Cephalus, I said: but I rather
by relations, and they will tell you sadly of how many evils suspect that people in general are not convinced by you
their old age is the cause. But to me, Socrates, these com- when you speak thus; they think that old age sits lightly
plainers seem to blame that which is not really in fault. For upon you, not because of your happy disposition, but be-
if old age were the cause, I too being old, and every other cause you are rich, and wealth is well known to be a great
old man, would have felt as they do. But this is not my own comforter.
experience, nor that of others whom I have known. How You are right, he replied; they are not convinced: and
well I remember the aged poet Sophocles, when in answer there is something in what they say; not, however, so much
to the question, How does love suit with age, Sophocles,— as they imagine. I might answer them as Themistocles an-
are you still the man you were? Peace, he replied; most gladly swered the Seriphian who was abusing him and saying that
have I escaped the thing of which you speak; I feel as if I he was famous, not for his own merits but because he was
had escaped from a mad and furious master. His words have an Athenian: ‘If you had been a native of my country or I of
often occurred to my mind since, and they seem as good to yours, neither of us would have been famous.’ And to those
me now as at the time when he uttered them. For certainly who are not rich and are impatient of old age, the same
old age has a great sense of calm and freedom; when the reply may be made; for to the good poor man old age can-
passions relax their hold, then, as Sophocles says, we are not be a light burden, nor can a bad rich man ever have
freed from the grasp not of one mad master only, but of peace with himself.
many. The truth is, Socrates, that these regrets, and also May I ask, Cephalus, whether your fortune was for the
the complaints about relations, are to be attributed to the most part inherited or acquired by you?
same cause, which is not old age, but men’s characters and Acquired! Socrates; do you want to know how much I
18
acquired? In the art of making money I have been midway his mind which he never had before; the tales of a world
between my father and grandfather: for my grandfather, below and the punishment which is exacted there of deeds
whose name I bear, doubled and trebled the value of his done here were once a laughing matter to him, but now he
patrimony, that which he inherited being much what I pos- is tormented with the thought that they may be true: ei-
sess now; but my father Lysanias reduced the property be- ther from the weakness of age, or because he is now draw-
low what it is at present: and I shall be satisfied if I leave to ing nearer to that other place, he has a clearer view of these
these my sons not less but a little more than I received. things; suspicions and alarms crowd thickly upon him, and
That was why I asked you the question, I replied, because he begins to reflect and consider what wrongs he has done
I see that you are indifferent about money, which is a char- to others. And when he finds that the sum of his transgres-
acteristic rather of those who have inherited their fortunes sions is great he will many a time like a child start up in his
than of those who have acquired them; the makers of for- sleep for fear, and he is filled with dark forebodings. But to
tunes have a second love of money as a creation of their him who is conscious of no sin, sweet hope, as Pindar charm-
own, resembling the affection of authors for their own po- ingly says, is the kind nurse of his age:
ems, or of parents for their children, besides that natural
love of it for the sake of use and profit which is common to Hope, he says, cherishes the soul of him who lives in
them and all men. And hence they are very bad company, justice and holiness and is the nurse of his age and the
for they can talk about nothing but the praises of wealth. companion of his journey;—hope which is mightiest to sway
That is true, he said. the restless soul of man.
Yes, that is very true, but may I ask another question?
What do you consider to be the greatest blessing which How admirable are his words! And the great blessing of riches,
you have reaped from your wealth? I do not say to every man, but to a good man, is, that he has
One, he said, of which I could not expect easily to con- had no occasion to deceive or to defraud others, either in-
vince others. For let me tell you, Socrates, that when a man tentionally or unintentionally; and when he departs to the
thinks himself to be near death, fears and cares enter into world below he is not in any apprehension about offerings
19
due to the gods or debts which he owes to men. Now to this Is not Polemarchus your heir? I said.
peace of mind the possession of wealth greatly contributes; To be sure, he answered, and went away laughing to the
and therefore I say, that, setting one thing against another, sacrifices.
of the many advantages which wealth has to give, to a man
of sense this is in my opinion the greatest.
Well said, Cephalus, I replied; but as concerning justice, SOCRATES - POLEMARCHUS
what is it?—to speak the truth and to pay your debts—no
more than this? And even to this are there not exceptions? Tell me then, O thou heir of the argument, what did Simonides
Suppose that a friend when in his right mind has deposited say, and according to you truly say, about justice?
arms with me and he asks for them when he is not in his He said that the repayment of a debt is just, and in say-
right mind, ought I to give them back to him? No one would ing so he appears to me to be right.
say that I ought or that I should be right in doing so, any I should be sorry to doubt the word of such a wise and
more than they would say that I ought always to speak the inspired man, but his meaning, though probably clear to
truth to one who is in his condition. you, is the reverse of clear to me. For he certainly does not
You are quite right, he replied. mean, as we were now saying that I ought to return a re-
But then, I said, speaking the truth and paying your debts turn a deposit of arms or of anything else to one who asks
is not a correct definition of justice. for it when he is not in his right senses; and yet a deposit
cannot be denied to be a debt.
CEPHALUS - SOCRATES - POLEMARCHUS
True.
Then when the person who asks me is not in his right
Quite correct, Socrates, if Simonides is to be believed, said
mind I am by no means to make the return?
Polemarchus interposing.
Certainly not.
I fear, said Cephalus, that I must go now, for I have to
When Simonides said that the repayment of a debt was
look after the sacrifices, and I hand over the argument to
justice, he did not mean to include that case?
Polemarchus and the company.
20
Certainly not; for he thinks that a friend ought always to the preceding instances, then justice is the art which gives
do good to a friend and never evil. good to friends and evil to enemies.
You mean that the return of a deposit of gold which is to That is his meaning then?
the injury of the receiver, if the two parties are friends, is I think so.
not the repayment of a debt,—that is what you would imag- And who is best able to do good to his friends and evil to
ine him to say? his enemies in time of sickness?
Yes. The physician.
And are enemies also to receive what we owe to them? Or when they are on a voyage, amid the perils of the sea?
To be sure, he said, they are to receive what we owe them, The pilot.
and an enemy, as I take it, owes to an enemy that which is And in what sort of actions or with a view to what result
due or proper to him—that is to say, evil. is the just man most able to do harm to his enemy and
Simonides, then, after the manner of poets, would seem good to his friends?
to have spoken darkly of the nature of justice; for he really In going to war against the one and in making alliances
meant to say that justice is the giving to each man what is with the other.
proper to him, and this he termed a debt. But when a man is well, my dear Polemarchus, there is no
That must have been his meaning, he said. need of a physician?
By heaven! I replied; and if we asked him what due or No.
proper thing is given by medicine, and to whom, what an- And he who is not on a voyage has no need of a pilot?
swer do you think that he would make to us? No.
He would surely reply that medicine gives drugs and meat Then in time of peace justice will be of no use?
and drink to human bodies. I am very far from thinking so.
And what due or proper thing is given by cookery, and to what? You think that justice may be of use in peace as well as in war?
Seasoning to food. Yes.
And what is that which justice gives, and to whom? Like husbandry for the acquisition of corn?
If, Socrates, we are to be guided at all by the analogy of Yes.
21
Or like shoemaking for the acquisition of shoes,—that is True.
what you mean? Then what is that joint use of silver or gold in which the
Yes. just man is to be preferred?
And what similar use or power of acquisition has justice When you want a deposit to be kept safely.
in time of peace? You mean when money is not wanted, but allowed to lie?
In contracts, Socrates, justice is of use. Precisely.
And by contracts you mean partnerships? That is to say, justice is useful when money is useless?
Exactly. That is the inference.
But is the just man or the skilful player a more useful and And when you want to keep a pruning-hook safe, then
better partner at a game of draughts? justice is useful to the individual and to the state; but when
The skilful player. you want to use it, then the art of the vine-dresser?
And in the laying of bricks and stones is the just man a Clearly.
more useful or better partner than the builder? And when you want to keep a shield or a lyre, and not to
Quite the reverse. use them, you would say that justice is useful; but when
Then in what sort of partnership is the just man a better you want to use them, then the art of the soldier or of the
partner than the harp-player, as in playing the harp the musician?
harp-player is certainly a better partner than the just man? Certainly.
In a money partnership. And so of all the other things;—justice is useful when
Yes, Polemarchus, but surely not in the use of money; for they are useless, and useless when they are useful?
you do not want a just man to be your counsellor the pur- That is the inference.
chase or sale of a horse; a man who is knowing about horses Then justice is not good for much. But let us consider this
would be better for that, would he not? further point: Is not he who can best strike a blow in a
Certainly. boxing match or in any kind of fighting best able to ward
And when you want to buy a ship, the shipwright or the off a blow?
pilot would be better? Certainly.
22
And he who is most skilful in preventing or escaping from Well, there is another question: By friends and enemies
a disease is best able to create one? do we mean those who are so really, or only in seeming?
True. Surely, he said, a man may be expected to love those
And he is the best guard of a camp who is best able to whom he thinks good, and to hate those whom he thinks
steal a march upon the enemy? evil.
Certainly. Yes, but do not persons often err about good and evil:
Then he who is a good keeper of anything is also a good many who are not good seem to be so, and conversely?
thief? That is true.
That, I suppose, is to be inferred. Then to them the good will be enemies and the evil will
Then if the just man is good at keeping money, he is good be their friends? True.
at stealing it. And in that case they will be right in doing good to the
That is implied in the argument. evil and evil to the good?
Then after all the just man has turned out to be a thief. Clearly.
And this is a lesson which I suspect you must have learnt out But the good are just and would not do an injustice?
of Homer; for he, speaking of Autolycus, the maternal grand- True.
father of Odysseus, who is a favourite of his, affirms that Then according to your argument it is just to injure those
who do no wrong?
He was excellent above all men in theft and perjury. Nay, Socrates; the doctrine is immoral.
Then I suppose that we ought to do good to the just and
And so, you and Homer and Simonides are agreed that jus- harm to the unjust?
tice is an art of theft; to be practised however ‘for the good I like that better.
of friends and for the harm of enemies,’—that was what But see the consequence:—Many a man who is ignorant
you were saying? of human nature has friends who are bad friends, and in
No, certainly not that, though I do not now know what I that case he ought to do harm to them; and he has good
did say; but I still stand by the latter words. enemies whom he ought to benefit; but, if so, we shall be
23
saying the very opposite of that which we affirmed to be The latter.
the meaning of Simonides. Deteriorated, that is to say, in the good qualities of horses,
Very true, he said: and I think that we had better correct not of dogs?
an error into which we seem to have fallen in the use of the Yes, of horses.
words ‘friend’ and ‘enemy.’ And dogs are deteriorated in the good qualities of dogs,
What was the error, Polemarchus? I asked. and not of horses?
We assumed that he is a friend who seems to be or who is Of course.
thought good. And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that
And how is the error to be corrected? which is the proper virtue of man?
We should rather say that he is a friend who is, as well as Certainly.
seems, good; and that he who seems only, and is not good, And that human virtue is justice?
only seems to be and is not a friend; and of an enemy the To be sure.
same may be said. Then men who are injured are of necessity made unjust?
You would argue that the good are our friends and the That is the result.
bad our enemies? But can the musician by his art make men unmusical?
Yes. Certainly not.
And instead of saying simply as we did at first, that it is Or the horseman by his art make them bad horsemen?
just to do good to our friends and harm to our enemies, we Impossible.
should further say: It is just to do good to our friends when And can the just by justice make men unjust, or speaking
they are good and harm to our enemies when they are evil? general can the good by virtue make them bad?
Yes, that appears to me to be the truth. Assuredly not.
But ought the just to injure any one at all? Any more than heat can produce cold?
Undoubtedly he ought to injure those who are both It cannot.
wicked and his enemies. Or drought moisture?
When horses are injured, are they improved or deteriorated? Clearly not.
24
Nor can the good harm any one? Most true, he said.
Impossible. Yes, I said; but if this definition of justice also breaks
And the just is the good? down, what other can be offered?
Certainly. Several times in the course of the discussion Thrasymachus
Then to injure a friend or any one else is not the act of a had made an attempt to get the argument into his own
just man, but of the opposite, who is the unjust? hands, and had been put down by the rest of the company,
I think that what you say is quite true, Socrates. who wanted to hear the end. But when Polemarchus and I
Then if a man says that justice consists in the repayment had done speaking and there was a pause, he could no longer
of debts, and that good is the debt which a man owes to hold his peace; and, gathering himself up, he came at us
his friends, and evil the debt which he owes to his en- like a wild beast, seeking to devour us. We were quite panic-
emies,—to say this is not wise; for it is not true, if, as has stricken at the sight of him.
been clearly shown, the injuring of another can be in no
case just. SOCRATES - POLEMARCHUS - THRASYMACHUS
I agree with you, said Polemarchus.
He roared out to the whole company: What folly. Socrates,
Then you and I are prepared to take up arms against any
has taken possession of you all? And why, sillybillies, do
one who attributes such a saying to Simonides or Bias or
you knock under to one another? I say that if you want
Pittacus, or any other wise man or seer?
really to know what justice is, you should not only ask but
I am quite ready to do battle at your side, he said.
answer, and you should not seek honour to yourself from
Shall I tell you whose I believe the saying to be?
the refutation of an opponent, but have your own answer;
Whose?
for there is many a one who can ask and cannot answer.
I believe that Periander or Perdiccas or Xerxes or Ismenias
And now I will not have you say that justice is duty or
the Theban, or some other rich and mighty man, who had a
advantage or profit or gain or interest, for this sort of non-
great opinion of his own power, was the first to say that
sense will not do for me; I must have clearness and accu-
justice is ‘doing good to your friends and harm to your
racy.
enemies.’
25
I was panic-stricken at his words, and could not look at twelve, taking care to prohibit him whom you ask from an-
him without trembling. Indeed I believe that if I had not swering twice six, or three times four, or six times two, or
fixed my eye upon him, I should have been struck dumb: four times three, ‘for this sort of nonsense will not do for
but when I saw his fury rising, I looked at him first, and me,’—then obviously, that is your way of putting the ques-
was therefore able to reply to him. tion, no one can answer you. But suppose that he were to
Thrasymachus, I said, with a quiver, don’t be hard upon retort, ‘Thrasymachus, what do you mean? If one of these
us. Polemarchus and I may have been guilty of a little mis- numbers which you interdict be the true answer to the ques-
take in the argument, but I can assure you that the error tion, am I falsely to say some other number which is not
was not intentional. If we were seeking for a piece of gold, the right one?—is that your meaning?’ —How would you
you would not imagine that we were ‘knocking under to answer him?
one another,’ and so losing our chance of finding it. And Just as if the two cases were at all alike! he said.
why, when we are seeking for justice, a thing more precious Why should they not be? I replied; and even if they are
than many pieces of gold, do you say that we are weakly not, but only appear to be so to the person who is asked,
yielding to one another and not doing our utmost to get ought he not to say what he thinks, whether you and I
at the truth? Nay, my good friend, we are most willing and forbid him or not?
anxious to do so, but the fact is that we cannot. And if so, I presume then that you are going to make one of the
you people who know all things should pity us and not be interdicted answers?
angry with us. I dare say that I may, notwithstanding the danger, if upon
How characteristic of Socrates! he replied, with a bitter reflection I approve of any of them.
laugh;—that’s your ironical style! Did I not foresee—have But what if I give you an answer about justice other and
I not already told you, that whatever he was asked he would better, he said, than any of these? What do you deserve to
refuse to answer, and try irony or any other shuffle, in or- have done to you?
der that he might avoid answering? Done to me!—as becomes the ignorant, I must learn from
You are a philosopher, Thrasymachus, I replied, and well the wise—that is what I deserve to have done to me.
know that if you ask a person what numbers make up
26
What, and no payment! a pleasant notion! himself, and goes about learning of others, to whom he
I will pay when I have the money, I replied. never even says thank you.
That I learn of others, I replied, is quite true; but that I
am ungrateful I wholly deny. Money I have none, and there-
SOCRATES - THRASYMACHUS - GLAUCON
fore I pay in praise, which is all I have: and how ready I am
But you have, Socrates, said Glaucon: and you, to praise any one who appears to me to speak well you will
Thrasymachus, need be under no anxiety about money, for very soon find out when you answer; for I expect that you
we will all make a contribution for Socrates. will answer well.
Yes, he replied, and then Socrates will do as he always Listen, then, he said; I proclaim that justice is nothing
does—refuse to answer himself, but take and pull to pieces else than the interest of the stronger. And now why do you
the answer of some one else. not me? But of course you won’t.
Why, my good friend, I said, how can any one answer who Let me first understand you, I replied. Justice, as you
knows, and says that he knows, just nothing; and who, even say, is the interest of the stronger. What, Thrasymachus, is
if he has some faint notions of his own, is told by a man of the meaning of this? You cannot mean to say that because
authority not to utter them? The natural thing is, that the Polydamas, the pancratiast, is stronger than we are, and
speaker should be some one like yourself who professes to finds the eating of beef conducive to his bodily strength,
know and can tell what he knows. Will you then kindly an- that to eat beef is therefore equally for our good who are
swer, for the edification of the company and of myself? weaker than he is, and right and just for us?
Glaucon and the rest of the company joined in my request That’s abominable of you, Socrates; you take the words
and Thrasymachus, as any one might see, was in reality ea- in the sense which is most damaging to the argument.
ger to speak; for he thought that he had an excellent an- Not at all, my good sir, I said; I am trying to understand
swer, and would distinguish himself. But at first he to in- them; and I wish that you would be a little clearer.
sist on my answering; at length he consented to begin. Be- Well, he said, have you never heard that forms of govern-
hold, he said, the wisdom of Socrates; he refuses to teach ment differ; there are tyrannies, and there are democracies,
and there are aristocracies?
27
Yes, I know. Proceed.
And the government is the ruling power in each state? I will; and first tell me, Do you admit that it is just or
Certainly. subjects to obey their rulers?
And the different forms of government make laws demo- I do.
cratical, aristocratical, tyrannical, with a view to their sev- But are the rulers of states absolutely infallible, or are
eral interests; and these laws, which are made by them for they sometimes liable to err?
their own interests, are the justice which they deliver to To be sure, he replied, they are liable to err.
their subjects, and him who transgresses them they punish Then in making their laws they may sometimes make them
as a breaker of the law, and unjust. And that is what I mean rightly, and sometimes not?
when I say that in all states there is the same principle of True.
justice, which is the interest of the government; and as the When they make them rightly, they make them agree-
government must be supposed to have power, the only rea- ably to their interest; when they are mistaken, contrary to
sonable conclusion is, that everywhere there is one prin- their interest; you admit that?
ciple of justice, which is the interest of the stronger. Yes.
Now I understand you, I said; and whether you are right And the laws which they make must be obeyed by their
or not I will try to discover. But let me remark, that in subjects,—and that is what you call justice?
defining justice you have yourself used the word ‘interest’ Doubtless.
which you forbade me to use. It is true, however, that in Then justice, according to your argument, is not only obe-
your definition the words ‘of the stronger’ are added. dience to the interest of the stronger but the reverse?
A small addition, you must allow, he said. What is that you are saying? he asked.
Great or small, never mind about that: we must first en- I am only repeating what you are saying, I believe. But
quire whether what you are saying is the truth. Now we are let us consider: Have we not admitted that the rulers may
both agreed that justice is interest of some sort, but you be mistaken about their own interest in what they com-
go on to say ‘of the stronger’; about this addition I am not mand, and also that to obey them is justice? Has not that
so sure, and must therefore consider further. been admitted?
28
Yes. mand the weaker who are his subjects to do what is not for
Then you must also have acknowledged justice not to be his own interest; whence follows that justice is the injury
for the interest of the stronger, when the rulers uninten- quite as much as the interest of the stronger.
tionally command things to be done which are to their own But, said Cleitophon, he meant by the interest of the stron-
injury. For if, as you say, justice is the obedience which the ger what the stronger thought to be his interest,—this
subject renders to their commands, in that case, O wisest of was what the weaker had to do; and this was affirmed by
men, is there any escape from the conclusion that the weaker him to be justice.
are commanded to do, not what is for the interest, but Those were not his words, rejoined Polemarchus.
what is for the injury of the stronger?
Nothing can be clearer, Socrates, said Polemarchus. SOCRATES - THRASYMACHUS
SOCRATES - CLEITOPHON - POLEMARCHUS - Never mind, I replied, if he now says that they are, let us
THRASYMACHUS accept his statement. Tell me, Thrasymachus, I said, did you
mean by justice what the stronger thought to be his inter-
Yes, said Cleitophon, interposing, if you are allowed to est, whether really so or not?
be his witness. Certainly not, he said. Do you suppose that I call him
But there is no need of any witness, said Polemarchus, for who is mistaken the stronger at the time when he is mis-
Thrasymachus himself acknowledges that rulers may some- taken?
times command what is not for their own interest, and that Yes, I said, my impression was that you did so, when you
for subjects to obey them is justice. admitted that the ruler was not infallible but might be some-
Yes, Polemarchus,—Thrasymachus said that for subjects times mistaken.
to do what was commanded by their rulers is just. You argue like an informer, Socrates. Do you mean, for
Yes, Cleitophon, but he also said that justice is the inter- example, that he who is mistaken about the sick is a physi-
est of the stronger, and, while admitting both these propo- cian in that he is mistaken? or that he who errs in arith-
sitions, he further acknowledged that the stronger may com- metic or grammar is an arithmetician or grammarian at the
29
me when he is making the mistake, in respect of the mis- any misunderstanding occurring between us in future, let
take? True, we say that the physician or arithmetician or me ask, in what sense do you speak of a ruler or stronger
grammarian has made a mistake, but this is only a way of whose interest, as you were saying, he being the superior,
speaking; for the fact is that neither the grammarian nor it is just that the inferior should execute—is he a ruler in
any other person of skill ever makes a mistake in so far as the popular or in the strict sense of the term?
he is what his name implies; they none of them err unless In the strictest of all senses, he said. And now cheat and
their skill fails them, and then they cease to be skilled art- play the informer if you can; I ask no quarter at your hands.
ists. No artist or sage or ruler errs at the time when he is But you never will be able, never.
what his name implies; though he is commonly said to err, And do you imagine, I said, that I am such a madman as
and I adopted the common mode of speaking. But to be to try and cheat, Thrasymachus? I might as well shave a
perfectly accurate, since you are such a lover of accuracy, lion.
we should say that the ruler, in so far as he is the ruler, is Why, he said, you made the attempt a minute ago, and
unerring, and, being unerring, always commands that which you failed.
is for his own interest; and the subject is required to ex- Enough, I said, of these civilities. It will be better that I
ecute his commands; and therefore, as I said at first and should ask you a question: Is the physician, taken in that
now repeat, justice is the interest of the stronger. strict sense of which you are speaking, a healer of the sick
Indeed, Thrasymachus, and do I really appear to you to or a maker of money? And remember that I am now speak-
argue like an informer? ing of the true physician.
Certainly, he replied. A healer of the sick, he replied.
And you suppose that I ask these questions with any And the pilot—that is to say, the true pilot—is he a cap-
design of injuring you in the argument? tain of sailors or a mere sailor?
Nay, he replied, ‘suppose’ is not the word—I know it; but A captain of sailors.
you will be found out, and by sheer force of argument you The circumstance that he sails in the ship is not to be
will never prevail. taken into account; neither is he to be called a sailor; the
I shall not make the attempt, my dear man; but to avoid name pilot by which he is distinguished has nothing to do
30
with sailing, but is significant of his skill and of his author- and another without end? Or have the arts to look only
ity over the sailors. after their own interests? Or have they no need either of
Very true, he said. themselves or of another?—having no faults or defects, they
Now, I said, every art has an interest? have no need to correct them, either by the exercise of
Certainly. their own art or of any other; they have only to consider
For which the art has to consider and provide? the interest of their subject-matter. For every art remains
Yes, that is the aim of art. pure and faultless while remaining true—that is to say, while
And the interest of any art is the perfection of it—this perfect and unimpaired. Take the words in your precise sense,
and nothing else? and tell me whether I am not right.”
What do you mean? Yes, clearly.
I mean what I may illustrate negatively by the example Then medicine does not consider the interest of medi-
of the body. Suppose you were to ask me whether the body cine, but the interest of the body?
is self-sufficing or has wants, I should reply: Certainly the True, he said.
body has wants; for the body may be ill and require to be Nor does the art of horsemanship consider the interests of
cured, and has therefore interests to which the art of medi- the art of horsemanship, but the interests of the horse; nei-
cine ministers; and this is the origin and intention of medi- ther do any other arts care for themselves, for they have no
cine, as you will acknowledge. Am I not right? needs; they care only for that which is the subject of their art?
Quite right, he replied. True, he said.
But is the art of medicine or any other art faulty or defi- But surely, Thrasymachus, the arts are the superiors and
cient in any quality in the same way that the eye may be rulers of their own subjects?
deficient in sight or the ear fail of hearing, and therefore To this he assented with a good deal of reluctance.
requires another art to provide for the interests of seeing Then, I said, no science or art considers or enjoins the
and hearing—has art in itself, I say, any similar liability to interest of the stronger or superior, but only the interest
fault or defect, and does every art require another supple- of the subject and weaker?
mentary art to provide for its interests, and that another He made an attempt to contest this proposition also, but
31
finally acquiesced. Because she leaves you to snivel, and never wipes your
Then, I continued, no physician, in so far as he is a physi- nose: she has not even taught you to know the shepherd
cian, considers his own good in what he prescribes, but the from the sheep.
good of his patient; for the true physician is also a ruler What makes you say that? I replied.
having the human body as a subject, and is not a mere Because you fancy that the shepherd or neatherd fattens
money-maker; that has been admitted? of tends the sheep or oxen with a view to their own good
Yes. and not to the good of himself or his master; and you fur-
And the pilot likewise, in the strict sense of the term, is a ther imagine that the rulers of states, if they are true rul-
ruler of sailors and not a mere sailor? ers, never think of their subjects as sheep, and that they
That has been admitted. are not studying their own advantage day and night. Oh,
And such a pilot and ruler will provide and prescribe for no; and so entirely astray are you in your ideas about the
the interest of the sailor who is under him, and not for his just and unjust as not even to know that justice and the
own or the ruler’s interest? just are in reality another’s good; that is to say, the inter-
He gave a reluctant ‘Yes.’ est of the ruler and stronger, and the loss of the subject
Then, I said, Thrasymachus, there is no one in any rule and servant; and injustice the opposite; for the unjust is
who, in so far as he is a ruler, considers or enjoins what is lord over the truly simple and just: he is the stronger, and
for his own interest, but always what is for the interest of his subjects do what is for his interest, and minister to his
his subject or suitable to his art; to that he looks, and that happiness, which is very far from being their own. Consider
alone he considers in everything which he says and does. further, most foolish Socrates, that the just is always a loser
When we had got to this point in the argument, and ev- in comparison with the unjust. First of all, in private con-
ery one saw that the definition of justice had been com- tracts: wherever the unjust is the partner of the just you
pletely upset, Thrasymachus, instead of replying to me, said: will find that, when the partnership is dissolved, the unjust
Tell me, Socrates, have you got a nurse? man has always more and the just less. Secondly, in their
Why do you ask such a question, I said, when you ought dealings with the State: when there is an income tax, the
rather to be answering? just man will pay more and the unjust less on the same
32
amount of income; and when there is anything to be re- summation of injustice. For mankind censure injustice, fear-
ceived the one gains nothing and the other much. Observe ing that they may be the victims of it and not because they
also what happens when they take an office; there is the shrink from committing it. And thus, as I have shown,
just man neglecting his affairs and perhaps suffering other Socrates, injustice, when on a sufficient scale, has more
losses, and getting nothing out of the public, because he is strength and freedom and mastery than justice; and, as I
just; moreover he is hated by his friends and acquaintance said at first, justice is the interest of the stronger, whereas
for refusing to serve them in unlawful ways. But all this is injustice is a man’s own profit and interest.
reversed in the case of the unjust man. I am speaking, as Thrasymachus, when he had thus spoken, having, like a
before, of injustice on a large scale in which the advantage bathman, deluged our ears with his words, had a mind to
of the unjust is more apparent; and my meaning will be go away. But the company would not let him; they insisted
most clearly seen if we turn to that highest form of injus- that he should remain and defend his position; and I myself
tice in which the criminal is the happiest of men, and the added my own humble request that he would not leave us.
sufferers or those who refuse to do injustice are the most Thrasymachus, I said to him, excellent man, how sugges-
miserable—that is to say tyranny, which by fraud and force tive are your remarks! And are you going to run away be-
takes away the property of others, not little by little but fore you have fairly taught or learned whether they are
wholesale; comprehending in one, things sacred as well as true or not? Is the attempt to determine the way of man’s
profane, private and public; for which acts of wrong, if he life so small a matter in your eyes—to determine how life
were detected perpetrating any one of them singly, he would may be passed by each one of us to the greatest advan-
be punished and incur great disgrace—they who do such tage?
wrong in particular cases are called robbers of temples, and And do I differ from you, he said, as to the importance of
man-stealers and burglars and swindlers and thieves. But the enquiry?
when a man besides taking away the money of the citizens You appear rather, I replied, to have no care or thought
has made slaves of them, then, instead of these names of about us, Thrasymachus—whether we live better or worse
reproach, he is termed happy and blessed, not only by the from not knowing what you say you know, is to you a mat-
citizens but by all who hear of his having achieved the con- ter of indifference. Prithee, friend, do not keep your knowl-
33
edge to yourself; we are a large party; and any benefit which or, again, as a trader for sale in the market, and not as a
you confer upon us will be amply rewarded. For my own shepherd. Yet surely the art of the shepherd is concerned
part I openly declare that I am not convinced, and that I do only with the good of his subjects; he has only to provide
not believe injustice to be more gainful than justice, even if the best for them, since the perfection of the art is already
uncontrolled and allowed to have free play. For, granting ensured whenever all the requirements of it are satisfied.
that there may be an unjust man who is able to commit And that was what I was saying just now about the ruler. I
injustice either by fraud or force, still this does not con- conceived that the art of the ruler, considered as ruler,
vince me of the superior advantage of injustice, and there whether in a state or in private life, could only regard the
may be others who are in the same predicament with my- good of his flock or subjects; whereas you seem to think
self. Perhaps we may be wrong; if so, you in your wisdom that the rulers in states, that is to say, the true rulers, like
should convince us that we are mistaken in preferring jus- being in authority.
tice to injustice. Think! Nay, I am sure of it.
And how am I to convince you, he said, if you are not Then why in the case of lesser offices do men never take
already convinced by what I have just said; what more can them willingly without payment, unless under the idea that
I do for you? Would you have me put the proof bodily into they govern for the advantage not of themselves but of
your souls? others? Let me ask you a question: Are not the several arts
Heaven forbid! I said; I would only ask you to be consis- different, by reason of their each having a separate func-
tent; or, if you change, change openly and let there be no tion? And, my dear illustrious friend, do say what you think,
deception. For I must remark, Thrasymachus, if you will re- that we may make a little progress.
call what was previously said, that although you began by Yes, that is the difference, he replied.
defining the true physician in an exact sense, you did not And each art gives us a particular good and not merely a
observe a like exactness when speaking of the shepherd; general one—medicine, for example, gives us health; navi-
you thought that the shepherd as a shepherd tends the gation, safety at sea, and so on?
sheep not with a view to their own good, but like a mere Yes, he said.
diner or banqueter with a view to the pleasures of the table; And the art of payment has the special function of giving
34
pay: but we do not confuse this with other arts, any more He gave a reluctant assent to this.
than the art of the pilot is to be confused with the art of Then the pay is not derived by the several artists from
medicine, because the health of the pilot may be improved their respective arts. But the truth is, that while the art of
by a sea voyage. You would not be inclined to say, would medicine gives health, and the art of the builder builds a
you, that navigation is the art of medicine, at least if we house, another art attends them which is the art of pay.
are to adopt your exact use of language? The various arts may be doing their own business and ben-
Certainly not. efiting that over which they preside, but would the artist
Or because a man is in good health when he receives pay receive any benefit from his art unless he were paid as well?
you would not say that the art of payment is medicine? I suppose not.
I should say not. But does he therefore confer no benefit when he works
Nor would you say that medicine is the art of receiving for nothing?
pay because a man takes fees when he is engaged in heal- Certainly, he confers a benefit.
ing? Then now, Thrasymachus, there is no longer any doubt
Certainly not. that neither arts nor governments provide for their own
And we have admitted, I said, that the good of each art is interests; but, as we were before saying, they rule and pro-
specially confined to the art? vide for the interests of their subjects who are the weaker
Yes. and not the stronger—to their good they attend and not
Then, if there be any good which all artists have in com- to the good of the superior.
mon, that is to be attributed to something of which they And this is the reason, my dear Thrasymachus, why, as I
all have the common use? was just now saying, no one is willing to govern; because
True, he replied. no one likes to take in hand the reformation of evils which
And when the artist is benefited by receiving pay the are not his concern without remuneration. For, in the ex-
advantage is gained by an additional use of the art of pay, ecution of his work, and in giving his orders to another, the
which is not the art professed by him? true artist does not regard his own interest, but always
35
that of his subjects; and therefore in order that rulers may dishonourable. Now the worst part of the punishment is
be willing to rule, they must be paid in one of three modes that he who refuses to rule is liable to be ruled by one who
of payment: money, or honour, or a penalty for refusing. is worse than himself. And the fear of this, as I conceive,
induces the good to take office, not because they would,
SOCRATES - GLAUCON but because they cannot help—not under the idea that
they are going to have any benefit or enjoyment them-
What do you mean, Socrates? said Glaucon. The first two selves, but as a necessity, and because they are not able to
modes of payment are intelligible enough, but what the commit the task of ruling to any one who is better than
penalty is I do not understand, or how a penalty can be a themselves, or indeed as good. For there is reason to think
payment. that if a city were composed entirely of good men, then to
You mean that you do not understand the nature of this avoid office would be as much an object of contention as to
payment which to the best men is the great inducement to obtain office is at present; then we should have plain proof
rule? Of course you know that ambition and avarice are held that the true ruler is not meant by nature to regard his
to be, as indeed they are, a disgrace? own interest, but that of his subjects; and every one who
Very true. knew this would choose rather to receive a benefit from
And for this reason, I said, money and honour have no another than to have the trouble of conferring one. So far
attraction for them; good men do not wish to be openly am I from agreeing with Thrasymachus that justice is the
demanding payment for governing and so to get the name interest of the stronger. This latter question need not be
of hirelings, nor by secretly helping themselves out of the further discussed at present; but when Thrasymachus says
public revenues to get the name of thieves. And not being that the life of the unjust is more advantageous than that
ambitious they do not care about honour. Wherefore ne- of the just, his new statement appears to me to be of a far
cessity must be laid upon them, and they must be induced more serious character. Which of us has spoken truly? And
to serve from the fear of punishment. And this, as I imag- which sort of life, Glaucon, do you prefer?
ine, is the reason why the forwardness to take office, in- I for my part deem the life of the just to be the more
stead of waiting to be compelled, has been deemed
36
advantageous, he answered. SOCRATES - GLAUCON - THRASYMACHUS
Did you hear all the advantages of the unjust which
Thrasymachus was rehearsing? Yes, that is what I say, and I have given you my reasons.
Yes, I heard him, he replied, but he has not convinced me. And what is your view about them? Would you call one of
Then shall we try to find some way of convincing him, if them virtue and the other vice?
we can, that he is saying what is not true? Certainly.
Most certainly, he replied. I suppose that you would call justice virtue and injustice
If, I said, he makes a set speech and we make another vice?
recounting all the advantages of being just, and he answers What a charming notion! So likely too, seeing that I af-
and we rejoin, there must be a numbering and measuring of firm injustice to be profitable and justice not.
the goods which are claimed on either side, and in the end What else then would you say?
we shall want judges to decide; but if we proceed in our The opposite, he replied.
enquiry as we lately did, by making admissions to one an- And would you call justice vice?
other, we shall unite the offices of judge and advocate in No, I would rather say sublime simplicity.
our own persons. Then would you call injustice malignity?
Very good, he said. No; I would rather say discretion.
And which method do I understand you to prefer? I said. And do the unjust appear to you to be wise and good?
That which you propose. Yes, he said; at any rate those of them who are able to be
Well, then, Thrasymachus, I said, suppose you begin at perfectly unjust, and who have the power of subduing states
the beginning and answer me. You say that perfect injus- and nations; but perhaps you imagine me to be talking of
tice is more gainful than perfect justice? cutpurses.
Even this profession if undetected has advantages, though
they are not to be compared with those of which I was just
now speaking.
37
I do not think that I misapprehend your meaning, man try to gain any advantage over the just?
Thrasymachus, I replied; but still I cannot hear without Far otherwise; if he did would not be the simple, amusing
amazement that you class injustice with wisdom and vir- creature which he is.
tue, and justice with the opposite. And would he try to go beyond just action?
Certainly I do so class them. He would not.
Now, I said, you are on more substantial and almost un- And how would he regard the attempt to gain an advan-
answerable ground; for if the injustice which you were main- tage over the unjust; would that be considered by him as
taining to be profitable had been admitted by you as by just or unjust?
others to be vice and deformity, an answer might have been He would think it just, and would try to gain the advan-
given to you on received principles; but now I perceive that tage; but he would not be able.
you will call injustice honourable and strong, and to the Whether he would or would not be able, I said, is not to
unjust you will attribute all the qualities which were at- the point. My question is only whether the just man, while
tributed by us before to the just, seeing that you do not refusing to have more than another just man, would wish
hesitate to rank injustice with wisdom and virtue. and claim to have more than the unjust?
You have guessed most infallibly, he replied. Yes, he would.
Then I certainly ought not to shrink from going through And what of the unjust—does he claim to have more than
with the argument so long as I have reason to think that the just man and to do more than is just
you, Thrasymachus, are speaking your real mind; for I do Of course, he said, for he claims to have more than all
believe that you are now in earnest and are not amusing men.
yourself at our expense. And the unjust man will strive and struggle to obtain
I may be in earnest or not, but what is that to you?—to more than the unjust man or action, in order that he may
refute the argument is your business. have more than all?
Very true, I said; that is what I have to do: But will you be True.
so good as answer yet one more question? Does the just We may put the matter thus, I said—the just does not
38
desire more than his like but more than his unlike, whereas And do you think, my excellent friend, that a musician
the unjust desires more than both his like and his unlike? when he adjusts the lyre would desire or claim to exceed or
Nothing, he said, can be better than that statement. go beyond a musician in the tightening and loosening the
And the unjust is good and wise, and the just is neither? strings?
Good again, he said. I do not think that he would.
And is not the unjust like the wise and good and the just But he would claim to exceed the non-musician?
unlike them? Of course.
Of course, he said, he who is of a certain nature, is like And what would you say of the physician? In prescribing
those who are of a certain nature; he who is not, not. meats and drinks would he wish to go beyond another phy-
Each of them, I said, is such as his like is? sician or beyond the practice of medicine?
Certainly, he replied. He would not.
Very good, Thrasymachus, I said; and now to take the But he would wish to go beyond the non-physician?
case of the arts: you would admit that one man is a musi- Yes.
cian and another not a musician? And about knowledge and ignorance in general; see
Yes. whether you think that any man who has knowledge ever
And which is wise and which is foolish? would wish to have the choice of saying or doing more than
Clearly the musician is wise, and he who is not a musician another man who has knowledge. Would he not rather say
is foolish. or do the same as his like in the same case?
And he is good in as far as he is wise, and bad in as far as That, I suppose, can hardly be denied.
he is foolish? And what of the ignorant? would he not desire to have
Yes. more than either the knowing or the ignorant?
And you would say the same sort of thing of the physi- I dare say.
cian? And the knowing is wise?
Yes. Yes.
39
And the wise is good? summer’s day, and the perspiration poured from him in tor-
True. rents; and then I saw what I had never seen before,
Then the wise and good will not desire to gain more than Thrasymachus blushing. As we were now agreed that jus-
his like, but more than his unlike and opposite? tice was virtue and wisdom, and injustice vice and igno-
I suppose so. rance, I proceeded to another point:
Whereas the bad and ignorant will desire to gain more Well, I said, Thrasymachus, that matter is now settled;
than both? but were we not also saying that injustice had strength; do
Yes. you remember?
But did we not say, Thrasymachus, that the unjust goes Yes, I remember, he said, but do not suppose that I ap-
beyond both his like and unlike? Were not these your prove of what you are saying or have no answer; if however
words? They were. I were to answer, you would be quite certain to accuse me
They were. of haranguing; therefore either permit me to have my say
And you also said that the lust will not go beyond his out, or if you would rather ask, do so, and I will answer
like but his unlike? ‘Very good,’ as they say to story-telling old women, and
Yes. will nod ‘Yes’ and ‘No.’
Then the just is like the wise and good, and the unjust Certainly not, I said, if contrary to your real opinion.
like the evil and ignorant? Yes, he said, I will, to please you, since you will not let
That is the inference. me speak. What else would you have?
And each of them is such as his like is? Nothing in the world, I said; and if you are so disposed I
That was admitted. will ask and you shall answer.
Then the just has turned out to be wise and good and the Proceed.
unjust evil and ignorant. Then I will repeat the question which I asked before, in
Thrasymachus made all these admissions, not fluently, as order that our examination of the relative nature of justice
I repeat them, but with extreme reluctance; it was a hot and injustice may be carried on regularly. A statement was
40
made that injustice is stronger and more powerful than jus- gang of evil-doers could act at all if they injured one an-
tice, but now justice, having been identified with wisdom other?
and virtue, is easily shown to be stronger than injustice, if No indeed, he said, they could not.
injustice is ignorance; this can no longer be questioned by But if they abstained from injuring one another, then they
any one. But I want to view the matter, Thrasymachus, in a might act together better?
different way: You would not deny that a state may be Yes.
unjust and may be unjustly attempting to enslave other And this is because injustice creates divisions and hatreds
states, or may have already enslaved them, and may be and fighting, and justice imparts harmony and friendship;
holding many of them in subjection? is not that true, Thrasymachus?
True, he replied; and I will add the best and perfectly I agree, he said, because I do not wish to quarrel with
unjust state will be most likely to do so. you.
I know, I said, that such was your position; but what I How good of you, I said; but I should like to know also
would further consider is, whether this power which is pos- whether injustice, having this tendency to arouse hatred,
sessed by the superior state can exist or be exercised with- wherever existing, among slaves or among freemen, will not
out justice. make them hate one another and set them at variance and
If you are right in you view, and justice is wisdom, then render them incapable of common action?
only with justice; but if I am right, then without justice. Certainly.
I am delighted, Thrasymachus, to see you not only nod- And even if injustice be found in two only, will they not
ding assent and dissent, but making answers which are quite quarrel and fight, and become enemies to one another and
excellent. to the just?
That is out of civility to you, he replied. They will.
You are very kind, I said; and would you have the good- And suppose injustice abiding in a single person, would
ness also to inform me, whether you think that a state, or your wisdom say that she loses or that she retains her natu-
an army, or a band of robbers and thieves, or any other ral power?
41
Let us assume that she retains her power. the just are clearly wiser and better and abler than the un-
Yet is not the power which injustice exercises of such a just, and that the unjust are incapable of common action;
nature that wherever she takes up her abode, whether in a nay ing at more, that to speak as we did of men who are
city, in an army, in a family, or in any other body, that body evil acting at any time vigorously together, is not strictly
is, to begin with, rendered incapable of united action by true, for if they had been perfectly evil, they would have
reason of sedition and distraction; and does it not become laid hands upon one another; but it is evident that there
its own enemy and at variance with all that opposes it, and must have been some remnant of justice in them, which
with the just? Is not this the case? enabled them to combine; if there had not been they would
Yes, certainly. have injured one another as well as their victims; they were
And is not injustice equally fatal when existing in a single but half—villains in their enterprises; for had they been
person; in the first place rendering him incapable of action whole villains, and utterly unjust, they would have been
because he is not at unity with himself, and in the second utterly incapable of action. That, as I believe, is the truth
place making him an enemy to himself and the just? Is not of the matter, and not what you said at first. But whether
that true, Thrasymachus? the just have a better and happier life than the unjust is a
Yes. further question which we also proposed to consider. I think
And O my friend, I said, surely the gods are just? that they have, and for the reasons which to have given;
Granted that they are. but still I should like to examine further, for no light mat-
But if so, the unjust will be the enemy of the gods, and ter is at stake, nothing less than the rule of human life.
the just will be their friend? Proceed.
Feast away in triumph, and take your fill of the argu- I will proceed by asking a question: Would you not say
ment; I will not oppose you, lest I should displease the that a horse has some end?
company. I should.
Well then, proceed with your answers, and let me have And the end or use of a horse or of anything would be
the remainder of my repast. For we have already shown that that which could not be accomplished, or not so well ac-
42
complished, by any other thing? It has.
I do not understand, he said. And has not the eye an excellence?
Let me explain: Can you see, except with the eye? Yes.
Certainly not. And the ear has an end and an excellence also?
Or hear, except with the ear? True.
No. And the same is true of all other things; they have each
These then may be truly said to be the ends of these of them an end and a special excellence?
organs? That is so.
They may. Well, and can the eyes fulfil their end if they are wanting
But you can cut off a vine-branch with a dagger or with a in their own proper excellence and have a defect instead?
chisel, and in many other ways? How can they, he said, if they are blind and cannot see?
Of course. You mean to say, if they have lost their proper excel-
And yet not so well as with a pruning-hook made for the lence, which is sight; but I have not arrived at that point
purpose? yet. I would rather ask the question more generally, and
True. only enquire whether the things which fulfil their ends ful-
May we not say that this is the end of a pruning-hook? fil them by their own proper excellence, and fall of fulfill-
We may. ing them by their own defect?
Then now I think you will have no difficulty in under- Certainly, he replied.
standing my meaning when I asked the question whether I might say the same of the ears; when deprived of their
the end of anything would be that which could not be ac- own proper excellence they cannot fulfil their end?
complished, or not so well accomplished, by any other thing? True.
I understand your meaning, he said, and assent. And the same observation will apply to all other things?
And that to which an end is appointed has also an excel- I agree.
lence? Need I ask again whether the eye has an end? Well; and has not the soul an end which nothing else can
43
fulfil? for example, to superintend and command and delib- Then the just is happy, and the unjust miserable?
erate and the like. Are not these functions proper to the So be it.
soul, and can they rightly be assigned to any other? But happiness and not misery is profitable.
To no other. Of course.
And is not life to be reckoned among the ends of the Then, my blessed Thrasymachus, injustice can never be
soul? more profitable than justice.
Assuredly, he said. Let this, Socrates, he said, be your entertainment at the
And has not the soul an excellence also? Bendidea.
Yes. For which I am indebted to you, I said, now that you have
And can she or can she not fulfil her own ends when de- grown gentle towards me and have left off scolding. Never-
prived of that excellence? theless, I have not been well entertained; but that was my
She cannot. own fault and not yours. As an epicure snatches a taste of
Then an evil soul must necessarily be an evil ruler and every dish which is successively brought to table, he not
superintendent, and the good soul a good ruler? having allowed himself time to enjoy the one before, so have
Yes, necessarily. I gone from one subject to another without having discov-
And we have admitted that justice is the excellence of ered what I sought at first, the nature of justice. I left that
the soul, and injustice the defect of the soul? enquiry and turned away to consider whether justice is vir-
That has been admitted. tue and wisdom or evil and folly; and when there arose a
Then the just soul and the just man will live well, and the further question about the comparative advantages of jus-
unjust man will live ill? tice and injustice, I could not refrain from passing on to that.
That is what your argument proves. And the result of the whole discussion has been that I know
And he who lives well is blessed and happy, and he who nothing at all. For I know not what justice is, and therefore I
lives ill the reverse of happy? am not likely to know whether it is or is not a virtue, nor can
Certainly. I say whether the just man is happy or unhappy.
44
BOOK II nastic, and the care of the sick, and the physician’s art; also
the various ways of money-making—these do us good but
SOCRATES - GLAUCON we regard them as disagreeable; and no one would choose
them for their own sakes, but only for the sake of some
With these words I was thinking that I had made an end
reward or result which flows from them?
of the discussion; but the end, in truth, proved to be only
There is, I said, this third class also. But why do you ask?
a beginning. For Glaucon, who is always the most pugna-
Because I want to know in which of the three classes you
cious of men, was dissatisfied at Thrasymachus’ retirement;
would place justice?
he wanted to have the battle out. So he said to me: Socrates,
In the highest class, I replied,—among those goods which
do you wish really to persuade us, or only to seem to have
he who would be happy desires both for their own sake and
persuaded us, that to be just is always better than to be
for the sake of their results.
unjust?
Then the many are of another mind; they think that jus-
I should wish really to persuade you, I replied, if I could.
tice is to be reckoned in the troublesome class, among goods
Then you certainly have not succeeded. Let me ask you
which are to be pursued for the sake of rewards and of
now:—How would you arrange goods—are there not some
reputation, but in themselves are disagreeable and rather
which we welcome for their own sakes, and independently
to be avoided.
of their consequences, as, for example, harmless pleasures
I know, I said, that this is their manner of thinking, and
and enjoyments, which delight us at the time, although
that this was the thesis which Thrasymachus was maintain-
nothing follows from them?
ing just now, when he censured justice and praised injus-
I agree in thinking that there is such a class, I replied.
tice. But I am too stupid to be convinced by him.
Is there not also a second class of goods, such as knowl-
I wish, he said, that you would hear me as well as him,
edge, sight, health, which are desirable not only in them-
and then I shall see whether you and I agree. For
selves, but also for their results?
Thrasymachus seems to me, like a snake, to have been
Certainly, I said.
charmed by your voice sooner than he ought to have been;
And would you not recognize a third class, such as gym-
45
but to my mind the nature of justice and injustice have not I am delighted, he replied, to hear you say so, and shall
yet been made clear. Setting aside their rewards and re- begin by speaking, as I proposed, of the nature and origin
sults, I want to know what they are in themselves, and how of justice.
they inwardly work in the soul. If you, please, then, I will
revive the argument of Thrasymachus. And first I will speak GLAUCON
of the nature and origin of justice according to the com-
mon view of them. Secondly, I will show that all men who They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suf-
practise justice do so against their will, of necessity, but fer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good.
not as a good. And thirdly, I will argue that there is reason And so when men have both done and suffered injustice
in this view, for the life of the unjust is after all better far and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid
than the life of the just—if what they say is true, Socrates, the one and obtain the other, they think that they had
since I myself am not of their opinion. But still I acknowl- better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there
edge that I am perplexed when I hear the voices of arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained
Thrasymachus and myriads of others dinning in my ears; by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm
and, on the other hand, I have never yet heard the superi- to be the origin and nature of justice;—it is a mean or com-
ority of justice to injustice maintained by any one in a sat- promise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice
isfactory way. I want to hear justice praised in respect of and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer
itself; then I shall be satisfied, and you are the person from injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, be-
whom I think that I am most likely to hear this; and there- ing at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as
fore I will praise the unjust life to the utmost of my power, a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of
and my manner of speaking will indicate the manner in which the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is wor-
I desire to hear you too praising justice and censuring in- thy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agree-
justice. Will you say whether you approve of my proposal? ment if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did.
Indeed I do; nor can I imagine any theme about which a Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and
man of sense would oftener wish to converse. origin of justice.
46
Now that those who practise justice do so involuntarily having the ring on his finger, and as he was sitting among
and because they have not the power to be unjust will best them he chanced to turn the collet of the ring inside his
appear if we imagine something of this kind: having given hand, when instantly he became invisible to the rest of the
both to the just and the unjust power to do what they will, company and they began to speak of him as if he were no
let us watch and see whither desire will lead them; then we longer present. He was astonished at this, and again touch-
shall discover in the very act the just and unjust man to be ing the ring he turned the collet outwards and reappeared;
proceeding along the same road, following their interest, he made several trials of the ring, and always with the same
which all natures deem to be their good, and are only di- result-when he turned the collet inwards he became invis-
verted into the path of justice by the force of law. The lib- ible, when outwards he reappeared. Whereupon he contrived
erty which we are supposing may be most completely given to be chosen one of the messengers who were sent to the
to them in the form of such a power as is said to have been court; where as soon as he arrived he seduced the queen,
possessed by Gyges the ancestor of Croesus the Lydian. and with her help conspired against the king and slew him,
According to the tradition, Gyges was a shepherd in the and took the kingdom. Suppose now that there were two
service of the king of Lydia; there was a great storm, and such magic rings, and the just put on one of them and the
an earthquake made an opening in the earth at the place unjust the other;,no man can be imagined to be of such an
where he was feeding his flock. Amazed at the sight, he iron nature that he would stand fast in justice. No man
descended into the opening, where, among other marvels, would keep his hands off what was not his own when he
he beheld a hollow brazen horse, having doors, at which he could safely take what he liked out of the market, or go
stooping and looking in saw a dead body of stature, as into houses and lie with any one at his pleasure, or kill or
appeared to him, more than human, and having nothing on release from prison whom he would, and in all respects be
but a gold ring; this he took from the finger of the dead like a God among men. Then the actions of the just would
and reascended. Now the shepherds met together, accord- be as the actions of the unjust; they would both come at
ing to custom, that they might send their monthly report last to the same point. And this we may truly affirm to be a
about the flocks to the king; into their assembly he came great proof that a man is just, not willingly or because he
47
thinks that justice is any good to him individually, but of his injustice (he who is found out is nobody): for the high-
necessity, for wherever any one thinks that he can safely est reach of injustice is: to be deemed just when you are
be unjust, there he is unjust. For all men believe in their not. Therefore I say that in the perfectly unjust man we
hearts that injustice is far more profitable to the individual must assume the most perfect injustice; there is to be no
than justice, and he who argues as I have been supposing, deduction, but we must allow him, while doing the most
will say that they are right. If you could imagine any one unjust acts, to have acquired the greatest reputation for
obtaining this power of becoming invisible, and never do- justice. If he have taken a false step he must be able to
ing any wrong or touching what was another’s, he would be recover himself; he must be one who can speak with effect,
thought by the lookers-on to be a most wretched idiot, if any of his deeds come to light, and who can force his way
although they would praise him to one another’s faces, and where force is required his courage and strength, and com-
keep up appearances with one another from a fear that they mand of money and friends. And at his side let us place the
too might suffer injustice. Enough of this. just man in his nobleness and simplicity, wishing, as
Now, if we are to form a real judgment of the life of the Aeschylus says, to be and not to seem good. There must be
just and unjust, we must isolate them; there is no other no seeming, for if he seem to be just he will be honoured
way; and how is the isolation to be effected? I answer: Let and rewarded, and then we shall not know whether he is
the unjust man be entirely unjust, and the just man en- just for the sake of justice or for the sake of honours and
tirely just; nothing is to be taken away from either of them, rewards; therefore, let him be clothed in justice only, and
and both are to be perfectly furnished for the work of their have no other covering; and he must be imagined in a state
respective lives. First, let the unjust be like other distin- of life the opposite of the former. Let him be the best of
guished masters of craft; like the skilful pilot or physician, men, and let him be thought the worst; then he will have
who knows intuitively his own powers and keeps within been put to the proof; and we shall see whether he will be
their limits, and who, if he fails at any point, is able to affected by the fear of infamy and its consequences. And
recover himself. So let the unjust make his unjust attempts let him continue thus to the hour of death; being just and
in the right way, and lie hidden if he means to be great in seeming to be unjust. When both have reached the utter-
48
most extreme, the one of justice and the other of injustice, His mind has a soil deep and fertile,
Out of which spring his prudent counsels.
let judgment be given which of them is the happier of the
two.
In the first place, he is thought just, and therefore bears
SOCRATES - GLAUCON rule in the city; he can marry whom he will, and give in
marriage to whom he will; also he can trade and deal where
Heavens! my dear Glaucon, I said, how energetically you he likes, and always to his own advantage, because he has
polish them up for the decision, first one and then the other, no misgivings about injustice and at every contest, whether
as if they were two statues. in public or private, he gets the better of his antagonists,
I do my best, he said. And now that we know what they and gains at their expense, and is rich, and out of his gains
are like there is no difficulty in tracing out the sort of life he can benefit his friends, and harm his enemies; moreover,
which awaits either of them. This I will proceed to describe; he can offer sacrifices, and dedicate gifts to the gods abun-
but as you may think the description a little too coarse, I dantly and magnificently, and can honour the gods or any
ask you to suppose, Socrates, that the words which follow man whom he wants to honour in a far better style than
are not mine.— Let me put them into the mouths of the the just, and therefore he is likely to be dearer than they
eulogists of injustice: They will tell you that the just man are to the gods. And thus, Socrates, gods and men are said
who is thought unjust will be scourged, racked, bound— to unite in making the life of the unjust better than the
will have his eyes burnt out; and, at last, after suffering life of the just.
every kind of evil, he will be impaled: Then he will under-
ADEIMANTUS -SOCRATES
stand that he ought to seem only, and not to be, just; the
words of Aeschylus may be more truly spoken of the unjust
I was going to say something in answer to Glaucon, when
than of the just. For the unjust is pursuing a reality; he
Adeimantus, his brother, interposed: Socrates, he said, you
does not live with a view to appearances—he wants to be
do not suppose that there is nothing more to be urged?
really unjust and not to seem only:—
49
Why, what else is there? I answered. say, rain upon the pious; and this accords with the testi-
The strongest point of all has not been even mentioned, mony of the noble Hesiod and Homer, the first of whom
he replied. says, that the gods make the oaks of the just—
Well, then, according to the proverb, ‘Let brother help
To hear acorns at their summit, and bees I the middle;
brother’— if he fails in any part do you assist him; although
And the sheep the bowed down bowed the with the
I must confess that Glaucon has already said quite enough their fleeces.
to lay me in the dust, and take from me the power of help-
ing justice. and many other blessings of a like kind are provided for
them. And Homer has a very similar strain; for he speaks of
ADEIMANTUS
one whose fame is—
Nonsense, he replied. But let me add something more: As the fame of some blameless king who, like a god,
There is another side to Glaucon’s argument about the praise Maintains justice to whom the black earth brings forth
and censure of justice and injustice, which is equally re- Wheat and barley, whose trees are bowed with fruit,
And his sheep never fail to bear, and the sea gives him
quired in order to bring out what I believe to be his mean-
fish.
ing. Parents and tutors are always telling their sons and
their wards that they are to be just; but why? not for the Still grander are the gifts of heaven which Musaeus and his
sake of justice, but for the sake of character and reputa- son vouchsafe to the just; they take them down into the
tion; in the hope of obtaining for him who is reputed just world below, where they have the saints lying on couches
some of those offices, marriages, and the like which Glaucon at a feast, everlastingly drunk, crowned with garlands; their
has enumerated among the advantages accruing to the un- idea seems to be that an immortality of drunkenness is the
just from the reputation of justice. More, however, is made highest meed of virtue. Some extend their rewards yet fur-
of appearances by this class of persons than by the others; ther; the posterity, as they say, of the faithful and just
for they throw in the good opinion of the gods, and will shall survive to the third and fourth generation. This is the
tell you of a shower of benefits which the heavens, as they style in which they praise justice. But about the wicked
50
there is another strain; they bury them in a slough in Ha- to rich men’s doors and persuade them that they have a
des, and make them carry water in a sieve; also while they power committed to them by the gods of making an atone-
are yet living they bring them to infamy, and inflict upon ment for a man’s own or his ancestor’s sins by sacrifices or
them the punishments which Glaucon described as the por- charms, with rejoicings and feasts; and they promise to
tion of the just who are reputed to be unjust; nothing else harm an enemy, whether just or unjust, at a small cost; with
does their invention supply. Such is their manner of prais- magic arts and incantations binding heaven, as they say, to
ing the one and censuring the other. execute their will. And the poets are the authorities to whom
Once more, Socrates, I will ask you to consider another they appeal, now smoothing the path of vice with the words
way of speaking about justice and injustice, which is not of Hesiod;—
confined to the poets, but is found in prose writers. The
Vice may be had in abundance without trouble; the
universal voice of mankind is always declaring that justice
way is smooth
and virtue are honourable, but grievous and toilsome; and and her dwelling-place is near. But before virtue the
that the pleasures of vice and injustice are easy of attain- gods have set toil,
ment, and are only censured by law and opinion. They say
also that honesty is for the most part less profitable than and a tedious and uphill road: then citing Homer as a wit-
dishonesty; and they are quite ready to call wicked men ness that the gods may be influenced by men; for he also
happy, and to honour them both in public and private when says:
they are rich or in any other way influential, while they
The gods, too, may he turned from their purpose; and
despise and overlook those who may be weak and poor, men pray to
even though acknowledging them to be better than the them and avert their wrath by sacrifices and soothing
others. But most extraordinary of all is their mode of speak- entreaties,
and by libations and the odour of fat, when they have
ing about virtue and the gods: they say that the gods ap-
sinned and transgressed.
portion calamity and misery to many good men, and good
and happiness to the wicked. And mendicant prophets go And they produce a host of books written by Musaeus and
51
Orpheus, who were children of the Moon and the Muses — the other hand are unmistakable. But if, though unjust, I
that is what they say — according to which they perform acquire the reputation of justice, a heavenly life is prom-
their ritual, and persuade not only individuals, but whole ised to me. Since then, as philosophers prove, appearance
cities, that expiations and atonements for sin may be made tyrannizes over truth and is lord of happiness, to appear-
by sacrifices and amusements which fill a vacant hour, and ance I must devote myself. I will describe around me a pic-
are equally at the service of the living and the dead; the ture and shadow of virtue to be the vestibule and exterior
latter sort they call mysteries, and they redeem us from the of my house; behind I will trail the subtle and crafty fox, as
pains of hell, but if we neglect them no one knows what Archilochus, greatest of sages, recommends. But I hear some
awaits us. one exclaiming that the concealment of wickedness is of-
He proceeded: And now when the young hear all this said ten difficult; to which I answer, Nothing great is easy. Nev-
about virtue and vice, and the way in which gods and men ertheless, the argument indicates this, if we would be happy,
regard them, how are their minds likely to be affected, my to be the path along which we should proceed. With a view
dear Socrates,— those of them, I mean, who are quickwitted, to concealment we will establish secret brotherhoods and
and, like bees on the wing, light on every flower, and from political clubs. And there are professors of rhetoric who
all that they hear are prone to draw conclusions as to what teach the art of persuading courts and assemblies; and so,
manner of persons they should be and in what way they partly by persuasion and partly by force, I shall make un-
should walk if they would make the best of life? Probably lawful gains and not be punished. Still I hear a voice saying
the youth will say to himself in the words of Pindar — that the gods cannot be deceived, neither can they be com-
pelled. But what if there are no gods? or, suppose them to
Can I by justice or by crooked ways of deceit ascend a
have no care of human things—why in either case should
loftier
tower which may he a fortress to me all my days? we mind about concealment? And even if there are gods,
and they do care about us, yet we know of them only from
For what men say is that, if I am really just and am not also tradition and the genealogies of the poets; and these are
thought just profit there is none, but the pain and loss on the very persons who say that they may be influenced and
52
turned by ‘sacrifices and soothing entreaties and by offer- and who is satisfied that justice is best, still he is not angry
ings.’ Let us be consistent then, and believe both or nei- with the unjust, but is very ready to forgive them, because
ther. If the poets speak truly, why then we had better be he also knows that men are not just of their own free will;
unjust, and offer of the fruits of injustice; for if we are just, unless, peradventure, there be some one whom the divinity
although we may escape the vengeance of heaven, we shall within him may have inspired with a hatred of injustice, or
lose the gains of injustice; but, if we are unjust, we shall who has attained knowledge of the truth—but no other
keep the gains, and by our sinning and praying, and pray- man. He only blames injustice who, owing to cowardice or
ing and sinning, the gods will be propitiated, and we shall age or some weakness, has not the power of being unjust.
not be punished. ‘But there is a world below in which either And this is proved by the fact that when he obtains the
we or our posterity will suffer for our unjust deeds.’ Yes, my power, he immediately becomes unjust as far as he can be.
friend, will be the reflection, but there are mysteries and The cause of all this, Socrates, was indicated by us at the
atoning deities, and these have great power. That is what beginning of the argument, when my brother and I told
mighty cities declare; and the children of the gods, who you how astonished we were to find that of all the profess-
were their poets and prophets, bear a like testimony. ing panegyrists of justice — beginning with the ancient
On what principle, then, shall we any longer choose jus- heroes of whom any memorial has been preserved to us,
tice rather than the worst injustice? when, if we only unite and ending with the men of our own time — no one has
the latter with a deceitful regard to appearances, we shall ever blamed injustice or praised justice except with a view
fare to our mind both with gods and men, in life and after to the glories, honours, and benefits which flow from them.
death, as the most numerous and the highest authorities No one has ever adequately described either in verse or
tell us. Knowing all this, Socrates, how can a man who has prose the true essential nature of either of them abiding in
any superiority of mind or person or rank or wealth, be the soul, and invisible to any human or divine eye; or shown
willing to honour justice; or indeed to refrain from laugh- that of all the things of a man’s soul which he has within
ing when he hears justice praised? And even if there should him, justice is the greatest good, and injustice the greatest
be some one who is able to disprove the truth of my words, evil. Had this been the universal strain, had you sought to
53
persuade us of this from our youth upwards, we should not sired indeed for their results, but in a far greater degree for
have been on the watch to keep one another from doing their own sakes—like sight or hearing or knowledge or
wrong, but every one would have been his own watchman, health, or any other real and natural and not merely con-
because afraid, if he did wrong, of harbouring in himself ventional good — I would ask you in your praise of justice
the greatest of evils. I dare say that Thrasymachus and oth- to regard one point only: I mean the essential good and
ers would seriously hold the language which I have been evil which justice and injustice work in the possessors of
merely repeating, and words even stronger than these about them. Let others praise justice and censure injustice, mag-
justice and injustice, grossly, as I conceive, perverting their nifying the rewards and honours of the one and abusing
true nature. But I speak in this vehement manner, as I must the other; that is a manner of arguing which, coming from
frankly confess to you, because I want to hear from you them, I am ready to tolerate, but from you who have spent
the opposite side; and I would ask you to show not only your whole life in the consideration of this question, un-
the superiority which justice has over injustice, but what less I hear the contrary from your own lips, I expect some-
effect they have on the possessor of them which makes the thing better. And therefore, I say, not only prove to us that
one to be a good and the other an evil to him. And please, justice is better than injustice, but show what they either
as Glaucon requested of you, to exclude reputations; for of them do to the possessor of them, which makes the one
unless you take away from each of them his true reputa- to be a good and the other an evil, whether seen or unseen
tion and add on the false, we shall say that you do not by gods and men.
praise justice, but the appearance of it; we shall think that
you are only exhorting us to keep injustice dark, and that SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS
you really agree with Thrasymachus in thinking that jus-
I had always admired the genius of Glaucon and
tice is another’s good and the interest of the stronger, and
Adeimantus, but on hearing these words I was quite de-
that injustice is a man’s own profit and interest, though
lighted, and said: Sons of an illustrious father, that was not
injurious to the weaker. Now as you have admitted that
a bad beginning of the Elegiac verses which the admirer of
justice is one of that highest class of goods which are de-
Glaucon made in honour of you after you had distinguished
54
yourselves at the battle of Megara:— justice and injustice, and secondly, about their relative ad-
vantages. I told them, what I — really thought, that the
‘Sons of Ariston,’ he sang, ‘divine offspring of an
enquiry would be of a serious nature, and would require
illustrious hero.’
very good eyes. Seeing then, I said, that we are no great
The epithet is very appropriate, for there is something truly wits, I think that we had better adopt a method which I
divine in being able to argue as you have done for the su- may illustrate thus; suppose that a short-sighted person
periority of injustice, and remaining unconvinced by your had been asked by some one to read small letters from a
own arguments. And I do believe that you are not con- distance; and it occurred to some one else that they might
vinced — this I infer from your general character, for had I be found in another place which was larger and in which
judged only from your speeches I should have mistrusted the letters were larger — if they were the same and he
you. But now, the greater my confidence in you, the greater could read the larger letters first, and then proceed to the
is my difficulty in knowing what to say. For I am in a strait lesser — this would have been thought a rare piece of good
between two; on the one hand I feel that I am unequal to fortune.
the task; and my inability is brought home to me by the Very true, said Adeimantus; but how does the illustration
fact that you were not satisfied with the answer which I apply to our enquiry?
made to Thrasymachus, proving, as I thought, the superi- I will tell you, I replied; justice, which is the subject of
ority which justice has over injustice. And yet I cannot refuse our enquiry, is, as you know, sometimes spoken of as the
to help, while breath and speech remain to me; I am afraid virtue of an individual, and sometimes as the virtue of a
that there would be an impiety in being present when jus- State.
tice is evil spoken of and not lifting up a hand in her de- True, he replied.
fence. And therefore I had best give such help as I can. And is not a State larger than an individual?
Glaucon and the rest entreated me by all means not to let It is.
the question drop, but to proceed in the investigation. They Then in the larger the quantity of justice is likely to be
wanted to arrive at the truth, first, about the nature of larger and more easily discernible. I propose therefore that
55
we enquire into the nature of justice and injustice, first as ers are gathered together in one habitation the body of
they appear in the State, and secondly in the individual, inhabitants is termed a State.
proceeding from the greater to the lesser and comparing True, he said.
them. And they exchange with one another, and one gives, and
That, he said, is an excellent proposal. another receives, under the idea that the exchange will be
And if we imagine the State in process of creation, we for their good.
shall see the justice and injustice of the State in process of Very true.
creation also. Then, I said, let us begin and create in idea a State; and
I dare say. yet the true creator is necessity, who is the mother of our
When the State is completed there may be a hope that invention.
the object of our search will be more easily discovered. Of course, he replied.
Yes, far more easily. Now the first and greatest of necessities is food, which is
But ought we to attempt to construct one? I said; for to the condition of life and existence.
do so, as I am inclined to think, will be a very serious task. Certainly.
Reflect therefore. The second is a dwelling, and the third clothing and the
I have reflected, said Adeimantus, and am anxious that like.
you should proceed. True.
A State, I said, arises, as I conceive, out of the needs of And now let us see how our city will be able to supply
mankind; no one is self-sufficing, but all of us have many this great demand: We may suppose that one man is a hus-
wants. Can any other origin of a State be imagined? bandman, another a builder, some one else a weaver — shall
There can I be no other. we add to them a shoemaker, or perhaps some other pur-
Then, as we have many wants, and many persons are veyor to our bodily wants?
needed to supply them, one takes a helper for one purpose Quite right.
and another for another; and when these partners and help- The barest notion of a State must include four or five men.
56
Clearly. No doubt.
And how will they proceed? Will each bring the result of For business is not disposed to wait until the doer of the
his labours into a common stock?— the individual husband- business is at leisure; but the doer must follow up what he
man, for example, producing for four, and labouring four is doing, and make the business his first object.
times as long and as much as he need in the provision of He must.
food with which he supplies others as well as himself; or And if so, we must infer that all things are produced more
will he have nothing to do with others and not be at the plentifully and easily and of a better quality when one man
trouble of producing for them, but provide for himself alone does one thing which is natural to him and does it at the
a fourth of the food in a fourth of the time, and in the right time, and leaves other things.
remaining three-fourths of his time be employed in making Undoubtedly.
a house or a coat or a pair of shoes, having no partnership Then more than four citizens will be required; for the hus-
with others, but supplying himself all his own wants? bandman will not make his own plough or mattock, or other
Adeimantus thought that he should aim at producing food implements of agriculture, if they are to be good for any-
only and not at producing everything. thing. Neither will the builder make his tools — and he too
Probably, I replied, that would be the better way; and needs many; and in like manner the weaver and shoemaker.
when I hear you say this, I am myself reminded that we are True.
not all alike; there are diversities of natures among us which Then carpenters, and smiths, and many other artisans,
are adapted to different occupations. will be sharers in our little State, which is already begin-
Very true. ning to grow?
And will you have a work better done when the workman True.
has many occupations, or when he has only one? Yet even if we add neatherds, shepherds, and other herds-
When he has only one. men, in order that our husbandmen may have oxen to
Further, there can be no doubt that a work is spoilt when plough with, and builders as well as husbandmen may have
not done at the right time? draught cattle, and curriers and weavers fleeces and hides,
57
— still our State will not be very large. Then we shall want merchants?
That is true; yet neither will it be a very small State which We shall.
contains all these. And if merchandise is to be carried over the sea, skilful
Then, again, there is the situation of the city — to find a sailors will also be needed, and in considerable numbers?
place where nothing need be imported is well-nigh impos- Yes, in considerable numbers.
sible. Then, again, within the city, how will they exchange their
Impossible. productions? To secure such an exchange was, as you will
Then there must be another class of citizens who will bring remember, one of our principal objects when we formed them
the required supply from another city? into a society and constituted a State.
There must. Clearly they will buy and sell.
But if the trader goes empty-handed, having nothing Then they will need a market-place, and a money-token
which they require who would supply his need, he will come for purposes of exchange.
back empty-handed. Certainly.
That is certain. Suppose now that a husbandman, or an artisan, brings
And therefore what they produce at home must be not some production to market, and he comes at a time when
only enough for themselves, but such both in quantity and there is no one to exchange with him, — is he to leave his
quality as to accommodate those from whom their wants calling and sit idle in the market-place?
are supplied. Not at all; he will find people there who, seeing the want,
Very true. undertake the office of salesmen. In well-ordered States
Then more husbandmen and more artisans will be required? they are commonly those who are the weakest in bodily
They will. strength, and therefore of little use for any other purpose;
Not to mention the importers and exporters, who are called their duty is to be in the market, and to give money in
merchants? exchange for goods to those who desire to sell and to take
Yes. money from those who desire to buy.
58
This want, then, creates a class of retail-traders in our Let us then consider, first of all, what will be their way of
State. Is not ‘retailer’ the term which is applied to those life, now that we have thus established them. Will they not
who sit in the market-place engaged in buying and selling, produce corn, and wine, and clothes, and shoes, and build
while those who wander from one city to another are called houses for themselves? And when they are housed, they
merchants? will work, in summer, commonly, stripped and barefoot, but
Yes, he said. in winter substantially clothed and shod. They will feed on
And there is another class of servants, who are intellectu- barley-meal and flour of wheat, baking and kneading them,
ally hardly on the level of companionship; still they have making noble cakes and loaves; these they will serve up on
plenty of bodily strength for labour, which accordingly they a mat of reeds or on clean leaves, themselves reclining the
sell, and are called, if I do not mistake, hirelings, hire being while upon beds strewn with yew or myrtle. And they and
the name which is given to the price of their labour. their children will feast, drinking of the wine which they
True. have made, wearing garlands on their heads, and hymning
Then hirelings will help to make up our population? the praises of the gods, in happy converse with one an-
Yes. other. And they will take care that their families do not
And now, Adeimantus, is our State matured and perfected? exceed their means; having an eye to poverty or war.
I think so.
Where, then, is justice, and where is injustice, and in what SOCRATES - GLAUCON
part of the State did they spring up?
But, said Glaucon, interposing, you have not given them
Probably in the dealings of these citizens with one an-
a relish to their meal.
other. I cannot imagine that they are more likely to be
True, I replied, I had forgotten; of course they must have
found anywhere else.
a relish-salt, and olives, and cheese, and they will boil roots
I dare say that you are right in your suggestion, I said;
and herbs such as country people prepare; for a dessert we
we had better think the matter out, and not shrink from
shall give them figs, and peas, and beans; and they will
the enquiry.
roast myrtle-berries and acorns at the fire, drinking in mod-
59
eration. And with such a diet they may be expected to live and the embroiderer will have to be set in motion, and gold
in peace and health to a good old age, and bequeath a simi- and ivory and all sorts of materials must be procured.
lar life to their children after them. True, he said.
Yes, Socrates, he said, and if you were providing for a city Then we must enlarge our borders; for the original healthy
of pigs, how else would you feed the beasts? State is no longer sufficient. Now will the city have to fill
But what would you have, Glaucon? I replied. and swell with a multitude of callings which are not re-
Why, he said, you should give them the ordinary conve- quired by any natural want; such as the whole tribe of hunt-
niences of life. People who are to be comfortable are accus- ers and actors, of whom one large class have to do with
tomed to lie on sofas, and dine off tables, and they should forms and colours; another will be the votaries of music —
have sauces and sweets in the modern style. poets and their attendant train of rhapsodists, players,
Yes, I said, now I understand: the question which you dancers, contractors; also makers of divers kinds of articles,
would have me consider is, not only how a State, but how a including women’s dresses. And we shall want more ser-
luxurious State is created; and possibly there is no harm in vants. Will not tutors be also in request, and nurses wet
this, for in such a State we shall be more likely to see how and dry, tirewomen and barbers, as well as confectioners
justice and injustice originate. In my opinion the true and and cooks; and swineherds, too, who were not needed and
healthy constitution of the State is the one which I have therefore had no place in the former edition of our State,
described. But if you wish also to see a State at fever heat, but are needed now? They must not be forgotten: and there
I have no objection. For I suspect that many will not be will be animals of many other kinds, if people eat them.
satisfied with the simpler way. They will be for adding so- Certainly.
fas, and tables, and other furniture; also dainties, and per- And living in this way we shall have much greater need of
fumes, and incense, and courtesans, and cakes, all these physicians than before?
not of one sort only, but in every variety; we must go be- Much greater.
yond the necessaries of which I was at first speaking, such And the country which was enough to support the origi-
as houses, and clothes, and shoes: the arts of the painter nal inhabitants will be too small now, and not enough?
60
Quite true. Very true, he said.
Then a slice of our neighbours’ land will be wanted by us But is not war an art?
for pasture and tillage, and they will want a slice of ours, if, Certainly.
like ourselves, they exceed the limit of necessity, and give And an art requiring as much attention as shoemaking?
themselves up to the unlimited accumulation of wealth? Quite true.
That, Socrates, will be inevitable. And the shoemaker was not allowed by us to be hus-
And so we shall go to war, Glaucon. Shall we not? bandman, or a weaver, a builder—in order that we might
Most certainly, he replied. have our shoes well made; but to him and to every other
Then without determining as yet whether war does good worker was assigned one work for which he was by nature
or harm, thus much we may affirm, that now we have discov- fitted, and at that he was to continue working all his life
ered war to be derived from causes which are also the causes long and at no other; he was not to let opportunities slip,
of almost all the evils in States, private as well as public. and then he would become a good workman. Now nothing
Undoubtedly. can be more important than that the work of a soldier should
And our State must once more enlarge; and this time the be well done. But is war an art so easily acquired that a man
will be nothing short of a whole army, which will have to go may be a warrior who is also a husbandman, or shoemaker,
out and fight with the invaders for all that we have, as well or other artisan; although no one in the world would be a
as for the things and persons whom we were describing good dice or draught player who merely took up the game
above. as a recreation, and had not from his earliest years devoted
Why? he said; are they not capable of defending them- himself to this and nothing else?
selves? No tools will make a man a skilled workman, or master of
No, I said; not if we were right in the principle which was defence, nor be of any use to him who has not learned how
acknowledged by all of us when we were framing the State: to handle them, and has never bestowed any attention upon
the principle, as you will remember, was that one man can- them. How then will he who takes up a shield or other imple-
not practise many arts with success. ment of war become a good fighter all in a day, whether
61
with heavy-armed or any other kind of troops? Well, and your guardian must be brave if he is to fight
Yes, he said, the tools which would teach men their own well?
use would be beyond price. Certainly.
And the higher the duties of the guardian, I said, the And is he likely to be brave who has no spirit, whether
more time, and skill, and art, and application will be needed horse or dog or any other animal? Have you never observed
by him? how invincible and unconquerable is spirit and how the pres-
No doubt, he replied. ence of it makes the soul of any creature to be absolutely
Will he not also require natural aptitude for his calling? fearless and indomitable?
Certainly. I have.
Then it will be our duty to select, if we can, natures which Then now we have a clear notion of the bodily qualities
are fitted for the task of guarding the city? which are required in the guardian.
It will. True.
And the selection will be no easy matter, I said; but we And also of the mental ones; his soul is to be full of spirit?
must be brave and do our best. Yes.
We must. But are not these spirited natures apt to be savage with
Is not the noble youth very like a well-bred dog in re- one another, and with everybody else?
spect of guarding and watching? A difficulty by no means easy to overcome, he replied.
What do you mean? Whereas, I said, they ought to be dangerous to their en-
I mean that both of them ought to be quick to see, and emies, and gentle to their friends; if not, they will destroy
swift to overtake the enemy when they see him; and strong themselves without waiting for their enemies to destroy
too if, when they have caught him, they have to fight with them.
him. True, he said.
All these qualities, he replied, will certainly be required What is to be done then? I said; how shall we find a gentle
by them. nature which has also a great spirit, for the one is the con-
62
tradiction of the other? Would not he who is fitted to be a guardian, besides the
True. spirited nature, need to have the qualities of a philoso-
He will not be a good guardian who is wanting in either pher?
of these two qualities; and yet the combination of them I do not apprehend your meaning.
appears to be impossible; and hence we must infer that to The trait of which I am speaking, I replied, may be also
be a good guardian is impossible. seen in the dog, and is remarkable in the animal.
I am afraid that what you say is true, he replied. What trait?
Here feeling perplexed I began to think over what had Why, a dog, whenever he sees a stranger, is angry; when
preceded. My friend, I said, no wonder that we are in a an acquaintance, he welcomes him, although the one has
perplexity; for we have lost sight of the image which we never done him any harm, nor the other any good. Did this
had before us. never strike you as curious?
What do you mean? he said. The matter never struck me before; but I quite recognise
I mean to say that there do exist natures gifted with the truth of your remark.
those opposite qualities. And surely this instinct of the dog is very charming; —
And where do you find them? your dog is a true philosopher.
Many animals, I replied, furnish examples of them; our Why?
friend the dog is a very good one: you know that well-bred Why, because he distinguishes the face of a friend and of
dogs are perfectly gentle to their familiars and acquaintan- an enemy only by the criterion of knowing and not know-
ces, and the reverse to strangers. ing. And must not an animal be a lover of learning who
Yes, I know. determines what he likes and dislikes by the test of knowl-
Then there is nothing impossible or out of the order of edge and ignorance?
nature in our finding a guardian who has a similar combina- Most assuredly.
tion of qualities? And is not the love of learning the love of wisdom, which
Certainly not. is philosophy?
63
They are the same, he replied. and our story shall be the education of our heroes.
And may we not say confidently of man also, that he who By all means.
is likely to be gentle to his friends and acquaintances, must And what shall be their education? Can we find a better
by nature be a lover of wisdom and knowledge? than the traditional sort?— and this has two divisions, gym-
That we may safely affirm. nastic for the body, and music for the soul.
Then he who is to be a really good and noble guardian of True.
the State will require to unite in himself philosophy and Shall we begin education with music, and go on to gym-
spirit and swiftness and strength? nastic afterwards?
Undoubtedly. By all means.
Then we have found the desired natures; and now that And when you speak of music, do you include literature
we have found them, how are they to be reared and edu- or not?
cated? Is not this enquiry which may be expected to throw I do.
light on the greater enquiry which is our final end — How And literature may be either true or false?
do justice and injustice grow up in States? for we do not Yes.
want either to omit what is to the point or to draw out the And the young should be trained in both kinds, and we
argument to an inconvenient length. begin with the false?
I do not understand your meaning, he said.
SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS You know, I said, that we begin by telling children stories
which, though not wholly destitute of truth, are in the
Adeimantus thought that the enquiry would be of great
main fictitious; and these stories are told them when they
service to us.
are not of an age to learn gymnastics.
Then, I said, my dear friend, the task must not be given
Very true.
up, even if somewhat long.
That was my meaning when I said that we must teach
Certainly not.
music before gymnastics.
Come then, and let us pass a leisure hour in story-telling,
64
Quite right, he said. Very likely, he replied; but I do not as yet know what you
You know also that the beginning is the most important would term the greater.
part of any work, especially in the case of a young and Those, I said, which are narrated by Homer and Hesiod,
tender thing; for that is the time at which the character is and the rest of the poets, who have ever been the great
being formed and the desired impression is more readily story-tellers of mankind.
taken. But which stories do you mean, he said; and what fault
Quite true. do you find with them?
And shall we just carelessly allow children to hear any A fault which is most serious, I said; the fault of telling a
casual tales which may be devised by casual persons, and lie, and, what is more, a bad lie.
to receive into their minds ideas for the most part the very But when is this fault committed?
opposite of those which we should wish them to have when Whenever an erroneous representation is made of the na-
they are grown up? ture of gods and heroes, — as when a painter paints a por-
We cannot. trait not having the shadow of a likeness to the original.
Then the first thing will be to establish a censorship of Yes, he said, that sort of thing is certainly very blamable;
the writers of fiction, and let the censors receive any tale of but what are the stories which you mean?
fiction which is good, and reject the bad; and we will desire First of all, I said, there was that greatest of all lies, in
mothers and nurses to tell their children the authorised high places, which the poet told about Uranus, and which
ones only. Let them fashion the mind with such tales, even was a bad lie too, — I mean what Hesiod says that Uranus
more fondly than they mould the body with their hands; did, and how Cronus retaliated on him. The doings of Cronus,
but most of those which are now in use must be discarded. and the sufferings which in turn his son inflicted upon him,
Of what tales are you speaking? he said. even if they were true, ought certainly not to be lightly
You may find a model of the lesser in the greater, I said; told to young and thoughtless persons; if possible, they
for they are necessarily of the same type, and there is the had better be buried in silence. But if there is an absolute
same spirit in both of them. necessity for their mention, a chosen few might hear them
65
in a mystery, and they should sacrifice not a common old men and old women should begin by telling children;
[Eleusinian] pig, but some huge and unprocurable victim; and when they grow up, the poets also should be told to
and then the number of the hearers will be very few indeed. compose for them in a similar spirit. But the narrative of
Why, yes, said he, those stories are extremely objection- Hephaestus binding Here his mother, or how on another
able. occasion Zeus sent him flying for taking her part when she
Yes, Adeimantus, they are stories not to be repeated in was being beaten, and all the battles of the gods in Homer—
our State; the young man should not be told that in com- these tales must not be admitted into our State, whether
mitting the worst of crimes he is far from doing anything they are supposed to have an allegorical meaning or not.
outrageous; and that even if he chastises his father when For a young person cannot judge what is allegorical and
does wrong, in whatever manner, he will only be following what is literal; anything that he receives into his mind at
the example of the first and greatest among the gods. that age is likely to become indelible and unalterable; and
I entirely agree with you, he said; in my opinion those therefore it is most important that the tales which the
stories are quite unfit to be repeated. young first hear should be models of virtuous thoughts.
Neither, if we mean our future guardians to regard the There you are right, he replied; but if any one asks where
habit of quarrelling among themselves as of all things the are such models to be found and of what tales are you speak-
basest, should any word be said to them of the wars in ing — how shall we answer him?
heaven, and of the plots and fightings of the gods against I said to him, You and I, Adeimantus, at this moment are
one another, for they are not true. No, we shall never men- not poets, but founders of a State: now the founders of a
tion the battles of the giants, or let them be embroidered State ought to know the general forms in which poets
on garments; and we shall be silent about the innumerable should cast their tales, and the limits which must be ob-
other quarrels of gods and heroes with their friends and served by them, but to make the tales is not their business.
relatives. If they would only believe us we would tell them Very true, he said; but what are these forms of theology
that quarrelling is unholy, and that never up to this time which you mean?
has there been any, quarrel between citizens; this is what Something of this kind, I replied: — God is always to be
66
represented as he truly is, whatever be the sort of poetry, goods of human life, and many are the evils, and the good
epic, lyric or tragic, in which the representation is given. is to be attributed to God alone; of the evils the causes are
Right. to be sought elsewhere, and not in him.
And is he not truly good? and must he not be represented That appears to me to be most true, he said.
as such? Then we must not listen to Homer or to any other poet
Certainly. who is guilty of the folly of saying that two casks
And no good thing is hurtful?
Lie at the threshold of Zeus, full of lots, one of good,
No, indeed.
the other of evil lots,
And that which is not hurtful hurts not?
Certainly not. and that he to whom Zeus gives a mixture of the two
And that which hurts not does no evil?
Sometimes meets with evil fortune, at other times with
No.
good;
And can that which does no evil be a cause of evil?
Impossible. but that he to whom is given the cup of unmingled ill,
And the good is advantageous?
Him wild hunger drives o’er the beauteous earth.
Yes.
And therefore the cause of well-being? And again
Yes.
It follows therefore that the good is not the cause of all Zeus, who is the dispenser of good and evil to us.
things, but of the good only?
And if any one asserts that the violation of oaths and trea-
Assuredly.
ties, which was really the work of Pandarus, was brought
Then God, if he be good, is not the author of all things, as
about by Athene and Zeus, or that the strife and conten-
the many assert, but he is the cause of a few things only,
tion of the gods was instigated by Themis and Zeus, he
and not of most things that occur to men. For few are the
shall not have our approval; neither will we allow our young
67
men to hear the words of Aeschylus, that ing the gods, to which our poets and reciters will be ex-
pected to conform — that God is not the author of all things,
God plants guilt among men when he desires utterly to
but of good only.
destroy a house.
That will do, he said.
And if a poet writes of the sufferings of Niobe — the sub- And what do you think of a second principle? Shall I ask you
ject of the tragedy in which these iambic verses occur— or whether God is a magician, and of a nature to appear insidiously
of the house of Pelops, or of the Trojan war or on any simi- now in one shape, and now in another — sometimes himself
lar theme, either we must not permit him to say that these changing and passing into many forms, sometimes deceiving us
are the works of God, or if they are of God, he must devise with the semblance of such transformations; or is he one and
some explanation of them such as we are seeking; he must the same immutably fixed in his own proper image?
say that God did what was just and right, and they were I cannot answer you, he said, without more thought.
the better for being punished; but that those who are pun- Well, I said; but if we suppose a change in anything, that
ished are miserable, and that God is the author of their change must be effected either by the thing itself, or by
misery — the poet is not to be permitted to say; though some other thing?
he may say that the wicked are miserable because they re- Most certainly.
quire to be punished, and are benefited by receiving pun- And things which are at their best are also least liable to
ishment from God; but that God being good is the author be altered or discomposed; for example, when healthiest
of evil to any one is to be strenuously denied, and not to and strongest, the human frame is least liable to be af-
be said or sung or heard in verse or prose by any one whether fected by meats and drinks, and the plant which is in the
old or young in any well-ordered commonwealth. Such a fullest vigour also suffers least from winds or the heat of
fiction is suicidal, ruinous, impious. the sun or any similar causes.
I agree with you, he replied, and am ready to give my Of course.
assent to the law. And will not the bravest and wisest soul be least con-
Let this then be one of our rules and principles concern- fused or deranged by any external influence?
68
True. Very true, Adeimantus; but then, would any one, whether
And the same principle, as I should suppose, applies to all God or man, desire to make himself worse?
composite things — furniture, houses, garments; when good Impossible.
and well made, they are least altered by time and circum- Then it is impossible that God should ever be willing to
stances. change; being, as is supposed, the fairest and best that is
Very true. conceivable, every god remains absolutely and for ever in
Then everything which is good, whether made by art or his own form.
nature, or both, is least liable to suffer change from with- That necessarily follows, he said, in my judgment.
out? Then, I said, my dear friend, let none of the poets tell us
True. that
But surely God and the things of God are in every way
The gods, taking the disguise of strangers from other
perfect?
lands,
Of course they are. walk up and down cities in all sorts of forms;
Then he can hardly be compelled by external influence to
take many shapes? and let no one slander Proteus and Thetis, neither let any
He cannot. one, either in tragedy or in any other kind of poetry, intro-
But may he not change and transform himself? duce Hera disguised in the likeness of a priestess asking an
Clearly, he said, that must be the case if he is changed at alms
all.
For the life-giving daughters of Inachus the river of
And will he then change himself for the better and fairer,
Argos;
or for the worse and more unsightly?
If he change at all he can only change for the worse, for — let us have no more lies of that sort. Neither must we
we cannot suppose him to be deficient either in virtue or have mothers under the influence of the poets scaring their
beauty. children with a bad version of these myths — telling how
69
certain gods, as they say, ‘Go about by night in the like- ties in the highest part of themselves, which is the soul,
ness of so many strangers and in divers forms’; but let them and in that part of them to have and to hold the lie, is what
take heed lest they make cowards of their children, and at mankind least like; — that, I say, is what they utterly de-
the same time speak blasphemy against the gods. test.
Heaven forbid, he said. There is nothing more hateful to them.
But although the gods are themselves unchangeable, still And, as I was just now remarking, this ignorance in the
by witchcraft and deception they may make us think that soul of him who is deceived may be called the true lie; for
they appear in various forms? the lie in words is only a kind of imitation and shadowy
Perhaps, he replied. image of a previous affection of the soul, not pure unadul-
Well, but can you imagine that God will be willing to lie, terated falsehood. Am I not right?
whether in word or deed, or to put forth a phantom of Perfectly right.
himself? The true lie is hated not only by the gods, but also by
I cannot say, he replied. men?
Do you not know, I said, that the true lie, if such an ex- Yes.
pression may be allowed, is hated of gods and men? Whereas the lie in words is in certain cases useful and not
What do you mean? he said. hateful; in dealing with enemies — that would be an in-
I mean that no one is willingly deceived in that which is stance; or again, when those whom we call our friends in a
the truest and highest part of himself, or about the truest fit of madness or illusion are going to do some harm, then
and highest matters; there, above all, he is most afraid of a it is useful and is a sort of medicine or preventive; also in
lie having possession of him. the tales of mythology, of which we were just now speak-
Still, he said, I do not comprehend you. ing—because we do not know the truth about ancient
The reason is, I replied, that you attribute some profound times, we make falsehood as much like truth as we can, and
meaning to my words; but I am only saying that deception, so turn it to account.
or being deceived or uninformed about the highest reali- Very true, he said.
70
But can any of these reasons apply to God? Can we sup- I grant that.
pose that he is ignorant of antiquity, and therefore has Then, although we are admirers of Homer, we do not ad-
recourse to invention? mire the lying dream which Zeus sends to Agamemnon; nei-
That would be ridiculous, he said. ther will we praise the verses of Aeschylus in which Thetis
Then the lying poet has no place in our idea of God? says that Apollo at her nuptials
I should say not.
Was celebrating in song her fair progeny whose days
Or perhaps he may tell a lie because he is afraid of en-
were
emies? to he long, and to know no sickness. And when he had
That is inconceivable. spoken of my lot as in all things blessed of heaven he
But he may have friends who are senseless or mad? raised a note of triumph and cheered my soul. And I
thought that the word of Phoebus being divine and
But no mad or senseless person can be a friend of God.
full
Then no motive can be imagined why God should lie? of prophecy, would not fail. And now he himself who
None whatever. uttered the strain, he who was present at the banquet,
Then the superhuman and divine is absolutely incapable and who said this—he it is who has slain my son.
of falsehood?
These are the kind of sentiments about the gods which will
Yes.
arouse our anger; and he who utters them shall be refused
Then is God perfectly simple and true both in word and
a chorus; neither shall we allow teachers to make use of
deed; he changes not; he deceives not, either by sign or
them in the instruction of the young, meaning, as we do,
word, by dream or waking vision.
that our guardians, as far as men can be, should be true
Your thoughts, he said, are the reflection of my own.
worshippers of the gods and like them.
You agree with me then, I said, that this is the second
I entirely agree, be said, in these principles, and promise
type or form in which we should write and speak about
to make them my laws.
divine things. The gods are not magicians who transform
themselves, neither do they deceive mankind in any way.
71
BOOK III Then, I said, we shall have to obliterate many obnoxious
passages, beginning with the verses,
SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS
I would rather he a serf on the land of a poor and
Such then, I said, are our principles of theology — some portionless man
tales are to be told, and others are not to be told to our than rule over all the dead who have come to nought.
disciples from their youth upwards, if we mean them to
We must also expunge the verse, which tells us how Pluto
honour the gods and their parents, and to value friendship
feared,
with one another.
Yes; and I think that our principles are right, he said. Lest the mansions grim and squalid which the gods
But if they are to be courageous, must they not learn abhor should he
other lessons besides these, and lessons of such a kind as seen both of mortals and immortals.
will take away the fear of death? Can any man be coura-
And again:
geous who has the fear of death in him?
Certainly not, he said. O heavens! verily in the house of Hades there is soul
And can he be fearless of death, or will he choose death and ghostly
form but no mind at all!
in battle rather than defeat and slavery, who believes the
world below to be real and terrible? Again of Tiresias: —
Impossible.
Then we must assume a control over the narrators of this [To him even after death did Persephone grant mind,]
that he alone
class of tales as well as over the others, and beg them not
should be wise; but the other souls are flitting shades.
simply to but rather to commend the world below, intimat-
ing to them that their descriptions are untrue, and will do Again:—
harm to our future warriors.
The soul flying from the limbs had gone to Hades,
That will be our duty, he said.
lamentng her fate,
72
leaving manhood and youth. of which the very mention causes a shudder to pass through
the inmost soul of him who hears them. I do not say that
Again:—
these horrible stories may not have a use of some kind; but
And the soul, with shrilling cry, passed like smoke be there is a danger that the nerves of our guardians may be
neath the rendered too excitable and effeminate by them.
earth.
There is a real danger, he said.
And,— Then we must have no more of them.
True.
As bats in hollow of mystic cavern, whenever any of Another and a nobler strain must be composed and sung
the has
by us.
dropped out of the string and falls from the rock, fly
shrilling and Clearly.
cling to one another, so did they with shrilling cry And shall we proceed to get rid of the weepings and
hold together wailings of famous men?
as they moved.
They will go with the rest.
But shall we be right in getting rid of them? Reflect: our
And we must beg Homer and the other poets not to be angry
principle is that the good man will not consider death ter-
if we strike out these and similar passages, not because they
rible to any other good man who is his comrade.
are unpoetical, or unattractive to the popular ear, but be-
Yes; that is our principle.
cause the greater the poetical charm of them, the less are
And therefore he will not sorrow for his departed friend
they meet for the ears of boys and men who are meant to be
as though he had suffered anything terrible?
free, and who should fear slavery more than death.
He will not.
Undoubtedly.
Such an one, as we further maintain, is sufficient for him-
Also we shall have to reject all the terrible and appalling
self and his own happiness, and therefore is least in need of
names describe the world below —Cocytus and Styx, ghosts
other men.
under the earth, and sapless shades, and any similar words
73
True, he said.
And for this reason the loss of a son or brother, or the Still more earnestly will we beg of him at all events not to
deprivation of fortune, is to him of all men least terrible. introduce the gods lamenting and saying,
Assuredly.
Alas! my misery! Alas! that I bore the harvest to my
And therefore he will be least likely to lament, and will
sorrow.
bear with the greatest equanimity any misfortune of this
sort which may befall him. But if he must introduce the gods, at any rate let him not
Yes, he will feel such a misfortune far less than another. dare so completely to misrepresent the greatest of the gods,
Then we shall be right in getting rid of the lamentations as to make him say —
of famous men, and making them over to women (and not
even to women who are good for anything), or to men of a O heavens! with my eyes verily I behold a dear friend
of mine chased
baser sort, that those who are being educated by us to be
round and round the city, and my heart is sorrowful.
the defenders of their country may scorn to do the like.
That will be very right. Or again: —
Then we will once more entreat Homer and the other poets
Woe is me that I am fated to have Sarpedon, dearest of
not to depict Achilles, who is the son of a goddess, first lying
men to me,
on his side, then on his back, and then on his face; then start- subdued at the hands of Patroclus the son of Menoetius.
ing up and sailing in a frenzy along the shores of the barren
sea; now taking the sooty ashes in both his hands and pour- For if, my sweet Adeimantus, our youth seriously listen to
ing them over his head, or weeping and wailing in the various such unworthy representations of the gods, instead of laugh-
modes which Homer has delineated. Nor should he describe ing at them as they ought, hardly will any of them deem
Priam the kinsman of the gods as praying and beseeching, that he himself, being but a man, can be dishonoured by
similar actions; neither will he rebuke any inclination which
Rolling in the dirt, calling each man loudly by his name. may arise in his mind to say and do the like. And instead of
74
having any shame or self-control, he will be always whining Again, truth should be highly valued; if, as we were say-
and lamenting on slight occasions. ing, a lie is useless to the gods, and useful only as a medi-
Yes, he said, that is most true. cine to men, then the use of such medicines should be re-
Yes, I replied; but that surely is what ought not to be, as stricted to physicians; private individuals have no business
the argument has just proved to us; and by that proof we with them.
must abide until it is disproved by a better. Clearly not, he said.
It ought not to be. Then if any one at all is to have the privilege of lying, the
Neither ought our guardians to be given to laughter. For rulers of the State should be the persons; and they, in their
a fit of laughter which has been indulged to excess almost dealings either with enemies or with their own citizens,
always produces a violent reaction. may be allowed to lie for the public good. But nobody else
So I believe. should meddle with anything of the kind; and although
Then persons of worth, even if only mortal men, must not the rulers have this privilege, for a private man to lie to
be represented as overcome by laughter, and still less must them in return is to be deemed a more heinous fault than
such a representation of the gods be allowed. for the patient or the pupil of a gymnasium not to speak
Still less of the gods, as you say, he replied. the truth about his own bodily illnesses to the physician or
Then we shall not suffer such an expression to be used to the trainer, or for a sailor not to tell the captain what is
about the gods as that of Homer when he describes how happening about the ship and the rest of the crew, and
how things are going with himself or his fellow sailors.
Inextinguishable laughter arose among the blessed
Most true, he said.
gods, when they
saw Hephaestus bustling about the mansion. If, then, the ruler catches anybody beside himself lying
in the State,
On your views, we must not admit them.
Any of the craftsmen, whether he priest or physician or
On my views, if you like to father them on me; that we
carpenter.
must not admit them is certain.
75
he will punish him for introducing a practice which is equally and of the words which follow? Would you say that these,
subversive and destructive of ship or State. or any similar impertinences which private individuals are
Most certainly, he said, if our idea of the State is ever supposed to address to their rulers, whether in verse or
carried out. prose, are well or ill spoken?
In the next place our youth must be temperate? They are ill spoken.
Certainly. They may very possibly afford some amusement, but they
Are not the chief elements of temperance, speaking gen- do not conduce to temperance. And therefore they are likely
erally, obedience to commanders and self-control in sen- to do harm to our young men — you would agree with me
sual pleasures? there?
True. Yes.
Then we shall approve such language as that of Diomede And then, again, to make the wisest of men say that noth-
in Homer, ing in his opinion is more glorious than
Friend, sit still and obey my word, When the tables are full of bread and meat, and the
cup-bearer
and the verses which follow, carries round wine which he draws from the bowl and
pours into the cups,
The Greeks marched breathing prowess,
...in silent awe of their leaders, is it fit or conducive to temperance for a young man to hear
such words? Or the verse
and other sentiments of the same kind.
We shall. The saddest of fates is to die and meet destiny from
What of this line, hunger?
O heavy with wine, who hast the eyes of a dog and the What would you say again to the tale of Zeus, who, while
heart of a stag, other gods and men were asleep and he the only person
76
awake, lay devising plans, but forgot them all in a moment Gifts persuading gods, and persuading reverend kings.
through his lust, and was so completely overcome at the
Neither is Phoenix, the tutor of Achilles, to be approved or
sight of Here that he would not even go into the hut, but
deemed to have given his pupil good counsel when he told
wanted to lie with her on the ground, declaring that he had
him that he should take the gifts of the Greeks and assist
never been in such a state of rapture before, even when
them; but that without a gift he should not lay aside his
they first met one another
anger. Neither will we believe or acknowledge Achilles him-
Without the knowledge of their parents; self to have been such a lover of money that he took
Agamemnon’s or that when he had received payment he
or that other tale of how Hephaestus, because of similar restored the dead body of Hector, but that without pay-
goings on, cast a chain around Ares and Aphrodite? ment he was unwilling to do so.
Indeed, he said, I am strongly of opinion that they ought Undoubtedly, he said, these are not sentiments which can
not to hear that sort of thing. be approved.
But any deeds of endurance which are done or told by Loving Homer as I do, I hardly like to say that in attrib-
famous men, these they ought to see and hear; as, for ex- uting these feelings to Achilles, or in believing that they
ample, what is said in the verses, are truly to him, he is guilty of downright impiety. As little
can I believe the narrative of his insolence to Apollo, where
He smote his breast, and thus reproached his heart,
Endure, my heart; far worse hast thou endured! he says,
Thou hast wronged me, O far-darter, most abominable

Certainly, he said.
of deities.
In the next place, we must not let them be receivers of Verily I would he even with thee, if I had only the
gifts or lovers of money. power,
Certainly not.
Neither must we sing to them of or his insubordination to the river-god, on whose divinity
he is ready to lay hands; or his offering to the dead Patroclus
77
of his own hair, which had been previously dedicated to the ments which, as we were saying, are neither pious nor true,
other river-god Spercheius, and that he actually performed for we have already proved that evil cannot come from the
this vow; or that he dragged Hector round the tomb of gods.
Patroclus, and slaughtered the captives at the pyre; of all Assuredly not.
this I cannot believe that he was guilty, any more than I And further they are likely to have a bad effect on those
can allow our citizens to believe that he, the wise Cheiron’s who hear them; for everybody will begin to excuse his own
pupil, the son of a goddess and of Peleus who was the gen- vices when he is convinced that similar wickednesses are
tlest of men and third in descent from Zeus, was so disor- always being perpetrated by —
dered in his wits as to be at one time the slave of two
The kindred of the gods, the relatives of Zeus, whose
seemingly inconsistent passions, meanness, not untainted
ancestral
by avarice, combined with overweening contempt of gods altar, the attar of Zeus, is aloft in air on the peak of
and men. Ida,
You are quite right, he replied.
and who have
And let us equally refuse to believe, or allow to be re-
peated, the tale of Theseus son of Poseidon, or of Peirithous the blood of deities yet flowing in their veins.
son of Zeus, going forth as they did to perpetrate a horrid
rape; or of any other hero or son of a god daring to do such And therefore let us put an end to such tales, lest they
impious and dreadful things as they falsely ascribe to them engender laxity of morals among the young.
in our day: and let us further compel the poets to declare By all means, he replied.
either that these acts were not done by them, or that they But now that we are determining what classes of subjects
were not the sons of gods; — both in the same breath they are or are not to be spoken of, let us see whether any have
shall not be permitted to affirm. We will not have them been omitted by us. The manner in which gods and demi-
trying to persuade our youth that the gods are the authors gods and heroes and the world below should be treated has
of evil, and that heroes are no better than men —senti- been already laid down.
78
Very true. Enough of the subjects of poetry: let us now speak of the
And what shall we say about men? That is clearly the style; and when this has been considered, both matter and
remaining portion of our subject. manner will have been completely treated.
Clearly so. I do not understand what you mean, said Adeimantus.
But we are not in a condition to answer this question at Then I must make you understand; and perhaps I may be
present, my friend. more intelligible if I put the matter in this way. You are
Why not? aware, I suppose, that all mythology and poetry is a narra-
Because, if I am not mistaken, we shall have to say that tion of events, either past, present, or to come?
about men poets and story-tellers are guilty of making the Certainly, he replied.
gravest misstatements when they tell us that wicked men are And narration may be either simple narration, or imita-
often happy, and the good miserable; and that injustice is tion, or a union of the two?
profitable when undetected, but that justice is a man’s own That again, he said, I do not quite understand.
loss and another’s gain — these things we shall forbid them I fear that I must be a ridiculous teacher when I have so
to utter, and command them to sing and say the opposite. much difficulty in making myself apprehended. Like a bad
To be sure we shall, he replied. speaker, therefore, I will not take the whole of the subject,
But if you admit that I am right in this, then I shall main- but will break a piece off in illustration of my meaning. You
tain that you have implied the principle for which we have know the first lines of the Iliad, in which the poet says that
been all along contending. Chryses prayed Agamemnon to release his daughter, and
I grant the truth of your inference. that Agamemnon flew into a passion with him; whereupon
That such things are or are not to be said about men is a Chryses, failing of his object, invoked the anger of the God
question which we cannot determine until we have discov- against the Achaeans. Now as far as these lines,
ered what justice is, and how naturally advantageous to
And he prayed all the Greeks, but especially the two
the possessor, whether he seems to be just or not.
sons of Atreus,
Most true, he said. the chiefs of the people,
79
self, then again the imitation is dropped, and his poetry
the poet is speaking in his own person; he never leads us to becomes simple narration. However, in order that I may make
suppose that he is any one else. But in what follows he my meaning quite clear, and that you may no more say, I
takes the person of Chryses, and then he does all that he don’t understand,’ I will show how the change might be
can to make us believe that the speaker is not Homer, but effected. If Homer had said, ‘The priest came, having his
the aged priest himself. And in this double form he has cast daughter’s ransom in his hands, supplicating the Achaeans,
the entire narrative of the events which occurred at Troy and above all the kings;’ and then if, instead of speaking in
and in Ithaca and throughout the Odyssey. the person of Chryses, he had continued in his own person,
Yes. the words would have been, not imitation, but simple nar-
And a narrative it remains both in the speeches which the ration. The passage would have run as follows (I am no
poet recites from time to time and in the intermediate pas- poet, and therefore I drop the metre), ‘The priest came and
sages? prayed the gods on behalf of the Greeks that they might
Quite true. capture Troy and return safely home, but begged that they
But when the poet speaks in the person of another, may would give him back his daughter, and take the ransom
we not say that he assimilates his style to that of the per- which he brought, and respect the God. Thus he spoke, and
son who, as he informs you, is going to speak? the other Greeks revered the priest and assented. But
Certainly. Agamemnon was wroth, and bade him depart and not come
And this assimilation of himself to another, either by the again, lest the staff and chaplets of the God should be of
use of voice or gesture, is the imitation of the person whose no avail to him — the daughter of Chryses should not be
character he assumes? released, he said — she should grow old with him in Argos.
Of course. And then he told him to go away and not to provoke him,
Then in this case the narrative of the poet may be said to if he intended to get home unscathed. And the old man
proceed by way of imitation? went away in fear and silence, and, when he had left the
Very true. camp, he called upon Apollo by his many names, reminding
Or, if the poet everywhere appears and never conceals him-
80
him of everything which he had done pleasing to him, Yes, I remember.
whether in building his temples, or in offering sacrifice, and In saying this, I intended to imply that we must come to
praying that his good deeds might be returned to him, and an understanding about the mimetic art, — whether the
that the Achaeans might expiate his tears by the arrows of poets, in narrating their stories, are to be allowed by us to
the god,’ — and so on. In this way the whole becomes simple imitate, and if so, whether in whole or in part, and if the
narrative. latter, in what parts; or should all imitation be prohibited?
I understand, he said. You mean, I suspect, to ask whether tragedy and comedy
Or you may suppose the opposite case — that the inter- shall be admitted into our State?
mediate passages are omitted, and the dialogue only left. Yes, I said; but there may be more than this in question:
That also, he said, I understand; you mean, for example, I really do not know as yet, but whither the argument may
as in tragedy. blow, thither we go.
You have conceived my meaning perfectly; and if I mis- And go we will, he said.
take not, what you failed to apprehend before is now made Then, Adeimantus, let me ask you whether our guardians
clear to you, that poetry and mythology are, in some cases, ought to be imitators; or rather, has not this question been
wholly imitative — instances of this are supplied by trag- decided by the rule already laid down that one man can
edy and comedy; there is likewise the opposite style, in only do one thing well, and not many; and that if he at-
which the my poet is the only speaker — of this the tempt many, he will altogether fall of gaining much reputa-
dithyramb affords the best example; and the combination tion in any?
of both is found in epic, and in several other styles of po- Certainly.
etry. Do I take you with me? And this is equally true of imitation; no one man can
Yes, he said; I see now what you meant. imitate many things as well as he would imitate a single
I will ask you to remember also what I began by saying, one?
that we had done with the subject and might proceed to He cannot.
the style. Then the same person will hardly be able to play a serious
81
part in life, and at the same time to be an imitator and ters which are suitable to their profession — the coura-
imitate many other parts as well; for even when two species geous, temperate, holy, free, and the like; but they should
of imitation are nearly allied, the same persons cannot suc- not depict or be skilful at imitating any kind of illiberality
ceed in both, as, for example, the writers of tragedy and or baseness, lest from imitation they should come to be
comedy—did you not just now call them imitations? what they imitate. Did you never observe how imitations,
Yes, I did; and you are right in thinking that the same beginning in early youth and continuing far into life, at
persons cannot succeed in both. length grow into habits and become a second nature, af-
Any more than they can be rhapsodists and actors at once? fecting body, voice, and mind?
True. Yes, certainly, he said.
Neither are comic and tragic actors the same; yet all these Then, I said, we will not allow those for whom we profess
things are but imitations. a care and of whom we say that they ought to be good
They are so. men, to imitate a woman, whether young or old, quarrel-
And human nature, Adeimantus, appears to have been ling with her husband, or striving and vaunting against the
coined into yet smaller pieces, and to be as incapable of gods in conceit of her happiness, or when she is in afflic-
imitating many things well, as of performing well the action, or sorrow, or weeping; and certainly not one who is in
tions of which the imitations are copies. sickness, love, or labour.
Quite true, he replied. Very right, he said.
If then we adhere to our original notion and bear in mind Neither must they represent slaves, male or female, per-
that our guardians, setting aside every other business, are forming the offices of slaves?
to dedicate themselves wholly to the maintenance of free- They must not.
dom in the State, making this their craft, and engaging in And surely not bad men, whether cowards or any others,
no work which does not bear on this end, they ought not who do the reverse of what we have just been prescribing,
to practise or imitate anything else; if they imitate at all, who scold or mock or revile one another in drink or out of
they should imitate from youth upward only those charac- in drink or, or who in any other manner sin against them-
82
selves and their neighbours in word or deed, as the manner personate him, and will not be ashamed of this sort of imi-
of such is. Neither should they be trained to imitate the tation: he will be most ready to play the part of the good
action or speech of men or women who are mad or bad; for man when he is acting firmly and wisely; in a less degree
madness, like vice, is to be known but not to be practised when he is overtaken by illness or love or drink, or has met
or imitated. with any other disaster. But when he comes to a character
Very true, he replied. which is unworthy of him, he will not make a study of that;
Neither may they imitate smiths or other artificers, or he will disdain such a person, and will assume his likeness,
oarsmen, or boatswains, or the like? if at all, for a moment only when he is performing some
How can they, he said, when they are not allowed to ap- good action; at other times he will be ashamed to play a
ply their minds to the callings of any of these? part which he has never practised, nor will he like to fash-
Nor may they imitate the neighing of horses, the bellow- ion and frame himself after the baser models; he feels the
ing of bulls, the murmur of rivers and roll of the ocean, employment of such an art, unless in jest, to be beneath
thunder, and all that sort of thing? him, and his mind revolts at it.
Nay, he said, if madness be forbidden, neither may they So I should expect, he replied.
copy the behaviour of madmen. Then he will adopt a mode of narration such as we have
You mean, I said, if I understand you aright, that there is illustrated out of Homer, that is to say, his style will be
one sort of narrative style which may be employed by a both imitative and narrative; but there will be very little of
truly good man when he has anything to say, and that an- the former, and a great deal of the latter. Do you agree?
other sort will be used by a man of an opposite character Certainly, he said; that is the model which such a speaker
and education. must necessarily take.
And which are these two sorts? he asked. But there is another sort of character who will narrate
Suppose, I answered, that a just and good man in the anything, and, the worse lie is, the more unscrupulous he
course of a narration comes on some saying or action of will be; nothing will be too bad for him: and he will be
another good man,—I should imagine that he will like to ready to imitate anything, not as a joke, but in right good
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earnest, and before a large company. As I was just now say- comprehend all poetry, and every form of expression in
ing, he will attempt to represent the roll of thunder, the words? No one can say anything except in one or other of
noise of wind and hall, or the creaking of wheels, and pul- them or in both together.
leys, and the various sounds of flutes; pipes, trumpets, and They include all, he said.
all sorts of instruments: he will bark like a dog, bleat like a And shall we receive into our State all the three styles, or
sheep, or crow like a cock; his entire art will consist in imi- one only of the two unmixed styles? or would you include
tation of voice and gesture, and there will be very little the mixed?
narration. I should prefer only to admit the pure imitator of virtue.
That, he said, will be his mode of speaking. Yes, I said, Adeimantus, but the mixed style is also very
These, then, are the two kinds of style? charming: and indeed the pantomimic, which is the oppo-
Yes. site of the one chosen by you, is the most popular style
And you would agree with me in saying that one of them with children and their attendants, and with the world in
is simple and has but slight changes; and if the harmony general.
and rhythm are also chosen for their simplicity, the result is I do not deny it.
that the speaker, if he speaks correctly, is always pretty But I suppose you would argue that such a style is un-
much the same in style, and he will keep within the limits suitable to our State, in which human nature is not twofold
of a single harmony (for the changes are not great), and in or manifold, for one man plays one part only?
like manner he will make use of nearly the same rhythm? Yes; quite unsuitable.
That is quite true, he said. And this is the reason why in our State, and in our State
Whereas the other requires all sorts of harmonies and all only, we shall find a shoemaker to be a shoemaker and not
sorts of rhythms, if the music and the style are to corre- a pilot also, and a husbandman to be a husbandman and
spond, because the style has all sorts of changes. not a dicast also, and a soldier a soldier and not a trader
That is also perfectly true, he replied. also, and the same throughout?
And do not the two styles, or the mixture of the two, True, he said.
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And therefore when any one of these pantomimic gentle- SOCRATES - GLAUCON
men, who are so clever that they can imitate anything,
comes to us, and makes a proposal to exhibit himself and I fear, said Glaucon, laughing, that the words ‘every one’
his poetry, we will fall down and worship him as a sweet hardly includes me, for I cannot at the moment say what
and holy and wonderful being; but we must also inform they should be; though I may guess.
him that in our State such as he are not permitted to exist; At any rate you can tell that a song or ode has three
the law will not allow them. And so when we have anointed parts—the words, the melody, and the rhythm; that de-
him with myrrh, and set a garland of wool upon his head, gree of knowledge I may presuppose?
we shall send him away to another city. For we mean to Yes, he said; so much as that you may.
employ for our souls’ health the rougher and severer poet And as for the words, there surely be no difference words
or story-teller, who will imitate the style of the virtuous between words which are and which are not set to music;
only, and will follow those models which we prescribed at both will conform to the same laws, and these have been
first when we began the education of our soldiers. already determined by us?
We certainly will, he said, if we have the power. Yes.
Then now, my friend, I said, that part of music or literary And the melody and rhythm will depend upon the words?
education which relates to the story or myth may be con- Certainly.
sidered to be finished; for the matter and manner have both We were saying, when we spoke of the subject-matter,
been discussed. that we had no need of lamentations and strains of sorrow?
I think so too, he said. True.
Next in order will follow melody and song. And which are the harmonies expressive of sorrow? You
That is obvious. are musical, and can tell me.
Every one can see already what we ought to say about The harmonies which you mean are the mixed or tenor
them, if we are to be consistent with ourselves. Lydian, and the full-toned or bass Lydian, and such like.
These then, I said, must be banished; even to women who
have a character to maintain they are of no use, and much
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less to men. Certainly. end, not carried away by his success, but acting moder-
In the next place, drunkenness and softness and indo- ately and wisely under the circumstances, and acquiescing
lence are utterly unbecoming the character of our guard- in the event. These two harmonies I ask you to leave; the
ians. strain of necessity and the strain of freedom, the strain of
Utterly unbecoming. the unfortunate and the strain of the fortunate, the strain
And which are the soft or drinking harmonies? of courage, and the strain of temperance; these, I say, leave.
The Ionian, he replied, and the Lydian; they are termed And these, he replied, are the Dorian and Phrygian har-
‘relaxed.’ monies of which I was just now speaking.
Well, and are these of any military use? Then, I said, if these and these only are to be used in our
Quite the reverse, he replied; and if so the Dorian and the songs and melodies, we shall not want multiplicity of notes
Phrygian are the only ones which you have left. or a panharmonic scale?
I answered: Of the harmonies I know nothing, but I want I suppose not.
to have one warlike, to sound the note or accent which a Then we shall not maintain the artificers of lyres with
brave man utters in the hour of danger and stern resolve, or three corners and complex scales, or the makers of any other
when his cause is failing, and he is going to wounds or many-stringed curiously-harmonised instruments?
death or is overtaken by some other evil, and at every such Certainly not.
crisis meets the blows of fortune with firm step and a de- But what do you say to flute-makers and flute-players?
termination to endure; and another to be used by him in Would you admit them into our State when you reflect that
times of peace and freedom of action, when there is no in this composite use of harmony the flute is worse than all
pressure of necessity, and he is seeking to persuade God by the stringed instruments put together; even the
prayer, or man by instruction and admonition, or on the panharmonic music is only an imitation of the flute?
other hand, when he is expressing his willingness to yield Clearly not.
to persuasion or entreaty or admonition, and which repre- There remain then only the lyre and the harp for use in
sents him when by prudent conduct he has attained his the city, and the shepherds may have a pipe in the country.
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That is surely the conclusion to be drawn from the argu- that is an observation which I have made. But of what sort
ment. of lives they are severally the imitations I am unable to
The preferring of Apollo and his instruments to Marsyas say.
and his instruments is not at all strange, I said. Then, I said, we must take Damon into our counsels; and
Not at all, he replied. he will tell us what rhythms are expressive of meanness, or
And so, by the dog of Egypt, we have been unconsciously insolence, or fury, or other unworthiness, and what are to
purging the State, which not long ago we termed luxuri- be reserved for the expression of opposite feelings. And I
ous. think that I have an indistinct recollection of his mention-
And we have done wisely, he replied. ing a complex Cretic rhythm; also a dactylic or heroic, and
Then let us now finish the purgation, I said. Next in order he arranged them in some manner which I do not quite
to harmonies, rhythms will naturally follow, and they should understand, making the rhythms equal in the rise and fall
be subject to the same rules, for we ought not to seek out of the foot, long and short alternating; and, unless I am
complex systems of metre, or metres of every kind, but mistaken, he spoke of an iambic as well as of a trochaic
rather to discover what rhythms are the expressions of a rhythm, and assigned to them short and long quantities.
courageous and harmonious life; and when we have found Also in some cases he appeared to praise or censure the
them, we shall adapt the foot and the melody to words movement of the foot quite as much as the rhythm; or per-
having a like spirit, not the words to the foot and melody. haps a combination of the two; for I am not certain what he
To say what these rhythms are will be your duty—you must meant. These matters, however, as I was saying, had better
teach me them, as you have already taught me the harmo- be referred to Damon himself, for the analysis of the sub-
nies. ject would be difficult, you know.
But, indeed, he replied, I cannot tell you. I only know Rather so, I should say.
that there are some three principles of rhythm out of which But there is no difficulty in seeing that grace or the ab-
metrical systems are framed, just as in sounds there are sence of grace is an effect of good or bad rhythm.
four notes out of which all the harmonies are composed; None at all.
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And also that good and bad rhythm naturally assimilate monious motion are nearly allied to ill words and ill nature,
to a good and bad style; and that harmony and discord in as grace and harmony are the twin sisters of goodness and
like manner follow style; for our principle is that rhythm virtue and bear their likeness.
and harmony are regulated by the words, and not the words That is quite true, he said.
by them. But shall our superintendence go no further, and are the
Just so, he said, they should follow the words. poets only to be required by us to express the image of the
And will not the words and the character of the style good in their works, on pain, if they do anything else, of
depend on the temper of the soul? expulsion from our State? Or is the same control to be ex-
Yes. tended to other artists, and are they also to be prohibited
And everything else on the style? from exhibiting the opposite forms of vice and intemper-
Yes. ance and meanness and indecency in sculpture and build-
Then beauty of style and harmony and grace and good ing and the other creative arts; and is he who cannot con-
rhythm depend on simplicity,—I mean the true simplicity form to this rule of ours to be prevented from practising
of a rightly and nobly ordered mind and character, not that his art in our State, lest the taste of our citizens be cor-
other simplicity which is only an euphemism for folly? rupted by him? We would not have our guardians grow up
Very true, he replied. amid images of moral deformity, as in some noxious pas-
And if our youth are to do their work in life, must they ture, and there browse and feed upon many a baneful herb
not make these graces and harmonies their perpetual aim? and flower day by day, little by little, until they silently
They must. gather a festering mass of corruption in their own soul. Let
And surely the art of the painter and every other creative our artists rather be those who are gifted to discern the
and constructive art are full of them,—weaving, embroi- true nature of the beautiful and graceful; then will our
dery, architecture, and every kind of manufacture; also na- youth dwell in a land of health, amid fair sights and sounds,
ture, animal and vegetable,—in all of them there is grace or and receive the good in everything; and beauty, the efflu-
the absence of grace. And ugliness and discord and inhar- ence of fair works, shall flow into the eye and ear, like a
88
health-giving breeze from a purer region, and insensibly all their recurring sizes and combinations; not slighting them
draw the soul from earliest years into likeness and sympa- as unimportant whether they occupy a space large or small,
thy with the beauty of reason. but everywhere eager to make them out; and not thinking
There can be no nobler training than that, he replied. ourselves perfect in the art of reading until we recognise
And therefore, I said, Glaucon, musical training is a more them wherever they are found:
potent instrument than any other, because rhythm and har- True—
mony find their way into the inward places of the soul, on Or, as we recognise the reflection of letters in the water,
which they mightily fasten, imparting grace, and making or in a mirror, only when we know the letters themselves;
the soul of him who is rightly educated graceful, or of him the same art and study giving us the knowledge of both:
who is ill-educated ungraceful; and also because he who Exactly—
has received this true education of the inner being will most Even so, as I maintain, neither we nor our guardians, whom
shrewdly perceive omissions or faults in art and nature, and we have to educate, can ever become musical until we and
with a true taste, while he praises and rejoices over and they know the essential forms, in all their combinations,
receives into his soul the good, and becomes noble and and can recognize them and their images wherever they are
good, he will justly blame and hate the bad, now in the found, not slighting them either in small things or great,
days of his youth, even before he is able to know the rea- but believing them all to be within the sphere of one art
son why; and when reason comes he will recognise and sa- and study.
lute the friend with whom his education has made him long Most assuredly.
familiar. And when a beautiful soul harmonizes with a beautiful
Yes, he said, I quite agree with you in thinking that our form, and the two are cast in one mould, that will be the
youth should be trained in music and on the grounds which fairest of sights to him who has an eye to see it?
you mention. The fairest indeed.
Just as in learning to read, I said, we were satisfied when And the fairest is also the loveliest?
we knew the letters of the alphabet, which are very few, in That may be assumed.
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And the man who has the spirit of harmony will be most Then mad or intemperate pleasure must never be allowed
in love with the loveliest; but he will not love him who is of to come near the lover and his beloved; neither of them can
an inharmonious soul? have any part in it if their love is of the right sort?
That is true, he replied, if the deficiency be in his soul; No, indeed, Socrates, it must never come near them.
but if there be any merely bodily defect in another he will Then I suppose that in the city which we are founding
be patient of it, and will love all the same. you would make a law to the effect that a friend should use
I perceive, I said, that you have or have had experiences no other familiarity to his love than a father would use to
of this sort, and I agree. But let me ask you another ques- his son, and then only for a noble purpose, and he must
tion: Has excess of pleasure any affinity to temperance? first have the other’s consent; and this rule is to limit him
How can that be? he replied; pleasure deprives a man of in all his intercourse, and he is never to be seen going fur-
the use of his faculties quite as much as pain. ther, or, if he exceeds, he is to be deemed guilty of coarse-
Or any affinity to virtue in general? ness and bad taste.
None whatever. I quite agree, he said.
Any affinity to wantonness and intemperance? Thus much of music, which makes a fair ending; for what
Yes, the greatest. should be the end of music if not the love of beauty?
And is there any greater or keener pleasure than that of I agree, he said.
sensual love? After music comes gymnastic, in which our youth are next
No, nor a madder. to be trained.
Whereas true love is a love of beauty and order—temper- Certainly.
ate and harmonious? Gymnastic as well as music should begin in early years;
Quite true, he said. the training in it should be careful and should continue
Then no intemperance or madness should be allowed to through life. Now my belief is,—and this is a matter upon
approach true love? which I should like to have your opinion in confirmation of
Certainly not. my own, but my own belief is,—not that the good body by
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any bodily excellence improves the soul, but, on the con- lives, and are liable to most dangerous illnesses if they de-
trary, that the good soul, by her own excellence, improves part, in ever so slight a degree, from their customary regi-
the body as far as this may be possible. What do you say? men?
Yes, I agree. Yes, I do.
Then, to the mind when adequately trained, we shall be Then, I said, a finer sort of training will be required for
right in handing over the more particular care of the body; our warrior athletes, who are to be like wakeful dogs, and
and in order to avoid prolixity we will now only give the to see and hear with the utmost keenness; amid the many
general outlines of the subject. changes of water and also of food, of summer heat and
Very good. winter cold, which they will have to endure when on a cam-
That they must abstain from intoxication has been al- paign, they must not be liable to break down in health.
ready remarked by us; for of all persons a guardian should That is my view.
be the last to get drunk and not know where in the world The really excellent gymnastic is twin sister of that simple
he is. music which we were just now describing.
Yes, he said; that a guardian should require another guard- How so?
ian to take care of him is ridiculous indeed. Why, I conceive that there is a gymnastic which, like our
But next, what shall we say of their food; for the men are music, is simple and good; and especially the military gym-
in training for the great contest of all—are they not? nastic.
Yes, he said. What do you mean?
And will the habit of body of our ordinary athletes be My meaning may be learned from Homer; he, you know,
suited to them? feeds his heroes at their feasts, when they are campaign-
Why not? ing, on soldiers’ fare; they have no fish, although they are
I am afraid, I said, that a habit of body such as they have on the shores of the Hellespont, and they are not allowed
is but a sleepy sort of thing, and rather perilous to health. boiled meats but only roast, which is the food most conve-
Do you not observe that these athletes sleep away their nient for soldiers, requiring only that they should light a
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fire, and not involving the trouble of carrying about pots in the soul; and simplicity in gymnastic of health in the
and pans. body.
True. Most true, he said.
And I can hardly be mistaken in saying that sweet sauces But when intemperance and disease multiply in a State,
are nowhere mentioned in Homer. In proscribing them, how- halls of justice and medicine are always being opened; and
ever, he is not singular; all professional athletes are well the arts of the doctor and the lawyer give themselves airs,
aware that a man who is to be in good condition should finding how keen is the interest which not only the slaves
take nothing of the kind. but the freemen of a city take about them.
Yes, he said; and knowing this, they are quite right in not Of course.
taking them. And yet what greater proof can there be of a bad and
Then you would not approve of Syracusan dinners, and disgraceful state of education than this, that not only arti-
the refinements of Sicilian cookery? sans and the meaner sort of people need the skill of first-
I think not. rate physicians and judges, but also those who would pro-
Nor, if a man is to be in condition, would you allow him fess to have had a liberal education? Is it not disgraceful,
to have a Corinthian girl as his fair friend? and a great sign of want of good-breeding, that a man
Certainly not. should have to go abroad for his law and physic because he
Neither would you approve of the delicacies, as they are has none of his own at home, and must therefore surrender
thought, of Athenian confectionery? himself into the hands of other men whom he makes lords
Certainly not. and judges over him?
All such feeding and living may be rightly compared by Of all things, he said, the most disgraceful.
us to melody and song composed in the panharmonic style, Would you say ‘most,’ I replied, when you consider that
and in all the rhythms. Exactly. there is a further stage of the evil in which a man is not
There complexity engendered license, and here disease; only a life-long litigant, passing all his days in the courts,
whereas simplicity in music was the parent of temperance either as plaintiff or defendant, but is actually led by his
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bad taste to pride himself on his litigiousness; he imagines were at the Trojan war do not blame the damsel who gives
that he is a master in dishonesty; able to take every crooked him the drink, or rebuke Patroclus, who is treating his case.
turn, and wriggle into and out of every hole, bending like a Well, he said, that was surely an extraordinary drink to
withy and getting out of the way of justice: and all for be given to a person in his condition.
what?—in order to gain small points not worth mention- Not so extraordinary, I replied, if you bear in mind that
ing, he not knowing that so to order his life as to be able in former days, as is commonly said, before the time of
to do without a napping judge is a far higher and nobler Herodicus, the guild of Asclepius did not practise our present
sort of thing. Is not that still more disgraceful? system of medicine, which may be said to educate diseases.
Yes, he said, that is still more disgraceful. But Herodicus, being a trainer, and himself of a sickly con-
Well, I said, and to require the help of medicine, not when stitution, by a combination of training and doctoring found
a wound has to be cured, or on occasion of an epidemic, but out a way of torturing first and chiefly himself, and sec-
just because, by indolence and a habit of life such as we ondly the rest of the world.
have been describing, men fill themselves with waters and How was that? he said.
winds, as if their bodies were a marsh, compelling the inge- By the invention of lingering death; for he had a mortal
nious sons of Asclepius to find more names for diseases, disease which he perpetually tended, and as recovery was
such as flatulence and catarrh; is not this, too, a disgrace? out of the question, he passed his entire life as a valetudi-
Yes, he said, they do certainly give very strange and new- narian; he could do nothing but attend upon himself, and
fangled names to diseases. he was in constant torment whenever he departed in any-
Yes, I said, and I do not believe that there were any such thing from his usual regimen, and so dying hard, by the
diseases in the days of Asclepius; and this I infer from the help of science he struggled on to old age.
circumstance that the hero Eurypylus, after he has been A rare reward of his skill!
wounded in Homer, drinks a posset of Pramnian wine well Yes, I said; a reward which a man might fairly expect who
besprinkled with barley-meal and grated cheese, which are never understood that, if Asclepius did not instruct his de-
certainly inflammatory, and yet the sons of Asclepius who scendants in valetudinarian arts, the omission arose, not
93
from ignorance or inexperience of such a branch of medi- Quite true, he said.
cine, but because he knew that in all well-ordered states But with the rich man this is otherwise; of him we do not
every individual has an occupation to which he must at- say that he has any specially appointed work which he must
tend, and has therefore no leisure to spend in continually perform, if he would live.
being ill. This we remark in the case of the artisan, but, He is generally supposed to have nothing to do.
ludicrously enough, do not apply the same rule to people Then you never heard of the saying of Phocylides, that as
of the richer sort. soon as a man has a livelihood he should practise virtue?
How do you mean? he said. Nay, he said, I think that he had better begin somewhat
I mean this: When a carpenter is ill he asks the physician sooner.
for a rough and ready cure; an emetic or a purge or a cau- Let us not have a dispute with him about this, I said; but
tery or the knife,—these are his remedies. And if some one rather ask ourselves: Is the practice of virtue obligatory on
prescribes for him a course of dietetics, and tells him that the rich man, or can he live without it? And if obligatory
he must swathe and swaddle his head, and all that sort of on him, then let us raise a further question, whether this
thing, he replies at once that he has no time to be ill, and dieting of disorders which is an impediment to the applica-
that he sees no good in a life which is spent in nursing his tion of the mind t in carpentering and the mechanical arts,
disease to the neglect of his customary employment; and does not equally stand in the way of the sentiment of
therefore bidding good-bye to this sort of physician, he Phocylides?
resumes his ordinary habits, and either gets well and lives Of that, he replied, there can be no doubt; such excessive
and does his business, or, if his constitution falls, he dies care of the body, when carried beyond the rules of gymnas-
and has no more trouble. tic, is most inimical to the practice of virtue.
Yes, he said, and a man in his condition of life ought to Yes, indeed, I replied, and equally incompatible with the
use the art of medicine thus far only. management of a house, an army, or an office of state; and,
Has he not, I said, an occupation; and what profit would what is most important of all, irreconcilable with any kind
there be in his life if he were deprived of his occupation? of study or thought or self-reflection—there is a constant
94
suspicion that headache and giddiness are to be ascribed they
to philosophy, and hence all practising or making trial of
Sucked the blood out of the wound, and sprinkled sooth-
virtue in the higher sense is absolutely stopped; for a man
ing remedies,
is always fancying that he is being made ill, and is in con-
stant anxiety about the state of his body. but they never prescribed what the patient was afterwards
Yes, likely enough. to eat or drink in the case of Menelaus, any more than in
And therefore our politic Asclepius may be supposed to the case of Eurypylus; the remedies, as they conceived, were
have exhibited the power of his art only to persons who, enough to heal any man who before he was wounded was
being generally of healthy constitution and habits of life, healthy and regular in habits; and even though he did hap-
had a definite ailment; such as these he cured by purges pen to drink a posset of Pramnian wine, he might get well
and operations, and bade them live as usual, herein con- all the same. But they would have nothing to do with un-
sulting the interests of the State; but bodies which disease healthy and intemperate subjects, whose lives were of no
had penetrated through and through he would not have use either to themselves or others; the art of medicine was
attempted to cure by gradual processes of evacuation and not designed for their good, and though they were as rich
infusion: he did not want to lengthen out good-for-noth- as Midas, the sons of Asclepius would have declined to at-
ing lives, or to have weak fathers begetting weaker sons;— tend them.
if a man was not able to live in the ordinary way he had no They were very acute persons, those sons of Asclepius.
business to cure him; for such a cure would have been of no Naturally so, I replied. Nevertheless, the tragedians and
use either to himself, or to the State. Pindar disobeying our behests, although they acknowledge
Then, he said, you regard Asclepius as a statesman. that Asclepius was the son of Apollo, say also that he was
Clearly; and his character is further illustrated by his sons. bribed into healing a rich man who was at the point of
Note that they were heroes in the days of old and practised death, and for this reason he was struck by lightning. But
the medicines of which I am speaking at the siege of Troy: we, in accordance with the principle already affirmed by us,
You will remember how, when Pandarus wounded Menelaus, will not believe them when they tell us both;—if he was
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the son of a god, we maintain that he was not avaricious; That is very true, he said.
or, if he was avaricious he was not the son of a god. But with the judge it is otherwise; since he governs mind
All that, Socrates, is excellent; but I should like to put a by mind; he ought not therefore to have been trained among
question to you: Ought there not to be good physicians in vicious minds, and to have associated with them from youth
a State, and are not the best those who have treated the upwards, and to have gone through the whole calendar of
greatest number of constitutions good and bad? and are crime, only in order that he may quickly infer the crimes of
not the best judges in like manner those who are acquainted others as he might their bodily diseases from his own self-
with all sorts of moral natures? consciousness; the honourable mind which is to form a
Yes, I said, I too would have good judges and good physi- healthy judgment should have had no experience or con-
cians. But do you know whom I think good? tamination of evil habits when young. And this is the rea-
Will you tell me? son why in youth good men often appear to be simple, and
I will, if I can. Let me however note that in the same are easily practised upon by the dishonest, because they
question you join two things which are not the same. have no examples of what evil is in their own souls.
How so? he asked. Yes, he said, they are far too apt to be deceived.
Why, I said, you join physicians and judges. Now the most Therefore, I said, the judge should not be young; he should
skillful physicians are those who, from their youth upwards, have learned to know evil, not from his own soul, but from
have combined with the knowledge of their art the great- late and long observation of the nature of evil in others:
est experience of disease; they had better not be robust in knowledge should be his guide, not personal experience.
health, and should have had all manner of diseases in their Yes, he said, that is the ideal of a judge.
own persons. For the body, as I conceive, is not the instru- Yes, I replied, and he will be a good man (which is my
ment with which they cure the body; in that case we could answer to your question); for he is good who has a good
not allow them ever to be or to have been sickly; but they soul. But the cunning and suspicious nature of which we
cure the body with the mind, and the mind which has be- spoke,—he who has committed many crimes, and fancies
come and is sick can cure nothing. himself to be a master in wickedness, when he is amongst
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his fellows, is wonderful in the precautions which he takes, And thus our youth, having been educated only in that
because he judges of them by himself: but when he gets simple music which, as we said, inspires temperance, will be
into the company of men of virtue, who have the experi- reluctant to go to law.
ence of age, he appears to be a fool again, owing to his Clearly.
unseasonable suspicions; he cannot recognise an honest And the musician, who, keeping to the same track, is con-
man, because he has no pattern of honesty in himself; at tent to practise the simple gymnastic, will have nothing to
the same time, as the bad are more numerous than the good, do with medicine unless in some extreme case.
and he meets with them oftener, he thinks himself, and is That I quite believe.
by others thought to be, rather wise than foolish. The very exercises and tolls which he undergoes are in-
Most true, he said. tended to stimulate the spirited element of his nature, and
Then the good and wise judge whom we are seeking is not to increase his strength; he will not, like common ath-
not this man, but the other; for vice cannot know virtue letes, use exercise and regimen to develop his muscles.
too, but a virtuous nature, educated by time, will acquire a Very right, he said.
knowledge both of virtue and vice: the virtuous, and not Neither are the two arts of music and gymnastic really
the vicious, man has wisdom—in my opinion. designed, as is often supposed, the one for the training of
And in mine also. the soul, the other fir the training of the body.
This is the sort of medicine, and this is the sort of law, What then is the real object of them?
which you sanction in your State. They will minister to bet- I believe, I said, that the teachers of both have in view
ter natures, giving health both of soul and of body; but chiefly the improvement of the soul.
those who are diseased in their bodies they will leave to How can that be? he asked.
die, and the corrupt and incurable souls they will put an Did you never observe, I said, the effect on the mind it-
end to themselves. self of exclusive devotion to gymnastic, or the opposite
That is clearly the best thing both for the patients and effect of an exclusive devotion to music?
for the State. In what way shown? he said.
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The one producing a temper of hardness and ferocity, the And, when a man allows music to play upon him and to
other of softness and effeminacy, I replied. pour into his soul through the funnel of his ears those sweet
Yes, he said, I am quite aware that the mere athlete be- and soft and melancholy airs of which we were just now
comes too much of a savage, and that the mere musician is speaking, and his whole life is passed in warbling and the
melted and softened beyond what is good for him. delights of song; in the first stage of the process the pas-
Yet surely, I said, this ferocity only comes from spirit, sion or spirit which is in him is tempered like iron, and made
which, if rightly educated, would give courage, but, if too useful, instead of brittle and useless. But, if he carries on
much intensified, is liable to become hard and brutal. the softening and soothing process, in the next stage he
That I quite think. begins to melt and waste, until he has wasted away his
On the other hand the philosopher will have the quality spirit and cut out the sinews of his soul; and he becomes a
of gentleness. And this also, when too much indulged, will feeble warrior.
turn to softness, but, if educated rightly, will be gentle Very true.
and moderate. If the element of spirit is naturally weak in him the change
True. is speedily accomplished, but if he have a good deal, then
And in our opinion the guardians ought to have both the power of music weakening the spirit renders him excit-
these qualities? able;—on the least provocation he flames up at once, and
Assuredly. is speedily extinguished; instead of having spirit he grows
And both should be in harmony? irritable and passionate and is quite impracticable.
Beyond question. Exactly.
And the harmonious soul is both temperate and coura- And so in gymnastics, if a man takes violent exercise and
geous? is a great feeder, and the reverse of a great student of mu-
Yes. sic and philosophy, at first the high condition of his body
And the inharmonious is cowardly and boorish? fills him with pride and spirit, and lie becomes twice the
Very true. man that he was.
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Certainly. sense than the tuner of the strings.
And what happens? if he do nothing else, and holds no You are quite right, Socrates.
con-a verse with the Muses, does not even that intelligence And such a presiding genius will be always required in
which there may be in him, having no taste of any sort of our State if the government is to last.
learning or enquiry or thought or culture, grow feeble and Yes, he will be absolutely necessary.
dull and blind, his mind never waking up or receiving nourish- Such, then, are our principles of nurture and education:
ment, and his senses not being purged of their mists? Where would be the use of going into further details about
True, he said. the dances of our citizens, or about their hunting and cours-
And he ends by becoming a hater of philosophy, uncivi- ing, their gymnastic and equestrian contests? For these all
lized, never using the weapon of persuasion,—he is like a follow the general principle, and having found that, we shall
wild beast, all violence and fierceness, and knows no other have no difficulty in discovering them.
way of dealing; and he lives in all ignorance and evil condi- I dare say that there will be no difficulty.
tions, and has no sense of propriety and grace. Very good, I said; then what is the next question? Must
That is quite true, he said. we not ask who are to be rulers and who subjects?
And as there are two principles of human nature, one the Certainly.
spirited and the other the philosophical, some God, as I There can be no doubt that the elder must rule the
should say, has given mankind two arts answering to them younger.
(and only indirectly to the soul and body), in order that Clearly.
these two principles (like the strings of an instrument) may And that the best of these must rule.
be relaxed or drawn tighter until they are duly harmonized. That is also clear.
That appears to be the intention. Now, are not the best husbandmen those who are most
And he who mingles music with gymnastic in the fairest devoted to husbandry?
proportions, and best attempers them to the soul, may be Yes.
rightly called the true musician and harmonist in a far higher And as we are to have the best of guardians for our city,
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must they not be those who have most the character of How cast off? he said.
guardians? I will explain to you, I replied. A resolution may go out
Yes. of a man’s mind either with his will or against his will; with
And to this end they ought to be wise and efficient, and his will when he gets rid of a falsehood and learns better,
to have a special care of the State? against his will whenever he is deprived of a truth.
True. I understand, he said, the willing loss of a resolution; the
And a man will be most likely to care about that which he meaning of the unwilling I have yet to learn.
loves? Why, I said, do you not see that men are unwillingly de-
To be sure. prived of good, and willingly of evil? Is not to have lost the
And he will be most likely to love that which he regards truth an evil, and to possess the truth a good? and you
as having the same interests with himself, and that of which would agree that to conceive things as they are is to pos-
the good or evil fortune is supposed by him at any time sess the truth?
most to affect his own? Yes, he replied; I agree with you in thinking that man-
Very true, he replied. kind are deprived of truth against their will.
Then there must be a selection. Let us note among the And is not this involuntary deprivation caused either by
guardians those who in their whole life show the greatest theft, or force, or enchantment?
eagerness to do what is for the good of their country, and Still, he replied, I do not understand you.
the greatest repugnance to do what is against her inter- I fear that I must have been talking darkly, like the tra-
ests. gedians. I only mean that some men are changed by per-
Those are the right men. suasion and that others forget; argument steals away the
And they will have to be watched at every age, in order hearts of one class, and time of the other; and this I call
that we may see whether they preserve their resolution, theft. Now you understand me?
and never, under the influence either of force or enchant- Yes.
ment, forget or cast off their sense of duty to the State. Those again who are forced are those whom the violence
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of some pain or grief compels to change their opinion. youth amid terrors of some kind, and again pass them into
I understand, he said, and you are quite right. pleasures, and prove them more thoroughly than gold is
And you would also acknowledge that the enchanted are proved in the furnace, that we may discover whether they
those who change their minds either under the softer influ- are armed against all enchantments, and of a noble bearing
ence of pleasure, or the sterner influence of fear? always, good guardians of themselves and of the music
Yes, he said; everything that deceives may be said to en- which they have learned, and retaining under all circum-
chant. stances a rhythmical and harmonious nature, such as will be
Therefore, as I was just now saying, we must inquire who most serviceable to the individual and to the State. And he
are the best guardians of their own conviction that what who at every age, as boy and youth and in mature life, has
they think the interest of the State is to be the rule of come out of the trial victorious and pure, shall be appointed
their lives. We must watch them from their youth upwards, a ruler and guardian of the State; he shall be honoured in
and make them perform actions in which they are most likely life and death, and shall receive sepulture and other memo-
to forget or to be deceived, and he who remembers and is rials of honour, the greatest that we have to give. But him
not deceived is to be selected, and he who falls in the trial who fails, we must reject. I am inclined to think that this is
is to be rejected. That will be the way? the sort of way in which our rulers and guardians should be
Yes. chosen and appointed. I speak generally, and not with any
And there should also be toils and pains and conflicts pretension to exactness.
prescribed for them, in which they will be made to give And, speaking generally, I agree with you, he said.
further proof of the same qualities. And perhaps the word ‘guardian’ in the fullest sense ought
Very right, he replied. to be applied to this higher class only who preserve us
And then, I said, we must try them with enchantments against foreign enemies and maintain peace among our citi-
that is the third sort of test—and see what will be their zens at home, that the one may not have the will, or the
behaviour: like those who take colts amid noise and tumult others the power, to harm us. The young men whom we
to see if they are of a timid nature, so must we take our before called guardians may be more properly designated
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auxiliaries and supporters of the principles of the rulers. were being formed and fed in the womb of the earth, where
I agree with you, he said. they themselves and their arms and appurtenances were
How then may we devise one of those needful falsehoods manufactured; when they were completed, the earth, their
of which we lately spoke—just one royal lie which may mother, sent them up; and so, their country being their
deceive the rulers, if that be possible, and at any rate the mother and also their nurse, they are bound to advise for
rest of the city? her good, and to defend her against attacks, and her citi-
What sort of lie? he said. zens they are to regard as children of the earth and their
Nothing new, I replied; only an old Phoenician tale of own brothers.
what has often occurred before now in other places, (as the You had good reason, he said, to be ashamed of the lie
poets say, and have made the world believe,) though not in which you were going to tell.
our time, and I do not know whether such an event could True, I replied, but there is more coming; I have only told
ever happen again, or could now even be made probable, if you half. Citizens, we shall say to them in our tale, you are
it did. brothers, yet God has framed you differently. Some of you
How your words seem to hesitate on your lips! have the power of command, and in the composition of
You will not wonder, I replied, at my hesitation when you these he has mingled gold, wherefore also they have the
have heard. greatest honour; others he has made of silver, to be
Speak, he said, and fear not. auxillaries; others again who are to be husbandmen and
Well then, I will speak, although I really know not how to craftsmen he has composed of brass and iron; and the spe-
look you in the face, or in what words to utter the auda- cies will generally be preserved in the children. But as all
cious fiction, which I propose to communicate gradually, are of the same original stock, a golden parent will some-
first to the rulers, then to the soldiers, and lastly to the times have a silver son, or a silver parent a golden son. And
people. They are to be told that their youth was a dream, God proclaims as a first principle to the rulers, and above
and the education and training which they received from all else, that there is nothing which should so anxiously
us, an appearance only; in reality during all that time they guard, or of which they are to be such good guardians, as
102
of the purity of the race. They should observe what ele- like wolves may come down on the fold from without; there
ments mingle in their off spring; for if the son of a golden let them encamp, and when they have encamped, let them
or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron, then sacrifice to the proper Gods and prepare their dwellings.
nature orders a transposition of ranks, and the eye of the Just so, he said.
ruler must not be pitiful towards the child because he has And their dwellings must be such as will shield them
to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or arti- against the cold of winter and the heat of summer.
san, just as there may be sons of artisans who having an I suppose that you mean houses, he replied.
admixture of gold or silver in them are raised to honour, Yes, I said; but they must be the houses of soldiers, and
and become guardians or auxiliaries. For an oracle says that not of shop-keepers.
when a man of brass or iron guards the State, it will be What is the difference? he said.
destroyed. Such is the tale; is there any possibility of mak- That I will endeavour to explain, I replied. To keep watch-
ing our citizens believe in it? dogs, who, from want of discipline or hunger, or some evil
Not in the present generation, he replied; there is no way habit, or evil habit or other, would turn upon the sheep
of accomplishing this; but their sons may be made to be- and worry them, and behave not like dogs but wolves, would
lieve in the tale, and their sons’ sons, and posterity after be a foul and monstrous thing in a shepherd?
them. Truly monstrous, he said.
I see the difficulty, I replied; yet the fostering of such a And therefore every care must be taken that our auxilia-
belief will make them care more for the city and for one ries, being stronger than our citizens, may not grow to be
another. Enough, however, of the fiction, which may now too much for them and become savage tyrants instead of
fly abroad upon the wings of rumour, while we arm our friends and allies?
earth-born heroes, and lead them forth under the command Yes, great care should be taken.
of their rulers. Let them look round and select a spot whence And would not a really good education furnish the best
they can best suppress insurrection, if any prove refractory safeguard?
within, and also defend themselves against enemies, who But they are well-educated already, he replied.
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I cannot be so confident, my dear Glaucon, I said; I am therefore no need of the dross which is current among men,
much certain that they ought to be, and that true educa- and ought not to pollute the divine by any such earthly
tion, whatever that may be, will have the greatest tendency admixture; for that commoner metal has been the source of
to civilize and humanize them in their relations to one an- many unholy deeds, but their own is undefiled. And they
other, and to those who are under their protection. alone of all the citizens may not touch or handle silver or
Very true, he replied. gold, or be under the same roof with them, or wear them,
And not only their education, but their habitations, and or drink from them. And this will be their salvation, and
all that belongs to them, should be such as will neither they will be the saviours of the State. But should they ever
impair their virtue as guardians, nor tempt them to prey acquire homes or lands or moneys of their own, they will
upon the other citizens. Any man of sense must acknowl- become housekeepers and husbandmen instead of guard-
edge that. ians, enemies and tyrants instead of allies of the other citi-
He must. zens; hating and being hated, plotting and being plotted
Then let us consider what will be their way of life, if they against, they will pass their whole life in much greater ter-
are to realize our idea of them. In the first place, none of ror of internal than of external enemies, and the hour of
them should have any property of his own beyond what is ruin, both to themselves and to the rest of the State, will
obsolutely necessary; neither should they have a private be at hand. For all which reasons may we not say that thus
house or store closed against any one who has a mind to shall our State be ordered, and that these shall be the regu-
enter; their provisions should be only such as are required lations appointed by us for guardians concerning their
by trained warriors, who are men of temperance and cour- houses and all other matters? Shall we not?
age; they should agree to receive from the citizens a fixed Yes, said Glaucon.
rate of pay, enough to meet the expenses of the year and
no more; and they will go and live together like soldiers in
a camp. Gold and silver we will tell them that they have
from God; the diviner metal is within them, and they have
104
BOOK IV You mean to ask, I said, what will be our answer?
Yes.
ADEIMANTUS - SOCRATES If we proceed along the old path, my belief, I said, is that
we shall find the answer. And our answer will be that, even
Here Adeimantus interposed a question: How would you
as they are, our guardians may very likely be the happiest
answer, Socrates, said he, if a person were to say that you are
of men; but that our aim in founding the State was not the
making these people miserable, and that they are the cause
disproportionate happiness of any one class, but the great-
of their own unhappiness; the city in fact belongs to them,
est happiness of the whole; we thought that in a State
but they are none the better for it; whereas other men ac-
which is ordered with a view to the good of the whole we
quire lands, and build large and handsome houses, and have
should be most likely to find Justice, and in the ill-ordered
everything handsome about them, offering sacrifices to the
State injustice: and, having found them, we might then
gods on their own account, and practising hospitality; more-
decide which of the two is the happier. At present, I take it,
over, as you were saying just now, they have gold and silver,
we are fashioning the happy State, not piecemeal, or with a
and all that is usual among the favourites of fortune; but
view of making a few happy citizens, but as a whole; and
our poor citizens are no better than mercenaries who are
by-and-by we will proceed to view the opposite kind of
quartered in the city and are always mounting guard?
State. Suppose that we were painting a statue, and some
Yes, I said; and you may add that they are only fed, and
one came up to us and said, Why do you not put the most
not paid in addition to their food, like other men; and there-
beautiful colours on the most beautiful parts of the body—
fore they cannot, if they would, take a journey of pleasure;
the eyes ought to be purple, but you have made them
they have no money to spend on a mistress or any other
black—to him we might fairly answer, Sir, you would not
luxurious fancy, which, as the world goes, is thought to be
surely have us beautify the eyes to such a degree that they
happiness; and many other accusations of the same nature
are no longer eyes; consider rather whether, by giving this
might be added.
and the other features their due proportion, we make the
But, said he, let us suppose all this to be included in the
whole beautiful. And so I say to you, do not compel us to
charge.
105
assign to the guardians a sort of happiness which will make if so, we mean different things, and he is speaking of some-
them anything but guardians; for we too can clothe our thing which is not a State. And therefore we must consider
husbandmen in royal apparel, and set crowns of gold on whether in appointing our guardians we would look to their
their heads, and bid them till the ground as much as they greatest happiness individually, or whether this principle
like, and no more. Our potters also might be allowed to of happiness does not rather reside in the State as a whole.
repose on couches, and feast by the fireside, passing round But the latter be the truth, then the guardians and
the winecup, while their wheel is conveniently at hand, and auxillaries, and all others equally with them, must be com-
working at pottery only as much as they like; in this way pelled or induced to do their own work in the best way.
we might make every class happy-and then, as you imag- And thus the whole State will grow up in a noble order, and
ine, the whole State would be happy. But do not put this the several classes will receive the proportion of happiness
idea into our heads; for, if we listen to you, the husband- which nature assigns to them.
man will be no longer a husbandman, the potter will cease I think that you are quite right.
to be a potter, and no one will have the character of any I wonder whether you will agree with another remark
distinct class in the State. Now this is not of much conse- which occurs to me.
quence where the corruption of society, and pretension to What may that be?
be what you are not, is confined to cobblers; but when the There seem to be two causes of the deterioration of the
guardians of the laws and of the government are only seem- arts.
ingly and not real guardians, then see how they turn the What are they?
State upside down; and on the other hand they alone have Wealth, I said, and poverty.
the power of giving order and happiness to the State. We How do they act?
mean our guardians to be true saviours and not the de- The process is as follows: When a potter becomes rich,
stroyers of the State, whereas our opponent is thinking of will he, think you, any longer take the same pains with his
peasants at a festival, who are enjoying a life of revelry, art?
not of citizens who are doing their duty to the State. But, Certainly not.
106
He will grow more and more indolent and careless? to war with one such enemy; but there is no difficulty where
Very true. there are two of them.
And the result will be that he becomes a worse potter? How so? he asked.
Yes; he greatly deteriorates. In the first place, I said, if we have to fight, our side will
But, on the other hand, if he has no money, and cannot be trained warriors fighting against an army of rich men.
provide himself tools or instruments, he will not work That is true, he said.
equally well himself, nor will he teach his sons or appren- And do you not suppose, Adeimantus, that a single boxer
tices to work equally well. who was perfect in his art would easily be a match for two
Certainly not. stout and well-to-do gentlemen who were not boxers?
Then, under the influence either of poverty or of wealth, Hardly, if they came upon him at once.
workmen and their work are equally liable to degenerate? What, not, I said, if he were able to run away and then
That is evident. turn and strike at the one who first came up? And suppos-
Here, then, is a discovery of new evils, I said, against which ing he were to do this several times under the heat of a
the guardians will have to watch, or they will creep into scorching sun, might he not, being an expert, overturn more
the city unobserved. than one stout personage?
What evils? Certainly, he said, there would be nothing wonderful in
Wealth, I said, and poverty; the one is the parent of luxury that.
and indolence, and the other of meanness and viciousness, And yet rich men probably have a greater superiority in
and both of discontent. the science and practice of boxing than they have in mili-
That is very true, he replied; but still I should like to tary qualities.
know, Socrates, how our city will be able to go to war, es- Likely enough.
pecially against an enemy who is rich and powerful, if de- Then we may assume that our athletes will be able to
prived of the sinews of war. fight with two or three times their own number?
There would certainly be a difficulty, I replied, in going I agree with you, for I think you right.
107
And suppose that, before engaging, our citizens send an while the wise order which has now been prescribed contin-
embassy to one of the two cities, telling them what is the ues to prevail in her, will be the greatest of States, I do not
truth: Silver and gold we neither have nor are permitted to mean to say in reputation or appearance, but in deed and
have, but you may; do you therefore come and help us in truth, though she number not more than a thousand de-
war, of and take the spoils of the other city: Who, on hear- fenders. A single State which is her equal you will hardly
ing these words, would choose to fight against lean wiry find, either among Hellenes or barbarians, though many
dogs, rather than, with the dogs on their side, against fat that appear to be as great and many times greater.
and tender sheep? That is most true, he said.
That is not likely; and yet there might be a danger to the And what, I said, will be the best limit for our rulers to fix
poor State if the wealth of many States were to be gath- when they are considering the size of the State and the
ered into one. amount of territory which they are to include, and beyond
But how simple of you to use the term State at all of any which they will not go?
but our own! What limit would you propose?
Why so? I would allow the State to increase so far as is consistent
You ought to speak of other States in the plural number; with unity; that, I think, is the proper limit.
not one of them is a city, but many cities, as they say in the Very good, he said.
game. For indeed any city, however small, is in fact divided Here then, I said, is another order which will have to be
into two, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich; conveyed to our guardians: Let our city be accounted nei-
these are at war with one another; and in either there are ther large nor small, but one and self-sufficing.
many smaller divisions, and you would be altogether be- And surely, said he, this is not a very severe order which
side the mark if you treated them all as a single State. But we impose upon them.
if you deal with them as many, and give the wealth or power And the other, said I, of which we were speaking before is
or persons of the one to the others, you will always have a lighter still, — I mean the duty of degrading the offspring
great many friends and not many enemies. And your State, of the guardians when inferior, and of elevating into the
108
rank of guardians the offspring of the lower classes, when cation implant good constitutions, and these good consti-
naturally superior. The intention was, that, in the case of tutions taking root in a good education improve more and
the citizens generally, each individual should be put to the more, and this improvement affects the breed in man as in
use for which nature which nature intended him, one to other animals.
one work, and then every man would do his own business, Very possibly, he said.
and be one and not many; and so the whole city would be Then to sum up: This is the point to which, above all, the
one and not many. attention of our rulers should be directed,—that music and
Yes, he said; that is not so difficult. gymnastic be preserved in their original form, and no inno-
The regulations which we are prescribing, my good vation made. They must do their utmost to maintain them
Adeimantus, are not, as might be supposed, a number of intact. And when any one says that mankind most regard
great principles, but trifles all, if care be taken, as the say-
The newest song which the singers have,
ing is, of the one great thing,—a thing, however, which I
would rather call, not great, but sufficient for our purpose.
they will be afraid that he may be praising, not new songs,
What may that be? he asked.
but a new kind of song; and this ought not to be praised,
Education, I said, and nurture: If our citizens are well edu-
or conceived to be the meaning of the poet; for any musical
cated, and grow into sensible men, they will easily see their
innovation is full of danger to the whole State, and ought
way through all these, as well as other matters which I omit;
to be prohibited. So Damon tells me, and I can quite believe
such, for example, as marriage, the possession of women
him;—he says that when modes of music change, of the
and the procreation of children, which will all follow the
State always change with them.
general principle that friends have all things in common, as
Yes, said Adeimantus; and you may add my suffrage to
the proverb says.
Damon’s and your own.
That will be the best way of settling them.
Then, I said, our guardians must lay the foundations of
Also, I said, the State, if once started well, moves with
their fortress in music?
accumulating force like a wheel. For good nurture and edu-
Yes, he said; the lawlessness of which you speak too eas-
109
ily steals in. Very true, he said.
Yes, I replied, in the form of amusement; and at first sight Thus educated, they will invent for themselves any lesser
it appears harmless. rules which their predecessors have altogether neglected.
Why, yes, he said, and there is no harm; were it not that What do you mean?
little by little this spirit of licence, finding a home, imper- I mean such things as these:—when the young are to be
ceptibly penetrates into manners and customs; whence, is- silent before their elders; how they are to show respect to
suing with greater force, it invades contracts between man them by standing and making them sit; what honour is due
and man, and from contracts goes on to laws and constitu- to parents; what garments or shoes are to be worn; the
tions, in utter recklessness, ending at last, Socrates, by an mode of dressing the hair; deportment and manners in gen-
overthrow of all rights, private as well as public. eral. You would agree with me?
Is that true? I said. Yes.
That is my belief, he replied. But there is, I think, small wisdom in legislating about
Then, as I was saying, our youth should be trained from such matters,—I doubt if it is ever done; nor are any pre-
the first in a stricter system, for if amusements become cise written enactments about them likely to be lasting.
lawless, and the youths themselves become lawless, they Impossible.
can never grow up into well-conducted and virtuous citi- It would seem, Adeimantus, that the direction in which
zens. education starts a man, will determine his future life. Does
Very true, he said. not like always attract like?
And when they have made a good beginning in play, and To be sure.
by the help of music have gained the habit of good order, Until some one rare and grand result is reached which
then this habit of order, in a manner how unlike the lawless may be good, and may be the reverse of good?
play of the others! will accompany them in all their actions That is not to be denied.
and be a principle of growth to them, and if there be any And for this reason, I said, I shall not attempt to legis-
fallen places a principle in the State will raise them up again. late further about them.
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Naturally enough, he replied. always doctoring and increasing and complicating their dis-
Well, and about the business of the agora, dealings and orders, and always fancying that they will be cured by any
the ordinary dealings between man and man, or again about nostrum which anybody advises them to try.
agreements with the commencement with artisans; about Such cases are very common, he said, with invalids of this
insult and injury, of the commencement of actions, and the sort.
appointment of juries, what would you say? There may also Yes, I replied; and the charming thing is that they deem
arise questions about any impositions and extractions of him their worst enemy who tells them the truth, which is
market and harbour dues which may be required, and in simply that, unless they give up eating and drinking and
general about the regulations of markets, police, harbours, wenching and idling, neither drug nor cautery nor spell nor
and the like. But, oh heavens! shall we condescend to legis- amulet nor any other remedy will avail.
late on any of these particulars? Charming! he replied. I see nothing charming in going
I think, he said, that there is no need to impose laws into a passion with a man who tells you what is right.
about them on good men; what regulations are necessary These gentlemen, I said, do not seem to be in your good
they will find out soon enough for themselves. graces.
Yes, I said, my friend, if God will only preserve to them Assuredly not.
the laws which we have given them. Nor would you praise the behaviour of States which act
And without divine help, said Adeimantus, they will go like the men whom I was just now describing. For are there
on for ever making and mending their laws and their lives not ill-ordered States in which the citizens are forbidden
in the hope of attaining perfection. under pain of death to alter the constitution; and yet he
You would compare them, I said, to those invalids who, who most sweetly courts those who live under this regime
having no self-restraint, will not leave off their habits of and indulges them and fawns upon them and is skilful in
intemperance? anticipating and gratifying their humours is held to be a
Exactly. great and good statesman—do not these States resemble
Yes, I said; and what a delightful life they lead! they are the persons whom I was describing?
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Yes, he said; the States are as bad as the men; and I am in the latter there will be no difficulty in devising them;
very far from praising them. and many of them will naturally flow out of our previous
But do you not admire, I said, the coolness and dexterity regulations.
of these ready ministers of political corruption? What, then, he said, is still remaining to us of the work of
Yes, he said, I do; but not of all of them, for there are legislation?
some whom the applause of the multitude has deluded into Nothing to us, I replied; but to Apollo, the God of Delphi,
the belief that they are really statesmen, and these are not there remains the ordering of the greatest and noblest and
much to be admired. chiefest things of all.
What do you mean? I said; you should have more feeling Which are they? he said.
for them. When a man cannot measure, and a great many The institution of temples and sacrifices, and the entire
others who cannot measure declare that he is four cubits service of gods, demigods, and heroes; also the ordering of
high, can he help believing what they say? the repositories of the dead, and the rites which have to be
Nay, he said, certainly not in that case. observed by him who would propitiate the inhabitants of
Well, then, do not be angry with them; for are they not as the world below. These are matters of which we are igno-
good as a play, trying their hand at paltry reforms such as rant ourselves, and as founders of a city we should be un-
I was describing; they are always fancying that by legisla- wise in trusting them to any interpreter but our ancestral
tion they will make an end of frauds in contracts, and the deity. He is the god who sits in the center, on the navel of
other rascalities which I was mentioning, not knowing that the earth, and he is the interpreter of religion to all man-
they are in reality cutting off the heads of a hydra? kind.
Yes, he said; that is just what they are doing. You are right, and we will do as you propose.
I conceive, I said, that the true legislator will not trouble But where, amid all this, is justice? son of Ariston, tell me
himself with this class of enactments whether concerning where. Now that our city has been made habitable, light a
laws or the constitution either in an ill-ordered or in a well- candle and search, and get your brother and Polemarchus
ordered State; for in the former they are quite useless, and and the rest of our friends to help, and let us see where in
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it we can discover justice and where injustice, and in what known to us from the first, and there would be no further
they differ from one another, and which of them the man trouble; or we might know the other three first, and then
who would be happy should have for his portion, whether the fourth would clearly be the one left.
seen or unseen by gods and men. Very true, he said.
And is not a similar method to be pursued about the vir-
SOCRATES - GLAUCON tues, which are also four in number?
Clearly.
Nonsense, said Glaucon: did you not promise to search
First among the virtues found in the State, wisdom comes
yourself, saying that for you not to help justice in her need
into view, and in this I detect a certain peculiarity.
would be an impiety?
What is that?
I do not deny that I said so, and as you remind me, I will
The State which we have been describing is said to be
be as good as my word; but you must join.
wise as being good in counsel?
We will, he replied.
Very true.
Well, then, I hope to make the discovery in this way: I
And good counsel is clearly a kind of knowledge, for not
mean to begin with the assumption that our State, if rightly
by ignorance, but by knowledge, do men counsel well?
ordered, is perfect.
Clearly.
That is most certain.
And the kinds of knowledge in a State are many and di-
And being perfect, is therefore wise and valiant and tem-
verse?
perate and just.
Of course.
That is likewise clear.
There is the knowledge of the carpenter; but is that the
And whichever of these qualities we find in the State, the
sort of knowledge which gives a city the title of wise and
one which is not found will be the residue?
good in counsel?
Very good.
Certainly not; that would only give a city the reputation
If there were four things, and we were searching for one
of skill in carpentering.
of them, wherever it might be, the one sought for might be
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Then a city is not to be called wise because possessing a The name of good in counsel and truly wise.
knowledge which counsels for the best about wooden imple- And will there be in our city more of these true guardians
ments? or more smiths?
Certainly not. The smiths, he replied, will be far more numerous.
Nor by reason of a knowledge which advises about bra- Will not the guardians be the smallest of all the classes
zen pots, I said, nor as possessing any other similar knowl- who receive a name from the profession of some kind of
edge? knowledge?
Not by reason of any of them, he said. Much the smallest.
Nor yet by reason of a knowledge which cultivates the And so by reason of the smallest part or class, and of the
earth; that would give the city the name of agricultural? knowledge which resides in this presiding and ruling part
Yes. of itself, the whole State, being thus constituted according
Well, I said, and is there any knowledge in our recently to nature, will be wise; and this, which has the only knowl-
founded State among any of the citizens which advises, edge worthy to be called wisdom, has been ordained by
not about any particular thing in the State, but about the nature to be of all classes the least.
whole, and considers how a State can best deal with itself Most true.
and with other States? Thus, then, I said, the nature and place in the State of
There certainly is. one of the four virtues has somehow or other been discov-
And what is knowledge, and among whom is it found? I ered.
asked. And, in my humble opinion, very satisfactorily discov-
It is the knowledge of the guardians, he replied, and found ered, he replied.
among those whom we were just now describing as perfect Again, I said, there is no difficulty in seeing the nature of
guardians. courage; and in what part that quality resides which gives
And what is the name which the city derives from the the name of courageous to the State.
possession of this sort of knowledge? How do you mean?
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Why, I said, every one who calls any State courageous or If you please.
cowardly, will be thinking of the part which fights and goes You know, I said, that dyers, when they want to dye wool
out to war on the State’s behalf. for making the true sea-purple, begin by selecting their
No one, he replied, would ever think of any other. white colour first; this they prepare and dress with much
Certainly not. care and pains, in order that the white ground may take
The rest of the citizens may be courageous or may be the purple hue in full perfection. The dyeing then proceeds;
cowardly but their courage or cowardice will not, as I con- and whatever is dyed in this manner becomes a fast colour,
ceive, have the effect of making the city either the one or and no washing either with lyes or without them can take
the other. away the bloom. But, when the ground has not been duly
The city will be courageous in virtue of a portion of her- prepared, you will have noticed how poor is the look either
self which preserves under all circumstances that opinion of purple or of any other colour.
about the nature of things to be feared and not to be feared Yes, he said; I know that they have a washed-out and
in which our legislator educated them; and this is what you ridiculous appearance.
term courage. Then now, I said, you will understand what our object
I should like to hear what you are saying once more, for I was in selecting our soldiers, and educating them in music
do not think that I perfectly understand you. and gymnastic; we were contriving influences which would
I mean that courage is a kind of salvation. prepare them to take the dye of the laws in perfection, and
Salvation of what? the colour of their opinion about dangers and of every other
Of the opinion respecting things to be feared, what they opinion was to be indelibly fixed by their nurture and train-
are and of what nature, which the law implants through ing, not to be washed away by such potent lyes as plea-
education; and I mean by the words ‘under all circumstances’ sure—mightier agent far in washing the soul than any soda
to intimate that in pleasure or in pain, or under the influ- or lye; or by sorrow, fear, and desire, the mightiest of all
ence of desire or fear, a man preserves, and does not lose other solvents. And this sort of universal saving power of
this opinion. Shall I give you an illustration? true opinion in conformity with law about real and false
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dangers I call and maintain to be courage, unless you dis- your request.
agree. Then consider, he said.
But I agree, he replied; for I suppose that you mean to Yes, I replied; I will; and as far as I can at present see, the
exclude mere uninstructed courage, such as that of a wild virtue of temperance has more of the nature of harmony
beast or of a slave—this, in your opinion, is not the cour- and symphony than the preceding.
age which the law ordains, and ought to have another name. How so? he asked.
Most certainly. Temperance, I replied, is the ordering or controlling of
Then I may infer courage to be such as you describe? certain pleasures and desires; this is curiously enough im-
Why, yes, said I, you may, and if you add the words ‘of a plied in the saying of ‘a man being his own master’ and
citizen,’ you will not be far wrong;—hereafter, if you like, other traces of the same notion may be found in language.
we will carry the examination further, but at present we are No doubt, he said.
we w seeking not for courage but justice; and for the pur- There is something ridiculous in the expression ‘master
pose of our enquiry we have said enough. of himself’; for the master is also the servant and the ser-
You are right, he replied. vant the master; and in all these modes of speaking the
Two virtues remain to be discovered in the State-first tem- same person is denoted.
perance, and then justice which is the end of our search. Certainly.
Very true. The meaning is, I believe, that in the human soul there is
Now, can we find justice without troubling ourselves about a better and also a worse principle; and when the better
temperance? has the worse under control, then a man is said to be mas-
I do not know how that can be accomplished, he said, nor ter of himself; and this is a term of praise: but when, owing
do I desire that justice should be brought to light and tem- to evil education or association, the better principle, which
perance lost sight of; and therefore I wish that you would is also the smaller, is overwhelmed by the greater mass of
do me the favour of considering temperance first. the worse—in this case he is blamed and is called the slave
Certainly, I replied, I should not be justified in refusing of self and unprincipled.
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Yes, there is reason in that. It may also be called temperate, and for the same rea-
And now, I said, look at our newly created State, and sons?
there you will find one of these two conditions realised; for Yes.
the State, as you will acknowledge, may be justly called And if there be any State in which rulers and subjects will
master of itself, if the words ‘temperance’ and ‘self-mas- be agreed as to the question who are to rule, that again
tery’ truly express the rule of the better part over the worse. will be our State?
Yes, he said, I see that what you say is true. Undoubtedly.
Let me further note that the manifold and complex plea- And the citizens being thus agreed among themselves, in
sures and desires and pains are generally found in children which class will temperance be found—in the rulers or in
and women and servants, and in the freemen so called who the subjects?
are of the lowest and more numerous class. In both, as I should imagine, he replied.
Certainly, he said. Do you observe that we were not far wrong in our guess
Whereas the simple and moderate desires which follow that temperance was a sort of harmony?
reason, and are under the guidance of mind and true opin- Why so?
ion, are to be found only in a few, and those the best born Why, because temperance is unlike courage and wisdom,
and best educated. each of which resides in a part only, the one making the
Very true. These two, as you may perceive, have a place in State wise and the other valiant; not so temperance, which
our State; and the meaner desires of the are held down by extends to the whole, and runs through all the notes of the
the virtuous desires and wisdom of the few. scale, and produces a harmony of the weaker and the stron-
That I perceive, he said. ger and the middle class, whether you suppose them to be
Then if there be any city which may be described as mas- stronger or weaker in wisdom or power or numbers or wealth,
ter of its own pleasures and desires, and master of itself, or anything else. Most truly then may we deem temperance
ours may claim such a designation? to be the agreement of the naturally superior and inferior, as
Certainly, he replied. to the right to rule of either, both in states and individuals.
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I entirely agree with you. Why so?
And so, I said, we may consider three out of the four Why, my good sir, at the beginning of our enquiry, ages
virtues to have been discovered in our State. The last of ago, there was justice tumbling out at our feet, and we
those qualities which make a state virtuous must be jus- never saw her; nothing could be more ridiculous. Like people
tice, if we only knew what that was. who go about looking for what they have in their hands—
The inference is obvious. that was the way with us—we looked not at what we were
The time then has arrived, Glaucon, when, like huntsmen, seeking, but at what was far off in the distance; and there-
we should surround the cover, and look sharp that justice fore, I suppose, we missed her.
does not steal away, and pass out of sight and escape us; What do you mean?
for beyond a doubt she is somewhere in this country: watch I mean to say that in reality for a long time past we have
therefore and strive to catch a sight of her, and if you see been talking of justice, and have failed to recognize her.
her first, let me know. I grow impatient at the length of your exordium.
Would that I could! but you should regard me rather as a Well then, tell me, I said, whether I am right or not: You
follower who has just eyes enough to, see what you show remember the original principle which we were always lay-
him—that is about as much as I am good for. ing down at the foundation of the State, that one man
Offer up a prayer with me and follow. should practice one thing only, the thing to which his na-
I will, but you must show me the way. ture was best adapted;—now justice is this principle or a
Here is no path, I said, and the wood is dark and perplex- part of it.
ing; still we must push on. Yes, we often said that one man should do one thing only.
Let us push on. Further, we affirmed that justice was doing one’s own busi-
Here I saw something: Halloo! I said, I begin to perceive a ness, and not being a busybody; we said so again and again,
track, and I believe that the quarry will not escape. and many others have said the same to us.
Good news, he said. Yes, we said so.
Truly, I said, we are stupid fellows. Then to do one’s own business in a certain way may be
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assumed to be justice. Can you tell me whence I derive this Then the power of each individual in the State to do his
inference? own work appears to compete with the other political vir-
I cannot, but I should like to be told. tues, wisdom, temperance, courage.
Because I think that this is the only virtue which remains Yes, he said.
in the State when the other virtues of temperance and cour- And the virtue which enters into this competition is jus-
age and wisdom are abstracted; and, that this is the ulti- tice?
mate cause and condition of the existence of all of them, Exactly.
and while remaining in them is also their preservative; and Let us look at the question from another point of view:
we were saying that if the three were discovered by us, Are not the rulers in a State those to whom you would
justice would be the fourth or remaining one. entrust the office of determining suits at law?
That follows of necessity. Certainly.
If we are asked to determine which of these four qualities And are suits decided on any other ground but that a
by its presence contributes most to the excellence of the man may neither take what is another’s, nor be deprived of
State, whether the agreement of rulers and subjects, or the what is his own?
preservation in the soldiers of the opinion which the law Yes; that is their principle.
ordains about the true nature of dangers, or wisdom and Which is a just principle?
watchfulness in the rulers, or whether this other which I am Yes.
mentioning, and which is found in children and women, slave Then on this view also justice will be admitted to be the
and freeman, artisan, ruler, subject,—the quality, I mean, having and doing what is a man’s own, and belongs to him?
of every one doing his own work, and not being a busy- Very true.
body, would claim the palm—the question is not so easily Think, now, and say whether you agree with me or not.
answered. Suppose a carpenter to be doing the business of a cobbler,
Certainly, he replied, there would be a difficulty in saying or a cobbler of a carpenter; and suppose them to exchange
which. their implements or their duties, or the same person to be
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doing the work of both, or whatever be the change; do you business, that is justice, and will make the city just.
think that any great harm would result to the State? I agree with you.
Not much. We will not, I said, be over-positive as yet; but if, on trial,
But when the cobbler or any other man whom nature de- this conception of justice be verified in the individual as
signed to be a trader, having his heart lifted up by wealth well as in the State, there will be no longer any room for
or strength or the number of his followers, or any like ad- doubt; if it be not verified, we must have a fresh enquiry.
vantage, attempts to force his way into the class of war- First let us complete the old investigation, which we be-
riors, or a warrior into that of legislators and guardians, for gan, as you remember, under the impression that, if we could
which he is unfitted, and either to take the implements or previously examine justice on the larger scale, there would
the duties of the other; or when one man is trader, legisla- be less difficulty in discerning her in the individual. That
tor, and warrior all in one, then I think you will agree with larger example appeared to be the State, and accordingly
me in saying that this interchange and this meddling of we constructed as good a one as we could, knowing well
one with another is the ruin of the State. that in the good State justice would be found. Let the dis-
Most true. covery which we made be now applied to the individual—if
Seeing then, I said, that there are three distinct classes, they agree, we shall be satisfied; or, if there be a difference
any meddling of one with another, or the change of one in the individual, we will come back to the State and have
into another, is the greatest harm to the State, and may be another trial of the theory. The friction of the two when
most justly termed evil-doing? rubbed together may possibly strike a light in which jus-
Precisely. tice will shine forth, and the vision which is then revealed
And the greatest degree of evil-doing to one’s own city we will fix in our souls.
would be termed by you injustice? That will be in regular course; let us do as you say.
Certainly. I proceeded to ask: When two things, a greater and less,
This then is injustice; and on the other hand when the are called by the same name, are they like or unlike in so far
trader, the auxiliary, and the guardian each do their own as they are called the same?
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Like, he replied. level of the previous enquiry.
The just man then, if we regard the idea of justice only, May we not be satisfied with that? he said;—under the
will be like the just State? circumstances, I am quite content.
He will. I too, I replied, shall be extremely well satisfied.
And a State was thought by us to be just when the three Then faint not in pursuing the speculation, he said.
classes in the State severally did their own business; and Must we not acknowledge, I said, that in each of us there
also thought to be temperate and valiant and wise by rea- are the same principles and habits which there are in the
son of certain other affections and qualities of these same State; and that from the individual they pass into the
classes? State?—how else can they come there? Take the quality of
True, he said. passion or spirit;—it would be ridiculous to imagine that
And so of the individual; we may assume that he has the this quality, when found in States, is not derived from the
same three principles in his own soul which are found in the individuals who are supposed to possess it, e.g. the Thracians,
State; and he may be rightly described in the same terms, Scythians, and in general the northern nations; and the
because he is affected in the same manner? same may be said of the love of knowledge, which is the
Certainly, he said. special characteristic of our part of the world, or of the love
Once more then, O my friend, we have alighted upon an of money, which may, with equal truth, be attributed to
easy question—whether the soul has these three principles the Phoenicians and Egyptians.
or not? Exactly so, he said.
An easy question! Nay, rather, Socrates, the proverb holds There is no difficulty in understanding this.
that hard is the good. None whatever.
Very true, I said; and I do not think that the method But the question is not quite so easy when we proceed to
which we are employing is at all adequate to the accurate ask whether these principles are three or one; whether, that
solution of this question; the true method is another and a is to say, we learn with one part of our nature, are angry
longer one. Still we may arrive at a solution not below the with another, and with a third part desire the satisfaction
121
of our natural appetites; or whether the whole soul comes Very true.
into play in each sort of action—to determine that is the And suppose the objector to refine still further, and to
difficulty. draw the nice distinction that not only parts of tops, but
Yes, he said; there lies the difficulty. whole tops, when they spin round with their pegs fixed on
Then let us now try and determine whether they are the the spot, are at rest and in motion at the same time (and
same or different. he may say the same of anything which revolves in the same
How can we? he asked. spot), his objection would not be admitted by us, because
I replied as follows: The same thing clearly cannot act or in such cases things are not at rest and in motion in the
be acted upon in the same part or in relation to the same same parts of themselves; we should rather say that they
thing at the same time, in contrary ways; and therefore have both an axis and a circumference, and that the axis
whenever this contradiction occurs in things apparently the stands still, for there is no deviation from the perpendicu-
same, we know that they are really not the same, but dif- lar; and that the circumference goes round. But if, while
ferent. revolving, the axis inclines either to the right or left, for-
Good. wards or backwards, then in no point of view can they be at
For example, I said, can the same thing be at rest and in rest.
motion at the same time in the same part? That is the correct mode of describing them, he replied.
Impossible. Then none of these objections will confuse us, or incline
Still, I said, let us have a more precise statement of terms, us to believe that the same thing at the same time, in the
lest we should hereafter fall out by the way. Imagine the same part or in relation to the same thing, can act or be
case of a man who is standing and also moving his hands and acted upon in contrary ways.
his head, and suppose a person to say that one and the same Certainly not, according to my way of thinking.
person is in motion and at rest at the same moment-to such Yet, I said, that we may not be compelled to examine all
a mode of speech we should object, and should rather say such objections, and prove at length that they are untrue,
that one part of him is in motion while another is at rest. let us assume their absurdity, and go forward on the under-
122
standing that hereafter, if this assumption turn out to be Admitting this to be true of desire generally, let us sup-
untrue, all the consequences which follow shall be with- pose a particular class of desires, and out of these we will
drawn. select hunger and thirst, as they are termed, which are the
Yes, he said, that will be the best way. most obvious of them?
Well, I said, would you not allow that assent and dissent, Let us take that class, he said.
desire and aversion, attraction and repulsion, are all of them The object of one is food, and of the other drink?
opposites, whether they are regarded as active or passive Yes.
(for that makes no difference in the fact of their opposi- And here comes the point: is not thirst the desire which
tion)? the soul has of drink, and of drink only; not of drink quali-
Yes, he said, they are opposites. fied by anything else; for example, warm or cold, or much
Well, I said, and hunger and thirst, and the desires in gen- or little, or, in a word, drink of any particular sort: but if
eral, and again willing and wishing,—all these you would the thirst be accompanied by heat, then the desire is of
refer to the classes already mentioned. You would say— cold drink; or, if accompanied by cold, then of warm drink;
would you not?—that the soul of him who desires is seek- or, if the thirst be excessive, then the drink which is desired
ing after the object of his desires; or that he is drawing to will be excessive; or, if not great, the quantity of drink will
himself the thing which he wishes to possess: or again, when also be small: but thirst pure and simple will desire drink
a person wants anything to be given him, his mind, longing pure and simple, which is the natural satisfaction of thirst,
for the realisation of his desires, intimates his wish to have as food is of hunger?
it by a nod of assent, as if he had been asked a question? Yes, he said; the simple desire is, as you say, in every case
Very true. of the simple object, and the qualified desire of the quali-
And what would you say of unwillingness and dislike and fied object.
the absence of desire; should not these be referred to the But here a confusion may arise; and I should wish to guard
opposite class of repulsion and rejection? against an opponent starting up and saying that no man
Certainly. desires drink only, but good drink, or food only, but good
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food; for good is the universal object of desire, and thirst true definition), but the object of a particular science is a
being a desire, will necessarily be thirst after good drink; particular kind of knowledge; I mean, for example, that the
and the same is true of every other desire. science of house-building is a kind of knowledge which is
Yes, he replied, the opponent might have something to defined and distinguished from other kinds and is there-
say. fore termed architecture.
Nevertheless I should still maintain, that of relatives some Certainly.
have a quality attached to either term of the relation; oth- Because it has a particular quality which no other has?
ers are simple and have their correlatives simple. Yes.
I do not know what you mean. And it has this particular quality because it has an object
Well, you know of course that the greater is relative to of a particular kind; and this is true of the other arts and
the less? sciences?
Certainly. Yes.
And the much greater to the much less? Now, then, if I have made myself clear, you will under-
Yes. stand my original meaning in what I said about relatives.
And the sometime greater to the sometime less, and the My meaning was, that if one term of a relation is taken
greater that is to be to the less that is to be? alone, the other is taken alone; if one term is qualified, the
Certainly, he said. other is also qualified. I do not mean to say that relatives
And so of more and less, and of other correlative terms, may not be disparate, or that the science of health is healthy,
such as the double and the half, or again, the heavier and or of disease necessarily diseased, or that the sciences of
the lighter, the swifter and the slower; and of hot and cold, good and evil are therefore good and evil; but only that,
and of any other relatives;—is not this true of all of them? when the term science is no longer used absolutely, but has
Yes. a qualified object which in this case is the nature of health
And does not the same principle hold in the sciences? The and disease, it becomes defined, and is hence called not
object of science is knowledge (assuming that to be the merely science, but the science of medicine.
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I quite understand, and I think as you do. And in such a case what is one to say? Would you not say
Would you not say that thirst is one of these essentially that there was something in the soul bidding a man to drink,
relative terms, having clearly a relation— and something else forbidding him, which is other and stron-
Yes, thirst is relative to drink. ger than the principle which bids him?
And a certain kind of thirst is relative to a certain kind of I should say so.
drink; but thirst taken alone is neither of much nor little, And the forbidding principle is derived from reason, and
nor of good nor bad, nor of any particular kind of drink, that which bids and attracts proceeds from passion and dis-
but of drink only? ease?
Certainly. Clearly.
Then the soul of the thirsty one, in so far as he is thirsty, Then we may fairly assume that they are two, and that
desires only drink; for this he yearns and tries to obtain it? they differ from one another; the one with which man rea-
That is plain. sons, we may call the rational principle of the soul, the
And if you suppose something which pulls a thirsty soul other, with which he loves and hungers and thirsts and feels
away from drink, that must be different from the thirsty the flutterings of any other desire, may be termed the irra-
principle which draws him like a beast to drink; for, as we tional or appetitive, the ally of sundry pleasures and satis-
were saying, the same thing cannot at the same time with factions?
the same part of itself act in contrary ways about the same. Yes, he said, we may fairly assume them to be different.
Impossible. Then let us finally determine that there are two principles
No more than you can say that the hands of the archer existing in the soul. And what of passion, or spirit? Is it a
push and pull the bow at the same time, but what you say third, or akin to one of the preceding?
is that one hand pushes and the other pulls. I should be inclined to say—akin to desire.
Exactly so, he replied. Well, I said, there is a story which I remember to have
And might a man be thirsty, and yet unwilling to drink? heard, and in which I put faith. The story is, that Leontius,
Yes, he said, it constantly happens. the son of Aglaion, coming up one day from the Piraeus,
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under the north wall on the outside, observed some dead at any suffering, such as hunger, or cold, or any other pain
bodies lying on the ground at the place of execution. He which the injured person may inflict upon him—these he
felt a desire to see them, and also a dread and abhorrence deems to be just, and, as I say, his anger refuses to be ex-
of them; for a time he struggled and covered his eyes, but cited by them.
at length the desire got the better of him; and forcing them True, he said.
open, he ran up to the dead bodies, saying, Look, ye But when he thinks that he is the sufferer of the wrong,
wretches, take your fill of the fair sight. then he boils and chafes, and is on the side of what he
I have heard the story myself, he said. believes to be justice; and because he suffers hunger or
The moral of the tale is, that anger at times goes to war cold or other pain he is only the more determined to perse-
with desire, as though they were two distinct things. vere and conquer. His noble spirit will not be quelled until
Yes; that is the meaning, he said. he either slays or is slain; or until he hears the voice of the
And are there not many other cases in which we observe shepherd, that is, reason, bidding his dog bark no more.
that when a man’s desires violently prevail over his reason, The illustration is perfect, he replied; and in our State, as
he reviles himself, and is angry at the violence within him, we were saying, the auxiliaries were to be dogs, and to
and that in this struggle,is like the struggle of factions in a hear the voice of the rulers, who are their shepherds.
State, his spirit is on the side of his reason;—but for the I perceive, I said, that you quite understand me; there is,
passionate or spirited element to take part with the de- however, a further point which I wish you to consider.
sires when reason that she should not be opposed, is a sort What point?
of thing which thing which I believe that you never ob- You remember that passion or spirit appeared at first sight
served occurring in yourself, nor, as I should imagine, in to be a kind of desire, but now we should say quite the
any one else? contrary; for in the conflict of the soul spirit is arrayed on
Certainly not. the side of the rational principle.
Suppose that a man thinks he has done a wrong to an- Most assuredly.
other, the nobler he is the less able is he to feel indignant But a further question arises: Is passion different from
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reason also, or only a kind of reason; in which latter case, the unreasoning anger which is rebuked by it.
instead of three principles in the soul, there will only be Very true, he said.
two, the rational and the concupiscent; or rather, as the And so, after much tossing, we have reached land, and
State was composed of three classes, traders, auxiliaries, are fairly agreed that the same principles which exist in the
counsellors, so may there not be in the individual soul a State exist also in the individual, and that they are three in
third element which is passion or spirit, and when not cor- number.
rupted by bad education is the natural auxiliary of reason Exactly.
Yes, he said, there must be a third. Must we not then infer that the individual is wise in the
Yes, I replied, if passion, which has already been shown same way, and in virtue of the same quality which makes
to be different from desire, turn out also to be different the State wise?
from reason. Certainly.
But that is easily proved:—We may observe even in young Also that the same quality which constitutes courage in
children that they are full of spirit almost as soon as they the State constitutes courage in the individual, and that
are born, whereas some of them never seem to attain to the both the State and the individual bear the same relation to
use of reason, and most of them late enough. all the other virtues?
Excellent, I said, and you may see passion equally in brute Assuredly.
animals, which is a further proof of the truth of what you And the individual will be acknowledged by us to be just
are saying. And we may once more appeal to the words of in the same way in which the State is just?
Homer, which have been already quoted by us, That follows, of course.
We cannot but remember that the justice of the State
He smote his breast, and thus rebuked his soul, consisted in each of the three classes doing the work of its
own class?
for in this verse Homer has clearly supposed the power which We are not very likely to have forgotten, he said.
reasons about the better and worse to be different from We must recollect that the individual in whom the several
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qualities of his nature do their own work will be just, and whole soul and the whole body against attacks from with-
will do his own work? out; the one counselling, and the other fighting under his
Yes, he said, we must remember that too. leader, and courageously executing his commands and coun-
And ought not the rational principle, which is wise, and sels?
has the care of the whole soul, to rule, and the passionate True.
or spirited principle to be the subject and ally? And he is to be deemed courageous whose spirit retains
Certainly. in pleasure and in pain the commands of reason about what
And, as we were saying, the united influence of music he ought or ought not to fear?
and gymnastic will bring them into accord, nerving and sus- Right, he replied.
taining the reason with noble words and lessons, and mod- And him we call wise who has in him that little part which
erating and soothing and civilizing the wildness of passion rules, and which proclaims these commands; that part too
by harmony and rhythm? being supposed to have a knowledge of what is for the
Quite true, he said. interest of each of the three parts and of the whole?
And these two, thus nurtured and educated, and having Assuredly.
learned truly to know their own functions, will rule over And would you not say that he is temperate who has
the concupiscent, which in each of us is the largest part of these same elements in friendly harmony, in whom the one
the soul and by nature most insatiable of gain; over this ruling principle of reason, and the two subject ones of spirit
they will keep guard, lest, waxing great and strong with and desire are equally agreed that reason ought to rule,
the fulness of bodily pleasures, as they are termed, the and do not rebel?
concupiscent soul, no longer confined to her own sphere, Certainly, he said, that is the true account of temperance
should attempt to enslave and rule those who are not her whether in the State or individual.
natural-born subjects, and overturn the whole life of man? And surely, I said, we have explained again and again
Very true, he said. how and by virtue of what quality a man will be just.
Both together will they not be the best defenders of the That is very certain.
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And is justice dimmer in the individual, and is her form business, whether in ruling or being ruled?
different, or is she the same which we found her to be in Exactly so.
the State? Are you satisfied then that the quality which makes such
There is no difference in my opinion, he said. men and such states is justice, or do you hope to discover
Because, if any doubt is still lingering in our minds, a few some other?
commonplace instances will satisfy us of the truth of what Not I, indeed.
I am saying. Then our dream has been realised; and the suspicion which
What sort of instances do you mean? we entertained at the beginning of our work of construc-
If the case is put to us, must we not admit that the just tion, that some divine power must have conducted us to a
State, or the man who is trained in the principles of such a primary form of justice, has now been verified?
State, will be less likely than the unjust to make away with Yes, certainly.
a deposit of gold or silver? Would any one deny this? And the division of labour which required the carpenter
No one, he replied. and the shoemaker and the rest of the citizens to be doing
Will the just man or citizen ever be guilty of sacrilege or each his own business, and not another’s, was a shadow of
theft, or treachery either to his friends or to his country? justice, and for that reason it was of use?
Never. Clearly.
Neither will he ever break faith where there have been But in reality justice was such as we were describing, be-
oaths or agreements? ing concerned however, not with the outward man, but with
Impossible. the inward, which is the true self and concernment of man:
No one will be less likely to commit adultery, or to for the just man does not permit the several elements within
dishonour his father and mother, or to fall in his religious him to interfere with one another, or any of them to do the
duties? work of others,—he sets in order his own inner life, and is
No one. his own master and his own law, and at peace with himself;
And the reason is that each part of him is doing its own and when he has bound together the three principles within
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him, which may be compared to the higher, lower, and middle up of a part of the soul against the whole, an assertion of
notes of the scale, and the intermediate intervals—when unlawful authority, which is made by a rebellious subject
he has bound all these together, and is no longer many, but against a true prince, of whom he is the natural vassal,—
has become one entirely temperate and perfectly adjusted what is all this confusion and delusion but injustice, and
nature, then he proceeds to act, if he has to act, whether in intemperance and cowardice and ignorance, and every form
a matter of property, or in the treatment of the body, or in of vice?
some affair of politics or private business; always thinking Exactly so.
and calling that which preserves and co-operates with this And if the nature of justice and injustice be known, then
harmonious condition, just and good action, and the knowl- the meaning of acting unjustly and being unjust, or, again,
edge which presides over it, wisdom, and that which at any of acting justly, will also be perfectly clear?
time impairs this condition, he will call unjust action, and What do you mean? he said.
the opinion which presides over it ignorance. Why, I said, they are like disease and health; being in the
You have said the exact truth, Socrates. soul just what disease and health are in the body.
Very good; and if we were to affirm that we had discov- How so? he said.
ered the just man and the just State, and the nature of Why, I said, that which is healthy causes health, and that
justice in each of them, we should not be telling a false- which is unhealthy causes disease.
hood? Yes.
Most certainly not. And just actions cause justice, and unjust actions cause
May we say so, then? injustice?
Let us say so. That is certain.
And now, I said, injustice has to be considered. And the creation of health is the institution of a natural
Clearly. order and government of one by another in the parts of the
Must not injustice be a strife which arises among the three body; and the creation of disease is the production of a
principles—a meddlesomeness, and interference, and rising state of things at variance with this natural order?
130
True. worth having to a man, if only he be allowed to do what-
And is not the creation of justice the institution of a ever he likes with the single exception that he is not to
natural order and government of one by another in the acquire justice and virtue, or to escape from injustice and
parts of the soul, and the creation of injustice the produc- vice; assuming them both to be such as we have described?
tion of a state of things at variance with the natural order? Yes, I said, the question is, as you say, ridiculous. Still, as
Exactly so, he said. we are near the spot at which we may see the truth in the
Then virtue is the health and beauty and well-being of clearest manner with our own eyes, let us not faint by the
the soul, and vice the disease and weakness and deformity way.
of the same? Certainly not, he replied.
True. Come up hither, I said, and behold the various forms of
And do not good practices lead to virtue, and evil prac- vice, those of them, I mean, which are worth looking at.
tices to vice? I am following you, he replied: proceed.
Assuredly. I said, The argument seems to have reached a height from
Still our old question of the comparative advantage of which, as from some tower of speculation, a man may look
justice and injustice has not been answered: Which is the down and see that virtue is one, but that the forms of vice
more profitable, to be just and act justly and practise vir- are innumerable; there being four special ones which are
tue, whether seen or unseen of gods and men, or to be deserving of note.
unjust and act unjustly, if only unpunished and unreformed? What do you mean? he said.
In my judgment, Socrates, the question has now become I mean, I replied, that there appear to be as many forms
ridiculous. We know that, when the bodily constitution is of the soul as there are distinct forms of the State.
gone, life is no longer endurable, though pampered with all How many?
kinds of meats and drinks, and having all wealth and all There are five of the State, and five of the soul, I said.
power; and shall we be told that when the very essence of What are they?
the vital principle is undermined and corrupted, life is still The first, I said, is that which we have been describing,
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and which may be said to have two names, monarchy and hand, he took hold of the upper part of his coat by the
aristocracy, accordingly as rule is exercised by one distin- shoulder, and drew him towards him, leaning forward him-
guished man or by many. self so as to be quite close and saying something in his ear,
True, he replied. of which I only caught the words, ‘Shall we let him off, or
But I regard the two names as describing one form only; what shall we do?’
for whether the government is in the hands of one or many, Certainly not, said Adeimantus, raising his voice.
if the governors have been trained in the manner which we Who is it, I said, whom you are refusing to let off?
have supposed, the fundamental laws of the State will be You, he said.
maintained. I repeated, Why am I especially not to be let off?
That is true, he replied. Why, he said, we think that you are lazy, and mean to
cheat us out of a whole chapter which is a very important
BOOK V part of the story; and you fancy that we shall not notice
your airy way of proceeding; as if it were self-evident to
SOCRATES - GLAUCON - ADEIMANTUS
everybody, that in the matter of women and children ‘friends
Such is the good and true City or State, and the good and have all things in common.’
man is of the same pattern; and if this is right every other And was I not right, Adeimantus?
is wrong; and the evil is one which affects not only the Yes, he said; but what is right in this particular case, like
ordering of the State, but also the regulation of the indi- everything else, requires to be explained; for community
vidual soul, and is exhibited in four forms. may be of many kinds. Please, therefore, to say what sort
What are they? he said. of community you mean. We have been long expecting that
I was proceeding to tell the order in which the four evil you would tell us something about the family life of your
forms appeared to me to succeed one another, when Pole citizens—how they will bring children into the world, and
marchus, who was sitting a little way off, just beyond rear them when they have arrived, and, in general, what is
Adeimantus, began to whisper to him: stretching forth his the nature of this community of women and children-for
132
we are of opinion that the right or wrong management of Yes, but discourse should have a limit.
such matters will have a great and paramount influence on Yes, Socrates, said Glaucon, and the whole of life is the
the State for good or for evil. And now, since the question only limit which wise men assign to the hearing of such
is still undetermined, and you are taking in hand another discourses. But never mind about us; take heart yourself
State, we have resolved, as you heard, not to let you go and answer the question in your own way: What sort of
until you give an account of all this. community of women and children is this which is to pre-
To that resolution, said Glaucon, you may regard me as vail among our guardians? and how shall we manage the
saying Agreed. period between birth and education, which seems to re-
quire the greatest care? Tell us how these things will be.
SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS - GLAUCON - Yes, my simple friend, but the answer is the reverse of
THRASYMACHUS
easy; many more doubts arise about this than about our
previous conclusions. For the practicability of what is said
And without more ado, said Thrasymachus, you may con-
may be doubted; and looked at in another point of view,
sider us all to be equally agreed.
whether the scheme, if ever so practicable, would be for the
I said, You know not what you are doing in thus assailing
best, is also doubtful. Hence I feel a reluctance to approach
me: What an argument are you raising about the State!
the subject, lest our aspiration, my dear friend, should turn
Just as I thought that I had finished, and was only too
out to be a dream only.
glad that I had laid this question to sleep, and was reflect-
Fear not, he replied, for your audience will not be hard
ing how fortunate I was in your acceptance of what I then
upon you; they are not sceptical or hostile.
said, you ask me to begin again at the very foundation,
I said: My good friend, I suppose that you mean to en-
ignorant of what a hornet’s nest of words you are stirring.
courage me by these words.
Now I foresaw this gathering trouble, and avoided it.
Yes, he said.
For what purpose do you conceive that we have come
Then let me tell you that you are doing just the reverse;
here, said Thrasymachus,—to look for gold, or to hear dis-
the encouragement which you offer would have been all
course?
133
very well had I myself believed that I knew what I was talk- Well, I replied, I suppose that I must retrace my steps and
ing about: to declare the truth about matters of high inter- say what I perhaps ought to have said before in the proper
est which a man honours and loves among wise men who place. The part of the men has been played out, and now
love him need occasion no fear or faltering in his mind; but properly enough comes the turn of the women. Of them I
to carry on an argument when you are yourself only a hesi- will proceed to speak, and the more readily since I am in-
tating enquirer, which is my condition, is a dangerous and vited by you.
slippery thing; and the danger is not that I shall be laughed For men born and educated like our citizens, the only
at (of which the fear would be childish), but that I shall way, in my opinion, of arriving at a right conclusion about
miss the truth where I have most need to be sure of my the possession and use of women and children is to follow
footing, and drag my friends after me in my fall. And I pray the path on which we originally started, when we said that
Nemesis not to visit upon me the words which I am going the men were to be the guardians and watchdogs of the
to utter. For I do indeed believe that to be an involuntary herd.
homicide is a less crime than to be a deceiver about beauty True.
or goodness or justice in the matter of laws. And that is a Let us further suppose the birth and education of our
risk which I would rather run among enemies than among women to be subject to similar or nearly similar regula-
friends, and therefore you do well to encourage me. tions; then we shall see whether the result accords with our
Glaucon laughed and said: Well then, Socrates, in case you design.
and your argument do us any serious injury you shall be What do you mean?
acquitted beforehand of the and shall not be held to be a What I mean may be put into the form of a question, I
deceiver; take courage then and speak. said: Are dogs divided into hes and shes, or do they both
Well, I said, the law says that when a man is acquitted he share equally in hunting and in keeping watch and in the
is free from guilt, and what holds at law may hold in argu- other duties of dogs? or do we entrust to the males the
ment. entire and exclusive care of the flocks, while we leave the
Then why should you mind? females at home, under the idea that the bearing and suck-
134
ling their puppies is labour enough for them? Yes, indeed, he said: according to present notions the
No, he said, they share alike; the only difference between proposal would be thought ridiculous.
them is that the males are stronger and the females weaker. But then, I said, as we have determined to speak our minds,
But can you use different animals for the same purpose, we must not fear the jests of the wits which will be directed
unless they are bred and fed in the same way? against this sort of innovation; how they will talk of
You cannot. women’s attainments both in music and gymnastic, and
Then, if women are to have the same duties as men, they above all about their wearing armour and riding upon horse-
must have the same nurture and education? back!
Yes. Very true, he replied.
The education which was assigned to the men was music Yet having begun we must go forward to the rough places
and gymnastic. Yes. of the law; at the same time begging of these gentlemen
Then women must be taught music and gymnastic and for once in their life to be serious. Not long ago, as we shall
also the art of war, which they must practise like the men? remind them, the Hellenes were of the opinion, which is
That is the inference, I suppose. still generally received among the barbarians, that the sight
I should rather expect, I said, that several of our propos- of a naked man was ridiculous and improper; and when first
als, if they are carried out, being unusual, may appear ri- the Cretans and then the Lacedaemonians introduced the
diculous. custom, the wits of that day might equally have ridiculed
No doubt of it. the innovation.
Yes, and the most ridiculous thing of all will be the sight No doubt.
of women naked in the palaestra, exercising with the men, But when experience showed that to let all things be un-
especially when they are no longer young; they certainly covered was far better than to cover them up, and the ludi-
will not be a vision of beauty, any more than the enthusias- crous effect to the outward eye vanished before the better
tic old men who in spite of wrinkles and ugliness continue principle which reason asserted, then the man was perceived
to frequent the gymnasia. to be a fool who directs the shafts of his ridicule at any
135
other sight but that of folly and vice, or seriously inclines Then we shall be asked, ‘Whether the tasks assigned to men
to weigh the beautiful by any other standard but that of and to women should not be different, and such as are agree-
the good. able to their different natures?’ Certainly they should. ‘But
Very true, he replied. if so, have you not fallen into a serious inconsistency in
First, then, whether the question is to be put in jest or in saying that men and women, whose natures are so entirely
earnest, let us come to an understanding about the nature different, ought to perform the same actions?’—What de-
of woman: Is she capable of sharing either wholly or par- fence will you make for us, my good Sir, against any one
tially in the actions of men, or not at all? And is the art of who offers these objections?
war one of those arts in which she can or can not share? That is not an easy question to answer when asked sud-
That will be the best way of commencing the inquiry, and denly; and I shall and I do beg of you to draw out the case
will probably lead to the fairest conclusion. on our side.
That will be much the best way. These are the objections, Glaucon, and there are many
Shall we take the other side first and begin by arguing others of a like kind, which I foresaw long ago; they made
against ourselves; in this manner the adversary’s position me afraid and reluctant to take in hand any law about the
will not be undefended. possession and nurture of women and children.
Why not? he said. By Zeus, he said, the problem to be solved is anything
Then let us put a speech into the mouths of our oppo- but easy.
nents. They will say: ‘Socrates and Glaucon, no adversary Why yes, I said, but the fact is that when a man is out of
need convict you, for you yourselves, at the first founda- his depth, whether he has fallen into a little swimming bath
tion of the State, admitted the principle that everybody or into mid-ocean, he has to swim all the same.
was to do the one work suited to his own nature.’ And cer- Very true.
tainly, if I am not mistaken, such an admission was made And must not we swim and try to reach the shore: We will
by us. ‘And do not the natures of men and women differ hope that Arion’s dolphin or some other miraculous help
very much indeed?’ And we shall reply: Of course they do. may save us?
136
I suppose so, he said. pursuits, but we never considered at all what was the mean-
Well then, let us see if any way of escape can be found. We ing of sameness or difference of nature, or why we distin-
acknowledged—did we not? that different natures ought guished them when we assigned different pursuits to dif-
to have different pursuits, and that men’s and women’s na- ferent natures and the same to the same natures.
tures are different. And now what are we saying?—that Why, no, he said, that was never considered by us.
different natures ought to have the same pursuits,—this is I said: Suppose that by way of illustration we were to ask
the inconsistency which is charged upon us. the question whether there is not an opposition in nature
Precisely. between bald men and hairy men; and if this is admitted by
Verily, Glaucon, I said, glorious is the power of the art of us, then, if bald men are cobblers, we should forbid the
contradiction! hairy men to be cobblers, and conversely?
Why do you say so? That would be a jest, he said.
Because I think that many a man falls into the practice Yes, I said, a jest; and why? because we never meant when
against his will. When he thinks that he is reasoning he is we constructed the State, that the opposition of natures
really disputing, just because he cannot define and divide, should extend to every difference, but only to those differ-
and so know that of which he is speaking; and he will pur- ences which affected the pursuit in which the individual is
sue a merely verbal opposition in the spirit of contention engaged; we should have argued, for example, that a physi-
and not of fair discussion. cian and one who is in mind a physician may be said to have
Yes, he replied, such is very often the case; but what has the same nature.
that to do with us and our argument? True.
A great deal; for there is certainly a danger of our getting Whereas the physician and the carpenter have different
unintentionally into a verbal opposition. natures?
In what way? Certainly.
Why, we valiantly and pugnaciously insist upon the ver- And if, I said, the male and female sex appear to differ in
bal truth, that different natures ought to have different their fitness for any art or pursuit, we should say that such
137
pursuit or art ought to be assigned to one or the other of a thing easily, another with difficulty; a little learning will
them; but if the difference consists only in women bearing lead the one to discover a great deal; whereas the other,
and men begetting children, this does not amount to a proof after much study and application, no sooner learns than he
that a woman differs from a man in respect of the sort of forgets; or again, did you mean, that the one has a body
education she should receive; and we shall therefore con- which is a good servant to his mind, while the body of the
tinue to maintain that our guardians and their wives ought other is a hindrance to him?-would not these be the sort of
to have the same pursuits. differences which distinguish the man gifted by nature from
Very true, he said. the one who is ungifted?
Next, we shall ask our opponent how, in reference to any No one will deny that.
of the pursuits or arts of civic life, the nature of a woman And can you mention any pursuit of mankind in which
differs from that of a man? the male sex has not all these gifts and qualities in a higher
That will be quite fair. degree than the female? Need I waste time in speaking of
And perhaps he, like yourself, will reply that to give a the art of weaving, and the management of pancakes and
sufficient answer on the instant is not easy; but after a preserves, in which womankind does really appear to be
little reflection there is no difficulty. great, and in which for her to be beaten by a man is of all
Yes, perhaps. things the most absurd?
Suppose then that we invite him to accompany us in the You are quite right, he replied, in maintaining the gen-
argument, and then we may hope to show him that there is eral inferiority of the female sex: Although many women
nothing peculiar in the constitution of women which would are in many things superior to many men, yet on the whole
affect them in the administration of the State. what you say is true.
By all means. And if so, my friend, I said, there is no special faculty of
Let us say to him: Come now, and we will ask you a ques- administration in a state which a woman has because she is
tion:—when you spoke of a nature gifted or not gifted in a woman, or which a man has by virtue of his sex, but the
any respect, did you mean to say that one man will acquire gifts of nature are alike diffused in both; all the pursuits of
138
men are the pursuits of women also, but in all of them a And those women who have such qualities are to be se-
woman is inferior to a man. lected as the companions and colleagues of men who have
Very true. similar qualities and whom they resemble in capacity and
Then are we to impose all our enactments on men and in character?
none of them on women? Very true.
That will never do. And ought not the same natures to have the same pur-
One woman has a gift of healing, another not; one is a suits?
musician, and another has no music in her nature? They ought.
Very true. Then, as we were saying before, there is nothing unnatu-
And one woman has a turn for gymnastic and military ral in assigning music and gymnastic to the wives of the
exercises, and another is unwarlike and hates gymnastics? guardians to that point we come round again.
Certainly. Certainly not.
And one woman is a philosopher, and another is an en- The law which we then enacted was agreeable to nature,
emy of philosophy; one has spirit, and another is without and therefore not an impossibility or mere aspiration; and
spirit? the contrary practice, which prevails at present, is in reality
That is also true. a violation of nature.
Then one woman will have the temper of a guardian, and That appears to be true.
another not. Was not the selection of the male guardians We had to consider, first, whether our proposals were pos-
determined by differences of this sort? sible, and secondly whether they were the most beneficial?
Yes. Yes.
Men and women alike possess the qualities which make a And the possibility has been acknowledged?
guardian; they differ only in their comparative strength or Yes.
weakness. The very great benefit has next to be established?
Obviously. Quite so.
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You will admit that the same education which makes a present in such manner as we have described, will accom-
man a good guardian will make a woman a good guardian; plish?
for their original nature is the same? Certainly.
Yes. Then we have made an enactment not only possible but
I should like to ask you a question. in the highest degree beneficial to the State?
What is it? True.
Would you say that all men are equal in excellence, or is Then let the wives of our guardians strip, for their virtue
one man better than another? will be their robe, and let them share in the toils of war and
The latter. the defense of their country; only in the distribution of
And in the commonwealth which we were founding do labours the lighter are to be assigned to the women, who
you conceive the guardians who have been brought up on are the weaker natures, but in other respects their duties
our model system to be more perfect men, or the cobblers are to be the same. And as for the man who laughs at naked
whose education has been cobbling? women exercising their bodies from the best of motives, in
What a ridiculous question! his laughter he is plucking
You have answered me, I replied: Well, and may we not
A fruit of unripe wisdom,
further say that our guardians are the best of our citizens?
By far the best.
and he himself is ignorant of what he is laughing at, or
And will not their wives be the best women?
what he is about;—for that is, and ever will be, the best of
Yes, by far the best.
sayings, That the useful is the noble and the hurtful is the
And can there be anything better for the interests of the
base.
State than that the men and women of a State should be as
Very true.
good as possible?
Here, then, is one difficulty in our law about women, which
There can be nothing better.
we may say that we have now escaped; the wave has not
And this is what the arts of music and gymnastic, when
swallowed us up alive for enacting that the guardians of
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either sex should have all their pursuits in common; to the them, and then there would remain only the possibility.
utility and also to the possibility of this arrangement the But that little attempt is detected, and therefore you
consistency of the argument with itself bears witness. will please to give a defence of both.
Yes, that was a mighty wave which you have escaped. Well, I said, I submit to my fate. Yet grant me a little
Yes, I said, but a greater is coming; you will of this when favour: let me feast my mind with the dream as day dream-
you see the next. ers are in the habit of feasting themselves when they are
Go on; let me see. walking alone; for before they have discovered any means
The law, I said, which is the sequel of this and of all that of effecting their wishes—that is a matter which never
has preceded, is to the following effect,—’that the wives troubles them—they would rather not tire themselves by
of our guardians are to be common, and their children are thinking about possibilities; but assuming that what they
to be common, and no parent is to know his own child, nor desire is already granted to them, they proceed with their
any child his parent.’ plan, and delight in detailing what they mean to do when
Yes, he said, that is a much greater wave than the other; their wish has come true—that is a way which they have of
and the possibility as well as the utility of such a law are not doing much good to a capacity which was never good
far more questionable. for much. Now I myself am beginning to lose heart, and I
I do not think, I said, that there can be any dispute about should like, with your permission, to pass over the ques-
the very great utility of having wives and children in com- tion of possibility at present. Assuming therefore the pos-
mon; the possibility is quite another matter, and will be sibility of the proposal, I shall now proceed to enquire how
very much disputed. the rulers will carry out these arrangements, and I shall
I think that a good many doubts may be raised about demonstrate that our plan, if executed, will be of the great-
both. est benefit to the State and to the guardians. First of all,
You imply that the two questions must be combined, I then, if you have no objection, I will endeavor with your
replied. Now I meant that you should admit the utility; help to consider the advantages of the measure; and here-
and in this way, as I thought; I should escape from one of after the question of possibility.
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I have no objection; proceed. Then clearly the next thing will be to make matrimony
First, I think that if our rulers and their auxiliaries are to sacred in the highest degree, and what is most beneficial
be worthy of the name which they bear, there must be will- will be deemed sacred?
ingness to obey in the one and the power of command in Exactly.
the other; the guardians must themselves obey the laws, And how can marriages be made most beneficial?—that
and they must also imitate the spirit of them in any details is a question which I put to you, because I see in your
which are entrusted to their care. house dogs for hunting, and of the nobler sort of birds not
That is right, he said. a few. Now, I beseech you, do tell me, have you ever at-
You, I said, who are their legislator, having selected the tended to their pairing and breeding?
men, will now select the women and give them to them;— In what particulars?
they must be as far as possible of like natures with them; Why, in the first place, although they are all of a good
and they must live in common houses and meet at common sort, are not some better than others?
meals, None of them will have anything specially his or her True.
own; they will be together, and will be brought up together, And do you breed from them all indifferently, or do you
and will associate at gymnastic exercises. And so they will take care to breed from the best only?
be drawn by a necessity of their natures to have intercourse From the best.
with each other—necessity is not too strong a word, I think? And do you take the oldest or the youngest, or only those
Yes, he said;—necessity, not geometrical, but another sort of ripe age?
of necessity which lovers know, and which is far more con- I choose only those of ripe age.
vincing and constraining to the mass of mankind. And if care was not taken in the breeding, your dogs and
True, I said; and this, Glaucon, like all the rest, must pro- birds would greatly deteriorate?
ceed after an orderly fashion; in a city of the blessed, licen- Certainly.
tiousness is an unholy thing which the rulers will forbid. And the same of horses and animals in general?
Yes, he said, and it ought not to be permitted. Undoubtedly.
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Good heavens! my dear friend, I said, what consummate sort of union, but not of the other, if the flock is to be
skill will our rulers need if the same principle holds of the maintained in first-rate condition. Now these goings on must
human species! be a secret which the rulers only know, or there will be a
Certainly, the same principle holds; but why does this in- further danger of our herd, as the guardians may be termed,
volve any particular skill? breaking out into rebellion.
Because, I said, our rulers will often have to practise upon Very true.
the body corporate with medicines. Now you know that Had we not better appoint certain festivals at which we
when patients do not require medicines, but have only to will bring together the brides and bridegrooms, and sacri-
be put under a regimen, the inferior sort of practitioner is fices will be offered and suitable hymeneal songs composed
deemed to be good enough; but when medicine has to be by our poets: the number of weddings is a matter which
given, then the doctor should be more of a man. must be left to the discretion of the rulers, whose aim will
That is quite true, he said; but to what are you alluding? be to preserve the average of population? There are many
I mean, I replied, that our rulers will find a considerable other things which they will have to consider, such as the
dose of falsehood and deceit necessary for the good of their effects of wars and diseases and any similar agencies, in
subjects: we were saying that the use of all these things order as far as this is possible to prevent the State from
regarded as medicines might be of advantage. becoming either too large or too small.
And we were very right. Certainly, he replied.
And this lawful use of them seems likely to be often We shall have to invent some ingenious kind of lots which
needed in the regulations of marriages and births. the less worthy may draw on each occasion of our bringing
How so? them together, and then they will accuse their own ill-luck
Why, I said, the principle has been already laid down that and not the rulers.
the best of either sex should be united with the best as To be sure, he said.
often, and the inferior with the inferior, as seldom as pos- And I think that our braver and better youth, besides
sible; and that they should rear the offspring of the one their other honours and rewards, might have greater facili-
143
ties of intercourse with women given them; their bravery easy time of it when they are having children.
will be a reason, and such fathers ought to have as many Why, said I, and so they ought. Let us, however, proceed
sons as possible. with our scheme. We were saying that the parents should
True. be in the prime of life?
And the proper officers, whether male or female or both, Very true.
for offices are to be held by women as well as by men— And what is the prime of life? May it not be defined as a
Yes— period of about twenty years in a woman’s life, and thirty
The proper officers will take the offspring of the good in a man’s?
parents to the pen or fold, and there they will deposit them Which years do you mean to include?
with certain nurses who dwell in a separate quarter; but A woman, I said, at twenty years of age may begin to
the offspring of the inferior, or of the better when they bear children to the State, and continue to bear them until
chance to be deformed, will be put away in some mysteri- forty; a man may begin at five-and-twenty, when he has
ous, unknown place, as they should be. passed the point at which the pulse of life beats quickest,
Yes, he said, that must be done if the breed of the guard- and continue to beget children until he be fifty-five.
ians is to be kept pure. Certainly, he said, both in men and women those years
They will provide for their nurture, and will bring the are the prime of physical as well as of intellectual vigour.
mothers to the fold when they are full of milk, taking the Any one above or below the prescribed ages who takes
greatest possible care that no mother recognizes her own part in the public hymeneals shall be said to have done an
child; and other wet-nurses may be engaged if more are unholy and unrighteous thing; the child of which he is the
required. Care will also be taken that the process of suck- father, if it steals into life, will have been conceived under
ling shall not be protracted too long; and the mothers will auspices very unlike the sacrifices and prayers, which at
have no getting up at night or other trouble, but will hand each hymeneal priestesses and priest and the whole city
over all this sort of thing to the nurses and attendants. will offer, that the new generation may be better and more
You suppose the wives of our guardians to have a fine useful than their good and useful parents, whereas his child
144
will be the offspring of darkness and strange lust. married will call all the male children who are born in the
Very true, he replied. seventh and tenth month afterwards his sons, and the fe-
And the same law will apply to any one of those within male children his daughters, and they will call him father,
the prescribed age who forms a connection with any woman and he will call their children his grandchildren, and they
in the prime of life without the sanction of the rulers; for will call the elder generation grandfathers and grandmoth-
we shall say that he is raising up a bastard to the State, ers. All who were begotten at the time when their fathers
uncertified and unconsecrated. and mothers came together will be called their brothers
Very true, he replied. and sisters, and these, as I was saying, will be forbidden to
This applies, however, only to those who are within the inter-marry. This, however, is not to be understood as an
specified age: After that we allow them to range at will, absolute prohibition of the marriage of brothers and sis-
except that a man may not marry his daughter or his ters; if the lot favours them, and they receive the sanction
daughter’s daughter, or his mother or his mother’s mother; of the Pythian oracle, the law will allow them.
and women, on the other hand, are prohibited from marry- Quite right, he replied.
ing their sons or fathers, or son’s son or father’s father, and Such is the scheme, Glaucon, according to which the guard-
so on in either direction. And we grant all this, accompany- ians of our State are to have their wives and families in
ing the permission with strict orders to prevent any em- common. And now you would have the argument show that
bryo which may come into being from seeing the light; and this community is consistent with the rest of our polity,
if any force a way to the birth, the parents must under- and also that nothing can be better—would you not?
stand that the offspring of such an union cannot be main- Yes, certainly.
tained, and arrange accordingly. Shall we try to find a common basis by asking of our-
That also, he said, is a reasonable proposition. But how selves what ought to be the chief aim of the legislator in
will they know who are fathers and daughters, and so on? making laws and in the organization of a State,—what is
They will never know. The way will be this:—dating from the greatest I good, and what is the greatest evil, and then
the day of the hymeneal, the bridegroom who was then consider whether our previous description has the stamp of
145
the good or of the evil? tion of the individual—as in the body, when but a finger of
By all means. one of us is hurt, the whole frame, drawn towards the soul
Can there be any greater evil than discord and distraction as a center and forming one kingdom under the ruling power
and plurality where unity ought to reign? or any greater therein, feels the hurt and sympathizes all together with
good than the bond of unity? the part affected, and we say that the man has a pain in his
There cannot. finger; and the same expression is used about any other
And there is unity where there is community of pleasures part of the body, which has a sensation of pain at suffering
and pains—where all the citizens are glad or grieved on the or of pleasure at the alleviation of suffering.
same occasions of joy and sorrow? Very true, he replied; and I agree with you that in the
No doubt. best-ordered State there is the nearest approach to this
Yes; and where there is no common but only private feel- common feeling which you describe.
ing a State is disorganized—when you have one half of the Then when any one of the citizens experiences any good
world triumphing and the other plunged in grief at the same or evil, the whole State will make his case their own, and
events happening to the city or the citizens? will either rejoice or sorrow with him?
Certainly. Yes, he said, that is what will happen in a well-ordered
Such differences commonly originate in a disagreement State.
about the use of the terms ‘mine’ and ‘not mine,’ ‘his’ and It will now be time, I said, for us to return to our State
‘not his.’ and see whether this or some other form is most in accor-
Exactly so. dance with these fundamental principles.
And is not that the best-ordered State in which the great- Very good.
est number of persons apply the terms ‘mine’ and ‘not mine’ Our State like every other has rulers and subjects?
in the same way to the same thing? True.
Quite true. All of whom will call one another citizens?
Or that again which most nearly approaches to the condi- Of course.
146
But is there not another name which people give to their other guardian as a stranger?
rulers in other States? Certainly he would not; for every one whom they meet
Generally they call them masters, but in democratic States will be regarded by them either as a brother or sister, or
they simply call them rulers. father or mother, or son or daughter, or as the child or par-
And in our State what other name besides that of citi- ent of those who are thus connected with him.
zens do the people give the rulers? Capital, I said; but let me ask you once more: Shall they
They are called saviours and helpers, he replied. be a family in name only; or shall they in all their actions
And what do the rulers call the people? be true to the name? For example, in the use of the word
Their maintainers and foster-fathers. ‘father,’ would the care of a father be implied and the filial
And what do they call them in other States? reverence and duty and obedience to him which the law
Slaves. commands; and is the violator of these duties to be re-
And what do the rulers call one another in other States? garded as an impious and unrighteous person who is not
Fellow-rulers. likely to receive much good either at the hands of God or of
And what in ours? man? Are these to be or not to be the strains which the
Fellow-guardians. children will hear repeated in their ears by all the citizens
Did you ever know an example in any other State of a about those who are intimated to them to be their parents
ruler who would speak of one of his colleagues as his friend and the rest of their kinsfolk?
and of another as not being his friend? These, he said, and none other; for what can be more ri-
Yes, very often. diculous than for them to utter the names of family ties
And the friend he regards and describes as one in whom with the lips only and not to act in the spirit of them?
he has an interest, and the other as a stranger in whom he Then in our city the language of harmony and concord
has no interest? will be more often beard than in any other. As I was de-
Exactly. scribing before, when any one is well or ill, the universal
But would any of your guardians think or speak of any word will be with me ‘it is well’ or ‘it is ill.’
147
Most true. affirming,—that the guardians were not to have houses or

And agreeably to this mode of thinking and speaking, lands or any other property; their pay was to be their food,
were we not saying that they will have their pleasures and which they were to receive from the other citizens, and
pains in common? they were to have no private expenses; for we intended
Yes, and so they will. them to preserve their true character of guardians.
And they will have a common interest in the same thing Right, he replied.
which they will alike call ‘my own,’ and having this common Both the community of property and the community of
interest they will have a common feeling of pleasure and families, as I am saying, tend to make them more truly guard-
pain? ians; they will not tear the city in pieces by differing about
Yes, far more so than in other States. ‘mine’ and ‘not mine;’ each man dragging any acquisition
And the reason of this, over and above the general con- which he has made into a separate house of his own, where
stitution of the State, will be that the guardians will have a he has a separate wife and children and private pleasures
community of women and children? and pains; but all will be affected as far as may be by the
That will be the chief reason. same pleasures and pains because they are all of one opin-
And this unity of feeling we admitted to be the greatest ion about what is near and dear to them, and therefore
good, as was implied in our own comparison of a well-or- they all tend towards a common end.
dered State to the relation of the body and the members, Certainly, he replied.
when affected by pleasure or pain? And as they have nothing but their persons which they
That we acknowledged, and very rightly. can call their own, suits and complaints will have no exist-
Then the community of wives and children among our ence among them; they will be delivered from all those quar-
citizens is clearly the source of the greatest good to the rels of which money or children or relations are the occa-
State? sion.
Certainly. Of course they will.
And this agrees with the other principle which we were Neither will trials for assault or insult ever be likely to
148
occur among them. For that equals should defend them- Yes, there will be no want of peace.
selves against equals we shall maintain to be honourable And as the guardians will never quarrel among themselves
and right; we shall make the protection of the person a there will be no danger of the rest of the city being divided
matter of necessity. either against them or against one another.
That is good, he said. None whatever.
Yes; and there is a further good in the law; viz. that if a I hardly like even to mention the little meannesses of
man has a quarrel with another he will satisfy his resent- which they will be rid, for they are beneath notice: such,
ment then and there, and not proceed to more dangerous for example, as the flattery of the rich by the poor, and all
lengths. the pains and pangs which men experience in bringing up a
Certainly. family, and in finding money to buy necessaries for their
To the elder shall be assigned the duty of ruling and chas- household, borrowing and then repudiating, getting how
tising the younger. they can, and giving the money into the hands of women
Clearly. and slaves to keep—the many evils of so many kinds which
Nor can there be a doubt that the younger will not strike people suffer in this way are mean enough and obvious
or do any other violence to an elder, unless the magistrates enough, and not worth speaking of.
command him; nor will he slight him in any way. For there Yes, he said, a man has no need of eyes in order to per-
are two guardians, shame and fear, mighty to prevent him: ceive that.
shame, which makes men refrain from laying hands on those And from all these evils they will be delivered, and their
who are to them in the relation of parents; fear, that the life will be blessed as the life of Olympic victors and yet
injured one will be succoured by the others who are his more blessed.
brothers, sons, one with fathers. How so?
That is true, he replied. The Olympic victor, I said, is deemed happy in receiving a
Then in every way the laws will help the citizens to keep part only of the blessedness which is secured to our citi-
the peace with one another? zens, who have won a more glorious victory and have a
149
more complete maintenance at the public cost. For the vic- in such a manner that he will cease to be a guardian, and is
tory which they have won is the salvation of the whole not content with this safe and harmonious life, which, in
State; and the crown with which they and their children are our judgment, is of all lives the best, but infatuated by
crowned is the fulness of all that life needs; they receive some youthful conceit of happiness which gets up into his
rewards from the hands of their country while living, and head shall seek to appropriate the whole State to himself,
after death have an honourable burial. then he will have to learn how wisely Hesiod spoke, when
Yes, he said, and glorious rewards they are. he said, ‘half is more than the whole.’
Do you remember, I said, how in the course of the previ- If he were to consult me, I should say to him: Stay where
ous discussion some one who shall be nameless accused us you are, when you have the offer of such a life.
of making our guardians unhappy—they had nothing and You agree then, I said, that men and women are to have a
might have possessed all things-to whom we replied that, common way of life such as we have described—common
if an occasion offered, we might perhaps hereafter consider education, common children; and they are to watch over
this question, but that, as at present advised, we would the citizens in common whether abiding in the city or go-
make our guardians truly guardians, and that we were fash- ing out to war; they are to keep watch together, and to
ioning the State with a view to the greatest happiness, not hunt together like dogs; and always and in all things, as far
of any particular class, but of the whole? as they are able, women are to share with the men? And in
Yes, I remember. so doing they will do what is best, and will not violate, but
And what do you say, now that the life of our protectors preserve the natural relation of the sexes.
is made out to be far better and nobler than that of Olym- I agree with you, he replied.
pic victors—is the life of shoemakers, or any other arti- The enquiry, I said, has yet to be made, whether such a
sans, or of husbandmen, to be compared with it? community be found possible—as among other animals, so
Certainly not. also among men—and if possible, in what way possible?
At the same time I ought here to repeat what I have said You have anticipated the question which I was about to
elsewhere, that if any of our guardians shall try to be happy suggest.
150
There is no difficulty, I said, in seeing how war will be True, I said; but would you never allow them to run any
carried on by them. risk?
How? I am far from saying that.
Why, of course they will go on expeditions together; and Well, but if they are ever to run a risk should they not do
will take with them any of their children who are strong so on some occasion when, if they escape disaster, they will
enough, that, after the manner of the artisan’s child, they be the better for it?
may look on at the work which they will have to do when Clearly.
they are grown up; and besides looking on they will have Whether the future soldiers do or do not see war in the
to help and be of use in war, and to wait upon their fathers days of their youth is a very important matter, for the sake
and mothers. Did you never observe in the arts how the of which some risk may fairly be incurred.
potters’ boys look on and help, long before they touch the Yes, very important.
wheel? This then must be our first step,—to make our children
Yes, I have. spectators of war; but we must also contrive that they shall
And shall potters be more careful in educating their chil- be secured against danger; then all will be well.
dren and in giving them the opportunity of seeing and prac- True.
tising their duties than our guardians will be? Their parents may be supposed not to be blind to the
The idea is ridiculous, he said. risks of war, but to know, as far as human foresight can,
There is also the effect on the parents, with whom, as what expeditions are safe and what dangerous?
with other animals, the presence of their young ones will That may be assumed.
be the greatest incentive to valour. And they will take them on the safe expeditions and be
That is quite true, Socrates; and yet if they are defeated, cautious about the dangerous ones?
which may often happen in war, how great the danger is! True.
the children will be lost as well as their parents, and the And they will place them under the command of experi-
State will never recover. enced veterans who will be their leaders and teachers?
151
Very properly. well be made a present of to his enemies; he is their lawful
Still, the dangers of war cannot be always foreseen; there prey, and let them do what they like with him.
is a good deal of chance about them? Certainly.
True. But the hero who has distinguished himself, what shall
Then against such chances the children must be at once be done to him? In the first place, he shall receive honour in
furnished with wings, in order that in the hour of need the army from his youthful comrades; every one of them in
they may fly away and escape. succession shall crown him. What do you say?
What do you mean? he said. I approve.
I mean that we must mount them on horses in their earli- And what do you say to his receiving the right hand of
est youth, and when they have learnt to ride, take them on fellowship?
horseback to see war: the horses must be spirited and war- To that too, I agree.
like, but the most tractable and yet the swiftest that can But you will hardly agree to my next proposal.
be had. In this way they will get an excellent view of what What is your proposal?
is hereafter to be their own business; and if there is danger That he should kiss and be kissed by them.
they have only to follow their elder leaders and escape. Most certainly, and I should be disposed to go further,
I believe that you are right, he said. and say: Let no one whom he has a mind to kiss refuse to
Next, as to war; what are to be the relations of your sol- be kissed by him while the expedition lasts. So that if there
diers to one another and to their enemies? I should be in- be a lover in the army, whether his love be youth or maiden,
clined to propose that the soldier who leaves his rank or he may be more eager to win the prize of valour.
throws away his arms, or is guilty of any other act of cow- Capital, I said. That the brave man is to have more wives
ardice, should be degraded into the rank of a husbandman than others has been already determined: and he is to have
or artisan. What do you think? first choices in such matters more than others, in order that
By all means, I should say. he may have as many children as possible?
And he who allows himself to be taken prisoner may as Agreed.
152
Again, there is another manner in which, according to
Homer, brave youths should be honoured; for he tells how Yes; and we accept his authority.
Ajax, after he had distinguished himself in battle, was re- We must learn of the god how we are to order the sepulture
warded with long chines, which seems to be a compliment of divine and heroic personages, and what is to be their
appropriate to a hero in the flower of his age, being not special distinction and we must do as he bids?
only a tribute of honour but also a very strengthening thing. By all means.
Most true, he said. And in ages to come we will reverence them and knee.
Then in this, I said, Homer shall be our teacher; and we Before their sepulchers as at the graves of heroes. And not
too, at sacrifices and on the like occasions, will honour the only they but any who are deemed pre-eminently good,
brave according to the measure of their valour, whether whether they die from age, or in any other way, shall be
men or women, with hymns and those other distinctions admitted to the same honours.
which we were mentioning; also with That is very right, he said.
Next, how shall our soldiers treat their enemies? What
seats of precedence, and meats and full cups; about this?
In what respect do you mean?
and in honouring them, we shall be at the same time train-
First of all, in regard to slavery? Do you think it right
ing them.
that Hellenes should enslave Hellenic States, or allow oth-
That, he replied, is excellent.
ers to enslave them, if they can help? Should not their cus-
Yes, I said; and when a man dies gloriously in war shall we
tom be to spare them, considering the danger which there
not say, in the first place, that he is of the golden race?
is that the whole race may one day fall under the yoke of
To be sure.
the barbarians?
Nay, have we not the authority of Hesiod for affirming
To spare them is infinitely better.
that when they are dead
Then no Hellene should be owned by them as a slave;
They are holy angels upon the earth, authors of good, that is a rule which they will observe and advise the other
averters of evil, the guardians of speech-gifted men? Hellenes to observe.
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Certainly, he said; they will in this way be united against Very true.
the barbarians and will keep their hands off one another. Again, as to the devastation of Hellenic territory or the
Next as to the slain; ought the conquerors, I said, to take burning of houses, what is to be the practice?
anything but their armour? Does not the practice of de- May I have the pleasure, he said, of hearing your opin-
spoiling an enemy afford an excuse for not facing the battle? ion?
Cowards skulk about the dead, pretending that they are Both should be forbidden, in my judgment; I would take
fulfilling a duty, and many an army before now has been the annual produce and no more. Shall I tell you why?
lost from this love of plunder. Pray do.
Very true. Why, you see, there is a difference in the names ‘discord’
And is there not illiberality and avarice in robbing a corpse, and ‘war,’ and I imagine that there is also a difference in
and also a degree of meanness and womanishness in mak- their natures; the one is expressive of what is internal and
ing an enemy of the dead body when the real enemy has domestic, the other of what is external and foreign; and
flown away and left only his fighting gear behind him,—is the first of the two is termed discord, and only the second,
not this rather like a dog who cannot get at his assailant, war.
quarrelling with the stones which strike him instead? That is a very proper distinction, he replied.
Very like a dog, he said. And may I not observe with equal propriety that the Hel-
Then we must abstain from spoiling the dead or hinder- lenic race is all united together by ties of blood and friend-
ing their burial? ship, and alien and strange to the barbarians?
Yes, he replied, we most certainly must. Very good, he said.
Neither shall we offer up arms at the temples of the gods, And therefore when Hellenes fight with barbarians and
least of all the arms of Hellenes, if we care to maintain barbarians with Hellenes, they will be described by us as
good feeling with other Hellenes; and, indeed, we have rea- being at war when they fight, and by nature enemies, and
son to fear that the offering of spoils taken from kinsmen this kind of antagonism should be called war; but when
may be a pollution unless commanded by the god himself? Hellenes fight with one another we shall say that Hellas is
154
then in a state of disorder and discord, they being by na- Certainly not.
ture friends and such enmity is to be called discord. Then they will quarrel as those who intend some day to
I agree. be reconciled? Certainly.
Consider then, I said, when that which we have acknowl- They will use friendly correction, but will not enslave or
edged to be discord occurs, and a city is divided, if both destroy their opponents; they will be correctors, not en-
parties destroy the lands and burn the houses of one an- emies?
other, how wicked does the strife appear! No true lover of Just so.
his country would bring himself to tear in pieces his own And as they are Hellenes themselves they will not devas-
nurse and mother: There might be reason in the conqueror tate Hellas, nor will they burn houses, not even suppose
depriving the conquered of their harvest, but still they that the whole population of a city—men, women, and chil-
would have the idea of peace in their hearts and would not dren—are equally their enemies, for they know that the guilt
mean to go on fighting for ever. of war is always confined to a few persons and that the many
Yes, he said, that is a better temper than the other. are their friends. And for all these reasons they will be un-
And will not the city, which you are founding, be an Hel- willing to waste their lands and raze their houses; their en-
lenic city? mity to them will only last until the many innocent sufferers
It ought to be, he replied. have compelled the guilty few to give satisfaction?
Then will not the citizens be good and civilized? I agree, he said, that our citizens should thus deal with
Yes, very civilized. their Hellenic enemies; and with barbarians as the Hellenes
And will they not be lovers of Hellas, and think of Hellas now deal with one another.
as their own land, and share in the common temples? Then let us enact this law also for our guardians:—that
Most certainly. they are neither to devastate the lands of Hellenes nor to
And any difference which arises among them will be re- burn their houses.
garded by them as discord only—a quarrel among friends, Agreed; and we may agree also in thinking that these, all
which is not to be called a war? our previous enactments, are very good.
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But still I must say, Socrates, that if you are allowed to you are now bringing upon me the third, which is the great-
go on in this way you will entirely forget the other ques- est and heaviest. When you have seen and heard the third
tion which at the commencement of this discussion you wave, I think you be more considerate and will acknowl-
thrust aside:— Is such an order of things possible, and how, edge that some fear and hesitation was natural respecting
if at all? For I am quite ready to acknowledge that the plan a proposal so extraordinary as that which I have now to
which you propose, if only feasible, would do all sorts of state and investigate.
good to the State. I will add, what you have omitted, that The more appeals of this sort which you make, he said,
your citizens will be the bravest of warriors, and will never the more determined are we that you shall tell us how such
leave their ranks, for they will all know one another, and a State is possible: speak out and at once.
each will call the other father, brother, son; and if you sup- Let me begin by reminding you that we found our way
pose the women to join their armies, whether in the same hither in the search after justice and injustice.
rank or in the rear, either as a terror to the enemy, or as True, he replied; but what of that?
auxiliaries in case of need, I know that they will then be I was only going to ask whether, if we have discovered
absolutely invincible; and there are many domestic tic ad- them, we are to require that the just man should in noth-
vantages which might also be mentioned and which I also ing fail of absolute justice; or may we be satisfied with an
fully acknowledge: but, as I admit all these advantages and approximation, and the attainment in him of a higher de-
as many more as you please, if only this State of yours were gree of justice than is to be found in other men?
to come into existence, we need say no more about them; The approximation will be enough.
assuming then the existence of the State, let us now turn We are enquiring into the nature of absolute justice and
to the question of possibility and ways and means—the into the character of the perfectly just, and into injustice
rest may be left. and the perfectly unjust, that we might have an ideal. We
If I loiter for a moment, you instantly make a raid upon were to look at these in order that we might judge of our
me, I said, and have no mercy; I have hardly escaped the own happiness and unhappiness according to the standard
first and second waves, and you seem not to be aware that which they exhibited and the degree in which we resembled
156
them, but not with any view of showing that they could I agree.
exist in fact. Then you must not insist on my proving that the actual
True, he said. State will in every respect coincide with the ideal: if we are
Would a painter be any the worse because, after having only able to discover how a city may be governed nearly as
delineated with consummate art an ideal of a perfectly beau- we proposed, you will admit that we have discovered the
tiful man, he was unable to show that any such man could possibility which you demand; and will be contented. I am
ever have existed? sure that I should be contented—will not you?
He would be none the worse. Yes, I will.
Well, and were we not creating an ideal of a perfect State? Let me next endeavour to show what is that fault in States
To be sure. which is the cause of their present maladministration, and
And is our theory a worse theory because we are unable what is the least change which will enable a State to pass
to prove the possibility of a city being ordered in the man- into the truer form; and let the change, if possible, be of
ner described? one thing only, or if not, of two; at any rate, let the changes
Surely not, he replied. be as few and slight as possible.
That is the truth, I said. But if, at your request, I am to Certainly, he replied.
try and show how and under what conditions the possibil- I think, I said, that there might be a reform of the State if
ity is highest, I must ask you, having this in view, to repeat only one change were made, which is not a slight or easy
your former admissions. though still a possible one.
What admissions? What is it? he said.
I want to know whether ideals are ever fully realised in Now then, I said, I go to meet that which I liken to the
language? Does not the word express more than the fact, greatest of the waves; yet shall the word be spoken, even
and must not the actual, whatever a man may think, although the wave break and drown me in laughter and
ways, in the nature of things, fall short of the truth? What dishonour; and do you mark my words.
do you say? Proceed.
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I said: Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and advice, and, perhaps, I may be able to fit answers to your
princes of this world have the spirit and power of philoso- questions better than another—that is all. And now, hav-
phy, and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, and ing such an auxiliary, you must do your best to show the
those commoner natures who pursue either to the exclu- unbelievers that you are right.
sion of the other are compelled to stand aside, cities will I ought to try, I said, since you offer me such invaluable
never have rest from their evils,—nor the human race, as I assistance. And I think that, if there is to be a chance of our
believe,—and then only will this our State have a possibil- escaping, we must explain to them whom we mean when
ity of life and behold the light of day. Such was the thought, we say that philosophers are to rule in the State; then we
my dear Glaucon, which I would fain have uttered if it had shall be able to defend ourselves: There will be discovered
not seemed too extravagant; for to be convinced that in no to be some natures who ought to study philosophy and to
other State can there be happiness private or public is in- be leaders in the State; and others who are not born to be
deed a hard thing. philosophers, and are meant to be followers rather than
Socrates, what do you mean? I would have you consider leaders.
that the word which you have uttered is one at which nu- Then now for a definition, he said.
merous persons, and very respectable persons too, in a fig- Follow me, I said, and I hope that I may in some way or
ure pulling off their coats all in a moment, and seizing any other be able to give you a satisfactory explanation.
weapon that comes to hand, will run at you might and main, Proceed.
before you know where you are, intending to do heaven I dare say that you remember, and therefore I need not
knows what; and if you don’t prepare an answer, and put remind you, that a lover, if lie is worthy of the name, ought
yourself in motion, you will be prepared by their fine wits,’ to show his love, not to some one part of that which he
and no mistake. loves, but to the whole.
You got me into the scrape, I said. I really do not understand, and therefore beg of you to
And I was quite right; however, I will do all I can to get assist my memory.
you out of it; but I can only give you good-will and good Another person, I said, might fairly reply as you do; but a
158
man of pleasure like yourself ought to know that all who persons, they are glad to be honoured by lesser and meaner
are in the flower of youth do somehow or other raise a people, but honour of some kind they must have.
pang or emotion in a lover’s breast, and are thought by him Exactly.
to be worthy of his affectionate regards. Is not this a way Once more let me ask: Does he who desires any class of
which you have with the fair: one has a snub nose, and you goods, desire the whole class or a part only?
praise his charming face; the hook-nose of another has, you The whole.
say, a royal look; while he who is neither snub nor hooked And may we not say of the philosopher that he is a lover,
has the grace of regularity: the dark visage is manly, the not of a part of wisdom only, but of the whole?
fair are children of the gods; and as to the sweet ‘honey Yes, of the whole.
pale,’ as they are called, what is the very name but the in- And he who dislikes learnings, especially in youth, when
vention of a lover who talks in diminutives, and is not ad- he has no power of judging what is good and what is not,
verse to paleness if appearing on the cheek of youth? In a such an one we maintain not to be a philosopher or a lover
word, there is no excuse which you will not make, and noth- of knowledge, just as he who refuses his food is not hun-
ing which you will not say, in order not to lose a single gry, and may be said to have a bad appetite and not a good
flower that blooms in the spring-time of youth. one?
If you make me an authority in matters of love, for the Very true, he said.
sake of the argument, I assent. Whereas he who has a taste for every sort of knowledge
And what do you say of lovers of wine? Do you not see and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied, may be
them doing the same? They are glad of any pretext of drink- justly termed a philosopher? Am I not right?
ing any wine. Glaucon said: If curiosity makes a philosopher, you will
Very good. find many a strange being will have a title to the name. All
And the same is true of ambitious men; if they cannot the lovers of sights have a delight in learning, and must
command an army, they are willing to command a file; and therefore be included. Musical amateurs, too, are a folk
if they cannot be honoured by really great and important strangely out of place among philosophers, for they are
159
the last persons in the world who would come to anything one; but from the various combinations of them with ac-
like a philosophical discussion, if they could help, while tions and things and with one another, they are seen in all
they run about at the Dionysiac festivals as if they had let sorts of lights and appear many? Very true.
out their ears to hear every chorus; whether the perfor- And this is the distinction which I draw between the sight-
mance is in town or country—that makes no difference— loving, art-loving, practical class and those of whom I am
they are there. Now are we to maintain that all these and speaking, and who are alone worthy of the name of phi-
any who have similar tastes, as well as the professors of losophers.
quite minor arts, are philosophers? How do you distinguish them? he said.
Certainly not, I replied; they are only an imitation. The lovers of sounds and sights, I replied, are, as I con-
He said: Who then are the true philosophers? ceive, fond of fine tones and colours and forms and all the
Those, I said, who are lovers of the vision of truth. artificial products that are made out of them, but their mind
That is also good, he said; but I should like to know what is incapable of seeing or loving absolute beauty.
you mean? True, he replied.
To another, I replied, I might have a difficulty in explain- Few are they who are able to attain to the sight of this.
ing; but I am sure that you will admit a proposition which I Very true.
am about to make. And he who, having a sense of beautiful things has no
What is the proposition? sense of absolute beauty, or who, if another lead him to a
That since beauty is the opposite of ugliness, they are knowledge of that beauty is unable to follow—of such an
two? one I ask, Is he awake or in a dream only? Reflect: is not the
Certainly. dreamer, sleeping or waking, one who likens dissimilar
And inasmuch as they are two, each of them is one? things, who puts the copy in the place of the real object?
True again. I should certainly say that such an one was dreaming.
And of just and unjust, good and evil, and of every other But take the case of the other, who recognises the exist-
class, the same remark holds: taken singly, each of them ence of absolute beauty and is able to distinguish the idea
160
Plato’s The RepublicPlato’s The Republic
from the objects which participate in the idea, neither put- points of view, that absolute being is or may be absolutely
ting the objects in the place of the idea nor the idea in the known, but that the utterly non-existent is utterly un-
place of the objects—is he a dreamer, or is he awake? known?
He is wide awake. Nothing can be more certain.
And may we not say that the mind of the one who knows Good. But if there be anything which is of such a nature
has knowledge, and that the mind of the other, who opines as to be and not to be, that will have a place intermediate
only, has opinion between pure being and the absolute negation of being?
Certainly. Yes, between them.
But suppose that the latter should quarrel with us and And, as knowledge corresponded to being and ignorance
dispute our statement, can we administer any soothing cor- of necessity to not-being, for that intermediate between
dial or advice to him, without revealing to him that there is being and not-being there has to be discovered a corre-
sad disorder in his wits? sponding intermediate between ignorance and knowledge,
We must certainly offer him some good advice, he replied. if there be such?
Come, then, and let us think of something to say to him. Certainly.
Shall we begin by assuring him that he is welcome to any Do we admit the existence of opinion?
knowledge which he may have, and that we are rejoiced at Undoubtedly.
his having it? But we should like to ask him a question: As being the same with knowledge, or another faculty?
Does he who has knowledge know something or nothing? Another faculty.
(You must answer for him.) Then opinion and knowledge have to do with different
I answer that he knows something. kinds of matter corresponding to this difference of facul-
Something that is or is not? ties?
Something that is; for how can that which is not ever be Yes.
known? And knowledge is relative to being and knows being. But
And are we assured, after looking at the matter from many before I proceed further I will make a division.
161
What division? knowledge is not the same as opinion?
I will begin by placing faculties in a class by themselves: Why, yes, he said: how can any reasonable being ever iden-
they are powers in us, and in all other things, by which we tify that which is infallible with that which errs?
do as we do. Sight and hearing, for example, I should call An excellent answer, proving, I said, that we are quite
faculties. Have I clearly explained the class which I mean? conscious of a distinction between them.
Yes, I quite understand. Yes.
Then let me tell you my view about them. I do not see Then knowledge and opinion having distinct powers have
them, and therefore the distinctions of fire, colour, and the also distinct spheres or subject-matters?
like, which enable me to discern the differences of some That is certain.
things, do not apply to them. In speaking of a faculty I Being is the sphere or subject-matter of knowledge, and
think only of its sphere and its result; and that which has knowledge is to know the nature of being?
the same sphere and the same result I call the same faculty, Yes.
but that which has another sphere and another result I call And opinion is to have an opinion?
different. Would that be your way of speaking? Yes.
Yes. And do we know what we opine? or is the subject-matter
And will you be so very good as to answer one more ques- of opinion the same as the subject-matter of knowledge?
tion? Would you say that knowledge is a faculty, or in what Nay, he replied, that has been already disproven; if dif-
class would you place it? ference in faculty implies difference in the sphere or sub-
Certainly knowledge is a faculty, and the mightiest of all ject matter, and if, as we were saying, opinion and knowl-
faculties. edge are distinct faculties, then the sphere of knowledge
And is opinion also a faculty? and of opinion cannot be the same.
Certainly, he said; for opinion is that with which we are Then if being is the subject-matter of knowledge, some-
able to form an opinion. thing else must be the subject-matter of opinion?
And yet you were acknowledging a little while ago that Yes, something else.
162
Well then, is not-being the subject-matter of opinion? or, Then I suppose that opinion appears to you to be darker
rather, how can there be an opinion at all about not-being? than knowledge, but lighter than ignorance?
Reflect: when a man has an opinion, has he not an opinion Both; and in no small degree.
about something? Can he have an opinion which is an opin- And also to be within and between them?
ion about nothing? Yes.
Impossible. Then you would infer that opinion is intermediate?
He who has an opinion has an opinion about some one No question.
thing? But were we not saying before, that if anything appeared
Yes. to be of a sort which is and is not at the same time, that
And not-being is not one thing but, properly speaking, sort of thing would appear also to lie in the interval be-
nothing? tween pure being and absolute not-being; and that the cor-
True. responding faculty is neither knowledge nor ignorance, but
Of not-being, ignorance was assumed to be the necessary will be found in the interval between them?
correlative; of being, knowledge? True.
True, he said. And in that interval there has now been discovered some-
Then opinion is not concerned either with being or with thing which we call opinion?
not-being? There has.
Not with either. Then what remains to be discovered is the object which
And can therefore neither be ignorance nor knowledge? partakes equally of the nature of being and not-being, and
That seems to be true. cannot rightly be termed either, pure and simple; this un-
But is opinion to be sought without and beyond either known term, when discovered, we may truly call the sub-
of them, in a greater clearness than knowledge, or in a ject of opinion, and assign each to its proper faculty, —the
greater darkness than ignorance? extremes to the faculties of the extremes and the mean to
In neither. the faculty of the mean.
163
True. He replied: They are like the punning riddles which are
This being premised, I would ask the gentleman who is of asked at feasts or the children’s puzzle about the eunuch
opinion that there is no absolute or unchangeable idea of aiming at the bat, with what he hit him, as they say in the
beauty in whose opinion the beautiful is the manifold—he, puzzle, and upon what the bat was sitting. The individual
I say, your lover of beautiful sights, who cannot bear to be objects of which I am speaking are also a riddle, and have a
told that the beautiful is one, and the just is one, or that double sense: nor can you fix them in your mind, either as
anything is one—to him I would appeal, saying, Will you being or not- being, or both, or neither.
be so very kind, sir, as to tell us whether, of all these beau- Then what will you do with them? I said. Can they have a
tiful things, there is one which will not be found ugly; or of better place than between being and not-being? For they
the just, which will not be found unjust; or of the holy, are clearly not in greater darkness or negation than not-
which will not also be unholy? being, or more full of light and existence than being.
No, he replied; the beautiful will in some point of view be That is quite true, he said.
found ugly; and the same is true of the rest. Thus then we seem to have discovered that the many ideas
And may not the many which are doubles be also halves?— which the multitude entertain about the beautiful and about
doubles, that is, of one thing, and halves of another? all other things are tossing about in some region which is
Quite true. halfway between pure being and pure not-being?
And things great and small, heavy and light, as they are We have.
termed, will not be denoted by these any more than by the Yes; and we had before agreed that anything of this kind
opposite names? which we might find was to be described as matter of opin-
True; both these and the opposite names will always at- ion, and not as matter of knowledge; being the intermedi-
tach to all of them. ate flux which is caught and detained by the intermediate
And can any one of those many things which are called by faculty.
particular names be said to be this rather than not to be Quite true.
this? Then those who see the many beautiful, and who yet nei-
164
ther see absolute beauty, nor can follow any guide who BOOK VI
points the way thither; who see the many just, and not
absolute justice, and the like,—such persons may be said SOCRATES - GLAUCON
to have opinion but not knowledge?
And thus, Glaucon, after the argument has gone a weary
That is certain.
way, the true and the false philosophers have at length
But those who see the absolute and eternal and immu-
appeared in view.
table may be said to know, and not to have opinion only?
I do not think, he said, that the way could have been
Neither can that be denied.
shortened.
The one loves and embraces the subjects of knowledge,
I suppose not, I said; and yet I believe that we might
the other those of opinion? The latter are the same, as I
have had a better view of both of them if the discussion
dare say will remember, who listened to sweet sounds and
could have been confined to this one subject and if there
gazed upon fair colours, but would not tolerate the exist-
were not many other questions awaiting us, which he who
ence of absolute beauty.
desires to see in what respect the life of the just differs
Yes, I remember.
from that of the unjust must consider.
Shall we then be guilty of any impropriety in calling them
And what is the next question? he asked.
lovers of opinion rather than lovers of wisdom, and will
Surely, I said, the one which follows next in order. Inas-
they be very angry with us for thus describing them?
much as philosophers only are able to grasp the eternal
I shall tell them not to be angry; no man should be angry
and unchangeable, and those who wander in the region of
at what is true.
the many and variable are not philosophers, I must ask you
But those who love the truth in each thing are to be called
which of the two classes should be the rulers of our State?
lovers of wisdom and not lovers of opinion.
And how can we rightly answer that question?
Assuredly.
Whichever of the two are best able to guard the laws and
institutions of our State—let them be our guardians.
Very good.
165
Neither, I said, can there be any question that the guard- the philosopher has to be ascertained. We must come to an
ian who is to keep anything should have eyes rather than understanding about him, and, when we have done so, then,
no eyes? if I am not mistaken, we shall also acknowledge that such
There can be no question of that. an union of qualities is possible, and that those in whom
And are not those who are verily and indeed wanting in they are united, and those only, should be rulers in the
the knowledge of the true being of each thing, and who State.
have in their souls no clear pattern, and are unable as with What do you mean?
a painter’s eye to look at the absolute truth and to that Let us suppose that philosophical minds always love
original to repair, and having perfect vision of the other knowledge of a sort which shows them the eternal nature
world to order the laws about beauty, goodness, justice in not varying from generation and corruption.
this, if not already ordered, and to guard and preserve the Agreed.
order of them—are not such persons, I ask, simply blind? And further, I said, let us agree that they are lovers of all
Truly, he replied, they are much in that condition. true being; there is no part whether greater or less, or more
And shall they be our guardians when there are others or less honourable, which they are willing to renounce; as
who, besides being their equals in experience and falling we said before of the lover and the man of ambition.
short of them in no particular of virtue, also know the very True.
truth of each thing? And if they are to be what we were describing, is there
There can be no reason, he said, for rejecting those who not another quality which they should also possess?
have this greatest of all great qualities; they must always What quality?
have the first place unless they fail in some other respect. Truthfulness: they will never intentionally receive into
Suppose then, I said, that we determine how far they can their mind falsehood, which is their detestation, and they
unite this and the other excellences. will love the truth.
By all means. Yes, that may be safely affirmed of them.
In the first place, as we began by observing, the nature of ‘May be,’ my friend, I replied, is not the word; say rather
166
‘must be affirmed:’ for he whose nature is amorous of any- ous of having and spending, have no place in his character.
thing cannot help loving all that belongs or is akin to the Very true.
object of his affections. Another criterion of the philosophical nature has also to
Right, he said. be considered.
And is there anything more akin to wisdom than truth? What is that?
How can there be? There should be no secret corner of illiberality; nothing
Can the same nature be a lover of wisdom and a lover of can more antagonistic than meanness to a soul which is
falsehood? ever longing after the whole of things both divine and hu-
Never. man.
The true lover of learning then must from his earliest Most true, he replied.
youth, as far as in him lies, desire all truth? Then how can he who has magnificence of mind and is the
Assuredly. spectator of all time and all existence, think much of hu-
But then again, as we know by experience, he whose de- man life?
sires are strong in one direction will have them weaker in He cannot.
others; they will be like a stream which has been drawn off Or can such an one account death fearful?
into another channel. No indeed.
True. Then the cowardly and mean nature has no part in true
He whose desires are drawn towards knowledge in every philosophy?
form will be absorbed in the pleasures of the soul, and will Certainly not.
hardly feel bodily pleasure—I mean, if he be a true phi- Or again: can he who is harmoniously constituted, who is
losopher and not a sham one. not covetous or mean, or a boaster, or a coward—can he, I
That is most certain. say, ever be unjust or hard in his dealings?
Such an one is sure to be temperate and the reverse of Impossible.
covetous; for the motives which make another man desir- Then you will soon observe whether a man is just and
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gentle, or rude and unsociable; these are the signs which To proportion.
distinguish even in youth the philosophical nature from Then, besides other qualities, we must try to find a natu-
the unphilosophical. rally well-proportioned and gracious mind, which will move
True. spontaneously towards the true being of everything.
There is another point which should be remarked. Certainly.
What point? Well, and do not all these qualities, which we have been
Whether he has or has not a pleasure in learning; for no enumerating, go together, and are they not, in a manner,
one will love that which gives him pain, and in which after necessary to a soul, which is to have a full and perfect par-
much toil he makes little progress. ticipation of being?
Certainly not. They are absolutely necessary, he replied.
And again, if he is forgetful and retains nothing of what And must not that be a blameless study which he only
he learns, will he not be an empty vessel? can pursue who has the gift of a good memory, and is quick
That is certain. to learn,—noble, gracious, the friend of truth, justice, cour-
Labouring in vain, he must end in hating himself and his age, temperance, who are his kindred?
fruitless occupation? Yes. The god of jealousy himself, he said, could find no fault
Then a soul which forgets cannot be ranked among genu- with such a study.
ine philosophic natures; we must insist that the philoso- And to men like him, I said, when perfected by years and
pher should have a good memory? education, and to these only you will entrust the State.
Certainly.
And once more, the inharmonious and unseemly nature SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS
can only tend to disproportion?
Here Adeimantus interposed and said: To these state-
Undoubtedly.
ments, Socrates, no one can offer a reply; but when you
And do you consider truth to be akin to proportion or to
talk in this way, a strange feeling passes over the minds of
disproportion?
your hearers: They fancy that they are led astray a little at
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each step in the argument, owing to their own want of skill not cease from evil until philosophers rule in them, when
in asking and answering questions; these littles accumu- philosophers are acknowledged by us to be of no use to
late, and at the end of the discussion they are found to them?
have sustained a mighty overthrow and all their former You ask a question, I said, to which a reply can only be
notions appear to be turned upside down. And as unskilful given in a parable.
players of draughts are at last shut up by their more skilful Yes, Socrates; and that is a way of speaking to which you
adversaries and have no piece to move, so they too find are not at all accustomed, I suppose.
themselves shut up at last; for they have nothing to say in I perceive, I said, that you are vastly amused at having
this new game of which words are the counters; and yet all plunged me into such a hopeless discussion; but now hear
the time they are in the right. The observation is suggested the parable, and then you will be still more amused at the
to me by what is now occurring. For any one of us might meagreness of my imagination: for the manner in which the
say, that although in words he is not able to meet you at best men are treated in their own States is so grievous that
each step of the argument, he sees as a fact that the vota- no single thing on earth is comparable to it; and therefore,
ries of philosophy, when they carry on the study, not only if I am to plead their cause, I must have recourse to fiction,
in youth as a part of education, but as the pursuit of their and put together a figure made up of many things, like the
maturer years, most of them become strange monsters, not fabulous unions of goats and stags which are found in pic-
to say utter rogues, and that those who may be considered tures. Imagine then a fleet or a ship in which there is a
the best of them are made useless to the world by the very captain who is taller and stronger than any of the crew, but
study which you extol. he is a little deaf and has a similar infirmity in sight, and
Well, and do you think that those who say so are wrong? his knowledge of navigation is not much better. The sailors
I cannot tell, he replied; but I should like to know what is are quarrelling with one another about the steering—ev-
your opinion. ery one is of opinion that he has a right to steer, though he
Hear my answer; I am of opinion that they are quite right. has never learned the art of navigation and cannot tell who
Then how can you be justified in saying that cities will taught him or when he learned, and will further assert that
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it cannot be taught, and they are ready to cut in pieces any them a prater, a star-gazer, a good-for-nothing?
one who says the contrary. They throng about the captain, Of course, said Adeimantus.
begging and praying him to commit the helm to them; and Then you will hardly need, I said, to hear the interpreta-
if at any time they do not prevail, but others are preferred tion of the figure, which describes the true philosopher in
to them, they kill the others or throw them overboard, and his relation to the State; for you understand already.
having first chained up the noble captain’s senses with drink Certainly.
or some narcotic drug, they mutiny and take possession of Then suppose you now take this parable to the gentle-
the ship and make free with the stores; thus, eating and man who is surprised at finding that philosophers have no
drinking, they proceed on their voyage in such a manner as honour in their cities; explain it to him and try to convince
might be expected of them. Him who is their partisan and him that their having honour would be far more extraordi-
cleverly aids them in their plot for getting the ship out of nary.
the captain’s hands into their own whether by force or per- I will.
suasion, they compliment with the name of sailor, pilot, Say to him, that, in deeming the best votaries of philoso-
able seaman, and abuse the other sort of man, whom they phy to be useless to the rest of the world, he is right; but
call a good-for-nothing; but that the true pilot must pay also tell him to attribute their uselessness to the fault of
attention to the year and seasons and sky and stars and those who will not use them, and not to themselves. The
winds, and whatever else belongs to his art, if he intends pilot should not humbly beg the sailors to be commanded
to be really qualified for the command of a ship, and that by him—that is not the order of nature; neither are ‘the
he must and will be the steerer, whether other people like wise to go to the doors of the rich’—the ingenious author
or not-the possibility of this union of authority with the of this saying told a lie—but the truth is, that, when a man
steerer’s art has never seriously entered into their thoughts is ill, whether he be rich or poor, to the physician he must
or been made part of their calling. Now in vessels which are go, and he who wants to be governed, to him who is able to
in a state of mutiny and by sailors who are mutineers, how govern. The ruler who is good for anything ought not to
will the true pilot be regarded? Will he not be called by beg his subjects to be ruled by him; although the present
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governors of mankind are of a different stamp; they may and in all things; failing in this, he was an impostor, and
be justly compared to the mutinous sailors, and the true had no part or lot in true philosophy.
helmsmen to those who are called by them good-for-noth- Yes, that was said.
ings and star-gazers. Well, and is not this one quality, to mention no others,
Precisely so, he said. greatly at variance with present notions of him?
For these reasons, and among men like these, philosophy, Certainly, he said.
the noblest pursuit of all, is not likely to be much esteemed And have we not a right to say in his defence, that the
by those of the opposite faction; not that the greatest and true lover of knowledge is always striving after being—
most lasting injury is done to her by her opponents, but by that is his nature; he will not rest in the multiplicity of
her own professing followers, the same of whom you sup- individuals which is an appearance only, but will go on—
pose the accuser to say, that the greater number of them the keen edge will not be blunted, nor the force of his de-
are arrant rogues, and the best are useless; in which opin- sire abate until he have attained the knowledge of the true
ion I agreed. nature of every essence by a sympathetic and kindred power
Yes. in the soul, and by that power drawing near and mingling
And the reason why the good are useless has now been and becoming incorporate with very being, having begot-
explained? ten mind and truth, he will have knowledge and will live
True. and grow truly, and then, and not till then, will he cease
Then shall we proceed to show that the corruption of the from his travail.
majority is also unavoidable, and that this is not to be laid Nothing, he said, can be more just than such a descrip-
to the charge of philosophy any more than the other? tion of him.
By all means. And will the love of a lie be any part of a philosopher’s
And let us ask and answer in turn, first going back to the nature? Will he not utterly hate a lie?
description of the gentle and noble nature. Truth, as you He will.
will remember, was his leader, whom he followed always And when truth is the captain, we cannot suspect any
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evil of the band which he leads? of which they are unworthy, and then, by their manifold
Impossible. inconsistencies, bring upon philosophy, and upon all phi-
Justice and health of mind will be of the company, and losophers, that universal reprobation of which we speak.
temperance will follow after? What are these corruptions? he said.
True, he replied. I will see if I can explain them to you. Every one will
Neither is there any reason why I should again set in ar- admit that a nature having in perfection all the qualities
ray the philosopher’s virtues, as you will doubtless remem- which we required in a philosopher, is a rare plant which is
ber that courage, magnificence, apprehension, memory, were seldom seen among men.
his natural gifts. And you objected that, although no one Rare indeed.
could deny what I then said, still, if you leave words and And what numberless and powerful causes tend to de-
look at facts, the persons who are thus described are some stroy these rare natures!
of them manifestly useless, and the greater number utterly What causes?
depraved; we were then led to enquire into the grounds of In the first place there are their own virtues, their cour-
these accusations, and have now arrived at the point of age, temperance, and the rest of them, every one of which
asking why are the majority bad, which question of neces- praise worthy qualities (and this is a most singular circum-
sity brought us back to the examination and definition of stance) destroys and distracts from philosophy the soul
the true philosopher. which is the possessor of them.
Exactly. That is very singular, he replied.
And we have next to consider the of the philosophic na- Then there are all the ordinary goods of life—beauty,
ture, why so many are spoiled and so few escape spoiling— wealth, strength, rank, and great connections in the State—
I am speaking of those who were said to be useless but not you understand the sort of things—these also have a cor-
wicked—and, when we have done with them, we will speak rupting and distracting effect.
of the imitators of philosophy, what manner of men are I understand; but I should like to know more precisely
they who aspire after a profession which is above them and what you mean about them.
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Grasp the truth as a whole, I said, and in the right way; a plant which, having proper nurture, must necessarily grow
you will then have no difficulty in apprehending the pre- and mature into all virtue, but, if sown and planted in an
ceding remarks, and they will no longer appear strange to alien soil, becomes the most noxious of all weeds, unless
you. he be preserved by some divine power. Do you really think,
And how am I to do so? he asked. as people so often say, that our youth are corrupted by
Why, I said, we know that all germs or seeds, whether Sophists, or that private teachers of the art corrupt them
vegetable or animal, when they fail to meet with proper in any degree worth speaking of? Are not the public who
nutriment or climate or soil, in proportion to their vigour, say these things the greatest of all Sophists? And do they
are all the more sensitive to the want of a suitable environ- not educate to perfection young and old, men and women
ment, for evil is a greater enemy to what is good than what alike, and fashion them after their own hearts?
is not. When is this accomplished? he said.
Very true. When they meet together, and the world sits down at an
There is reason in supposing that the finest natures, when assembly, or in a court of law, or a theatre, or a camp, or in
under alien conditions, receive more injury than the infe- any other popular resort, and there is a great uproar, and
rior, because the contrast is greater. they praise some things which are being said or done, and
Certainly. blame other things, equally exaggerating both, shouting
And may we not say, Adeimantus, that the most gifted and clapping their hands, and the echo of the rocks and the
minds, when they are ill- educated, become pre-eminently place in which they are assembled redoubles the sound of
bad? Do not great crimes and the spirit of pure evil spring the praise or blame—at such a time will not a young man’s
out of a fulness of nature ruined by education rather than heart, as they say, leap within him? Will any private train-
from any inferiority, whereas weak natures are scarcely ca- ing enable him to stand firm against the overwhelming flood
pable of any very great good or very great evil? of popular opinion? or will he be carried away by the stream?
There I think that you are right. Will he not have the notions of good and evil which the
And our philosopher follows the same analogy-he is like public in general have—he will do as they do, and as they
173
are, such will he be? Then let me crave your assent also to a further observa-
Yes, Socrates; necessity will compel him. tion.
And yet, I said, there is a still greater necessity, which What are you going to say?
has not been mentioned. Why, that all those mercenary individuals, whom the many
What is that? call Sophists and whom they deem to be their adversaries,
The gentle force of attainder or confiscation or death do, in fact, teach nothing but the opinion of the many,
which, as you are aware, these new Sophists and educators that is to say, the opinions of their assemblies; and this is
who are the public, apply when their words are powerless. their wisdom. I might compare them to a man who should
Indeed they do; and in right good earnest. study the tempers and desires of a mighty strong beast
Now what opinion of any other Sophist, or of any private who is fed by him—he would learn how to approach and
person, can be expected to overcome in such an unequal handle him, also at what times and from what causes he is
contest? dangerous or the reverse, and what is the meaning of his
None, he replied. several cries, and by what sounds, when another utters
No, indeed, I said, even to make the attempt is a great them, he is soothed or infuriated; and you may suppose
piece of folly; there neither is, nor has been, nor is ever further, that when, by continually attending upon him, he
likely to be, any different type of character which has had has become perfect in all this, he calls his knowledge wis-
no other training in virtue but that which is supplied by dom, and makes of it a system or art, which he proceeds to
public opinion—I speak, my friend, of human virtue only; teach, although he has no real notion of what he means by
what is more than human, as the proverb says, is not in- the principles or passions of which he is speaking, but calls
cluded: for I would not have you ignorant that, in the this honourable and that dishonourable, or good or evil, or
present evil state of governments, whatever is saved and just or unjust, all in accordance with the tastes and tem-
comes to good is saved by the power of God, as we may pers of the great brute. Good he pronounces to be that in
truly say. which the beast delights and evil to be that which he dis-
I quite assent, he replied. likes; and he can give no other account of them except that
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the just and noble are the necessary, having never himself Certainly not.
seen, and having no power of explaining to others the na- Then the world cannot possibly be a philosopher?
ture of either, or the difference between them, which is Impossible.
immense. By heaven, would not such an one be a rare edu- And therefore philosophers must inevitably fall under the
cator? censure of the world?
Indeed, he would. They must.
And in what way does he who thinks that wisdom is the And of individuals who consort with the mob and seek to
discernment of the tempers and tastes of the motley multi- please them?
tude, whether in painting or music, or, finally, in politics, That is evident.
differ from him whom I have been describing For when a Then, do you see any way in which the philosopher can
man consorts with the many, and exhibits to them his poem be preserved in his calling to the end? and remember what
or other work of art or the service which he has done the we were saying of him, that he was to have quickness and
State, making them his judges when he is not obliged, the memory and courage and magnificence—these were admit-
so-called necessity of Diomede will oblige him to produce ted by us to be the true philosopher’s gifts.
whatever they praise. And yet the reasons are utterly ludi- Yes.
crous which they give in confirmation of their own notions Will not such an one from his early childhood be in all
about the honourable and good. Did you ever hear any of things first among all, especially if his bodily endowments
them which were not? are like his mental ones?
No, nor am I likely to hear. Certainly, he said.
You recognise the truth of what I have been saying? Then And his friends and fellow-citizens will want to use him
let me ask you to consider further whether the world will as he gets older for their own purposes?
ever be induced to believe in the existence of absolute No question.
beauty rather than of the many beautiful, or of the abso- Falling at his feet, they will make requests to him and do
lute in each kind rather than of the many in each kind? him honour and flatter him, because they want to get into
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their hands now, the power which he will one day possess. der his teacher powerless, using to this end private intrigues
That often happens, he said. as well as public prosecutions?
And what will a man such as he be likely to do under such There can be no doubt of it.
circumstances, especially if he be a citizen of a great city, And how can one who is thus circumstanced ever become
rich and noble, and a tall proper youth? Will he not be full a philosopher?
of boundless aspirations, and fancy himself able to manage Impossible.
the affairs of Hellenes and of barbarians, and having got Then were we not right in saying that even the very quali-
such notions into his head will he not dilate and elevate ties which make a man a philosopher may, if he be ill-edu-
himself in the fulness of vain pomp and senseless pride? cated, divert him from philosophy, no less than riches and
To be sure he will. their accompaniments and the other so-called goods of life?
Now, when he is in this state of mind, if some one gently We were quite right.
comes to him and tells him that he is a fool and must get Thus, my excellent friend, is brought about all that ruin
understanding, which can only be got by slaving for it, do and failure which I have been describing of the natures best
you think that, under such adverse circumstances, he will adapted to the best of all pursuits; they are natures which
be easily induced we maintain to be rare at any time; this being the class out
to listen? of which come the men who are the authors of the greatest
Far otherwise. evil to States and individuals; and also of the greatest good
And even if there be some one who through inherent good- when the tide carries them in that direction; but a small
ness or natural reasonableness has had his eyes opened a man never was the doer of any great thing either to indi-
little and is humbled and taken captive by philosophy, how viduals or to States.
will his friends behave when they think that they are likely That is most true, he said.
to lose the advantage which they were hoping to reap from And so philosophy is left desolate, with her marriage rite
his companionship? Will they not do and say anything to incomplete: for her own have fallen away and forsaken her,
prevent him from yielding to his better nature and to ren- and while they are leading a false and unbecoming life, other
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unworthy persons, seeing that she has no kinsmen to be her A most exact parallel.
protectors, enter in and dishonour her; and fasten upon her What will be the issue of such marriages? Will they not be
the reproaches which, as you say, her reprovers utter, who vile and bastard?
affirm of her votaries that some are good for nothing, and There can be no question of it.
that the greater number deserve the severest punishment. And when persons who are unworthy of education ap-
That is certainly what people say. proach philosophy and make an alliance with her who is a
Yes; and what else would you expect, I said, when you rank above them what sort of ideas and opinions are likely
think of the puny creatures who, seeing this land open to to be generated? Will they not be sophisms captivating to
them—a land well stocked with fair names and showy the ear, having nothing in them genuine, or worthy of or
titles—like prisoners running out of prison into a sanctu- akin to true wisdom?
ary, take a leap out of their trades into philosophy; those No doubt, he said.
who do so being probably the cleverest hands at their own Then, Adeimantus, I said, the worthy disciples of philoso-
miserable crafts? For, although philosophy be in this evil phy will be but a small remnant: perchance some noble and
case, still there remains a dignity about her which is not to well-educated person, detained by exile in her service, who
be found in the arts. And many are thus attracted by her in the absence of corrupting influences remains devoted to
whose natures are imperfect and whose souls are maimed her; or some lofty soul born in a mean city, the politics of
and disfigured by their meannesses, as their bodies are by which he contemns and neglects; and there may be a gifted
their trades and crafts. Is not this unavoidable? few who leave the arts, which they justly despise, and come
Yes. to her;—or peradventure there are some who are restrained
Are they not exactly like a bald little tinker who has just by our friend Theages’ bridle; for everything in the life of
got out of durance and come into a fortune; he takes a Theages conspired to divert him from philosophy; but ill-
bath and puts on a new coat, and is decked out as a bride- health kept him away from politics. My own case of the
groom going to marry his master’s daughter, who is left internal sign is hardly worth mentioning, for rarely, if ever,
poor and desolate? has such a monitor been given to any other man. Those
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who belong to this small class have tasted how sweet and The causes why philosophy is in such an evil name have
blessed a possession philosophy is, and have also seen now been sufficiently explained: the injustice of the charges
enough of the madness of the multitude; and they know against her has been shown-is there anything more which
that no politician is honest, nor is there any champion of you wish to say?
justice at whose side they may fight and be saved. Such an Nothing more on that subject, he replied; but I should
one may be compared to a man who has fallen among wild like to know which of the governments now existing is in
beasts—he will not join in the wickedness of his fellows, your opinion the one adapted to her.
but neither is he able singly to resist all their fierce na- Not any of them, I said; and that is precisely the accusa-
tures, and therefore seeing that he would be of no use to tion which I bring against them—not one of them is wor-
the State or to his friends, and reflecting that he would thy of the philosophic nature, and hence that nature is
have to throw away his life without doing any good either warped and estranged;—as the exotic seed which is sown
to himself or others, he holds his peace, and goes his own in a foreign land becomes denaturalized, and is wont to be
way. He is like one who, in the storm of dust and sleet overpowered and to lose itself in the new soil, even so this
which the driving wind hurries along, retires under the shel- growth of philosophy, instead of persisting, degenerates
ter of a wall; and seeing the rest of mankind full of wicked- and receives another character. But if philosophy ever finds
ness, he is content, if only he can live his own life and be in the State that perfection which she herself is, then will
pure from evil or unrighteousness, and depart in peace and be seen that she is in truth divine, and that all other things,
good-will, with bright hopes. whether natures of men or institutions, are but human;—
Yes, he said, and he will have done a great work before he and now, I know that you are going to ask, what that State
departs. is.
A great work—yes; but not the greatest, unless he find a No, he said; there you are wrong, for I was going to ask
State suitable to him; for in a State which is suitable to another question—whether it is the State of which. we are
him, he will have a larger growth and be the saviour of his the founders and inventors, or some other?
country, as well as of himself. Yes, I replied, ours in most respects; but you may remem-
178
ber my saying before, that some living authority would al- keeping to such pursuits; and even those of them who are
ways be required in the State having the same idea of the reputed to have most of the philosophic spirit, when they
constitution which guided you when as legislator you were come within sight of the great difficulty of the subject, I
laying down the laws. mean dialectic, take themselves off. In after life when in-
That was said, he replied. vited by some one else, they may, perhaps, go and hear a
Yes, but not in a satisfactory manner; you frightened us lecture, and about this they make much ado, for philoso-
by interposing objections, which certainly showed that the phy is not considered by them to be their proper business:
discussion would be long and difficult; and what still re- at last, when they grow old, in most cases they are extin-
mains is the reverse of easy. guished more truly than Heracleitus’ sun, inasmuch as they
What is there remaining? never light up again.
The question how the study of philosophy may be so or- But what ought to be their course?
dered as not to be the ruin of the State: All great attempts Just the opposite. In childhood and youth their study,
are attended with risk; ‘hard is the good,’ as men say. and what philosophy they learn, should be suited to their
Still, he said, let the point be cleared up, and the enquiry tender years: during this period while they are growing up
will then be complete. towards manhood, the chief and special care should be given
I shall not be hindered, I said, by any want of will, but, if to their bodies that they may have them to use in the ser-
at all, by a want of power: my zeal you may see for your- vice of philosophy; as life advances and the intellect begins
selves; and please to remark in what I am about to say how to mature, let them increase the gymnastics of the soul;
boldly and unhesitatingly I declare that States should pur- but when the strength of our citizens fails and is past civil
sue philosophy, not as they do now, but in a different spirit. and military duties, then let them range at will and engage
In what manner? in no serious labour, as we intend them to live happily here,
At present, I said, the students of philosophy are quite and to crown this life with a similar happiness in another.
young; beginning when they are hardly past childhood, they How truly in earnest you are, Socrates! he said; I am sure
devote only the time saved from moneymaking and house- of that; and yet most of your hearers, if I am not mistaken,
179
are likely to be still more earnest in their opposition to earnestly and by every means in their power seeking after
you, and will never be convinced; Thrasymachus least of all. truth for the sake of knowledge, while they look coldly on
Do not make a quarrel, I said, between Thrasymachus and the subtleties of controversy, of which the end is opinion
me, who have recently become friends, although, indeed, and strife, whether they meet with them in the courts of
we were never enemies; for I shall go on striving to the law or in society.
utmost until I either convert him and other men, or do some- They are strangers, he said, to the words of which you
thing which may profit them against the day when they speak.
live again, and hold the like discourse in another state of And this was what we foresaw, and this was the reason
existence. why truth forced us to admit, not without fear and hesita-
You are speaking of a time which is not very near. tion, that neither cities nor States nor individuals will ever
Rather, I replied, of a time which is as nothing in compari- attain perfection until the small class of philosophers whom
son with eternity. Nevertheless, I do not wonder that the we termed useless but not corrupt are providentially com-
many refuse to believe; for they have never seen that of pelled, whether they will or not, to take care of the State,
which we are now speaking realised; they have seen only a and until a like necessity be laid on the State to obey them;
conventional imitation of philosophy, consisting of words or until kings, or if not kings, the sons of kings or princes,
artificially brought together, not like these of ours having are divinely inspired with a true love of true philosophy.
a natural unity. But a human being who in word and work is That either or both of these alternatives are impossible, I
perfectly moulded, as far as he can be, into the proportion see no reason to affirm: if they were so, we might indeed be
and likeness of virtue—such a man ruling in a city which justly ridiculed as dreamers and visionaries. Am I not right?
bears the same image, they have never yet seen, neither Quite right.
one nor many of them—do you think that they ever did? If then, in the countless ages of the past, or at the present
No indeed. hour in some foreign clime which is far away and beyond
No, my friend, and they have seldom, if ever, heard free our ken, the perfected philosopher is or has been or hereaf-
and noble sentiments; such as men utter when they are ter shall be compelled by a superior power to have the
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charge of the State, we are ready to assert to the death, And do you not also think, as I do, that the harsh feeling
that this our constitution has been, and is—yea, and will which the many entertain towards philosophy originates in
be whenever the Muse of Philosophy is queen. There is no the pretenders, who rush in uninvited, and are always abus-
impossibility in all this; that there is a difficulty, we ac- ing them, and finding fault with them, who make persons
knowledge ourselves. instead of things the theme of their conversation? and noth-
My opinion agrees with yours, he said. ing can be more unbecoming in philosophers than this.
But do you mean to say that this is not the opinion of It is most unbecoming.
the multitude? For he, Adeimantus, whose mind is fixed upon true being,
I should imagine not, he replied. has surely no time to look down upon the affairs of earth,
O my friend, I said, do not attack the multitude: they will or to be filled with malice and envy, contending against
change their minds, if, not in an aggressive spirit, but gen- men; his eye is ever directed towards things fixed and im-
tly and with the view of soothing them and removing their mutable, which he sees neither injuring nor injured by one
dislike of over-education, you show them your philosophers another, but all in order moving according to reason; these
as they really are and describe as you were just now doing he imitates, and to these he will, as far as he can, conform
their character and profession, and then mankind will see himself. Can a man help imitating that with which he holds
that he of whom you are speaking is not such as they sup- reverential converse?
posed—if they view him in this new light, they will surely Impossible.
change their notion of him, and answer in another strain. And the philosopher holding converse with the divine or-
Who can be at enmity with one who loves them, who that is der, becomes orderly and divine, as far as the nature of man
himself gentle and free from envy will be jealous of one in allows; but like every one else, he will suffer from detrac-
whom there is no jealousy? Nay, let me answer for you, tion.
that in a few this harsh temper may be found but not in the Of course.
majority of mankind. And if a necessity be laid upon him of fashioning, not
I quite agree with you, he said. only himself, but human nature generally, whether in States
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or individuals, into that which he beholds elsewhere, will will often turn their eyes upwards and downwards: I mean
he, think you, be an unskilful artificer of justice, temper- that they will first look at absolute justice and beauty and
ance, and every civil virtue? temperance, and again at the human copy; and will mingle
Anything but unskilful. and temper the various elements of life into the image of a
And if the world perceives that what we are saying about man; and thus they will conceive according to that other
him is the truth, will they be angry with philosophy? Will image, which, when existing among men, Homer calls the
they disbelieve us, when we tell them that no State can be form and likeness of God.
happy which is not designed by artists who imitate the Very true, he said.
heavenly pattern? And one feature they will erase, and another they will
They will not be angry if they understand, he said. But put in, they have made the ways of men, as far as possible,
how will they draw out the plan of which you are speaking? agreeable to the ways of God?
They will begin by taking the State and the manners of Indeed, he said, in no way could they make a fairer pic-
men, from which, as from a tablet, they will rub out the ture.
picture, and leave a clean surface. This is no easy task. But And now, I said, are we beginning to persuade those whom
whether easy or not, herein will lie the difference between you described as rushing at us with might and main, that
them and every other legislator,—they will have nothing the painter of constitutions is such an one as we are prais-
to do either with individual or State, and will inscribe no ing; at whom they were so very indignant because to his
laws, until they have either found, or themselves made, a hands we committed the State; and are they growing a little
clean surface. calmer at what they have just heard?
They will be very right, he said. Much calmer, if there is any sense in them.
Having effected this, they will proceed to trace an out- Why, where can they still find any ground for objection?
line of the constitution? Will they doubt that the philosopher is a lover of truth and
No doubt. being?
And when they are filling in the work, as I conceive, they They would not be so unreasonable.
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Or that his nature, being such as we have delineated, is hardly be saved is not denied even by us; but that in the
akin to the highest good? whole course of ages no single one of them can escape—
Neither can they doubt this. who will venture to affirm this?
But again, will they tell us that such a nature, placed Who indeed!
under favourable circumstances, will not be perfectly good But, said I, one is enough; let there be one man who has
and wise if any ever was? Or will they prefer those whom we a city obedient to his will, and he might bring into exist-
have rejected? ence the ideal polity about which the world is so incredu-
Surely not. lous.
Then will they still be angry at our saying, that, until Yes, one is enough.
philosophers bear rule, States and individuals will have no The ruler may impose the laws and institutions which we
rest from evil, nor will this our imaginary State ever be have been describing, and the citizens may possibly be will-
realised? ing to obey them?
I think that they will be less angry. Certainly.
Shall we assume that they are not only less angry but And that others should approve of what we approve, is
quite gentle, and that they have been converted and for no miracle or impossibility?
very shame, if for no other reason, cannot refuse to come I think not.
to terms? But we have sufficiently shown, in what has preceded,
By all means, he said. that all this, if only possible, is assuredly for the best.
Then let us suppose that the reconciliation has been ef- We have.
fected. Will any one deny the other point, that there may And now we say not only that our laws, if they could be
be sons of kings or princes who are by nature philosophers? enacted, would be for the best, but also that the enact-
Surely no man, he said. ment of them, though difficult, is not impossible.
And when they have come into being will any one say Very good.
that they must of necessity be destroyed; that they can And so with pain and toil we have reached the end of one
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subject, but more remains to be discussed;—how and by Yes, my friend, I said, and I then shrank from hazarding
what studies and pursuits will the saviours of the constitu- the bold word; but now let me dare to say—that the per-
tion be created, and at what ages are they to apply them- fect guardian must be a philosopher.
selves to their several studies? Yes, he said, let that be affirmed.
Certainly. And do not suppose that there will be many of them; for
I omitted the troublesome business of the possession of the gifts which were deemed by us to be essential rarely
women, and the procreation of children, and the appoint- grow together; they are mostly found in shreds and patches.
ment of the rulers, because I knew that the perfect State What do you mean? he said.
would be eyed with jealousy and was difficult of attain- You are aware, I replied, that quick intelligence, memory,
ment; but that piece of cleverness was not of much service sagacity, cleverness, and similar qualities, do not often grow
to me, for I had to discuss them all the same. The women together, and that persons who possess them and are at
and children are now disposed of, but the other question the same time high-spirited and magnanimous are not so
of the rulers must be investigated from the very beginning. constituted by nature as to live orderly and in a peaceful
We were saying, as you will remember, that they were to be and settled manner; they are driven any way by their im-
lovers of their country, tried by the test of pleasures and pulses, and all solid principle goes out of them.
pains, and neither in hardships, nor in dangers, nor at any Very true, he said.
other critical moment were to lose their patriotism—he was On the other hand, those steadfast natures which can bet-
to be rejected who failed, but he who always came forth ter be depended upon, which in a battle are impregnable to
pure, like gold tried in the refiner’s fire, was to be made a fear and immovable, are equally immovable when there is
ruler, and to receive honours and rewards in life and after anything to be learned; they are always in a torpid state,
death. This was the sort of thing which was being said, and and are apt to yawn and go to sleep over any intellectual
then the argument turned aside and veiled her face; not toil.
liking to stir the question which has now arisen. Quite true.
I perfectly remember, he said. And yet we were saying that both qualities were neces-
184
sary in those to whom the higher education is to be im- more circuitous way, at the end of which they would ap-
parted, and who are to share in any office or command. pear; but that we could add on a popular exposition of
Certainly, he said. them on a level with the discussion which had preceded.
And will they be a class which is rarely found? And you replied that such an exposition would be enough
Yes, indeed. for you, and so the enquiry was continued in what to me
Then the aspirant must not only be tested in those labours seemed to be a very inaccurate manner; whether you were
and dangers and pleasures which we mentioned before, but satisfied or not, it is for you to say.
there is another kind of probation which we did not men- Yes, he said, I thought and the others thought that you
tion—he must be exercised also in many kinds of knowl- gave us a fair measure of truth.
edge, to see whether the soul will be able to endure the But, my friend, I said, a measure of such things which in
highest of all, will faint under them, as in any other studies any degree falls short of the whole truth is not fair mea-
and exercises. sure; for nothing imperfect is the measure of anything, al-
Yes, he said, you are quite right in testing him. But what though persons are too apt to be contented and think that
do you mean by the highest of all knowledge? they need search no further.
You may remember, I said, that we divided the soul into Not an uncommon case when people are indolent.
three parts; and distinguished the several natures of jus- Yes, I said; and there cannot be any worse fault in a guard-
tice, temperance, courage, and wisdom? ian of the State and of the laws.
Indeed, he said, if I had forgotten, I should not deserve True.
to hear more. The guardian then, I said, must be required to take the
And do you remember the word of caution which pre- longer circuit, and toll at learning as well as at gymnastics,
ceded the discussion of them? or he will never reach the highest knowledge of all which,
To what do you refer? as we were just now saying, is his proper calling.
We were saying, if I am not mistaken, that he who wanted What, he said, is there a knowledge still higher than this—
to see them in their perfect beauty must take a longer and higher than justice and the other virtues?
185
Yes, I said, there is. And of the virtues too we must be- be the good, but the finer sort of wits say it is knowledge?
hold not the outline merely, as at present—nothing short Yes.
of the most finished picture should satisfy us. When little And you are aware too that the latter cannot explain
things are elaborated with an infinity of pains, in order what they mean by knowledge, but are obliged after all to
that they may appear in their full beauty and utmost clear- say knowledge of the good?
ness, how ridiculous that we should not think the highest How ridiculous!
truths worthy of attaining the highest accuracy! Yes, I said, that they should begin by reproaching us with
A right noble thought; but do you suppose that we shall our ignorance of the good, and then presume our knowl-
refrain from asking you what is this highest knowledge? edge of it—for the good they define to be knowledge of
Nay, I said, ask if you will; but I am certain that you have the good, just as if we understood them when they use the
heard the answer many times, and now you either do not term ‘good’—this is of course ridiculous.
understand me or, as I rather think, you are disposed to be Most true, he said.
troublesome; for you have of been told that the idea of And those who make pleasure their good are in equal
good is the highest knowledge, and that all other things perplexity; for they are compelled to admit that there are
become useful and advantageous only by their use of this. bad pleasures as well as good.
You can hardly be ignorant that of this I was about to speak, Certainly.
concerning which, as you have often heard me say, we know And therefore to acknowledge that bad and good are the
so little; and, without which, any other knowledge or pos- same?
session of any kind will profit us nothing. Do you think True.
that the possession of all other things is of any value if we There can be no doubt about the numerous difficulties in
do not possess the good? or the knowledge of all other which this question is involved.
things if we have no knowledge of beauty and goodness? There can be none.
Assuredly not. Further, do we not see that many are willing to do or to
You are further aware that most people affirm pleasure to have or to seem to be what is just and honourable without
186
the reality; but no one is satisfied with the appearance of like you would not be contented with the thoughts of other
good—the reality is what they seek; in the case of the people about these matters.
good, appearance is despised by every one. True, Socrates; but I must say that one who like you has passed
Very true, he said. a lifetime in the study of philosophy should not be always re-
Of this then, which every soul of man pursues and makes peating the opinions of others, and never telling his own.
the end of all his actions, having a presentiment that there Well, but has any one a right to say positively what he
is such an end, and yet hesitating because neither knowing does not know?
the nature nor having the same assurance of this as of other Not, he said, with the assurance of positive certainty; he
things, and therefore losing whatever good there is in other has no right to do that: but he may say what he thinks, as
things,—of a principle such and so great as this ought the a matter of opinion.
best men in our State, to whom everything is entrusted, to And do you not know, I said, that all mere opinions are
be in the darkness of ignorance? bad, and the best of them blind? You would not deny that
Certainly not, he said. those who have any true notion without intelligence are
I am sure, I said, that he who does not know now the only like blind men who feel their way along the road?
beautiful and the just are likewise good will be but a sorry Very true.
guardian of them; and I suspect that no one who is igno- And do you wish to behold what is blind and crooked and
rant of the good will have a true knowledge of them. base, when others will tell you of brightness and beauty?
That, he said, is a shrewd suspicion of yours.
And if we only have a guardian who has this knowledge GLAUCON - SOCRATES
our State will be perfectly ordered?
Still, I must implore you, Socrates, said Glaucon, not to
Of course, he replied; but I wish that you would tell me
turn away just as you are reaching the goal; if you will only
whether you conceive this supreme principle of the good
give such an explanation of the good as you have already
to be knowledge or pleasure, or different from either.
given of justice and temperance and the other virtues, we
Aye, I said, I knew all along that a fastidious gentleman
shall be satisfied.
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Yes, my friend, and I shall be at least equally satisfied, And there is an absolute beauty and an absolute good,
but I cannot help fearing that I shall fall, and that my in- and of other things to which the term ‘many’ is applied
discreet zeal will bring ridicule upon me. No, sweet sirs, let there is an absolute; for they may be brought under a single
us not at present ask what is the actual nature of the good, idea, which is called the essence of each.
for to reach what is now in my thoughts would be an effort Very true.
too great for me. But of the child of the good who is likest The many, as we say, are seen but not known, and the
him, I would fain speak, if I could be sure that you wished ideas are known but not seen.
to hear—otherwise, not. Exactly.
By all means, he said, tell us about the child, and you And what is the organ with which we see the visible things?
shall remain in our debt for the account of the parent. The sight, he said.
I do indeed wish, I replied, that I could pay, and you re- And with the hearing, I said, we hear, and with the other
ceive, the account of the parent, and not, as now, of the senses perceive the other objects of sense?
offspring only; take, however, this latter by way of interest, True.
and at the same time have a care that i do not render a false But have you remarked that sight is by far the most costly
account, although I have no intention of deceiving you. and complex piece of workmanship which the artificer of
Yes, we will take all the care that we can: proceed. the senses ever contrived?
Yes, I said, but I must first come to an understanding No, I never have, he said.
with you, and remind you of what I have mentioned in the Then reflect; has the ear or voice need of any third or
course of this discussion, and at many other times. additional nature in order that the one may be able to hear
What? and the other to be heard?
The old story, that there is a many beautiful and a many Nothing of the sort.
good, and so of other things which we describe and define; No, indeed, I replied; and the same is true of most, if not
to all of them ‘many’ is applied. all, the other senses—you would not say that any of them
True, he said. requires such an addition?
188
Certainly not. Neither sight nor the eye in which sight resides is the
But you see that without the addition of some other na- sun?
ture there is no seeing or being seen? No.
How do you mean? Yet of all the organs of sense the eye is the most like the
Sight being, as I conceive, in the eyes, and he who has sun?
eyes wanting to see; colour being also present in them, By far the most like.
still unless there be a third nature specially adapted to the And the power which the eye possesses is a sort of efflu-
purpose, the owner of the eyes will see nothing and the ence which is dispensed from the sun?
colours will be invisible. Exactly.
Of what nature are you speaking? Then the sun is not sight, but the author of sight who is
Of that which you term light, I replied. recognised by sight.
True, he said. True, he said.
Noble, then, is the bond which links together sight and And this is he whom I call the child of the good, whom
visibility, and great beyond other bonds by no small differ- the good begat in his own likeness, to be in the visible
ence of nature; for light is their bond, and light is no ig- world, in relation to sight and the things of sight, what the
noble thing? good is in the intellectual world in relation to mind and the
Nay, he said, the reverse of ignoble. things of mind.
And which, I said, of the gods in heaven would you say Will you be a little more explicit? he said.
was the lord of this element? Whose is that light which Why, you know, I said, that the eyes, when a person di-
makes the eye to see perfectly and the visible to appear? rects them towards objects on which the light of day is no
You mean the sun, as you and all mankind say. longer shining, but the moon and stars only, see dimly, and
May not the relation of sight to this deity be described are nearly blind; they seem to have no clearness of vision in
as follows? them?
How? Very true.
189
But when they are directed towards objects on which the beauty; for you surely cannot mean to say that pleasure is
sun shines, they see clearly and there is sight in them? the good?
Certainly. God forbid, I replied; but may I ask you to consider the
And the soul is like the eye: when resting upon that on image in another point of view?
which truth and being shine, the soul perceives and under- In what point of view?
stands and is radiant with intelligence; but when turned You would say, would you not, that the sun is only the au-
towards the twilight of becoming and perishing, then she thor of visibility in all visible things, but of generation and
has opinion only, and goes blinking about, and is first of nourishment and growth, though he himself is not generation?
one opinion and then of another, and seems to have no Certainly.
intelligence? In like manner the good may be said to be not only the
Just so. author of knowledge to all things known, but of their be-
Now, that which imparts truth to the known and the power ing and essence, and yet the good is not essence, but far
of knowing to the knower is what I would have you term exceeds essence in dignity and power.
the idea of good, and this you will deem to be the cause of Glaucon said, with a ludicrous earnestness: By the light
science, and of truth in so far as the latter becomes the of heaven, how amazing!
subject of knowledge; beautiful too, as are both truth and Yes, I said, and the exaggeration may be set down to
knowledge, you will be right in esteeming this other na- you; for you made me utter my fancies.
ture as more beautiful than either; and, as in the previous And pray continue to utter them; at any rate let us hear
instance, light and sight may be truly said to be like the if there is anything more to be said about the similitude of
sun, and yet not to be the sun, so in this other sphere, the sun.
science and truth may be deemed to be like the good, but Yes, I said, there is a great deal more.
not the good; the good has a place of honour yet higher. Then omit nothing, however slight.
What a wonder of beauty that must be, he said, which is I will do my best, I said; but I should think that a great
the author of science and truth, and yet surpasses them in deal will have to be omitted.
190
You have to imagine, then, that there are two ruling pow- to the original as the sphere of opinion is to the sphere of
ers, and that one of them is set over the intellectual world, knowledge?
the other over the visible. I do not say heaven, lest you Most undoubtedly.
should fancy that I am playing upon the name (‘ourhanoz, Next proceed to consider the manner in which the sphere
orhatoz’). May I suppose that you have this distinction of of the intellectual is to be divided.
the visible and intelligible fixed in your mind? In what manner?
I have. Thus:—There are two subdivisions, in the lower or which
Now take a line which has been cut into two unequal the soul uses the figures given by the former division as
parts, and divide each of them again in the same propor- images; the enquiry can only be hypothetical, and instead
tion, and suppose the two main divisions to answer, one to of going upwards to a principle descends to the other end;
the visible and the other to the intelligible, and then com- in the higher of the two, the soul passes out of hypoth-
pare the subdivisions in respect of their clearness and want eses, and goes up to a principle which is above hypotheses,
of clearness, and you will find that the first section in the making no use of images as in the former case, but proceed-
sphere of the visible consists of images. And by images I ing only in and through the ideas themselves.
mean, in the first place, shadows, and in the second place, I do not quite understand your meaning, he said.
reflections in water and in solid, smooth and polished bod- Then I will try again; you will understand me better when
ies and the like: Do you understand? I have made some preliminary remarks. You are aware that
Yes, I understand. students of geometry, arithmetic, and the kindred sciences
Imagine, now, the other section, of which this is only the assume the odd and the even and the figures and three
resemblance, to include the animals which we see, and ev- kinds of angles and the like in their several branches of
erything that grows or is made. science; these are their hypotheses, which they and every-
Very good. body are supposed to know, and therefore they do not deign
Would you not admit that both the sections of this divi- to give any account of them either to themselves or others;
sion have different degrees of truth, and that the copy is but they begin with them, and go on until they arrive at
191
last, and in a consistent manner, at their conclusion? you will understand me to speak of that other sort of knowl-
Yes, he said, I know. edge which reason herself attains by the power of dialectic,
And do you not know also that although they make use using the hypotheses not as first principles, but only as hy-
of the visible forms and reason about them, they are think- potheses—that is to say, as steps and points of departure
ing not of these, but of the ideals which they resemble; not into a world which is above hypotheses, in order that she may
of the figures which they draw, but of the absolute square soar beyond them to the first principle of the whole; and cling-
and the absolute diameter, and so on—the forms which ing to this and then to that which depends on this, by succes-
they draw or make, and which have shadows and reflec- sive steps she descends again without the aid of any sensible
tions in water of their own, are converted by them into object, from ideas, through ideas, and in ideas she ends.
images, but they are really seeking to behold the things I understand you, he replied; not perfectly, for you seem
themselves, which can only be seen with the eye of the to me to be describing a task which is really tremendous;
mind? but, at any rate, I understand you to say that knowledge
That is true. and being, which the science of dialectic contemplates, are
And of this kind I spoke as the intelligible, although in clearer than the notions of the arts, as they are termed,
the search after it the soul is compelled to use hypotheses; which proceed from hypotheses only: these are also con-
not ascending to a first principle, because she is unable to templated by the understanding, and not by the senses:
rise above the region of hypothesis, but employing the ob- yet, because they start from hypotheses and do not ascend
jects of which the shadows below are resemblances in their to a principle, those who contemplate them appear to you
turn as images, they having in relation to the shadows and not to exercise the higher reason upon them, although when
reflections of them a greater distinctness, and therefore a a first principle is added to them they are cognizable by
higher value. the higher reason. And the habit which is concerned with
I understand, he said, that you are speaking of the prov- geometry and the cognate sciences I suppose that you would
ince of geometry and the sister arts. term understanding and not reason, as being intermediate
And when I speak of the other division of the intelligible, between opinion and reason.
192
You have quite conceived my meaning, I said; and now, built along the way, like the screen which marionette play-
corresponding to these four divisions, let there be four fac- ers have in front of them, over which they show the pup-
ulties in the soul-reason answering to the highest, under- pets.
standing to the second, faith (or conviction) to the third, I see.
and perception of shadows to the last-and let there be a And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carry-
scale of them, and let us suppose that the several faculties ing all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals
have clearness in the same degree that their objects have made of wood and stone and various materials, which ap-
truth. pear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent.
I understand, he replied, and give my assent, and accept You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange
your arrangement. prisoners.
Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shad-
BOOK VII ows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws
on the opposite wall of the cave?
SOCRATES - GLAUCON
True, he said; how could they see anything but the shad-
And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our na- ows if they were never allowed to move their heads?
ture is enlightened or unenlightened:—Behold! human be- And of the objects which are being carried in like manner
ings living in a underground den, which has a mouth open they would only see the shadows?
towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they Yes, he said.
have been from their childhood, and have their legs and And if they were able to converse with one another, would
necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see they not suppose that they were naming what was actually
before them, being prevented by the chains from turning before them?
round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing Very true.
at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there And suppose further that the prison had an echo which
is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall came from the other side, would they not be sure to fancy
193
when one of the passers-by spoke that the voice which they he not have a pain in his eyes which will make him turn
heard came from the passing shadow? away to take and take in the objects of vision which he can
No question, he replied. see, and which he will conceive to be in reality clearer than
To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the things which are now being shown to him?
the shadows of the images. True, he now
That is certain. And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged
And now look again, and see what will naturally follow up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he’s forced
it: the prisoners are released and disabused of their error. into the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be
At first, when any of them is liberated and compelled sud- pained and irritated? When he approaches the light his eyes
denly to stand up and turn his neck round and walk and will be dazzled, and he will not be able to see anything at
look towards the light, he will suffer sharp pains; the glare all of what are now called realities.
will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities Not all in a moment, he said.
of which in his former state he had seen the shadows; and He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the
then conceive some one saying to him, that what he saw upper world. And first he will see the shadows best, next
before was an illusion, but that now, when he is approach- the reflections of men and other objects in the water, and
ing nearer to being and his eye is turned towards more real then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the
existence, he has a clearer vision, what will be his reply? light of the moon and the stars and the spangled heaven;
And you may further imagine that his instructor is point- and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than
ing to the objects as they pass and requiring him to name the sun or the light of the sun by day?
them,—will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that Certainly.
the shadows which he formerly saw are truer than the ob- Last of he will be able to see the sun, and not mere reflec-
jects which are now shown to him? tions of him in the water, but he will see him in his own
Far truer. proper place, and not in another; and he will contemplate
And if he is compelled to look straight at the light, will him as he is.
194
Certainly. Yes, he said, I think that he would rather suffer anything
He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives than entertain these false notions and live in this miser-
the season and the years, and is the guardian of all that is able manner.
in the visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all Imagine once more, I said, such an one coming suddenly
things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to out of the sun to be replaced in his old situation; would he
behold? not be certain to have his eyes full of darkness?
Clearly, he said, he would first see the sun and then rea- To be sure, he said.
son about him. And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in
And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wis- measuring the shadows with the prisoners who had never
dom of the den and his fellow prisoners, do you not sup- moved out of the den, while his sight was still weak, and
pose that he would felicitate himself on the change, and before his eyes had become steady (and the time which
pity them? would be needed to acquire this new habit of sight might
Certainly, he would. be very considerable) would he not be ridiculous? Men
And if they were in the habit of conferring honours among would say of him that up he went and down he came with-
themselves on those who were quickest to observe the pass- out his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of
ing shadows and to remark which of them went before, and ascending; and if any one tried to loose another and lead
which followed after, and which were together; and who were him up to the light, let them only catch the offender, and
therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the future, do they would put him to death.
you think that he would care for such honours and glories, No question, he said.
or envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer, This entire allegory, I said, you may now append, dear
Glaucon, to the previous argument; the prison-house is the
Better to be the poor servant of a poor master,
world of sight, the light of the fire is the sun, and you will
not misapprehend me if you interpret the journey upwards
and to endure anything, rather than think as they do and
to be the ascent of the soul into the intellectual world ac-
live after their manner?
195
cording to my poor belief, which, at your desire, I have ex- tions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice?
pressed whether rightly or wrongly God knows. But, whether Anything but surprising, he replied.
true or false, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge Any one who has common sense will remember that the
the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with bewilderments of the eyes are of two kinds, and arise from
an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the univer- two causes, either from coming out of the light or from
sal author of all things beautiful and right, parent of light going into the light, which is true of the mind’s eye, quite
and of the lord of light in this visible world, and the imme- as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this
diate source of reason and truth in the intellectual; and when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed and weak,
that this is the power upon which he who would act ratio- will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether
nally, either in public or private life must have his eye fixed. that soul of man has come out of the brighter light, and is
I agree, he said, as far as I am able to understand you. unable to see because unaccustomed to the dark, or having
Moreover, I said, you must not wonder that those who turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of
attain to this beatific vision are unwilling to descend to light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and
human affairs; for their souls are ever hastening into the state of being, and he will pity the other; or, if he have a
upper world where they desire to dwell; which desire of mind to laugh at the soul which comes from below into the
theirs is very natural, if our allegory may be trusted. light, there will be more reason in this than in the laugh
Yes, very natural. which greets him who returns from above out of the light
And is there anything surprising in one who passes from into the den.
divine contemplations to the evil state of man, misbehav- That, he said, is a very just distinction.
ing himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are But then, if I am right, certain professors of education
blinking and before he has become accustomed to the sur- must be wrong when they say that they can put a knowl-
rounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of edge into the soul which was not there before, like sight
law, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of into blind eyes.
images of justice, and is endeavouring to meet the concep- They undoubtedly say this, he replied.
196
Whereas, our argument shows that the power and capac- his end; he is the reverse of blind, but his keen eyesight is
ity of learning exists in the soul already; and that just as forced into the service of evil, and he is mischievous in pro-
the eye was unable to turn from darkness to light without portion to his cleverness.
the whole body, so too the instrument of knowledge can Very true, he said.
only by the movement of the whole soul be turned from But what if there had been a circumcision of such natures
the world of becoming into that of being, and learn by in the days of their youth; and they had been severed from
degrees to endure the sight of being, and of the brightest those sensual pleasures, such as eating and drinking, which,
and best of being, or in other words, of the good. like leaden weights, were attached to them at their birth,
Very true. and which drag them down and turn the vision of their
And must there not be some art which will effect conver- souls upon the things that are below—if, I say, they had
sion in the easiest and quickest manner; not implanting been released from these impediments and turned in the
the faculty of sight, for that exists already, but has been opposite direction, the very same faculty in them would
turned in the wrong direction, and is looking away from have seen the truth as keenly as they see what their eyes
the truth? are turned to now.
Yes, he said, such an art may be presumed. Very likely.
And whereas the other so-called virtues of the soul seem Yes, I said; and there is another thing which is likely, or
to be akin to bodily qualities, for even when they are not rather a necessary inference from what has preceded, that
originally innate they can be implanted later by habit and neither the uneducated and uninformed of the truth, nor
exercise, the of wisdom more than anything else contains a yet those who never make an end of their education, will be
divine element which always remains, and by this conver- able ministers of State; not the former, because they have no
sion is rendered useful and profitable; or, on the other hand, single aim of duty which is the rule of all their actions, pri-
hurtful and useless. Did you never observe the narrow in- vate as well as public; nor the latter, because they will not
telligence flashing from the keen eye of a clever rogue— act at all except upon compulsion, fancying that they are
how eager he is, how clearly his paltry soul sees the way to already dwelling apart in the islands of the blest.
197
Very true, he replied. pelling our philosophers to have a care and providence of
Then, I said, the business of us who are the founders of others; we shall explain to them that in other States, men
the State will be to compel the best minds to attain that of their class are not obliged to share in the toils of poli-
knowledge which we have already shown to be the great- tics: and this is reasonable, for they grow up at their own
est of all—they must continue to ascend until they arrive sweet will, and the government would rather not have them.
at the good; but when they have ascended and seen enough Being self- taught, they cannot be expected to show any
we must not allow them to do as they do now. gratitude for a culture which they have never received. But
What do you mean? we have brought you into the world to be rulers of the
I mean that they remain in the upper world: but this must hive, kings of yourselves and of the other citizens, and have
not be allowed; they must be made to descend again among educated you far better and more perfectly than they have
the prisoners in the den, and partake of their labours and been educated, and you are better able to share in the
honours, whether they are worth having or not. double duty. Wherefore each of you, when his turn comes,
But is not this unjust? he said; ought we to give them a must go down to the general underground abode, and get
worse life, when they might have a better? the habit of seeing in the dark. When you have acquired
You have again forgotten, my friend, I said, the intention the habit, you will see ten thousand times better than the
of the legislator, who did not aim at making any one class inhabitants of the den, and you will know what the several
in the State happy above the rest; the happiness was to be images are, and what they represent, because you have seen
in the whole State, and he held the citizens together by the beautiful and just and good in their truth. And thus
persuasion and necessity, making them benefactors of the our State which is also yours will be a reality, and not a
State, and therefore benefactors of one another; to this dream only, and will be administered in a spirit unlike that
end he created them, not to please themselves, but to be of other States, in which men fight with one another about
his instruments in binding up the State. shadows only and are distracted in the struggle for power,
True, he said, I had forgotten. which in their eyes is a great good. Whereas the truth is
Observe, Glaucon, that there will be no injustice in com- that the State in which the rulers are most reluctant to
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govern is always the best and most quietly governed, and Most true, he replied.
the State in which they are most eager, the worst. And the only life which looks down upon the life of po-
Quite true, he replied. litical ambition is that of true philosophy. Do you know of
And will our pupils, when they hear this, refuse to take any other?
their turn at the toils of State, when they are allowed to Indeed, I do not, he said.
spend the greater part of their time with one another in And those who govern ought not to be lovers of the task?
the heavenly light? For, if they are, there will be rival lovers, and they will fight.
Impossible, he answered; for they are just men, and the No question.
commands which we impose upon them are just; there can Who then are those whom we shall compel to be guard-
be no doubt that every one of them will take office as a ians? Surely they will be the men who are wisest about
stern necessity, and not after the fashion of our present affairs of State, and by whom the State is best adminis-
rulers of State. tered, and who at the same time have other honours and
Yes, my friend, I said; and there lies the point. You must another and a better life than that of politics?
contrive for your future rulers another and a better life They are the men, and I will choose them, he replied.
than that of a ruler, and then you may have a well-ordered And now shall we consider in what way such guardians
State; for only in the State which offers this, will they rule will be produced, and how they are to be brought from
who are truly rich, not in silver and gold, but in virtue and darkness to light,—as some are said to have ascended from
wisdom, which are the true blessings of life. Whereas if they the world below to the gods?
go to the administration of public affairs, poor and hun- By all means, he replied.
gering after the’ own private advantage, thinking that hence The process, I said, is not the turning over of an oyster-
they are to snatch the chief good, order there can never be; shell, but the turning round of a soul passing from a day
for they will be fighting about office, and the civil and do- which is little better than night to the true day of being,
mestic broils which thus arise will be the ruin of the rulers that is, the ascent from below, which we affirm to be true
themselves and of the whole State. philosophy?
199
Quite so. But what do you say of music, which also entered to a
And should we not enquire what sort of knowledge has certain extent into our former scheme?
the power of effecting such a change? Music, he said, as you will remember, was the counterpart
Certainly. of gymnastic, and trained the guardians by the influences
What sort of knowledge is there which would draw the of habit, by harmony making them harmonious, by rhythm
soul from becoming to being? And another consideration rhythmical, but not giving them science; and the words,
has just occurred to me: You will remember that our young whether fabulous or possibly true, had kindred elements of
men are to be warrior athletes rhythm and harmony in them. But in music there was noth-
Yes, that was said. ing which tended to that good which you are now seeking.
Then this new kind of knowledge must have an additional You are most accurate, I said, in your recollection; in mu-
quality? sic there certainly was nothing of the kind. But what branch
What quality? of knowledge is there, my dear Glaucon, which is of the
Usefulness in war. desired nature; since all the useful arts were reckoned mean
Yes, if possible. by us?
There were two parts in our former scheme of education, Undoubtedly; and yet if music and gymnastic are excluded,
were there not? and the arts are also excluded, what remains?
Just so. Well, I said, there may be nothing left of our special sub-
There was gymnastic which presided over the growth and jects; and then we shall have to take something which is
decay of the body, and may therefore be regarded as hav- not special, but of universal application.
ing to do with generation and corruption? What may that be?
True. A something which all arts and sciences and intelligences
Then that is not the knowledge which we are seeking to use in common, and which every one first has to learn among
discover? the elements of education.
No. What is that?
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The little matter of distinguishing one, two, and three— It appears to me to be a study of the kind which we are
in a word, number and calculation:—do not all arts and seeking, and which leads naturally to reflection, but never
sciences necessarily partake of them? to have been rightly used; for the true use of it is simply to
Yes. draw the soul towards being.
Then the art of war partakes of them? Will you explain your meaning? he said.
To the sure. I will try, I said; and I wish you would share the enquiry
Then Palamedes, whenever he appears in tragedy, proves with me, and say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ when I attempt to distinguish
Agamemnon ridiculously unfit to be a general. Did you never in my own mind what branches of knowledge have this at-
remark how he declares that he had invented number, and tracting power, in order that we may have clearer proof
had numbered the ships and set in array the ranks of the that arithmetic is, as I suspect, one of them.
army at Troy; which implies that they had never been num- Explain, he said.
bered before, and Agamemnon must be supposed literally I mean to say that objects of sense are of two kinds;
to have been incapable of counting his own feet—how some of them do not invite thought because the sense is
could he if he was ignorant of number? And if that is true, an adequate judge of them; while in the case of other ob-
what sort of general must he have been? jects sense is so untrustworthy that further enquiry is im-
I should say a very strange one, if this was as you say. peratively demanded.
Can we deny that a warrior should have a knowledge of You are clearly referring, he said, to the manner in which
arithmetic? the senses are imposed upon by distance, and by painting
Certainly he should, if he is to have the smallest under- in light and shade.
standing of military tactics, or indeed, I should rather say, No, I said, that is not at all my meaning.
if he is to be a man at all. Then what is your meaning?
I should like to know whether you have the same notion When speaking of uninviting objects, I mean those which
which I have of this study? do not pass from one sensation to the opposite; inviting
What is your notion? objects are those which do; in this latter case the sense
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coming upon the object, whether at a distance or near, gives like manner does the touch adequately perceive the quali-
no more vivid idea of anything in particular than of its op- ties of thickness or thinness, or softness or hardness? And
posite. An illustration will make my meaning clearer:—here so of the other senses; do they give perfect intimations of
are three fingers—a little finger, a second finger, and a such matters? Is not their mode of operation on this wise—
middle finger. the sense which is concerned with the quality of hardness
Very good. is necessarily concerned also with the quality of softness,
You may suppose that they are seen quite close: And here and only intimates to the soul that the same thing is felt
comes the point. to be both hard and soft?
What is it? You are quite right, he said.
Each of them equally appears a finger, whether seen in And must not the soul be perplexed at this intimation
the middle or at the extremity, whether white or black, or which the sense gives of a hard which is also soft? What,
thick or thin—it makes no difference; a finger is a finger again, is the meaning of light and heavy, if that which is
all the same. In these cases a man is not compelled to ask light is also heavy, and that which is heavy, light?
of thought the question, what is a finger? for the sight Yes, he said, these intimations which the soul receives are
never intimates to the mind that a finger is other than a very curious and require to be explained.
finger. Yes, I said, and in these perplexities the soul naturally
True. summons to her aid calculation and intelligence, that she
And therefore, I said, as we might expect, there is noth- may see whether the several objects announced to her are
ing here which invites or excites intelligence. one or two.
There is not, he said. True.
But is this equally true of the greatness and smallness of And if they turn out to be two, is not each of them one
the fingers? Can sight adequately perceive them? and is no and different?
difference made by the circumstance that one of the fin- Certainly.
gers is in the middle and another at the extremity? And in And if each is one, and both are two, she will conceive the
202
two as in a state of division, for if there were undivided supply the answer; for if simple unity could be adequately
they could only be conceived of as one? perceived by the sight or by any other sense, then, as we
True. were saying in the case of the finger, there would be noth-
The eye certainly did see both small and great, but only ing to attract towards being; but when there is some con-
in a confused manner; they were not distinguished. tradiction always present, and one is the reverse of one
Yes. and involves the conception of plurality, then thought be-
Whereas the thinking mind, intending to light up the gins to be aroused within us, and the soul perplexed and
chaos, was compelled to reverse the process, and look at wanting to arrive at a decision asks ‘What is absolute unity?’
small and great as separate and not confused. This is the way in which the study of the one has a power of
Very true. drawing and converting the mind to the contemplation of
Was not this the beginning of the enquiry ‘What is great?’ true being.
and ‘What is small?’ And surely, he said, this occurs notably in the case of
Exactly so. one; for we see the same thing to be both one and infinite
And thus arose the distinction of the visible and the in- in multitude?
telligible. Yes, I said; and this being true of one must be equally
Most true. true of all number?
This was what I meant when I spoke of impressions which Certainly.
invited the intellect, or the reverse—those which are si- And all arithmetic and calculation have to do with num-
multaneous with opposite impressions, invite thought; ber?
those which are not simultaneous do not. Yes.
I understand, he said, and agree with you. And they appear to lead the mind towards truth?
And to which class do unity and number belong? Yes, in a very remarkable manner.
I do not know, he replied. Then this is knowledge of the kind for which we are seek-
Think a little and you will see that what has preceded will ing, having a double use, military and philosophical; for
203
the man of war must learn the art of number or he will not and elevating effect, compelling the soul to reason about
know how to array his troops, and the philosopher also, abstract number, and rebelling against the introduction of
because he has to rise out of the sea of change and lay hold visible or tangible objects into the argument. You know
of true being, and therefore he must be an arithmetician. how steadily the masters of the art repel and ridicule any
That is true. one who attempts to divide absolute unity when he is cal-
And our guardian is both warrior and philosopher? culating, and if you divide, they multiply, taking care that
Certainly. one shall continue one and not become lost in fractions.
Then this is a kind of knowledge which legislation may That is very true.
fitly prescribe; and we must endeavour to persuade those Now, suppose a person were to say to them: O my friends,
who are prescribe to be the principal men of our State to go what are these wonderful numbers about which you are
and learn arithmetic, not as amateurs, but they must carry reasoning, in which, as you say, there is a unity such as you
on the study until they see the nature of numbers with the demand, and each unit is equal, invariable, indivisible,—
mind only; nor again, like merchants or retail-traders, with what would they answer?
a view to buying or selling, but for the sake of their mili- They would answer, as I should conceive, that they were
tary use, and of the soul herself; and because this will be speaking of those numbers which can only be realised in
the easiest way for her to pass from becoming to truth and thought.
being. Then you see that this knowledge may be truly called
That is excellent, he said. necessary, necessitating as it clearly does the use of the
Yes, I said, and now having spoken of it, I must add how pure intelligence in the attainment of pure truth?
charming the science is! and in how many ways it conduces Yes; that is a marked characteristic of it.
to our desired end, if pursued in the spirit of a philosopher, And have you further observed, that those who have a
and not of a shopkeeper! natural talent for calculation are generally quick at every
How do you mean? other kind of knowledge; and even the dull if they have
I mean, as I was saying, that arithmetic has a very great had an arithmetical training, although they may derive no
204
other advantage from it, always become much quicker than ometry— whether that tends in any degree to make more
they would otherwise have been. easy the vision of the idea of good; and thither, as I was
Very true, he said. saying, all things tend which compel the soul to turn her
And indeed, you will not easily find a more difficult study, gaze towards that place, where is the full perfection of be-
and not many as difficult. ing, which she ought, by all means, to behold.
You will not. True, he said.
And, for all these reasons, arithmetic is a kind of knowl- Then if geometry compels us to view being, it concerns
edge in which the best natures should be trained, and which us; if becoming only, it does not concern us?
must not be given up. Yes, that is what we assert.
I agree. Yet anybody who has the least acquaintance with geom-
Let this then be made one of our subjects of education. etry will not deny that such a conception of the science is
And next, shall we enquire whether the kindred science also in flat contradiction to the ordinary language of geometri-
concerns us? cians.
You mean geometry? How so?
Exactly so. They have in view practice only, and are always speaking
Clearly, he said, we are concerned with that part of geom- in a narrow and ridiculous manner, of squaring and extend-
etry which relates to war; for in pitching a camp, or taking ing and applying and the like—they confuse the necessi-
up a position, or closing or extending the lines of an army, ties of geometry with those of daily life; whereas knowl-
or any other military manoeuvre, whether in actual battle edge is the real object of the whole science.
or on a march, it will make all the difference whether a Certainly, he said.
general is or is not a geometrician. Then must not a further admission be made?
Yes, I said, but for that purpose a very little of either What admission?
geometry or calculation will be enough; the question re- That the knowledge at which geometry aims is knowledge
lates rather to the greater and more advanced part of ge- of the eternal, and not of aught perishing and transient.
205
That, he replied, may be readily allowed, and is true. I am amused, I said, at your fear of the world, which makes
Then, my noble friend, geometry will draw the soul to- you guard against the appearance of insisting upon useless
wards truth, and create the spirit of philosophy, and raise studies; and I quite admit the difficulty of believing that in
up that which is now unhappily allowed to fall down. every man there is an eye of the soul which, when by other
Nothing will be more likely to have such an effect. pursuits lost and dimmed, is by these purified and re-illu-
Then nothing should be more sternly laid down than that mined; and is more precious far than ten thousand bodily
the inhabitants of your fair city should by all means learn eyes, for by it alone is truth seen. Now there are two classes
geometry. Moreover the science has indirect effects, which of persons: one class of those who will agree with you and
are not small. will take your words as a revelation; another class to whom
Of what kind? he said. they will be utterly unmeaning, and who will naturally deem
There are the military advantages of which you spoke, I them to be idle tales, for they see no sort of profit which is
said; and in all departments of knowledge, as experience to be obtained from them. And therefore you had better
proves, any one who has studied geometry is infinitely decide at once with which of the two you are proposing to
quicker of apprehension than one who has not. argue. You will very likely say with neither, and that your
Yes indeed, he said, there is an infinite difference between chief aim in carrying on the argument is your own improve-
them. ment; at the same time you do not grudge to others any
Then shall we propose this as a second branch of knowl- benefit which they may receive.
edge which our youth will study? I think that I should prefer to carry on the argument
Let us do so, he replied. mainly on my own behalf.
And suppose we make astronomy the third—what do you Then take a step backward, for we have gone wrong in
say? the order of the sciences.
I am strongly inclined to it, he said; the observation of What was the mistake? he said.
the seasons and of months and years is as essential to the After plane geometry, I said, we proceeded at once to
general as it is to the farmer or sailor. solids in revolution, instead of taking solids in themselves;
206
whereas after the second dimension the third, which is con- Yes, I said.
cerned with cubes and dimensions of depth, ought to have And you placed astronomy next, and then you made a
followed. step backward?
That is true, Socrates; but so little seems to be known as Yes, and I have delayed you by my hurry; the ludicrous
yet about these subjects. state of solid geometry, which, in natural order, should have
Why, yes, I said, and for two reasons:—in the first place, followed, made me pass over this branch and go on to as-
no government patronises them; this leads to a want of tronomy, or motion of solids.
energy in the pursuit of them, and they are difficult; in the True, he said.
second place, students cannot learn them unless they have Then assuming that the science now omitted would come
a director. But then a director can hardly be found, and into existence if encouraged by the State, let us go on to
even if he could, as matters now stand, the students, who astronomy, which will be fourth.
are very conceited, would not attend to him. That, how- The right order, he replied. And now, Socrates, as you
ever, would be otherwise if the whole State became the rebuked the vulgar manner in which I praised astronomy
director of these studies and gave honour to them; then before, my praise shall be given in your own spirit. For ev-
disciples would want to come, and there would be continu- ery one, as I think, must see that astronomy compels the
ous and earnest search, and discoveries would be made; since soul to look upwards and leads us from this world to an-
even now, disregarded as they are by the world, and maimed other.
of their fair proportions, and although none of their vota- Every one but myself, I said; to every one else this may
ries can tell the use of them, still these studies force their be clear, but not to me.
way by their natural charm, and very likely, if they had the And what then would you say?
help of the State, they would some day emerge into light. I should rather say that those who elevate astronomy
Yes, he said, there is a remarkable charm in them. But I do into philosophy appear to me to make us look downwards
not clearly understand the change in the order. First you and not upwards.
began with a geometry of plane surfaces? What do you mean? he asked.
207
You, I replied, have in your mind a truly sublime concep- these are to be apprehended by reason and intelligence,
tion of our knowledge of the things above. And I dare say but not by sight.
that if a person were to throw his head back and study the True, he replied.
fretted ceiling, you would still think that his mind was the The spangled heavens should be used as a pattern and
percipient, and not his eyes. And you are very likely right, with a view to that higher knowledge; their beauty is like
and I may be a simpleton: but, in my opinion, that knowl- the beauty of figures or pictures excellently wrought by
edge only which is of being and of the unseen can make the the hand of Daedalus, or some other great artist, which we
soul look upwards, and whether a man gapes at the heav- may chance to behold; any geometrician who saw them
ens or blinks on the ground, seeking to learn some particu- would appreciate the exquisiteness of their workmanship,
lar of sense, I would deny that he can learn, for nothing of but he would never dream of thinking that in them he could
that sort is matter of science; his soul is looking down- find the true equal or the true double, or the truth of any
wards, not upwards, whether his way to knowledge is by other proportion.
water or by land, whether he floats, or only lies on his back. No, he replied, such an idea would be ridiculous.
I acknowledge, he said, the justice of your rebuke. Still, I And will not a true astronomer have the same feeling when
should like to ascertain how astronomy can be learned in he looks at the movements of the stars? Will he not think
any manner more conducive to that knowledge of which we that heaven and the things in heaven are framed by the
are speaking? Creator of them in the most perfect manner? But he will
I will tell you, I said: The starry heaven which we behold never imagine that the proportions of night and day, or of
is wrought upon a visible ground, and therefore, although both to the month, or of the month to the year, or of the
the fairest and most perfect of visible things, must neces- stars to these and to one another, and any other things
sarily be deemed inferior far to the true motions of abso- that are material and visible can also be eternal and subject
lute swiftness and absolute slowness, which are relative to to no deviation—that would be absurd; and it is equally
each other, and carry with them that which is contained in absurd to take so much pains in investigating their exact
them, in the true number and in every true figure. Now, truth.
208
I quite agree, though I never thought of this before. the Pythagoreans say, and we, Glaucon, agree with them?
Then, I said, in astronomy, as in geometry, we should em- Yes, he replied.
ploy problems, and let the heavens alone if we would ap- But this, I said, is a laborious study, and therefore we had
proach the subject in the right way and so make the natu- better go and learn of them; and they will tell us whether
ral gift of reason to be of any real use. there are any other applications of these sciences. At the
That, he said, is a work infinitely beyond our present as- same time, we must not lose sight of our own higher ob-
tronomers. ject.
Yes, I said; and there are many other things which must What is that?
also have a similar extension given to them, if our legisla- There is a perfection which all knowledge ought to reach,
tion is to be of any value. But can you tell me of any other and which our pupils ought also to attain, and not to fall
suitable study? short of, as I was saying that they did in astronomy. For in
No, he said, not without thinking. the science of harmony, as you probably know, the same
Motion, I said, has many forms, and not one only; two of thing happens. The teachers of harmony compare the sounds
them are obvious enough even to wits no better than ours; and consonances which are heard only, and their labour,
and there are others, as I imagine, which may be left to like that of the astronomers, is in vain.
wiser persons. Yes, by heaven! he said; and ’tis as good as a play to hear
But where are the two? them talking about their condensed notes, as they call them;
There is a second, I said, which is the counterpart of the they put their ears close alongside of the strings like per-
one already named. sons catching a sound from their neighbour’s wall—one set
And what may that be? of them declaring that they distinguish an intermediate
The second, I said, would seem relatively to the ears to note and have found the least interval which should be the
be what the first is to the eyes; for I conceive that as the unit of measurement; the others insisting that the two
eyes are designed to look up at the stars, so are the ears to sounds have passed into the same—either party setting
hear harmonious motions; and these are sister sciences—as their ears before their understanding.
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You mean, I said, those gentlemen who tease and torture I suspect so; but you are speaking, Socrates, of a vast
the strings and rack them on the pegs of the instrument: work.
might carry on the metaphor and speak after their manner What do you mean? I said; the prelude or what? Do you
of the blows which the plectrum gives, and make accusa- not know that all this is but the prelude to the actual strain
tions against the strings, both of backwardness and for- which we have to learn? For you surely would not regard
wardness to sound; but this would be tedious, and there- the skilled mathematician as a dialectician?
fore I will only say that these are not the men, and that I Assuredly not, he said; I have hardly ever known a math-
am referring to the Pythagoreans, of whom I was just now ematician who was capable of reasoning.
proposing to enquire about harmony. For they too are in But do you imagine that men who are unable to give and
error, like the astronomers; they investigate the numbers take a reason will have the knowledge which we require of
of the harmonies which are heard, but they never attain to them?
problems—that is to say, they never reach the natural har- Neither can this be supposed.
monies of number, or reflect why some numbers are harmo- And so, Glaucon, I said, we have at last arrived at the
nious and others not. hymn of dialectic. This is that strain which is of the intel-
That, he said, is a thing of more than mortal knowledge. lect only, but which the faculty of sight will nevertheless
A thing, I replied, which I would rather call useful; that be found to imitate; for sight, as you may remember, was
is, if sought after with a view to the beautiful and good; imagined by us after a while to behold the real animals and
but if pursued in any other spirit, useless. Very true, he stars, and last of all the sun himself. And so with dialectic;
said. when a person starts on the discovery of the absolute by
Now, when all these studies reach the point of inter-com- the light of reason only, and without any assistance of sense,
munion and connection with one another, and come to be and perseveres until by pure intelligence he arrives at the
considered in their mutual affinities, then, I think, but not perception of the absolute good, he at last finds himself at
till then, will the pursuit of them have a value for our ob- the end of the intellectual world, as in the case of sight at
jects; otherwise there is no profit in them. the end of the visible.
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Exactly, he said. preamble to the chief strain, and describe that in like man-
Then this is the progress which you call dialectic? ner. Say, then, what is the nature and what are the divi-
True. sions of dialectic, and what are the paths which lead thither;
But the release of the prisoners from chains, and their for these paths will also lead to our final rest?
translation from the shadows to the images and to the light, Dear Glaucon, I said, you will not be able to follow me
and the ascent from the underground den to the sun, while here, though I would do my best, and you should behold
in his presence they are vainly trying to look on animals not an image only but the absolute truth, according to my
and plants and the light of the sun, but are able to perceive notion. Whether what I told you would or would not have
even with their weak eyes the images in the water (which been a reality I cannot venture to say; but you would have
are divine), and are the shadows of true existence (not shad- seen something like reality; of that I am confident.
ows of images cast by a light of fire, which compared with Doubtless, he replied.
the sun is only an image)—this power of elevating the high- But I must also remind you, that the power of dialectic
est principle in the soul to the contemplation of that which alone can reveal this, and only to one who is a disciple of
is best in existence, with which we may compare the raising the previous sciences.
of that faculty which is the very light of the body to the Of that assertion you may be as confident as of the last.
sight of that which is brightest in the material and visible And assuredly no one will argue that there is any other
world—this power is given, as I was saying, by all that method of comprehending by any regular process all true
study and pursuit of the arts which has been described. existence or of ascertaining what each thing is in its own
I agree in what you are saying, he replied, which may be nature; for the arts in general are concerned with the de-
hard to believe, yet, from another point of view, is harder sires or opinions of men, or are cultivated with a view to
still to deny. This, however, is not a theme to be treated of production and construction, or for the preservation of such
in passing only, but will have to be discussed again and productions and constructions; and as to the mathematical
again. And so, whether our conclusion be true or false, let sciences which, as we were saying, have some apprehension
us assume all this, and proceed at once from the prelude or of true being—geometry and the like—they only dream
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about being, but never can they behold the waking reality first division science, the second understanding, the third
so long as they leave the hypotheses which they use belief, and the fourth perception of shadows, opinion be-
unexamined, and are unable to give an account of them. ing concerned with becoming, and intellect with being; and
For when a man knows not his own first principle, and when so to make a proportion:—
the conclusion and intermediate steps are also constructed
As being is to becoming, so is pure intellect to opinion.
out of he knows not what, how can he imagine that such a
And as intellect is to opinion, so is science to belief, and
fabric of convention can ever become science? understanding to the perception of shadows.
Impossible, he said.
Then dialectic, and dialectic alone, goes directly to the But let us defer the further correlation and subdivision of
first principle and is the only science which does away with the subjects of opinion and of intellect, for it will be a long
hypotheses in order to make her ground secure; the eye of inquiry, many times longer than this has been.
the soul, which is literally buried in an outlandish slough, As far as I understand, he said, I agree.
is by her gentle aid lifted upwards; and she uses as And do you also agree, I said, in describing the dialecti-
handmaids and helpers in the work of conversion, the sci- cian as one who attains a conception of the essence of each
ences which we have been discussing. Custom terms them thing? And he who does not possess and is therefore un-
sciences, but they ought to have some other name, imply- able to impart this conception, in whatever degree he fails,
ing greater clearness than opinion and less clearness than may in that degree also be said to fail in intelligence? Will
science: and this, in our previous sketch, was called under- you admit so much?
standing. But why should we dispute about names when Yes, he said; how can I deny it?
we have realities of such importance to consider? And you would say the same of the conception of the
Why indeed, he said, when any name will do which ex- good?
presses the thought of the mind with clearness? Until the person is able to abstract and define rationally
At any rate, we are satisfied, as before, to have four divi- the idea of good, and unless he can run the gauntlet of all
sions; two for intellect and two for opinion, and to call the objections, and is ready to disprove them, not by appeals
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to opinion, but to absolute truth, never faltering at any be considered?
step of the argument—unless he can do all this, you would Yes, clearly.
say that he knows neither the idea of good nor any other You remember, I said, how the rulers were chosen before?
good; he apprehends only a shadow, if anything at all, which Certainly, he said.
is given by opinion and not by science;—dreaming and slum- The same natures must still be chosen, and the prefer-
bering in this life, before he is well awake here, he arrives at ence again given to the surest and the bravest, and, if pos-
the world below, and has his final quietus. sible, to the fairest; and, having noble and generous tem-
In all that I should most certainly agree with you. pers, they should also have the natural gifts which will fa-
And surely you would not have the children of your ideal cilitate their education.
State, whom you are nurturing and educating—if the ideal And what are these?
ever becomes a reality—you would not allow the future Such gifts as keenness and ready powers of acquisition;
rulers to be like posts, having no reason in them, and yet for the mind more often faints from the severity of study
to be set in authority over the highest matters? than from the severity of gymnastics: the toil is more en-
Certainly not. tirely the mind’s own, and is not shared with the body.
Then you will make a law that they shall have such an Very true, he replied.
education as will enable them to attain the greatest skill in Further, he of whom we are in search should have a good
asking and answering questions? memory, and be an unwearied solid man who is a lover of
Yes, he said, you and I together will make it. labour in any line; or he will never be able to endure the
Dialectic, then, as you will agree, is the coping-stone of great amount of bodily exercise and to go through all the
the sciences, and is set over them; no other science can be intellectual discipline and study which we require of him.
placed higher—the nature of knowledge can no further go? Certainly, he said; he must have natural gifts.
I agree, he said. The mistake at present is, that those who study philoso-
But to whom we are to assign these studies, and in what phy have no vocation, and this, as I was before saying, is
way they are to be assigned, are questions which remain to the reason why she has fallen into disrepute: her true sons
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should take her by the hand and not bastards. part of virtue, is in a figure lame or a bastard.
What do you mean? That is very true, he said.
In the first place, her votary should not have a lame or All these things, then, will have to be carefully consid-
halting industry—I mean, that he should not be half in- ered by us; and if only those whom we introduce to this
dustrious and half idle: as, for example, when a man is a vast system of education and training are sound in body
lover of gymnastic and hunting, and all other bodily exer- and mind, justice herself will have nothing to say against
cises, but a hater rather than a lover of the labour of learn- us, and we shall be the saviours of the constitution and of
ing or listening or enquiring. Or the occupation to which he the State; but, if our pupils are men of another stamp, the
devotes himself may be of an opposite kind, and he may reverse will happen, and we shall pour a still greater flood
have the other sort of lameness. of ridicule on philosophy than she has to endure at present.
Certainly, he said. That would not be creditable.
And as to truth, I said, is not a soul equally to be deemed Certainly not, I said; and yet perhaps, in thus turning
halt and lame which hates voluntary falsehood and is ex- jest into earnest I am equally ridiculous.
tremely indignant at herself and others when they tell lies, In what respect?
but is patient of involuntary falsehood, and does not mind I had forgotten, I said, that we were not serious, and
wallowing like a swinish beast in the mire of ignorance, and spoke with too much excitement. For when I saw philoso-
has no shame at being detected? phy so undeservedly trampled under foot of men I could
To be sure. not help feeling a sort of indignation at the authors of her
And, again, in respect of temperance, courage, magnifi- disgrace: and my anger made me too vehement.
cence, and every other virtue, should we not carefully dis- Indeed! I was listening, and did not think so.
tinguish between the true son and the bastard? for where But I, who am the speaker, felt that I was. And now let
there is no discernment of such qualities States and indi- me remind you that, although in our former selection we
viduals unconsciously err and the State makes a ruler, and chose old men, we must not do so in this. Solon was under
the individual a friend, of one who, being defective in some a delusion when he said that a man when he grows old may
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learn many things—for he can no more learn much than he home in all of them ought to be enrolled in a select num-
can run much; youth is the time for any extraordinary toil. ber.
Of course. At what age?
And, therefore, calculation and geometry and all the other At the age when the necessary gymnastics are over: the
elements of instruction, which are a preparation for dialec- period whether of two or three years which passes in this
tic, should be presented to the mind in childhood; not, how- sort of training is useless for any other purpose; for sleep
ever, under any notion of forcing our system of education. and exercise are unpropitious to learning; and the trial of
Why not? who is first in gymnastic exercises is one of the most im-
Because a freeman ought not to be a slave in the acquisi- portant tests to which our youth are subjected.
tion of knowledge of any kind. Bodily exercise, when com- Certainly, he replied.
pulsory, does no harm to the body; but knowledge which is After that time those who are selected from the class of
acquired under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind. twenty years old will be promoted to higher honour, and
Very true. the sciences which they learned without any order in their
Then, my good friend, I said, do not use compulsion, but early education will now be brought together, and they
let early education be a sort of amusement; you will then will be able to see the natural relationship of them to one
be better able to find out the natural bent. another and to true being.
That is a very rational notion, he said. Yes, he said, that is the only kind of knowledge which
Do you remember that the children, too, were to be taken takes lasting root.
to see the battle on horseback; and that if there were no Yes, I said; and the capacity for such knowledge is the
danger they were to be brought close up and, like young great criterion of dialectical talent: the comprehensive mind
hounds, have a taste of blood given them? is always the dialectical.
Yes, I remember. I agree with you, he said.
The same practice may be followed, I said, in all these These, I said, are the points which you must consider; and
things—labours, lessons, dangers—and he who is most at those who have most of this comprehension, and who are
215
more steadfast in their learning, and in their military and behave towards his flatterers and his supposed parents, first
other appointed duties, when they have arrived at the age of all during the period when he is ignorant of the false
of thirty have to be chosen by you out of the select class, relation, and then again when he knows? Or shall I guess
and elevated to higher honour; and you will have to prove for you?
them by the help of dialectic, in order to learn which of If you please.
them is able to give up the use of sight and the other senses, Then I should say, that while he is ignorant of the truth
and in company with truth to attain absolute being: And he will be likely to honour his father and his mother and
here, my friend, great caution is required. his supposed relations more than the flatterers; he will be
Why great caution? less inclined to neglect them when in need, or to do or say
Do you not remark, I said, how great is the evil which anything against them; and he will be less willing to dis-
dialectic has introduced? obey them in any important matter.
What evil? he said. He will.
The students of the art are filled with lawlessness. But when he has made the discovery, I should imagine
Quite true, he said. that he would diminish his honour and regard for them,
Do you think that there is anything so very unnatural or and would become more devoted to the flatterers; their
inexcusable in their case? or will you make allowance for influence over him would greatly increase; he would now
them? live after their ways, and openly associate with them, and,
In what way make allowance? unless he were of an unusually good disposition, he would
I want you, I said, by way of parallel, to imagine a sup- trouble himself no more about his supposed parents or other
posititious son who is brought up in great wealth; he is relations.
one of a great and numerous family, and has many flatter- Well, all that is very probable. But how is the image appli-
ers. When he grows up to manhood, he learns that his al- cable to the disciples of philosophy?
leged are not his real parents; but who the real are he is In this way: you know that there are certain principles
unable to discover. Can you guess how he will be likely to about justice and honour, which were taught us in child-
216
hood, and under their parental authority we have been Unquestionably.
brought up, obeying and honouring them. Now all this is very natural in students of philosophy such
That is true. as I have described, and also, as I was just now saying,
There are also opposite maxims and habits of pleasure most excusable.
which flatter and attract the soul, but do not influence Yes, he said; and, I may add, pitiable.
those of us who have any sense of right, and they continue Therefore, that your feelings may not be moved to pity
to obey and honour the maxims of their fathers. about our citizens who are now thirty years of age, every
True. care must be taken in introducing them to dialectic.
Now, when a man is in this state, and the questioning Certainly.
spirit asks what is fair or honourable, and he answers as the There is a danger lest they should taste the dear delight
legislator has taught him, and then arguments many and too early; for youngsters, as you may have observed, when
diverse refute his words, until he is driven into believing they first get the taste in their mouths, argue for amuse-
that nothing is honourable any more than dishonourable, ment, and are always contradicting and refuting others in
or just and good any more than the reverse, and so of all imitation of those who refute them; like puppy-dogs, they
the notions which he most valued, do you think that he rejoice in pulling and tearing at all who come near them.
will still honour and obey them as before? Yes, he said, there is nothing which they like better.
Impossible. And when they have made many conquests and received
And when he ceases to think them honourable and natu- defeats at the hands of many, they violently and speedily
ral as heretofore, and he fails to discover the true, can he be get into a way of not believing anything which they be-
expected to pursue any life other than that which flatters lieved before, and hence, not only they, but philosophy and
his desires? all that relates to it is apt to have a bad name with the rest
He cannot. of the world.
And from being a keeper of the law he is converted into a Too true, he said.
breaker of it? But when a man begins to get older, he will no longer be
217
guilty of such insanity; he will imitate the dialectician who fifty years of age, then let those who still survive and have
is seeking for truth, and not the eristic, who is contradict- distinguished themselves in every action of their lives and
ing for the sake of amusement; and the greater moderation in every branch of knowledge come at last to their consum-
of his character will increase instead of diminishing the mation; the time has now arrived at which they must raise
honour of the pursuit. the eye of the soul to the universal light which lightens all
Very true, he said. things, and behold the absolute good; for that is the, pat-
And did we not make special provision for this, when we tern according to which they are to order the State and the
said that the disciples of philosophy were to be orderly and lives of individuals, and the remainder of their own lives
steadfast, not, as now, any chance aspirant or intruder? also; making philosophy their chief pursuit, but, when their
Very true. turn comes, toiling also at politics and ruling for the public
Suppose, I said, the study of philosophy to take the place good, not as though they were performing some heroic ac-
of gymnastics and to be continued diligently and earnestly tion, but simply as a matter of duty; and when they have
and exclusively for twice the number of years which were brought up in each generation others like themselves and
passed in bodily exercise—will that be enough? left them in their place to be governors of the State, then
Would you say six or four years? he asked. they will depart to the Islands of the Blest and dwell there;
Say five years, I replied; at the end of the time they must and the city will give them public memorials and sacrifices
be sent down again into the den and compelled to hold any and honour them, if the Pythian oracle consent, as demi-
military or other office which young men are qualified to gods, but if not, as in any case blessed and divine.
hold: in this way they will get their experience of life, and You are a sculptor, Socrates, and have made statues of
there will be an opportunity of trying whether, when they our governors faultless in beauty.
are drawn all manner of ways by temptation, they will stand Yes, I said, Glaucon, and of our governesses too; for you
firm or flinch. must not suppose that what I have been saying applies to
And how long is this stage of their lives to last? men only and not to women as far as their natures can go.
Fifteen years, I answered; and when they have reached There you are right, he said, since we have made them to
218
share in all things like the men. you have very well described how, if ever, such a constitu-
Well, I said, and you would agree (would you not?) that tion might come into being.
what has been said about the State and the government is Enough then of the perfect State, and of the man who
not a mere dream, and although difficult not impossible, bears its image—there is no difficulty in seeing how we
but only possible in the way which has been supposed; that shall describe him.
is to say, when the true philosopher kings are born in a There is no difficulty, he replied; and I agree with you in
State, one or more of them, despising the honours of this thinking that nothing more need be said.
present world which they deem mean and worthless, es-
teeming above all things right and the honour that springs BOOK VIII
from right, and regarding justice as the greatest and most
SOCRATES - GLAUCON
necessary of all things, whose ministers they are, and whose
principles will be exalted by them when they set in order And so, Glaucon, we have arrived at the conclusion that
their own city? in the perfect State wives and children are to be in com-
How will they proceed? mon; and that all education and the pursuits of war and
They will begin by sending out into the country all the peace are also to be common, and the best philosophers
inhabitants of the city who are more than ten years old, and the bravest warriors are to be their kings?
and will take possession of their children, who will be unaf- That, replied Glaucon, has been acknowledged.
fected by the habits of their parents; these they will train Yes, I said; and we have further acknowledged that the
in their own habits and laws, I mean in the laws which we governors, when appointed themselves, will take their sol-
have given them: and in this way the State and constitu- diers and place them in houses such as we were describing,
tion of which we were speaking will soonest and most eas- which are common to all, and contain nothing private, or
ily attain happiness, and the nation which has such a con- individual; and about their property, you remember what
stitution will gain most. we agreed?
Yes, that will be the best way. And I think, Socrates, that Yes, I remember that no one was to have any of the ordi-
219
nary possessions of mankind; they were to be warrior ath- Your recollection, I said, is most exact.
letes and guardians, receiving from the other citizens, in Then, like a wrestler, he replied, you must put yourself
lieu of annual payment, only their maintenance, and they again in the same position; and let me ask the same ques-
were to take care of themselves and of the whole State. tions, and do you give me the same answer which you were
True, I said; and now that this division of our task is con- about to give me then.
cluded, let us find the point at which we digressed, that we Yes, if I can, I will, I said.
may return into the old path. I shall particularly wish to hear what were the four con-
There is no difficulty in returning; you implied, then as stitutions of which you were speaking.
now, that you had finished the description of the State: you That question, I said, is easily answered: the four govern-
said that such a State was good, and that the man was good ments of which I spoke, so far as they have distinct names,
who answered to it, although, as now appears, you had more are, first, those of Crete and Sparta, which are generally ap-
excellent things to relate both of State and man. And you plauded; what is termed oligarchy comes next; this is not
said further, that if this was the true form, then the others equally approved, and is a form of government which teems
were false; and of the false forms, you said, as I remember, with evils: thirdly, democracy, which naturally follows oli-
that there were four principal ones, and that their defects, garchy, although very different: and lastly comes tyranny,
and the defects of the individuals corresponding to them, great and famous, which differs from them all, and is the
were worth examining. When we had seen all the individuals, fourth and worst disorder of a State. I do not know, do you?
and finally agreed as to who was the best and who was the of any other constitution which can be said to have a dis-
worst of them, we were to consider whether the best was not tinct character. There are lordships and principalities which
also the happiest, and the worst the most miserable. I asked are bought and sold, and some other intermediate forms of
you what were the four forms of government of which you government. But these are nondescripts and may be found
spoke, and then Polemarchus and Adeimantus put in their equally among Hellenes and among barbarians.
word; and you began again, and have found your way to the Yes, he replied, we certainly hear of many curious forms
point at which we have now arrived. of government which exist among them.
220
Do you know, I said, that governments vary as the dispo- Certainly, he replied, we must do as you say.
sitions of men vary, and that there must be as many of the Shall we follow our old plan, which we adopted with a
one as there are of the other? For we cannot suppose that view to clearness, of taking the State first and then pro-
States are made of ‘oak and rock,’ and not out of the human ceeding to the individual, and begin with the government
natures which are in them, and which in a figure turn the of honour?—I know of no name for such a government other
scale and draw other things after them? than timocracy, or perhaps timarchy. We will compare with
Yes, he said, the States are as the men are; they grow out this the like character in the individual; and, after that,
of human characters. consider oligarchical man; and then again we will turn our
Then if the constitutions of States are five, the disposi- attention to democracy and the democratical man; and
tions of individual minds will also be five? lastly, we will go and view the city of tyranny, and once
Certainly. more take a look into the tyrant’s soul, and try to arrive at
Him who answers to aristocracy, and whom we rightly a satisfactory decision.
call just and good, we have already described. That way of viewing and judging of the matter will be
We have. very suitable.
Then let us now proceed to describe the inferior sort of First, then, I said, let us enquire how timocracy (the gov-
natures, being the contentious and ambitious, who answer ernment of honour) arises out of aristocracy (the govern-
to the Spartan polity; also the oligarchical, democratical, and ment of the best). Clearly, all political changes originate in
tyrannical. Let us place the most just by the side of the most divisions of the actual governing power; a government which
unjust, and when we see them we shall be able to compare is united, however small, cannot be moved.
the relative happiness or unhappiness of him who leads a life Very true, he said.
of pure justice or pure injustice. The enquiry will then be In what way, then, will our city be moved, and in what
completed. And we shall know whether we ought to pursue manner the two classes of auxiliaries and rulers disagree
injustice, as Thrasymachus advises, or in accordance with the among themselves or with one another? Shall we, after the
conclusions of the argument to prefer justice. manner of Homer, pray the Muses to tell us ‘how discord
221
first arose’? Shall we imagine them in solemn mockery, to all the terms commensurable and agreeable to one another.
play and jest with us as if we were children, and to address The base of these (3) with a third added (4) when com-
us in a lofty tragic vein, making believe to be in earnest? bined with five (20) and raised to the third power furnishes
How would they address us? two harmonies; the first a square which is a hundred times
After this manner:—A city which is thus constituted can as great (400 = 4 X 100), and the other a figure having one
hardly be shaken; but, seeing that everything which has a side equal to the former, but oblong, consisting of a hun-
beginning has also an end, even a constitution such as yours dred numbers squared upon rational diameters of a square
will not last for ever, but will in time be dissolved. And this (i. e. omitting fractions), the side of which is five (7 X 7 =
is the dissolution:—In plants that grow in the earth, as 49 X 100 = 4900), each of them being less by one (than the
well as in animals that move on the earth’s surface, fertility perfect square which includes the fractions, sc. 50) or less
and sterility of soul and body occur when the circumfer- by two perfect squares of irrational diameters (of a square
ences of the circles of each are completed, which in short- the side of which is five = 50 + 50 = 100); and a hundred
lived existences pass over a short space, and in long-lived cubes of three (27 X 100 = 2700 + 4900 + 400 = 8000).
ones over a long space. But to the knowledge of human Now this number represents a geometrical figure which has
fecundity and sterility all the wisdom and education of your control over the good and evil of births. For when your
rulers will not attain; the laws which regulate them will not guardians are ignorant of the law of births, and unite bride
be discovered by an intelligence which is alloyed with sense, and bridegroom out of season, the children will not be
but will escape them, and they will bring children into the goodly or fortunate. And though only the best of them will
world when they ought not. Now that which is of divine be appointed by their predecessors, still they will be un-
birth has a period which is contained in a perfect number, worthy to hold their fathers’ places, and when they come
but the period of human birth is comprehended in a num- into power as guardians, they will soon be found to fall in
ber in which first increments by involution and evolution taking care of us, the Muses, first by under-valuing music;
(or squared and cubed) obtaining three intervals and four which neglect will soon extend to gymnastic; and hence
terms of like and unlike, waxing and waning numbers, make the young men of your State will be less cultivated. In the
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succeeding generation rulers will be appointed who have I believe that you have rightly conceived the origin of
lost the guardian power of testing the metal of your differ- the change.
ent races, which, like Hesiod’s, are of gold and silver and And the new government which thus arises will be of a
brass and iron. And so iron will be mingled with silver, and form intermediate between oligarchy and aristocracy?
brass with gold, and hence there will arise dissimilarity and Very true.
inequality and irregularity, which always and in all places Such will be the change, and after the change has been
are causes of hatred and war. This the Muses affirm to be made, how will they proceed? Clearly, the new State, being
the stock from which discord has sprung, wherever arising; in a mean between oligarchy and the perfect State, will
and this is their answer to us. partly follow one and partly the other, and will also have
Yes, and we may assume that they answer truly. some peculiarities.
Why, yes, I said, of course they answer truly; how can the True, he said.
Muses speak falsely? In the honour given to rulers, in the abstinence of the
And what do the Muses say next? warrior class from agriculture, handicrafts, and trade in gen-
When discord arose, then the two races were drawn different eral, in the institution of common meals, and in the atten-
ways: the iron and brass fell to acquiring money and land and tion paid to gymnastics and military training—in all these
houses and gold and silver; but the gold and silver races, not respects this State will resemble the former.
wanting money but having the true riches in their own nature, True.
inclined towards virtue and the ancient order of things. There But in the fear of admitting philosophers to power, because
was a battle between them, and at last they agreed to distrib- they are no longer to be had simple and earnest, but are made
ute their land and houses among individual owners; and they up of mixed elements; and in turning from them to passionate
enslaved their friends and maintainers, whom they had for- and less complex characters, who are by nature fitted for war
merly protected in the condition of freemen, and made of them rather than peace; and in the value set by them upon military
subjects and servants; and they themselves were engaged in stratagems and contrivances, and in the waging of everlasting
war and in keeping a watch against them. wars—this State will be for the most part peculiar.
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Yes. Assuredly, he said.
Yes, I said; and men of this stamp will be covetous of Such is the origin and such the character of this State,
money, like those who live in oligarchies; they will have, a which has been described in outline only; the more perfect
fierce secret longing after gold and silver, which they will execution was not required, for a sketch is enough to show
hoard in dark places, having magazines and treasuries of the type of the most perfectly just and most perfectly un-
their own for the deposit and concealment of them; also just; and to go through all the States and all the characters
castles which are just nests for their eggs, and in which of men, omitting none of them, would be an interminable
they will spend large sums on their wives, or on any others labour.
whom they please. Very true, he replied.
That is most true, he said. Now what man answers to this form of government—how
And they are miserly because they have no means of openly did he come into being, and what is he like?
acquiring the money which they prize; they will spend that
which is another man’s on the gratification of their desires, SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS
stealing their pleasures and running away like children from
I think, said Adeimantus, that in the spirit of contention
the law, their father: they have been schooled not by gentle
which characterises him, he is not unlike our friend Glaucon.
influences but by force, for they have neglected her who is
Perhaps, I said, he may be like him in that one point; but
the true Muse, the companion of reason and philosophy,
there are other respects in which he is very different.
and have honoured gymnastic more than music.
In what respects?
Undoubtedly, he said, the form of government which you
He should have more of self-assertion and be less culti-
describe is a mixture of good and evil.
vated, and yet a friend of culture; and he should be a good
Why, there is a mixture, I said; but one thing, and one
listener, but no speaker. Such a person is apt to be rough
thing only, is predominantly seen,—the spirit of conten-
with slaves, unlike the educated man, who is too proud for
tion and ambition; and these are due to the prevalence of
that; and he will also be courteous to freemen, and remark-
the passionate or spirited element.
ably obedient to authority; he is a lover of power and a
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lover of honour; claiming to be a ruler, not because he is And how does the son come into being?
eloquent, or on any ground of that sort, but because he is The character of the son begins to develop when he hears
a soldier and has performed feats of arms; he is also a lover his mother complaining that her husband has no place in
of gymnastic exercises and of the chase. the government, of which the consequence is that she has
Yes, that is the type of character which answers to no precedence among other women. Further, when she sees
timocracy. her husband not very eager about money, and instead of
Such an one will despise riches only when he is young; battling and railing in the law courts or assembly, taking
but as he gets older he will be more and more attracted to whatever happens to him quietly; and when she observes
them, because he has a piece of the avaricious nature in that his thoughts always centre in himself, while he treats
him, and is not singleminded towards virtue, having lost her with very considerable indifference, she is annoyed, and
his best guardian. says to her son that his father is only half a man and far
Who was that? said Adeimantus. too easy-going: adding all the other complaints about her
Philosophy, I said, tempered with music, who comes and own ill-treatment which women are so fond of rehearsing.
takes her abode in a man, and is the only saviour of his Yes, said Adeimantus, they give us plenty of them, and
virtue throughout life. their complaints are so like themselves.
Good, he said. And you know, I said, that the old servants also, who are
Such, I said, is the timocratical youth, and he is like the supposed to be attached to the family, from time to time
timocratical State. talk privately in the same strain to the son; and if they see
Exactly. any one who owes money to his father, or is wronging him
His origin is as follows:—He is often the young son of a in any way, and he falls to prosecute them, they tell the
grave father, who dwells in an ill-governed city, of which he youth that when he grows up he must retaliate upon people
declines the honours and offices, and will not go to law, or of this sort, and be more of a man than his father. He has
exert himself in any way, but is ready to waive his rights in only to walk abroad and he hears and sees the same sort of
order that he may escape trouble. thing: those who do their own business in the city are called
225
simpletons, and held in no esteem, while the busy-bodies A government resting on a valuation of property, in which
are honoured and applauded. The result is that the young the rich have power and the poor man is deprived of it.
man, hearing and seeing all these thing—hearing too, the I understand, he replied.
words of his father, and having a nearer view of his way of Ought I not to begin by describing how the change from
life, and making comparisons of him and others—is drawn timocracy to oligarchy arises?
opposite ways: while his father is watering and nourishing Yes.
the rational principle in his soul, the others are encourag- Well, I said, no eyes are required in order to see how the
ing the passionate and appetitive; and he being not origi- one passes into the other.
nally of a bad nature, but having kept bad company, is at How?
last brought by their joint influence to a middle point, and The accumulation of gold in the treasury of private indi-
gives up the kingdom which is within him to the middle viduals is ruin the of timocracy; they invent illegal modes
principle of contentiousness and passion, and becomes ar- of expenditure; for what do they or their wives care about
rogant and ambitious. the law?
You seem to me to have described his origin perfectly. Yes, indeed.
Then we have now, I said, the second form of government And then one, seeing another grow rich, seeks to rival
and the second type of character? him, and thus the great mass of the citizens become lovers
We have. of money.
Next, let us look at another man who, as Aeschylus says, Likely enough.
And so they grow richer and richer, and the more they
Is set over against another State;
think of making a fortune the less they think of virtue; for
when riches and virtue are placed together in the scales of
or rather, as our plan requires, begin with the State.
the balance, the one always rises as the other falls.
By all means.
True.
I believe that oligarchy follows next in order.
And in proportion as riches and rich men are honoured in
And what manner of government do you term oligarchy?
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the State, virtue and the virtuous are dishonoured. First of all, I said, consider the nature of the qualification
Clearly. just think what would happen if pilots were to be chosen
And what is honoured is cultivated, and that which has according to their property, and a poor man were refused
no honour is neglected. permission to steer, even though he were a better pilot?
That is obvious. You mean that they would shipwreck?
And so at last, instead of loving contention and glory, Yes; and is not this true of the government of anything?
men become lovers of trade and money; they honour and I should imagine so.
look up to the rich man, and make a ruler of him, and Except a city?—or would you include a city?
dishonour the poor man. Nay, he said, the case of a city is the strongest of all,
They do so. inasmuch as the rule of a city is the greatest and most dif-
They next proceed to make a law which fixes a sum of ficult of all.
money as the qualification of citizenship; the sum is higher This, then, will be the first great defect of oligarchy?
in one place and lower in another, as the oligarchy is more Clearly.
or less exclusive; and they allow no one whose property And here is another defect which is quite as bad.
falls below the amount fixed to have any share in the gov- What defect?
ernment. These changes in the constitution they effect by The inevitable division: such a State is not one, but two
force of arms, if intimidation has not already done their States, the one of poor, the other of rich men; and they are
work. living on the same spot and always conspiring against one
Very true. another.
And this, speaking generally, is the way in which oligar- That, surely, is at least as bad.
chy is established. Another discreditable feature is, that, for a like reason,
Yes, he said; but what are the characteristics of this form they are incapable of carrying on any war. Either they arm
of government, and what are the defects of which we were the multitude, and then they are more afraid of them than
speaking? of the enemy; or, if they do not call them out in the hour of
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battle, they are oligarchs indeed, few to fight as they are he was neither ruler nor subject, but just a spendthrift?
few to rule. And at the same time their fondness for money As you say, he seemed to be a ruler, but was only a spend-
makes them unwilling to pay taxes. thrift.
How discreditable! May we not say that this is the drone in the house who is
And, as we said before, under such a constitution the same like the drone in the honeycomb, and that the one is the
persons have too many callings—they are husbandmen, plague of the city as the other is of the hive?
tradesmen, warriors, all in one. Does that look well? Just so, Socrates.
Anything but well. And God has made the flying drones, Adeimantus, all with-
There is another evil which is, perhaps, the greatest of out stings, whereas of the walking drones he has made some
all, and to which this State first begins to be liable. without stings but others have dreadful stings; of the sting-
What evil? less class are those who in their old age end as paupers; of
A man may sell all that he has, and another may acquire the stingers come all the criminal class, as they are termed.
his property; yet after the sale he may dwell in the city of Most true, he said.
which he is no longer a part, being neither trader, nor arti- Clearly then, whenever you see paupers in a State, some-
san, nor horseman, nor hoplite, but only a poor, helpless where in that neighborhood there are hidden away thieves,
creature. and cutpurses and robbers of temples, and all sorts of male-
Yes, that is an evil which also first begins in this State. factors.
The evil is certainly not prevented there; for oligarchies Clearly.
have both the extremes of great wealth and utter poverty. Well, I said, and in oligarchical States do you not find
True. paupers?
But think again: In his wealthy days, while he was spend- Yes, he said; nearly everybody is a pauper who is not a
ing his money, was a man of this sort a whit more good to ruler.
the State for the purposes of citizenship? Or did he only And may we be so bold as to affirm that there are also
seem to be a member of the ruling body, although in truth many criminals to be found in them, rogues who have stings,
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and whom the authorities are careful to restrain by force? exiled, or deprived of the privileges of a citizen, and all his
Certainly, we may be so bold. property taken from him.
The existence of such persons is to be attributed to want Nothing more likely.
of education, ill-training, and an evil constitution of the And the son has seen and known all this—he is a ruined
State? man, and his fear has taught him to knock ambition and
True. passion head-foremost from his bosom’s throne; humbled
Such, then, is the form and such are the evils of oligarchy; by poverty he takes to money-making and by mean and
and there may be many other evils. miserly savings and hard work gets a fortune together. Is
Very likely. not such an one likely to seat the concupiscent and covet-
Then oligarchy, or the form of government in which the ous element on the vacant throne and to suffer it to play
rulers are elected for their wealth, may now be dismissed. the great king within him, girt with tiara and chain and
Let us next proceed to consider the nature and origin of scimitar?
the individual who answers to this State. Most true, he replied.
By all means. And when he has made reason and spirit sit down on the
Does not the timocratical man change into the oligarchi- ground obediently on either side of their sovereign, and
cal on this wise? taught them to know their place, he compels the one to
How? think only of how lesser sums may be turned into larger
A time arrives when the representative of timocracy has a ones, and will not allow the other to worship and admire
son: at first he begins by emulating his father and walking anything but riches and rich men, or to be ambitious of
in his footsteps, but presently he sees him of a sudden anything so much as the acquisition of wealth and the means
foundering against the State as upon a sunken reef, and he of acquiring it.
and all that he has is lost; he may have been a general or Of all changes, he said, there is none so speedy or so sure
some other high officer who is brought to trial under a as the conversion of the ambitious youth into the avari-
prejudice raised by informers, and either put to death, or cious one.
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And the avaricious, I said, is the oligarchical youth? Excellent! I said. Yet consider: Must we not further admit
Yes, he said; at any rate the individual out of whom he that owing to this want of cultivation there will be found
came is like the State out of which oligarchy came. in him dronelike desires as of pauper and rogue, which are
Let us then consider whether there is any likeness be- forcibly kept down by his general habit of life?
tween them. True.
Very good. Do you know where you will have to look if you want to
First, then, they resemble one another in the value which discover his rogueries?
they set upon wealth? Where must I look?
Certainly. You should see him where he has some great opportunity
Also in their penurious, laborious character; the individual of acting dishonestly, as in the guardianship of an orphan.
only satisfies his necessary appetites, and confines his ex- Aye.
penditure to them; his other desires he subdues, under the It will be clear enough then that in his ordinary dealings
idea that they are unprofitable. which give him a reputation for honesty he coerces his bad
True. passions by an enforced virtue; not making them see that
He is a shabby fellow, who saves something out of every- they are wrong, or taming them by reason, but by neces-
thing and makes a purse for himself; and this is the sort of sity and fear constraining them, and because he trembles
man whom the vulgar applaud. Is he not a true image of for his possessions.
the State which he represents? To be sure.
He appears to me to be so; at any rate money is highly Yes, indeed, my dear friend, but you will find that the
valued by him as well as by the State. natural desires of the drone commonly exist in him all the
You see that he is not a man of cultivation, I said. same whenever he has to spend what is not his own.
I imagine not, he said; had he been educated he would Yes, and they will be strong in him too.
never have made a blind god director of his chorus, or given The man, then, will be at war with himself; he will be two
him chief honour. men, and not one; but, in general, his better desires will be
230
found to prevail over his inferior ones. democracy arise? Is it not on this wise?—The good at which
True. such a State alms is to become as rich as possible, a desire
For these reasons such an one will be more respectable which is insatiable?
than most people; yet the true virtue of a unanimous and What then?
harmonious soul will flee far away and never come near him. The rulers, being aware that their power rests upon their
I should expect so. wealth, refuse to curtail by law the extravagance of the
And surely, the miser individually will be an ignoble com- spendthrift youth because they gain by their ruin; they
petitor in a State for any prize of victory, or other object of take interest from them and buy up their estates and thus
honourable ambition; he will not spend his money in the increase their own wealth and importance?
contest for glory; so afraid is he of awakening his expen- To be sure.
sive appetites and inviting them to help and join in the There can be no doubt that the love of wealth and the
struggle; in true oligarchical fashion he fights with a small spirit of moderation cannot exist together in citizens of
part only of his resources, and the result commonly is that the same State to any considerable extent; one or the other
he loses the prize and saves his money. will be disregarded.
Very true. That is tolerably clear.
Can we any longer doubt, then, that the miser and money- And in oligarchical States, from the general spread of care-
maker answers to the oligarchical State? lessness and extravagance, men of good family have often
There can be no doubt. been reduced to beggary?
Next comes democracy; of this the origin and nature have Yes, often.
still to be considered by us; and then we will enquire into And still they remain in the city; there they are, ready to
the ways of the democratic man, and bring him up for judge- sting and fully armed, and some of them owe money, some
ment. have forfeited their citizenship; a third class are in both
That, he said, is our method. predicaments; and they hate and conspire against those
Well, I said, and how does the change from oligarchy into who have got their property, and against everybody else,
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and are eager for revolution. are habituated to lead a life of luxury and idleness both of
That is true. body and mind; they do nothing, and are incapable of re-
On the other hand, the men of business, stooping as they sisting either pleasure or pain.
walk, and pretending not even to see those whom they Very true.
have already ruined, insert their sting—that is, their They themselves care only for making money, and are as
money—into some one else who is not on his guard against indifferent as the pauper to the cultivation of virtue.
them, and recover the parent sum many times over multi- Yes, quite as indifferent.
plied into a family of children: and so they make drone and Such is the state of affairs which prevails among them.
pauper to abound in the State. And often rulers and their subjects may come in one
Yes, he said, there are plenty of them—that is certain. another’s way, whether on a pilgrimage or a march, as fel-
The evil blazes up like a fire; and they will not extinguish low-soldiers or fellow-sailors; aye, and they may observe
it, either by restricting a man’s use of his own property, or the behaviour of each other in the very moment of dan-
by another remedy: ger—for where danger is, there is no fear that the poor will
What other? be despised by the rich—and very likely the wiry sunburnt
One which is the next best, and has the advantage of poor man may be placed in battle at the side of a wealthy
compelling the citizens to look to their characters:—Let one who has never spoilt his complexion and has plenty of
there be a general rule that every one shall enter into vol- superfluous flesh—when he sees such an one puffing and
untary contracts at his own risk, and there will be less of at his wit’s end, how can he avoid drawing the conclusion
this scandalous money-making, and the evils of which we that men like him are only rich because no one has the
were speaking will be greatly lessened in the State. courage to despoil them? And when they meet in private
Yes, they will be greatly lessened. will not people be saying to one another ‘Our warriors are
At present the governors, induced by the motives which I not good for much’?
have named, treat their subjects badly; while they and their Yes, he said, I am quite aware that this is their way of
adherents, especially the young men of the governing class, talking.
232
And, as in a body which is diseased the addition of a full of freedom and frankness—a man may say and do what
touch from without may bring on illness, and sometimes he likes?
even when there is no external provocation a commotion ‘Tis said so, he replied.
may arise within-in the same way wherever there is weak- And where freedom is, the individual is clearly able to
ness in the State there is also likely to be illness,which the order for himself his own life as he pleases?
occasions may be very slight, the one party introducing Clearly.
from without their oligarchical, the other their democrati- Then in this kind of State there will be the greatest vari-
cal allies, and then the State falls sick, and is at war with ety of human natures?
herself; and may be at times distracted, even when there is There will.
no external cause. This, then, seems likely to be the fairest of States, being
Yes, surely. an embroidered robe which is spangled with every sort of
And then democracy comes into being after the poor have flower. And just as women and children think a variety of
conquered their opponents, slaughtering some and banish- colours to be of all things most charming, so there are many
ing some, while to the remainder they give an equal share men to whom this State, which is spangled with the man-
of freedom and power; and this is the form of government ners and characters of mankind, will appear to be the fair-
in which the magistrates are commonly elected by lot. est of States.
Yes, he said, that is the nature of democracy, whether the Yes.
revolution has been effected by arms, or whether fear has Yes, my good Sir, and there will be no better in which to
caused the opposite party to withdraw. look for a government.
And now what is their manner of life, and what sort of a Why?
government have they? for as the government is, such will Because of the liberty which reigns there—they have a
be the man. complete assortment of constitutions; and he who has a
Clearly, he said. mind to establish a State, as we have been doing, must go
In the first place, are they not free; and is not the city to a democracy as he would to a bazaar at which they sell
233
them, and pick out the one that suits him; then, when he in the case of some rarely gifted nature, there never will be
has made his choice, he may found his State. a good man who has not from his childhood been used to
He will be sure to have patterns enough. play amid things of beauty and make of them a joy and a
And there being no necessity, I said, for you to govern in study—how grandly does she trample all these fine no-
this State, even if you have the capacity, or to be governed, tions of ours under her feet, never giving a thought to the
unless you like, or go to war when the rest go to war, or to pursuits which make a statesman, and promoting to honour
be at peace when others are at peace, unless you are so any one who professes to be the people’s friend.
disposed —there being no necessity also, because some Yes, she is of a noble spirit.
law forbids you to hold office or be a dicast, that you should These and other kindred characteristics are proper to de-
not hold office or be a dicast, if you have a fancy—is not mocracy, which is a charming form of government, full of
this a way of life which for the moment is supremely de- variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to
lightful equals and unequals alike.
For the moment, yes. We know her well.
And is not their humanity to the condemned in some cases Consider now, I said, what manner of man the individual
quite charming? Have you not observed how, in a democ- is, or rather consider, as in the case of the State, how he
racy, many persons, although they have been sentenced to comes into being.
death or exile, just stay where they are and walk about the Very good, he said.
world—the gentleman parades like a hero, and nobody sees Is not this the way—he is the son of the miserly and
or cares? oligarchical father who has trained him in his own habits?
Yes, he replied, many and many a one. Exactly.
See too, I said, the forgiving spirit of democracy, and the And, like his father, he keeps under by force the plea-
‘don’t care’ about trifles, and the disregard which she shows sures which are of the spending and not of the getting
of all the fine principles which we solemnly laid down at sort, being those which are called unnecessary?
the foundation of the city—as when we said that, except Obviously.
234
Would you like, for the sake of clearness, to distinguish That is what I should suppose.
which are the necessary and which are the unnecessary plea- The pleasure of eating is necessary in two ways; it does
sures? us good and it is essential to the continuance of life?
I should. Yes.
Are not necessary pleasures those of which we cannot But the condiments are only necessary in so far as they
get rid, and of which the satisfaction is a benefit to us? are good for health?
And they are rightly so, because we are framed by nature Certainly.
to desire both what is beneficial and what is necessary, and And the desire which goes beyond this, or more delicate
cannot help it. food, or other luxuries, which might generally be got rid
True. of, if controlled and trained in youth, and is hurtful to the
We are not wrong therefore in calling them necessary? body, and hurtful to the soul in the pursuit of wisdom and
We are not. virtue, may be rightly called unnecessary?
And the desires of which a man may get rid, if he takes Very true.
pains from his youth upwards—of which the presence, more- May we not say that these desires spend, and that the
over, does no good, and in some cases the reverse of good— others make money because they conduce to production?
shall we not be right in saying that all these are unneces- Certainly.
sary? And of the pleasures of love, and all other pleasures, the
Yes, certainly. same holds good?
Suppose we select an example of either kind, in order True.
that we may have a general notion of them? And the drone of whom we spoke was he who was sur-
Very good. feited in pleasures and desires of this sort, and was the
Will not the desire of eating, that is, of simple food and slave of the unnecessary desires, whereas he who was sub-
condiments, in so far as they are required for health and ject o the necessary only was miserly and oligarchical?
strength, be of the necessary class? Very true.
235
Again, let us see how the democratical man grows out of It must be so.
the oligarchical: the following, as I suspect, is commonly And there are times when the democratical principle gives
the process. way to the oligarchical, and some of his desires die, and
What is the process? others are banished; a spirit of reverence enters into the
When a young man who has been brought up as we were young man’s soul and order is restored.
just now describing, in a vulgar and miserly way, has tasted Yes, he said, that sometimes happens.
drones’ honey and has come to associate with fierce and And then, again, after the old desires have been driven
crafty natures who are able to provide for him all sorts of out, fresh ones spring up, which are akin to them, and be-
refinements and varieties of pleasure—then, as you may cause he, their father, does not know how to educate them,
imagine, the change will begin of the oligarchical principle wax fierce
within him into the democratical? and numerous.
Inevitably. Yes, he said, that is apt to be the way.
And as in the city like was helping like, and the change They draw him to his old associates, and holding secret
was effected by an alliance from without assisting one divi- intercourse with them, breed and multiply in him.
sion of the citizens, so too the young man is changed by a Very true.
class of desires coming from without to assist the desires At length they seize upon the citadel of the young man’s
within him, that which is and alike again helping that which soul, which they perceive to be void of all accomplishments
is akin and alike? and fair pursuits and true words, which make their abode in
Certainly. the minds of men who are dear to the gods, and are their
And if there be any ally which aids the oligarchical prin- best guardians and sentinels.
ciple within him, whether the influence of a father or of None better.
kindred, advising or rebuking him, then there arises in his False and boastful conceits and phrases mount upwards
soul a faction and an opposite faction, and he goes to war and take their place.
with himself. They are certain to do so.
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And so the young man returns into the country of the nature, which was trained in the school of necessity, into
lotus-eaters, and takes up his dwelling there in the face of the freedom and libertinism of useless and unnecessary plea-
all men; and if any help be sent by his friends to the oligar- sures.
chical part of him, the aforesaid vain conceits shut the gate Yes, he said, the change in him is visible enough.
of the king’s fastness; and they will neither allow the em- After this he lives on, spending his money and labour and
bassy itself to enter, private if private advisers offer the fa- time on unnecessary pleasures quite as much as on neces-
therly counsel of the aged will they listen to them or receive sary ones; but if he be fortunate, and is not too much dis-
them. There is a battle and they gain the day, and then mod- ordered in his wits, when years have elapsed, and the hey-
esty, which they call silliness, is ignominiously thrust into day of passion is over—supposing that he then re-admits
exile by them, and temperance, which they nickname un- into the city some part of the exiled virtues, and does not
manliness, is trampled in the mire and cast forth; they per- wholly give himself up to their successors—in that case he
suade men that moderation and orderly expenditure are vul- balances his pleasures and lives in a sort of equilibrium,
garity and meanness, and so, by the help of a rabble of evil putting the government of himself into the hands of the
appetites, they drive them beyond the border. one which comes first and wins the turn; and when he has
Yes, with a will. had enough of that, then into the hands of another; he
And when they have emptied and swept clean the soul of despises none of them but encourages them all equally.
him who is now in their power and who is being initiated Very true, he said.
by them in great mysteries, the next thing is to bring back Neither does he receive or let pass into the fortress any
to their house insolence and anarchy and waste and impu- true word of advice; if any one says to him that some plea-
dence in bright array having garlands on their heads, and a sures are the satisfactions of good and noble desires, and
great company with them, hymning their praises and call- others of evil desires, and that he ought to use and honour
ing them by sweet names; insolence they term breeding, some and chastise and master the others—whenever this is
and anarchy liberty, and waste magnificence, and impudence repeated to him he shakes his head and says that they are
courage. And so the young man passes out of his original all alike, and that one is as good as another.
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Yes, he said; that is the way with him. Last of all comes the most beautiful of all, man and State
Yes, I said, he lives from day to day indulging the appe- alike, tyranny and the tyrant; these we have now to con-
tite of the hour; and sometimes he is lapped in drink and sider.
strains of the flute; then he becomes a water-drinker, and Quite true, he said.
tries to get thin; then he takes a turn at gymnastics; some- Say then, my friend, in what manner does tyranny arise?—
times idling and neglecting everything, then once more liv- that it has a democratic origin is evident.
ing the life of a philosopher; often he is busy with politics, Clearly.
and starts to his feet and says and does whatever comes And does not tyranny spring from democracy in the same
into his head; and, if he is emulous of any one who is a manner as democracy from oligarchy—I mean, after a sort?
warrior, off he is in that direction, or of men of business, How?
once more in that. His life has neither law nor order; and The good which oligarchy proposed to itself and the means
this distracted existence he terms joy and bliss and free- by which it was maintained was excess of wealth—am I not
dom; and so he goes on. right?
Yes, he replied, he is all liberty and equality. Yes.
Yes, I said; his life is motley and manifold and an epitome And the insatiable desire of wealth and the neglect of all
of the lives of many;—he answers to the State which we other things for the sake of money-getting was also the
described as fair and spangled. And many a man and many a ruin of oligarchy?
woman will take him for their pattern, and many a consti- True.
tution and many an example of manners is contained in And democracy has her own good, of which the insatiable
him. desire brings her to dissolution?
Just so. What good?
Let him then be set over against democracy; he may truly Freedom, I replied; which, as they tell you in a democ-
be called the democratic man. racy, is the glory of the State—and that therefore in a de-
Let that be his place, he said. mocracy alone will the freeman of nature deign to dwell.
238
Yes; the saying is in everybody’s mouth. level with his father, he having no respect or reverence for
I was going to observe, that the insatiable desire of this either of his parents; and this is his freedom, and metic is
and the neglect of other things introduces the change in equal with the citizen and the citizen with the metic, and
democracy, which occasions a demand for tyranny. the stranger is quite as good as either.
How so? Yes, he said, that is the way.
When a democracy which is thirsting for freedom has evil And these are not the only evils, I said—there are several
cupbearers presiding over the feast, and has drunk too lesser ones: In such a state of society the master fears and
deeply of the strong wine of freedom, then, unless her rul- flatters his scholars, and the scholars despise their masters
ers are very amenable and give a plentiful draught, she calls and tutors; young and old are all alike; and the young man
them to account and punishes them, and says that they are is on a level with the old, and is ready to compete with him
cursed oligarchs. in word or deed; and old men condescend to the young and
Yes, he replied, a very common occurrence. are full of pleasantry and gaiety; they are loth to be thought
Yes, I said; and loyal citizens are insultingly termed by morose and authoritative, and therefore they adopt the
her slaves who hug their chains and men of naught; she manners of the young.
would have subjects who are like rulers, and rulers who are Quite true, he said.
like subjects: these are men after her own heart, whom she The last extreme of popular liberty is when the slave
praises and honours both in private and public. Now, in bought with money, whether male or female, is just as free
such a State, can liberty have any limit? as his or her purchaser; nor must I forget to tell of the
Certainly not. liberty and equality of the two sexes in relation to each
By degrees the anarchy finds a way into private houses, other.
and ends by getting among the animals and infecting them. Why not, as Aeschylus says, utter the word which rises to
How do you mean? our lips?
I mean that the father grows accustomed to descend to That is what I am doing, I replied; and I must add that no
the level of his sons and to fear them, and the son is on a one who does not know would believe, how much greater is
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the liberty which the animals who are under the dominion etable and animal life, but above all in forms of govern-
of man have in a democracy than in any other State: for ment.
truly, the she-dogs, as the proverb says, are as good as True.
their she-mistresses, and the horses and asses have a way The excess of liberty, whether in States or individuals,
of marching along with all the rights and dignities of free- seems only to pass into excess of slavery.
men; and they will run at anybody who comes in their way Yes, the natural order.
if he does not leave the road clear for them: and all things And so tyranny naturally arises out of democracy, and
are just ready to burst with liberty. the most aggravated form of tyranny and slavery out of
When I take a country walk, he said, I often experience the most extreme form of liberty?
what you describe. You and I have dreamed the same thing. As we might expect.
And above all, I said, and as the result of all, see how That, however, was not, as I believe, your question-you
sensitive the citizens become; they chafe impatiently at rather desired to know what is that disorder which is gen-
the least touch of authority and at length, as you know, erated alike in oligarchy and democracy, and is the ruin of
they cease to care even for the laws, written or unwritten; both?
they will have no one over them. Just so, he replied.
Yes, he said, I know it too well. Well, I said, I meant to refer to the class of idle spend-
Such, my friend, I said, is the fair and glorious beginning thrifts, of whom the more courageous are the-leaders and
out of which springs tyranny. the more timid the followers, the same whom we were com-
Glorious indeed, he said. But what is the next step? paring to drones, some stingless, and others having stings.
The ruin of oligarchy is the ruin of democracy; the same A very just comparison.
disease magnified and intensified by liberty overmasters These two classes are the plagues of every city in which
democracy—the truth being that the excessive increase of they are generated, being what phlegm and bile are to the
anything often causes a reaction in the opposite direction; body. And the good physician and lawgiver of the State
and this is the case not only in the seasons and in veg- ought, like the wise bee-master, to keep them at a distance
240
and prevent, if possible, their ever coming in; and if they They are the orderly class, which in a nation of traders
have anyhow found a way in, then he should have them sure to be the richest.
and their cells cut out as speedily as possible. Naturally so.
Yes, by all means, he said. They are the most squeezable persons and yield the larg-
Then, in order that we may see clearly what we are doing, est amount of honey to the drones.
let us imagine democracy to be divided, as indeed it is, into Why, he said, there is little to be squeezed out of people
three classes; for in the first place freedom creates rather who have little.
more drones in the democratic than there were in the oli- And this is called the wealthy class, and the drones feed
garchical State. upon them.
That is true. That is pretty much the case, he said.
And in the democracy they are certainly more intensi- The people are a third class, consisting of those who work
fied. with their own hands; they are not politicians, and have
How so? not much to live upon. This, when assembled, is the largest
Because in the oligarchical State they are disqualified and and most powerful class in a democracy.
driven from office, and therefore they cannot train or gather True, he said; but then the multitude is seldom willing to
strength; whereas in a democracy they are almost the en- congregate unless they get a little honey.
tire ruling power, and while the keener sort speak and act, And do they not share? I said. Do not their leaders de-
the rest keep buzzing about the bema and do not suffer a prive the rich of their estates and distribute them among
word to be said on the other side; hence in democracies the people; at the same time taking care to reserve the
almost everything is managed by the drones. larger part for themselves?
Very true, he said. Why, yes, he said, to that extent the people do share.
Then there is another class which is always being severed And the persons whose property is taken from them are
from the mass. compelled to defend themselves before the people as they
What is that? best can?
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What else can they do? The tale is that he who has tasted the entrails of a single
And then, although they may have no desire of change, human victim minced up with the entrails of other victims
the others charge them with plotting against the people is destined to become a wolf. Did you never hear it?
and being friends of oligarchy? True. Oh, yes.
And the end is that when they see the people, not of And the protector of the people is like him; having a mob
their own accord, but through ignorance, and because they entirely at his disposal, he is not restrained from shedding the
are deceived by informers, seeking to do them wrong, then blood of kinsmen; by the favourite method of false accusation
at last they are forced to become oligarchs in reality; they he brings them into court and murders them, making the life
do not wish to be, but the sting of the drones torments of man to disappear, and with unholy tongue and lips tasting
them and breeds revolution in them. the blood of his fellow citizen; some he kills and others he
That is exactly the truth. banishes, at the same time hinting at the abolition of debts
Then come impeachments and judgments and trials of one and partition of lands: and after this, what will be his destiny?
another. Must he not either perish at the hands of his enemies, or from
True. being a man become a wolf—that is, a tyrant?
The people have always some champion whom they set Inevitably.
over them and nurse into greatness. This, I said, is he who begins to make a party against the
Yes, that is their way. rich?
This and no other is the root from which a tyrant springs; The same.
when he first appears above ground he is a protector. After a while he is driven out, but comes back, in spite of
Yes, that is quite clear. his enemies, a tyrant full grown.
How then does a protector begin to change into a ty- That is clear.
rant? Clearly when he does what the man is said to do in And if they are unable to expel him, or to get him con-
the tale of the Arcadian temple of Lycaean Zeus. demned to death by a public accusation, they conspire to
What tale? assassinate him.
242
Yes, he said, that is their usual way. No doubt, he said.
Then comes the famous request for a bodyguard, which is And now let us consider the happiness of the man, and
the device of all those who have got thus far in their tyran- also of the State in which a creature like him is generated.
nical career—‘Let not the people’s friend,’ as they say, ‘be Yes, he said, let us consider that.
lost to them.’ At first, in the early days of his power, he is full of smiles,
Exactly. and he salutes every one whom he meets;—he to be called
The people readily assent; all their fears are for him— a tyrant, who is making promises in public and also in pri-
they have none for themselves. vate! liberating debtors, and distributing land to the people
Very true. and his followers, and wanting to be so kind and good to
And when a man who is wealthy and is also accused of every one!
being an enemy of the people sees this, then, my friend, as Of course, he said.
the oracle said to Croesus, But when he has disposed of foreign enemies by conquest
or treaty, and there is nothing to fear from them, then he is
By pebbly Hermus’ shore he flees and rests not and is
always stirring up some war or other, in order that the people
not
ashamed to be a coward. may require a leader.
To be sure.
And quite right too, said he, for if he were, he would never Has he not also another object, which is that they may
be ashamed again. be impoverished by payment of taxes, and thus compelled
But if he is caught he dies. to devote themselves to their daily wants and therefore
Of course. less likely to conspire against him? Clearly.
And he, the protector of whom we spoke, is to be seen, not And if any of them are suspected by him of having no-
‘larding the plain’ with his bulk, but himself the overthrower tions of freedom, and of resistance to his authority, he will
of many, standing up in the chariot of State with the reins in have a good pretext for destroying them by placing them
his hand, no longer protector, but tyrant absolute. at the mercy of the enemy; and for all these reasons the
243
tyrant must be always getting up a war. dwell only with the many bad, and to be by them hated, or
He must. not to live at all!
Now he begins to grow unpopular. Yes, that is the alternative.
A necessary result. And the more detestable his actions are to the citizens
Then some of those who joined in setting him up, and the more satellites and the greater devotion in them will
who are in power, speak their minds to him and to one he require?
another, and the more courageous of them cast in his teeth Certainly.
what is being done. And who are the devoted band, and where will he procure
Yes, that may be expected. them?
And the tyrant, if he means to rule, must get rid of them; They will flock to him, he said, of their own accord, if lie
he cannot stop while he has a friend or an enemy who is pays them.
good for anything. By the dog! I said, here are more drones, of every sort
He cannot. and from every land.
And therefore he must look about him and see who is Yes, he said, there are.
valiant, who is high-minded, who is wise, who is wealthy; But will he not desire to get them on the spot?
happy man, he is the enemy of them all, and must seek How do you mean?
occasion against them whether he will or no, until he has He will rob the citizens of their slaves; he will then set
made a purgation of the State. them free and enrol them in his bodyguard.
Yes, he said, and a rare purgation. To be sure, he said; and he will be able to trust them best
Yes, I said, not the sort of purgation which the physicians of all.
make of the body; for they take away the worse and leave What a blessed creature, I said, must this tyrant be; he
the better part, but he does the reverse. has put to death the others and has these for his trusted
If he is to rule, I suppose that he cannot help himself. friends.
What a blessed alternative, I said:—to be compelled to Yes, he said; they are quite of his sort.
244
Yes, I said, and these are the new citizens whom he has Very true.
called into existence, who admire him and are his compan- Moreover, they are paid for this and receive honour—the
ions, while the good hate and avoid him. greatest honour, as might be expected, from tyrants, and
Of course. the next greatest from democracies; but the higher they
Verily, then, tragedy is a wise thing and Euripides a great ascend our constitution hill, the more their reputation fails,
tragedian. and seems unable from shortness of breath to proceed fur-
Why so? ther.
Why, because he is the author of the pregnant saying, True.
But we are wandering from the subject: Let us therefore
Tyrants are wise by living with the wise;
return and enquire how the tyrant will maintain that fair
and numerous and various and ever-changing army of his.
and he clearly meant to say that they are the wise whom
If, he said, there are sacred treasures in the city, he will
the tyrant makes his companions.
confiscate and spend them; and in so far as the fortunes of
Yes, he said, and he also praises tyranny as godlike; and
attainted persons may suffice, he will be able to diminish
many other things of the same kind are said by him and by
the taxes which he would otherwise have to impose upon
the other poets.
the people.
And therefore, I said, the tragic poets being wise men will
And when these fail?
forgive us and any others who live after our manner if we
Why, clearly, he said, then he and his boon companions,
do not receive them into our State, because they are the
whether male or female, will be maintained out of his father’s
eulogists of tyranny.
estate.
Yes, he said, those who have the wit will doubtless for-
You mean to say that the people, from whom he has de-
give us.
rived his being, will maintain him and his companions?
But they will continue to go to other cities and attract
Yes, he said; they cannot help themselves.
mobs, and hire voices fair and loud and persuasive, and draw
But what if the people fly into a passion, and aver that a
the cities over to tyrannies and democracies.
245
grown-up son ought not to be supported by his father, but est and bitterest form of slavery.
that the father should be supported by the son? The father True, he said.
did not bring him into being, or settle him in life, in order Very well; and may we not rightly say that we have suffi-
that when his son became a man he should himself be the ciently discussed the nature of tyranny, and the manner of
servant of his own servants and should support him and his the transition from democracy to tyranny?
rabble of slaves and companions; but that his son should Yes, quite enough, he said.
protect him, and that by his help he might be emancipated
from the government of the rich and aristocratic, as they BOOK IX
are termed. And so he bids him and his companions depart,
SOCRATES - ADEIMANTUS
just as any other father might drive out of the house a
riotous son and his undesirable associates. Last of all comes the tyrannical man; about whom we have
By heaven, he said, then the parent will discover what a once more to ask, how is he formed out of the democrati-
monster he has been fostering in his bosom; and, when he cal? and how does he live, in happiness or in misery?
wants to drive him out, he will find that he is weak and his Yes, he said, he is the only one remaining.
son strong. There is, however, I said, a previous question which re-
Why, you do not mean to say that the tyrant will use mains unanswered.
violence? What! beat his father if he opposes him? What question?
Yes, he will, having first disarmed him. I do not think that we have adequately determined the
Then he is a parricide, and a cruel guardian of an aged nature and number of the appetites, and until this is ac-
parent; and this is real tyranny, about which there can be complished the enquiry will always be confused.
no longer a mistake: as the saying is, the people who would Well, he said, it is not too late to supply the omission.
escape the smoke which is the slavery of freemen, has fallen Very true, I said; and observe the point which I want to
into the fire which is the tyranny of slaves. Thus liberty, understand: Certain of the unnecessary pleasures and ap-
getting out of all order and reason, passes into the harsh- petites I conceive to be unlawful; every one appears to have
246
them, but in some persons they are controlled by the laws contemplate and aspire to the knowledge of the unknown,
and by reason, and the better desires prevail over them— whether in past, present, or future: when again he has al-
either they are wholly banished or they become few and layed the passionate element, if he has a quarrel against
weak; while in the case of others they are stronger, and any one—I say, when, after pacifying the two irrational
there are more of them. principles, he rouses up the third, which is reason, before
Which appetites do you mean? he takes his rest, then, as you know, he attains truth most
I mean those which are awake when the reasoning and nearly, and is least likely to be the sport of fantastic and
human and ruling power is asleep; then the wild beast within lawless visions.
us, gorged with meat or drink, starts up and having shaken I quite agree.
off sleep, goes forth to satisfy his desires; and there is no In saying this I have been running into a digression; but
conceivable folly or crime—not excepting incest or any the point which I desire to note is that in all of us, even in
other unnatural union, or parricide, or the eating of forbid- good men, there is a lawless wild-beast nature, which peers
den food—which at such a time, when he has parted com- out in sleep. Pray, consider whether I am right, and you
pany with all shame and sense, a man may not be ready to agree with me.
commit. Yes, I agree.
Most true, he said. And now remember the character which we attributed to
But when a man’s pulse is healthy and temperate, and the democratic man. He was supposed from his youth up-
when before going to sleep he has awakened his rational wards to have been trained under a miserly parent, who
powers, and fed them on noble thoughts and enquiries, encouraged the saving appetites in him, but discounte-
collecting himself in meditation; after having first indulged nanced the unnecessary, which aim only at amusement and
his appetites neither too much nor too little, but just enough ornament?
to lay them to sleep, and prevent them and their enjoy- True.
ments and pains from interfering with the higher principle— And then he got into the company of a more refined,
which he leaves in the solitude of pure abstraction, free to licentious sort of people, and taking to all their wanton
247
ways rushed into the opposite extreme from an abhorrence And when his other lusts, amid clouds of incense and per-
of his father’s meanness. At last, being a better man than fumes and garlands and wines, and all the pleasures of a
his corruptors, he was drawn in both directions until he dissolute life, now let loose, come buzzing around him, nour-
halted midway and led a life, not of vulgar and slavish pas- ishing to the utmost the sting of desire which they implant
sion, but of what he deemed moderate indulgence in vari- in his drone-like nature, then at last this lord of the soul,
ous pleasures. After this manner the democrat was gener- having Madness for the captainof his guard, breaks out into
ated out of the oligarch? a frenzy: and if he finds in himself any good opinions or
Yes, he said; that was our view of him, and is so still. appetites in process of formation, and there is in him any
And now, I said, years will have passed away, and you sense of shame remaining, to these better principles he puts
must conceive this man, such as he is, to have a son, who is an end, and casts them forth until he has purged away tem-
brought up in his father’s principles. perance and brought in madness to the full.
I can imagine him. Yes, he said, that is the way in which the tyrannical man
Then you must further imagine the same thing to happen is generated.
to the son which has already happened to the father:—he And is not this the reason why of old love has been called
is drawn into a perfectly lawless life, which by his seducers a tyrant?
is termed perfect liberty; and his father and friends take I should not wonder.
part with his moderate desires, and the opposite party as- Further, I said, has not a drunken man also the spirit of a
sist the opposite ones. As soon as these dire magicians and tyrant?
tyrant- makers find that they are losing their hold on him, He has.
they contrive to implant in him a master passion, to be lord And you know that a man who is deranged and not right
over his idle and spendthrift lusts—a sort of monstrous in his mind, will fancy that he is able to rule, not only over
winged drone—that is the only image which will adequately men, but also over the gods?
describe him. That he will.
Yes, he said, that is the only adequate image of him. And the tyrannical man in the true sense of the word
248
comes into being when, either under the influence of na- erty, in order that he may gratify them?
ture, or habit, or both, he becomes drunken, lustful, pas- Yes, that is sure to be the case.
sionate? O my friend, is not that so? He must have money, no matter how, if he is to escape
Assuredly. horrid pains and pangs.
Such is the man and such is his origin. And next, how He must.
does he live? And as in himself there was a succession of pleasures, and
Suppose, as people facetiously say, you were to tell me. the new got the better of the old and took away their rights,
I imagine, I said, at the next step in his progress, that so he being younger will claim to have more than his father
there will be feasts and carousals and revellings and cour- and his mother, and if he has spent his own share of the
tesans, and all that sort of thing; Love is the lord of the property, he will take a slice of theirs.
house within him, and orders all the concerns of his soul. No doubt he will.
That is certain. And if his parents will not give way, then he will try first
Yes; and every day and every night desires grow up many of all to cheat and deceive them.
and formidable, and their demands are many. Very true.
They are indeed, he said. And if he fails, then he will use force and plunder them.
His revenues, if he has any, are soon spent. Yes, probably.
True. And if the old man and woman fight for their own, what
Then comes debt and the cutting down of his property. then, my friend? Will the creature feel any compunction at
Of course. tyrannizing over them?
When he has nothing left, must not his desires, crowding Nay, he said, I should not feel at all comfortable about
in the nest like young ravens, be crying aloud for food; and his parents.
he, goaded on by them, and especially by love himself, who But, O heavens! Adeimantus, on account of some new-
is in a manner the captain of them, is in a frenzy, and would fangled love of a harlot, who is anything but a necessary
fain discover whom he can defraud or despoil of his prop- connection, can you believe that he would strike the mother
249
who is his ancient friend and necessary to his very exist- bidden food, or be guilty of any other horrid act. Love is
ence, and would place her under the authority of the other, his tyrant, and lives lordly in him and lawlessly, and being
when she is brought under the same roof with her; or that, himself a king, leads him on, as a tyrant leads a State, to
under like circumstances, he would do the same to his with- the performance of any reckless deed by which he can main-
ered old father, first and most indispensable of friends, for tain himself and the rabble of his associates, whether those
the sake of some newly found blooming youth who is the whom evil communications have brought in from without,
reverse of indispensable? or those whom he himself has allowed to break loose within
Yes, indeed, he said; I believe that he would. him by reason of a similar evil nature in himself. Have we
Truly, then, I said, a tyrannical son is a blessing to his not here a picture of his way of life?
father and mother. Yes, indeed, he said.
He is indeed, he replied. And if there are only a few of them in the State, the rest
He first takes their property, and when that falls, and of the people are well disposed, they go away and become
pleasures are beginning to swarm in the hive of his soul, the bodyguard or mercenary soldiers of some other tyrant
then he breaks into a house, or steals the garments of some who may probably want them for a war; and if there is no
nightly wayfarer; next he proceeds to clear a temple. Mean- war, they stay at home and do many little pieces of mis-
while the old opinions which he had when a child, and which chief in the city.
gave judgment about good and evil, are overthrown by those What sort of mischief?
others which have just been emancipated, and are now the For example, they are the thieves, burglars, cutpurses,
bodyguard of love and share his empire. These in his demo- footpads, robbers of temples, man-stealers of the commu-
cratic days, when he was still subject to the laws and to his nity; or if they are able to speak they turn informers, and
father, were only let loose in the dreams of sleep. But now bear false witness, and take bribes.
that he is under the dominion of love, he becomes always A small catalogue of evils, even if the perpetrators of them
and in waking reality what he was then very rarely and in a are few in number.
dream only; he will commit the foulest murder, or eat for- Yes, I said; but small and great are comparative terms,
250
and all these things, in the misery and evil which they in- They are always either the masters or servants and never
flict upon a State, do not come within a thousand miles of the friends of anybody; the tyrant never tastes of true free-
the tyrant; when this noxious class and their followers grow dom or friendship.
numerous and become conscious of their strength, assisted Certainly not.
by the infatuation of the people, they choose from among And may we not rightly call such men treacherous?
themselves the one who has most of the tyrant in his own No question.
soul, and him they create their tyrant. Also they are utterly unjust, if we were right in our no-
Yes, he said, and he will be the most fit to be a tyrant. tion of justice?
If the people yield, well and good; but if they resist him, Yes, he said, and we were perfectly right.
as he began by beating his own father and mother, so now, Let us then sum up in a word, I said, the character of the
if he has the power, he beats them, and will keep his dear worst man: he is the waking reality of what we dreamed.
old fatherland or motherland, as the Cretans say, in subjec- Most true.
tion to his young retainers whom he has introduced to be And this is he who being by nature most of a tyrant bears
their rulers and masters. This is the end of his passions and rule, and the longer he lives the more of a tyrant he be-
desires. comes.
Exactly.
When such men are only private individuals and before SOCRATES - GLAUCON
they get power, this is their character; they associate en-
That is certain, said Glaucon, taking his turn to answer.
tirely with their own flatterers or ready tools; or if they
And will not he who has been shown to be the wickedest,
want anything from anybody, they in their turn are equally
be also the most miserable? and he who has tyrannized
ready to bow down before them: they profess every sort of
longest and most, most continually and truly miserable;
affection for them; but when they have gained their point
although this may not be the opinion of men in general?
they know them no more.
Yes, he said, inevitably.
Yes, truly.
And must not the tyrannical man be like the tyrannical,
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State, and the democratical man like the democratical State; enter into and see through human nature? He must not be
and the same of the others? like a child who looks at the outside and is dazzled at the
Certainly. pompous aspect which the tyrannical nature assumes to
And as State is to State in virtue and happiness, so is man the beholder, but let him be one who has a clear insight.
in relation to man? May I suppose that the judgment is given in the hearing of
To be sure. us all by one who is able to judge, and has dwelt in the
Then comparing our original city, which was under a king, same place with him, and been present at his dally life and
and the city which is under a tyrant, how do they stand as known him in his family relations, where he may be seen
to virtue? stripped of his tragedy attire, and again in the hour of pub-
They are the opposite extremes, he said, for one is the lic danger—he shall tell us about the happiness and misery
very best and the other is the very worst. of the tyrant when compared with other men?
There can be no mistake, I said, as to which is which, and That again, he said, is a very fair proposal.
therefore I will at once inquire whether you would arrive at Shall I assume that we ourselves are able and experienced
a similar decision about their relative happiness and mis- judges and have before now met with such a person? We
ery. And here we must not allow ourselves to be panic- shall then have some one who will answer our enquiries.
stricken at the apparition of the tyrant, who is only a unit By all means.
and may perhaps have a few retainers about him; but let us Let me ask you not to forget the parallel of the indi-
go as we ought into every corner of the city and look all vidual and the State; bearing this in mind, and glancing in
about, and then we will give our opinion. turn from one to the other of them, will you tell me their
A fair invitation, he replied; and I see, as every one must, respective conditions?
that a tyranny is the wretchedest form of government, and What do you mean? he asked.
the rule of a king the happiest. Beginning with the State, I replied, would you say that a
And in estimating the men too, may I not fairly make a city which is governed by a tyrant is free or enslaved?
like request, that I should have a judge whose mind can No city, he said, can be more completely enslaved.
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And yet, as you see, there are freemen as well as masters True.
in such a State? And must not such a State and such a man be always full
Yes, he said, I see that there are—a few; but the people, of fear?
speaking generally, and the best of them, are miserably Yes, indeed.
degraded and enslaved. Is there any State in which you will find more of lamenta-
Then if the man is like the State, I said, must not the tion and sorrow and groaning and pain?
same rule prevail? his soul is full of meanness and vulgar- Certainly not.
ity—the best elements in him are enslaved; and there is a And is there any man in whom you will find more of this
small ruling part, which is also the worst and maddest. sort of misery than in the tyrannical man, who is in a fury
Inevitably. of passions and desires?
And would you say that the soul of such an one is the Impossible.
soul of a freeman, or of a slave? Reflecting upon these and similar evils, you held the ty-
He has the soul of a slave, in my opinion. rannical State to be the most miserable of States?
And the State which is enslaved under a tyrant is utterly And I was right, he said.
incapable of acting voluntarily? Certainly, I said. And when you see the same evils in the
Utterly incapable. tyrannical man, what do you say of him?
And also the soul which is under a tyrant (I am speaking I say that he is by far the most miserable of all men.
of the soul taken as a whole) is least capable of doing what There, I said, I think that you are beginning to go wrong.
she desires; there is a gadfly which goads her, and she is What do you mean?
full of trouble and remorse? I do not think that he has as yet reached the utmost
Certainly. extreme of misery.
And is the city which is under a tyrant rich or poor? Then who is more miserable?
Poor. One of whom I am about to speak.
And the tyrannical soul must be always poor and insatiable? Who is that?
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He who is of a tyrannical nature, and instead of leading a and property and slaves, carried off by a god into the wil-
private life has been cursed with the further misfortune of derness, where there are no freemen to help him—will he
being a public tyrant. not be in an agony of fear lest he and his wife and children
From what has been said, I gather that you are right. should be put to death by his slaves?
Yes, I replied, but in this high argument you should be a Yes, he said, he will be in the utmost fear.
little more certain, and should not conjecture only; for of The time has arrived when he will be compelled to flatter
all questions, this respecting good and evil is the greatest. divers of his slaves, and make many promises to them of
Very true, he said. freedom and other things, much against his will—he will
Let me then offer you an illustration, which may, I think, have to cajole his own servants.
throw a light upon this subject. Yes, he said, that will be the only way of saving himself.
What is your illustration? And suppose the same god, who carried him away, to sur-
The case of rich individuals in cities who possess many round him with neighbours who will not suffer one man to
slaves: from them you may form an idea of the tyrant’s be the master of another, and who, if they could catch the
condition, for they both have slaves; the only difference is offender, would take his life?
that he has more slaves. His case will be still worse, if you suppose him to be ev-
Yes, that is the difference. erywhere surrounded and watched by enemies.
You know that they live securely and have nothing to And is not this the sort of prison in which the tyrant will
apprehend from their servants? be bound—he who being by nature such as we have de-
What should they fear? scribed, is full of all sorts of fears and lusts? His soul is dainty
Nothing. But do you observe the reason of this? and greedy, and yet alone, of all men in the city, he is never
Yes; the reason is, that the whole city is leagued together allowed to go on a journey, or to see the things which other
for the protection of each individual. freemen desire to see, but he lives in his hole like a woman
Very true, I said. But imagine one of these owners, the hidden in the house, and is jealous of any other citizen who
master say of some fifty slaves, together with his family goes into foreign parts and sees anything of interest.
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Very true, he said. Very true, he said.
And amid evils such as these will not he who is ill-gov- Moreover, as we were saying before, he grows worse from
erned in his own person—the tyrannical man, I mean—whom having power: he becomes and is of necessity more jealous,
you just now decided to be the most miserable of all—will more faithless, more unjust, more friendless, more impious,
not he be yet more miserable when, instead of leading a than he was at first; he is the purveyor and cherisher of
private life, he is constrained by fortune to be a public ty- every sort of vice, and the consequence is that he is su-
rant? He has to be master of others when he is not master premely miserable, and that he makes everybody else as
of himself: he is like a diseased or paralytic man who is miserable as himself.
compelled to pass his life, not in retirement, but fighting No man of any sense will dispute your words.
and combating with other men. Come then, I said, and as the general umpire in theatrical
Yes, he said, the similitude is most exact. contests proclaims the result, do you also decide who in
Is not his case utterly miserable? and does not the actual your opinion is first in the scale of happiness, and who
tyrant lead a worse life than he whose life you determined second, and in what order the others follow: there are five
to be the worst? of them in all—they are the royal, timocratical, oligarchi-
Certainly. cal, democratical, tyrannical.
He who is the real tyrant, whatever men may think, is the The decision will be easily given, he replied; they shall be
real slave, and is obliged to practise the greatest adulation choruses coming on the stage, and I must judge them in
and servility, and to be the flatterer of the vilest of man- the order in which they enter, by the criterion of virtue and
kind. He has desires which he is utterly unable to satisfy, vice, happiness and misery.
and has more wants than any one, and is truly poor, if you Need we hire a herald, or shall I announce, that the son of
know how to inspect the whole soul of him: all his life long Ariston (the best) has decided that the best and justest is
he is beset with fear and is full of convulsions, and distrac- also the happiest, and that this is he who is the most royal
tions, even as the State which he resembles: and surely the man and king over himself; and that the worst and most
resemblance holds? unjust man is also the most miserable, and that this is he
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who being the greatest tyrant of himself is also the great- That is true, he said.
est tyrant of his State? If we were to say that the loves and pleasures of this
Make the proclamation yourself, he said. third part were concerned with gain, we should then be
And shall I add, ‘whether seen or unseen by gods and men’? able to fall back on a single notion; and might truly and
Let the words be added. intelligibly describe this part of the soul as loving gain or
Then this, I said, will be our first proof; and there is an- money.
other, which may also have some weight. I agree with you.
What is that? Again, is not the passionate element wholly set on ruling
The second proof is derived from the nature of the soul: and conquering and getting fame?
seeing that the individual soul, like the State, has been True.
divided by us into three principles, the division may, I think, Suppose we call it the contentious or ambitious—would
furnish a new demonstration. the term be suitable?
Of what nature? Extremely suitable.
It seems to me that to these three principles three plea- On the other hand, every one sees that the principle of
sures correspond; also three desires and governing powers. knowledge is wholly directed to the truth, and cares less
How do you mean? he said. than either of the others for gain or fame.
There is one principle with which, as we were saying, a Far less.
man learns, another with which he is angry; the third, hav- ‘Lover of wisdom,’ ‘lover of knowledge,’ are titles which
ing many forms, has no special name, but is denoted by the we may fitly apply to that part of the soul?
general term appetitive, from the extraordinary strength Certainly.
and vehemence of the desires of eating and drinking and One principle prevails in the souls of one class of men,
the other sensual appetites which are the main elements of another in others, as may happen?
it; also money-loving, because such desires are generally Yes.
satisfied by the help of money. Then we may begin by assuming that there are three
256
classes of men—lovers of wisdom, lovers of honour, lovers There can be no doubt of that, he replied.
of gain? Since, then, the pleasures of each class and the life of
Exactly. each are in dispute, and the question is not which life is
And there are three kinds of pleasure, which are their sev- more or less honourable, or better or worse, but which is
eral objects? the more pleasant or painless—how shall we know who
Very true. speaks truly?
Now, if you examine the three classes of men, and ask of them I cannot myself tell, he said.
in turn which of their lives is pleasantest, each will be found Well, but what ought to be the criterion? Is any better
praising his own and depreciating that of others: the money- than experience and wisdom and reason?
maker will contrast the vanity of honour or of learning if they There cannot be a better, he said.
bring no money with the solid advantages of gold and silver? Then, I said, reflect. Of the three individuals, which has
True, he said. the greatest experience of all the pleasures which we enu-
And the lover of honour—what will be his opinion? Will merated? Has the lover of gain, in learning the nature of
he not think that the pleasure of riches is vulgar, while the essential truth, greater experience of the pleasure of knowl-
pleasure of learning, if it brings no distinction, is all smoke edge than the philosopher has of the pleasure of gain?
and nonsense to him? The philosopher, he replied, has greatly the advantage;
Very true. for he has of necessity always known the taste of the other
And are we to suppose, I said, that the philosopher sets pleasures from his childhood upwards: but the lover of gain
any value on other pleasures in comparison with the plea- in all his experience has not of necessity tasted—or, I should
sure of knowing the truth, and in that pursuit abiding, ever rather say, even had he desired, could hardly have tasted—
learning, not so far indeed from the heaven of pleasure? the sweetness of learning and knowing truth.
Does he not call the other pleasures necessary, under the Then the lover of wisdom has a great advantage over the
idea that if there were no necessity for them, he would lover of gain, for he has a double experience?
rather not have them? Yes, very great.
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Again, has he greater experience of the pleasures of blame of the lover of gain would surely be the most trust-
honour, or the lover of honour of the pleasures of wisdom? worthy?
Nay, he said, all three are honoured in proportion as they Assuredly.
attain their object; for the rich man and the brave man and Or if honour or victory or courage, in that case the judge-
the wise man alike have their crowd of admirers, and as ment of the ambitious or pugnacious would be the truest?
they all receive honour they all have experience of the plea- Clearly.
sures of honour; but the delight which is to be found in the But since experience and wisdom and reason are the
knowledge of true being is known to the philosopher only. judges—
His experience, then, will enable him to judge better than The only inference possible, he replied, is that pleasures
any one? which are approved by the lover of wisdom and reason are
Far better. the truest.
And he is the only one who has wisdom as well as experi- And so we arrive at the result, that the pleasure of the
ence? intelligent part of the soul is the pleasantest of the three,
Certainly. and that he of us in whom this is the ruling principle has
Further, the very faculty which is the instrument of judg- the pleasantest life.
ment is not possessed by the covetous or ambitious man, Unquestionably, he said, the wise man speaks with au-
but only by the philosopher? thority when he approves of his own life.
What faculty? And what does the judge affirm to be the life which is
Reason, with whom, as we were saying, the decision ought next, and the pleasure which is next?
to rest. Clearly that of the soldier and lover of honour; who is
Yes. nearer to himself than the money- maker.
And reasoning is peculiarly his instrument? Last comes the lover of gain?
Certainly. Very true, he said.
If wealth and gain were the criterion, then the praise or Twice in succession, then, has the just man overthrown
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the unjust in this conflict; and now comes the third trial, have heard them say that there is nothing pleasanter than
which is dedicated to Olympian Zeus the saviour: a sage to get rid of their pain?
whispers in my ear that no pleasure except that of the wise I have.
is quite true and pure—all others are a shadow only; and And there are many other cases of suffering in which the
surely this will prove the greatest and most decisive of falls? mere rest and cessation of pain, and not any positive en-
Yes, the greatest; but will you explain yourself? joyment, is extolled by them as the greatest pleasure?
I will work out the subject and you shall answer my ques- Yes, he said; at the time they are pleased and well con-
tions. tent to be at rest.
Proceed. Again, when pleasure ceases, that sort of rest or cessa-
Say, then, is not pleasure opposed to pain? tion will be painful?
True. Doubtless, he said.
And there is a neutral state which is neither pleasure nor Then the intermediate state of rest will be pleasure and
pain? will also be pain?
There is. So it would seem.
A state which is intermediate, and a sort of repose of the But can that which is neither become both?
soul about either—that is what you mean? I should say not.
Yes. And both pleasure and pain are motions of the soul, are
You remember what people say when they are sick? they not?
What do they say? Yes.
That after all nothing is pleasanter than health. But then But that which is neither was just now shown to be rest
they never knew this to be the greatest of pleasures until and not motion, and in a mean between them?
they were ill. Yes.
Yes, I know, he said. How, then, can we be right in supposing that the absence
And when persons are suffering from acute pain, you must of pain is pleasure, or that the absence of pleasure is pain?
259
Impossible. And the anticipations of future pleasures and pains are

This then is an appearance only and not a reality; that is of a like nature?
to say, the rest is pleasure at the moment and in compari- Yes.
son of what is painful, and painful in comparison of what is Shall I give you an illustration of them?
pleasant; but all these representations, when tried by the Let me hear.
test of true pleasure, are not real but a sort of imposition? You would allow, I said, that there is in nature an upper
That is the inference. and lower and middle region?
Look at the other class of pleasures which have no ante- I should.
cedent pains and you will no longer suppose, as you per- And if a person were to go from the lower to the middle
haps may at present, that pleasure is only the cessation of region, would he not imagine that he is going up; and he
pain, or pain of pleasure. who is standing in the middle and sees whence he has come,
What are they, he said, and where shall I find them? would imagine that he is already in the upper region, if he
There are many of them: take as an example the plea- has never seen the true upper world?
sures, of smell, which are very great and have no anteced- To be sure, he said; how can he think otherwise?
ent pains; they come in a moment, and when they depart But if he were taken back again he would imagine, and
leave no pain behind them. truly imagine, that he was descending?
Most true, he said. No doubt.
Let us not, then, be induced to believe that pure pleasure All that would arise out of his ignorance of the true up-
is the cessation of pain, or pain of pleasure. per and middle and lower regions?
No. Yes.
Still, the more numerous and violent pleasures which reach Then can you wonder that persons who are inexperienced
the soul through the body are generally of this sort—they in the truth, as they have wrong ideas about many other
are reliefs of pain. things, should also have wrong ideas about pleasure and
That is true. pain and the intermediate state; so that when they are only
260
being drawn towards the painful they feel pain and think the class which contains true opinion and knowledge and
the pain which they experience to be real, and in like man- mind and all the different kinds of virtue? Put the question
ner, when drawn away from pain to the neutral or interme- in this way:—Which has a more pure being—that which is
diate state, they firmly believe that they have reached the concerned with the invariable, the immortal, and the true,
goal of satiety and pleasure; they, not knowing pleasure, and is of such a nature, and is found in such natures; or
err in contrasting pain with the absence of pain, which is that which is concerned with and found in the variable and
like contrasting black with grey instead of white—can you mortal, and is itself variable and mortal?
wonder, I say, at this? Far purer, he replied, is the being of that which is con-
No, indeed; I should be much more disposed to wonder at cerned with the invariable.
the opposite. And does the essence of the invariable partake of knowl-
Look at the matter thus:—Hunger, thirst, and the like, edge in the same degree as of essence?
are inanitions of the bodily state? Yes, of knowledge in the same degree.
Yes. And of truth in the same degree?
And ignorance and folly are inanitions of the soul? Yes.
True. And, conversely, that which has less of truth will also
And food and wisdom are the corresponding satisfactions have less of essence?
of either? Necessarily.
Certainly. Then, in general, those kinds of things which are in the
And is the satisfaction derived from that which has less service of the body have less of truth and essence than
or from that which has more existence the truer? those which are in the service of the soul?
Clearly, from that which has more. Far less.
What classes of things have a greater share of pure exist- And has not the body itself less of truth and essence
ence in your judgment—those of which food and drink and than the soul?
condiments and all kinds of sustenance are examples, or Yes.
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What is filled with more real existence, and actually has a that which is not substantial, and the part of themselves
more real existence, is more really filled than that which is which they fill is also insubstantial and incontinent.
filled with less real existence and is less real? Verily, Socrates, said Glaucon, you describe the life of the
Of course. many like an oracle.
And if there be a pleasure in being filled with that which Their pleasures are mixed with pains—how can they be
is according to nature, that which is more really filled with otherwise? For they are mere shadows and pictures of the
more real being will more really and truly enjoy true plea- true, and are coloured by contrast, which exaggerates both
sure; whereas that which participates in less real being will light and shade, and so they implant in the minds of fools
be less truly and surely satisfied, and will participate in an insane desires of themselves; and they are fought about as
illusory and less real pleasure? Stesichorus says that the Greeks fought about the shadow
Unquestionably. of Helen at Troy in ignorance of the truth.
Those then who know not wisdom and virtue, and are Something of that sort must inevitably happen.
always busy with gluttony and sensuality, go down and up And must not the like happen with the spirited or pas-
again as far as the mean; and in this region they move at sionate element of the soul? Will not the passionate man
random throughout life, but they never pass into the true who carries his passion into action, be in the like case,
upper world; thither they neither look, nor do they ever whether he is envious and ambitious, or violent and con-
find their way, neither are they truly filled with true being, tentious, or angry and discontented, if he be seeking to
nor do they taste of pure and abiding pleasure. Like cattle, attain honour and victory and the satisfaction of his anger
with their eyes always looking down and their heads stoop- without reason or sense?
ing to the earth, that is, to the dining-table, they fatten Yes, he said, the same will happen with the spirited ele-
and feed and breed, and, in their excessive love of these ment also.
delights, they kick and butt at one another with horns and Then may we not confidently assert that the lovers of
hoofs which are made of iron; and they kill one another by money and honour, when they seek their pleasures under
reason of their insatiable lust. For they fill themselves with the guidance and in the company of reason and knowledge,
262
and pursue after and win the pleasures which wisdom shows Clearly.
them, will also have the truest pleasures in the highest de- And the lustful and tyrannical desires are, as we saw, at
gree which is attainable to them, inasmuch as they follow the greatest distance? Yes.
truth; and they will have the pleasures which are natural to And the royal and orderly desires are nearest?
them, if that which is best for each one is also most natural Yes.
to him? Then the tyrant will live at the greatest distance from
Yes, certainly; the best is the most natural. true or natural pleasure, and the king at the least?
And when the whole soul follows the philosophical prin- Certainly.
ciple, and there is no division, the several parts are just, But if so, the tyrant will live most unpleasantly, and the
and do each of them their own business, and enjoy sever- king most pleasantly?
ally the best and truest pleasures of which they are ca- Inevitably.
pable? Would you know the measure of the interval which sepa-
Exactly. rates them?
But when either of the two other principles prevails, it Will you tell me?
fails in attaining its own pleasure, and compels the rest to There appear to be three pleasures, one genuine and two
pursue after a pleasure which is a shadow only and which is spurious: now the transgression of the tyrant reaches a point
not their own? beyond the spurious; he has run away from the region of
True. law and reason, and taken up his abode with certain slave
And the greater the interval which separates them from pleasures which are his satellites, and the measure of his
philosophy and reason, the more strange and illusive will inferiority can only be expressed in a figure.
be the pleasure? How do you mean?
Yes. I assume, I said, that the tyrant is in the third place from
And is not that farthest from reason which is at the great- the oligarch; the democrat was in the middle?
est distance from law and order? Yes.
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And if there is truth in what has preceded, he will be to pleasure and pain!
wedded to an image of pleasure which is thrice removed as Yet a true calculation, I said, and a number which nearly
to truth from the pleasure of the oligarch? concerns human life, if human beings are concerned with
He will. days and nights and months and years.
And the oligarch is third from the royal; since we count Yes, he said, human life is certainly concerned with them.
as one royal and aristocratical? Then if the good and just man be thus superior in plea-
Yes, he is third. sure to the evil and unjust, his superiority will be infinitely
Then the tyrant is removed from true pleasure by the greater in propriety of life and in beauty and virtue?
space of a number which is three times three? Immeasurably greater.
Manifestly. Well, I said, and now having arrived at this stage of the
The shadow then of tyrannical pleasure determined by argument, we may revert to the words which brought us
the number of length will be a plane figure. hither: Was not some one saying that injustice was a gain
Certainly. to the perfectly unjust who was reputed to be just?
And if you raise the power and make the plane a solid, Yes, that was said.
there is no difficulty in seeing how vast is the interval by Now then, having determined the power and quality of jus-
which the tyrant is parted from the king. tice and injustice, let us have a little conversation with him.
Yes; the arithmetician will easily do the sum. What shall we say to him?
Or if some person begins at the other end and measures Let us make an image of the soul, that he may have his
the interval by which the king is parted from the tyrant in own words presented before his eyes.
truth of pleasure, he will find him, when the multiplication Of what sort?
is complete, living 729 times more pleasantly, and the ty- An ideal image of the soul, like the composite creations
rant more painfully by this same interval. of ancient mythology, such as the Chimera or Scylla or
What a wonderful calculation! And how enormous is the Cerberus, and there are many others in which two or more
distance which separates the just from the unjust in regard different natures are said to grow into one.
264
There are said of have been such unions. the man, who is consequently liable to be dragged about
Then do you now model the form of a multitudinous, at the mercy of either of the other two; and he is not to
many-headed monster, having a ring of heads of all manner attempt to familiarize or harmonize them with one an-
of beasts, tame and wild, which he is able to generate and other—he ought rather to suffer them to fight and bite
metamorphose at will. and devour one another.
You suppose marvellous powers in the artist; but, as lan- Certainly, he said; that is what the approver of injustice
guage is more pliable than wax or any similar substance, let says.
there be such a model as you propose. To him the supporter of justice makes answer that he
Suppose now that you make a second form as of a lion, should ever so speak and act as to give the man within him
and a third of a man, the second smaller than the first, and in some way or other the most complete mastery over the
the third smaller than the second. entire human creature.
That, he said, is an easier task; and I have made them as He should watch over the many-headed monster like a
you say. good husbandman, fostering and cultivating the gentle
And now join them, and let the three grow into one. qualities, and preventing the wild ones from growing; he
That has been accomplished. should be making the lion-heart his ally, and in common
Next fashion the outside of them into a single image, as care of them all should be uniting the several parts with
of a man, so that he who is not able to look within, and one another and with himself.
sees only the outer hull, may believe the beast to be a Yes, he said, that is quite what the maintainer of justice
single human creature. I have done so, he said. say.
And now, to him who maintains that it is profitable for And so from every point of view, whether of pleasure,
the human creature to be unjust, and unprofitable to be honour, or advantage, the approver of justice is right and
just, let us reply that, if he be right, it is profitable for this speaks the truth, and the disapprover is wrong and false
creature to feast the multitudinous monster and strengthen and ignorant.
the lion and the lion-like qualities, but to starve and weaken Yes, from every point of view.
265
Come, now, and let us gently reason with the unjust, who Clearly.
is not intentionally in error. ‘Sweet Sir,’ we will say to him, And men are blamed for pride and bad temper when the
what think you of things esteemed noble and ignoble? Is lion and serpent element in them disproportionately grows
not the noble that which subjects the beast to the man, or and gains strength?
rather to the god in man; and the ignoble that which sub- Yes.
jects the man to the beast?’ He can hardly avoid saying And luxury and softness are blamed, because they relax
yes—can he now? and weaken this same creature, and make a coward of him?
Not if he has any regard for my opinion. Very true.
But, if he agree so far, we may ask him to answer another And is not a man reproached for flattery and meanness
question: ‘Then how would a man profit if he received gold who subordinates the spirited animal to the unruly mon-
and silver on the condition that he was to enslave the no- ster, and, for the sake of money, of which he can never have
blest part of him to the worst? Who can imagine that a man enough, habituates him in the days of his youth to be
who sold his son or daughter into slavery for money, espe- trampled in the mire, and from being a lion to become a
cially if he sold them into the hands of fierce and evil men, monkey?
would be the gainer, however large might be the sum which True, he said.
he received? And will any one say that he is not a miserable And why are mean employments and manual arts a re-
caitiff who remorselessly sells his own divine being to that proach? Only because they imply a natural weakness of the
which is most godless and detestable? Eriphyle took the higher principle; the individual is unable to control the crea-
necklace as the price of her husband’s life, but he is taking tures within him, but has to court them, and his great study
a bribe in order to compass a worse ruin.’ is how to flatter them.
Yes, said Glaucon, far worse—I will answer for him. Such appears to be the reason.
Has not the intemperate been censured of old, because in And therefore, being desirous of placing him under a rule
him the huge multiform monster is allowed to be too much like that of the best, we say that he ought to be the ser-
at large? vant of the best, in whom the Divine rules; not, as
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Thrasymachus supposed, to the injury of the servant, but is liberated, and his whole soul is perfected and ennobled
because every one had better be ruled by divine wisdom by the acquirement of justice and temperance and wisdom,
dwelling within him; or, if this be impossible, then by an more than the body ever is by receiving gifts of beauty,
external authority, in order that we may be all, as far as strength and health, in proportion as the soul is more
possible, under the same government, friends and equals. honourable than the body.
True, he said. Certainly, he said.
And this is clearly seen to be the intention of the law, To this nobler purpose the man of understanding will de-
which is the ally of the whole city; and is seen also in the vote the energies of his life. And in the first place, he will
authority which we exercise over children, and the refusal honour studies which impress these qualities on his soul
to let them be free until we have established in them a and disregard others?
principle analogous to the constitution of a state, and by Clearly, he said.
cultivation of this higher element have set up in their hearts In the next place, he will regulate his bodily habit and
a guardian and ruler like our own, and when this is done training, and so far will he be from yielding to brutal and
they may go their ways. irrational pleasures, that he will regard even health as quite
Yes, he said, the purpose of the law is manifest. a secondary matter; his first object will be not that he may
From what point of view, then, and on what ground can be fair or strong or well, unless he is likely thereby to gain
we say that a man is profited by injustice or intemperance temperance, but he will always desire so to attemper the
or other baseness, which will make him a worse man, even body as to preserve the harmony of the soul?
though he acquire money or power by his wickedness? Certainly he will, if he has true music in him.
From no point of view at all. And in the acquisition of wealth there is a principle of
What shall he profit, if his injustice be undetected and order and harmony which he will also observe; he will not
unpunished? He who is undetected only gets worse, whereas allow himself to be dazzled by the foolish applause of the
he who is detected and punished has the brutal part of his world, and heap up riches to his own infinite harm?
nature silenced and humanized; the gentler element in him Certainly not, he said.
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He will look at the city which is within him, and take BOOK X
heed that no disorder occur in it, such as might arise either
from superfluity or from want; and upon this principle he SOCRATES - GLAUCON
will regulate his property and gain or spend according to
Of the many excellences which I perceive in the order of
his means.
our State, there is none which upon reflection pleases me
Very true.
better than the rule about poetry.
And, for the same reason, he will gladly accept and enjoy
To what do you refer?
such honours as he deems likely to make him a better man;
To the rejection of imitative poetry, which certainly ought
but those, whether private or public, which are likely to
not to be received; as I see far more clearly now that the
disorder his life, he will avoid?
parts of the soul have been distinguished.
Then, if that is his motive, he will not be a statesman.
What do you mean?
By the dog of Egypt, he will! in the city which is his own
Speaking in confidence, for I should not like to have my
he certainly will, though in the land of his birth perhaps
words repeated to the tragedians and the rest of the imita-
not, unless he have a divine call.
tive tribe—but I do not mind saying to you, that all poeti-
I understand; you mean that he will be a ruler in the city of
cal imitations are ruinous to the understanding of the hear-
which we are the founders, and which exists in idea only; for
ers, and that the knowledge of their true nature is the only
I do not believe that there is such an one anywhere on earth?
antidote to them.
In heaven, I replied, there is laid up a pattern of it,
Explain the purport of your remark.
methinks, which he who desires may behold, and behold-
Well, I will tell you, although I have always from my ear-
ing, may set his own house in order. But whether such an
liest youth had an awe and love of Homer, which even now
one exists, or ever will exist in fact, is no matter; for he will
makes the words falter on my lips, for he is the great cap-
live after the manner of that city, having nothing to do
tain and teacher of the whole of that charming tragic com-
with any other.
pany; but a man is not to be reverenced more than the
I think so, he said.
truth, and therefore I will speak out.
268
Very good, he said. way of speaking in this and similar instances—but no arti-
Listen to me then, or rather, answer me. ficer makes the ideas themselves: how could he?
Put your question. Impossible.
Can you tell me what imitation is? for I really do not And there is another artist,—I should like to know what
know. you would say of him.
A likely thing, then, that I should know. Who is he?
Why not? for the duller eye may often see a thing sooner One who is the maker of all the works of all other work-
than the keener. men.
Very true, he said; but in your presence, even if I had any What an extraordinary man!
faint notion, I could not muster courage to utter it. Will Wait a little, and there will be more reason for your say-
you enquire yourself? ing so. For this is he who is able to make not only vessels of
Well then, shall we begin the enquiry in our usual man- every kind, but plants and animals, himself and all other
ner: Whenever a number of individuals have a common name, things—the earth and heaven, and the things which are in
we assume them to have also a corresponding idea or form. heaven or under the earth; he makes the gods also.
Do you understand me? He must be a wizard and no mistake.
I do. Oh! you are incredulous, are you? Do you mean that there
Let us take any common instance; there are beds and is no such maker or creator, or that in one sense there might
tables in the world—plenty of them, are there not? be a maker of all these things but in another not? Do you
Yes. see that there is a way in which you could make them all
But there are only two ideas or forms of them—one the yourself?
idea of a bed, the other of a table. What way?
True. An easy way enough; or rather, there are many ways in
And the maker of either of them makes a bed or he makes which the feat might be quickly and easily accomplished,
a table for our use, in accordance with the idea—that is our none quicker than that of turning a mirror round and
269
round—you would soon enough make the sun and the heav- No wonder, then, that his work too is an indistinct ex-
ens, and the earth and yourself, and other animals and pression of truth.
plants, and all the, other things of which we were just now No wonder.
speaking, in the mirror. Suppose now that by the light of the examples just of-
Yes, he said; but they would be appearances only. fered we enquire who this imitator is?
Very good, I said, you are coming to the point now. And If you please.
the painter too is, as I conceive, just such another—a cre- Well then, here are three beds: one existing in nature,
ator of appearances, is he not? which is made by God, as I think that we may say—for no
Of course. one else can be the maker?
But then I suppose you will say that what he creates is No.
untrue. And yet there is a sense in which the painter also There is another which is the work of the carpenter?
creates a bed? Yes.
Yes, he said, but not a real bed. And the work of the painter is a third?
And what of the maker of the bed? Were you not saying Yes.
that he too makes, not the idea which, according to our Beds, then, are of three kinds, and there are three artists
view, is the essence of the bed, but only a particular bed? who superintend them: God, the maker of the bed, and the
Yes, I did. painter?
Then if he does not make that which exists he cannot Yes, there are three of them.
make true existence, but only some semblance of exist- God, whether from choice or from necessity, made one
ence; and if any one were to say that the work of the maker bed in nature and one only; two or more such ideal beds
of the bed, or of any other workman, has real existence, he neither ever have been nor ever will be made by God.
could hardly be supposed to be speaking the truth. Why is that?
At any rate, he replied, philosophers would say that he Because even if He had made but two, a third would still
was not speaking the truth. appear behind them which both of them would have for
270
their idea, and that would be the ideal bed and the two And the tragic poet is an imitator, and therefore, like all
others. other imitators, he is thrice removed from the king and
Very true, he said. from the truth?
God knew this, and He desired to be the real maker of a That appears to be so.
real bed, not a particular maker of a particular bed, and Then about the imitator we are agreed. And what about
therefore He created a bed which is essentially and by na- the painter?—I would like to know whether he may be
ture one only. thought to imitate that which originally exists in nature,
So we believe. or only the creations of artists?
Shall we, then, speak of Him as the natural author or maker The latter.
of the bed? As they are or as they appear? You have still to determine
Yes, he replied; inasmuch as by the natural process of this.
creation He is the author of this and of all other things. What do you mean?
And what shall we say of the carpenter—is not he also I mean, that you may look at a bed from different points
the maker of the bed? of view, obliquely or directly or from any other point of
Yes. view, and the bed will appear different, but there is no dif-
But would you call the painter a creator and maker? ference in reality. And the same of all things.
Certainly not. Yes, he said, the difference is only apparent.
Yet if he is not the maker, what is he in relation to the Now let me ask you another question: Which is the art of
bed? painting designed to be—an imitation of things as they
I think, he said, that we may fairly designate him as the are, or as they appear—of appearance or of reality?
imitator of that which the others make. Of appearance.
Good, I said; then you call him who is third in the descent Then the imitator, I said, is a long way off the truth, and
from nature an imitator? can do all things because he lightly touches on a small part
Certainly, he said. of them, and that part an image. For example: A painter
271
will paint a cobbler, carpenter, or any other artist, though may not have remembered when they saw their works that
he knows nothing of their arts; and, if he is a good artist, these were but imitations thrice removed from the truth,
he may deceive children or simple persons, when he shows and could easily be made without any knowledge of the
them his picture of a carpenter from a distance, and they truth, because they are appearances only and not realities?
will fancy that they are looking at a real carpenter. Or, after all, they may be in the right, and poets do really
Certainly. know the things about which they seem to the many to
And whenever any one informs us that he has found a speak so well?
man knows all the arts, and all things else that anybody The question, he said, should by all means be considered.
knows, and every single thing with a higher degree of accu- Now do you suppose that if a person were able to make
racy than any other man—whoever tells us this, I think the original as well as the image, he would seriously devote
that we can only imagine to be a simple creature who is himself to the image-making branch? Would he allow imita-
likely to have been deceived by some wizard or actor whom tion to be the ruling principle of his life, as if he had noth-
he met, and whom he thought all-knowing, because he him- ing higher in him?
self was unable to analyse the nature of knowledge and I should say not.
ignorance and imitation. The real artist, who knew what he was imitating, would
Most true. be interested in realities and not in imitations; and would
And so, when we hear persons saying that the tragedi- desire to leave as memorials of himself works many and
ans, and Homer, who is at their head, know all the arts and fair; and, instead of being the author of encomiums, he
all things human, virtue as well as vice, and divine things would prefer to be the theme of them.
too, for that the good poet cannot compose well unless he Yes, he said, that would be to him a source of much greater
knows his subject, and that he who has not this knowledge honour and profit.
can never be a poet, we ought to consider whether here Then, I said, we must put a question to Homer; not about
also there may not be a similar illusion. Perhaps they may medicine, or any of the arts to which his poems only inci-
have come across imitators and been deceived by them; they dentally refer: we are not going to ask him, or any other
272
poet, whether he has cured patients like Asclepius, or left There is not.
behind him a school of medicine such as the Asclepiads were, Or is there any invention of his, applicable to the arts or
or whether he only talks about medicine and other arts at to human life, such as Thales the Milesian or Anacharsis the
second hand; but we have a right to know respecting mili- Scythian, and other ingenious men have conceived, which
tary tactics, politics, education, which are the chiefest and is attributed to him?
noblest subjects of his poems, and we may fairly ask him There is absolutely nothing of the kind.
about them. ‘Friend Homer,’ then we say to him, ‘if you are But, if Homer never did any public service, was he pri-
only in the second remove from truth in what you say of vately a guide or teacher of any? Had he in his lifetime
virtue, and not in the third—not an image maker or imita- friends who loved to associate with him, and who handed
tor—and if you are able to discern what pursuits make men down to posterity an Homeric way of life, such as was es-
better or worse in private or public life, tell us what State tablished by Pythagoras who was so greatly beloved for
was ever better governed by your help? The good order of his wisdom, and whose followers are to this day quite cel-
Lacedaemon is due to Lycurgus, and many other cities great ebrated for the order which was named after him?
and small have been similarly benefited by others; but who Nothing of the kind is recorded of him. For surely, Socrates,
says that you have been a good legislator to them and Creophylus, the companion of Homer, that child of flesh,
have done them any good? Italy and Sicily boast of whose name always makes us laugh, might be more justly
Charondas, and there is Solon who is renowned among us; ridiculed for his stupidity, if, as is said, Homer was greatly
but what city has anything to say about you?’ Is there any neglected by him and others in his own day when he was
city which he might name? alive?
I think not, said Glaucon; not even the Homerids them- Yes, I replied, that is the tradition. But can you imagine,
selves pretend that he was a legislator. Glaucon, that if Homer had really been able to educate and
Well, but is there any war on record which was carried on improve mankind—if he had possessed knowledge and not
successfully by him, or aided by his counsels, when he was been a mere imitator—can you imagine, I say, that he would
alive? not have had many followers, and been honoured and loved
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by them? Protagoras of Abdera, and Prodicus of Ceos, and a Quite so.
host of others, have only to whisper to their contemporar- In like manner the poet with his words and phrases may
ies: ‘You will never be able to manage either your own house be said to lay on the colours of the several arts, himself
or your own State until you appoint us to be your minis- understanding their nature only enough to imitate them;
ters of education’—and this ingenious device of theirs has and other people, who are as ignorant as he is, and judge
such an effect in making them love them that their com- only from his words, imagine that if he speaks of cobbling,
panions all but carry them about on their shoulders. And is or of military tactics, or of anything else, in metre and har-
it conceivable that the contemporaries of Homer, or again mony and rhythm, he speaks very well—such is the sweet
of Hesiod, would have allowed either of them to go about influence which melody and rhythm by nature have. And I
as rhapsodists, if they had really been able to make man- think that you must have observed again and again what a
kind virtuous? Would they not have been as unwilling to poor appearance the tales of poets make when stripped of
part with them as with gold, and have compelled them to the colours which music puts upon them, and recited in
stay at home with them? Or, if the master would not stay, simple prose.
then the disciples would have followed him about every- Yes, he said.
where, until they had got education enough? They are like faces which were never really beautiful, but
Yes, Socrates, that, I think, is quite true. only blooming; and now the bloom of youth has passed
Then must we not infer that all these poetical individu- away from them?
als, beginning with Homer, are only imitators; they copy Exactly.
images of virtue and the like, but the truth they never reach? Here is another point: The imitator or maker of the image
The poet is like a painter who, as we have already observed, knows nothing of true existence; he knows appearances
will make a likeness of a cobbler though he understands only. Am I not right?
nothing of cobbling; and his picture is good enough for Yes.
those who know no more than he does, and judge only by Then let us have a clear understanding, and not be satis-
colours and figures. fied with half an explanation.
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Proceed. bad qualities which develop themselves in use; for example,

Of the painter we say that he will paint reins, and he will the flute-player will tell the flute-maker which of his flutes
paint a bit? is satisfactory to the performer; he will tell him how he
Yes. ought to make them, and the other will attend to his in-
And the worker in leather and brass will make them? structions?
Certainly. Of course.
But does the painter know the right form of the bit and The one knows and therefore speaks with authority about
reins? Nay, hardly even the workers in brass and leather the goodness and badness of flutes, while the other, con-
who make them; only the horseman who knows how to use fiding in him, will do what he is told by him?
them—he knows their right form. True.
Most true. The instrument is the same, but about the excellence or
And may we not say the same of all things? badness of it the maker will only attain to a correct belief;
What? and this he will gain from him who knows, by talking to
That there are three arts which are concerned with all him and being compelled to hear what he has to say, whereas
things: one which uses, another which makes, a third which the user will have knowledge?
imitates them? True.
Yes. But will the imitator have either? Will he know from use
And the excellence or beauty or truth of every structure, whether or no his drawing is correct or beautiful? Or will he
animate or inanimate, and of every action of man, is rela- have right opinion from being compelled to associate with
tive to the use for which nature or the artist has intended another who knows and gives him instructions about what
them. he should draw?
True. Neither.
Then the user of them must have the greatest experience Then he will no more have true opinion than he will have
of them, and he must indicate to the maker the good or knowledge about the goodness or badness of his imitations?
275
I suppose not. True.
The imitative artist will be in a brilliant state of intelli- And the same object appears straight when looked at out
gence about his own creations? of the water, and crooked when in the water; and the con-
Nay, very much the reverse. cave becomes convex, owing to the illusion about colours
And still he will go on imitating without knowing what to which the sight is liable. Thus every sort of confusion is
makes a thing good or bad, and may be expected therefore revealed within us; and this is that weakness of the human
to imitate only that which appears to be good to the igno- mind on which the art of conjuring and of deceiving by
rant multitude? light and shadow and other ingenious devices imposes, hav-
Just so. ing an effect upon us like magic.
Thus far then we are pretty well agreed that the imitator True.
has no knowledge worth mentioning of what he imitates. And the arts of measuring and numbering and weighing
Imitation is only a kind of play or sport, and the tragic come to the rescue of the human understanding—there is
poets, whether they write in iambic or in Heroic verse, are the beauty of them—and the apparent greater or less, or
imitators in the highest degree? more or heavier, no longer have the mastery over us, but
Very true. give way before calculation and measure
And now tell me, I conjure you, has not imitation been and weight?
shown by us to be concerned with that which is thrice re- Most true.
moved from the truth? And this, surely, must be the work of the calculating and
Certainly. rational principle in the soul.
And what is the faculty in man to which imitation is ad- To be sure.
dressed? And when this principle measures and certifies that some
What do you mean? things are equal, or that some are greater or less than oth-
I will explain: The body which is large when seen near, ers, there occurs an apparent contradiction?
appears small when seen at a distance? True.
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But were we not saying that such a contradiction is the And is this confined to the sight only, or does it extend
same faculty cannot have contrary opinions at the same to the hearing also, relating in fact to what we term po-
time about the same thing? etry?
Very true. Probably the same would be true of poetry.
Then that part of the soul which has an opinion contrary Do not rely, I said, on a probability derived from the anal-
to measure is not the same with that which has an opinion ogy of painting; but let us examine further and see whether
in accordance with measure? the faculty with which poetical imitation is concerned is
True. good or bad.
And the better part of the soul is likely to be that which By all means.
trusts to measure and calculation? We may state the question thus:—Imitation imitates the
Certainly. actions of men, whether voluntary or involuntary, on which,
And that which is opposed to them is one of the inferior as they imagine, a good or bad result has ensued, and they
principles of the soul? rejoice or sorrow accordingly. Is there anything more?
No doubt. No, there is nothing else.
This was the conclusion at which I was seeking to arrive But in all this variety of circumstances is the man at unity
when I said that painting or drawing, and imitation in gen- with himself—or rather, as in the instance of sight there
eral, when doing their own proper work, are far removed was confusion and opposition in his opinions about the
from truth, and the companions and friends and associates same things, so here also is there not strife and inconsis-
of a principle within us which is equally removed from rea- tency in his life? Though I need hardly raise the question
son, and that they have no true or healthy aim. again, for I remember that all this has been already admit-
Exactly. ted; and the soul has been acknowledged by us to be full of
The imitative art is an inferior who marries an inferior, these and ten thousand similar oppositions occurring at
and has inferior offspring. the same moment?
Very true. And we were right, he said.
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Yes, I said, thus far we were right; but there was an omis- and from the same object, this, as we affirm, necessarily
sion which must now be supplied. implies two distinct principles in him?
What was the omission? Certainly.
Were we not saying that a good man, who has the mis- One of them is ready to follow the guidance of the law?
fortune to lose his son or anything else which is most How do you mean?
dear to him, will bear the loss with more equanimity than The law would say that to be patient under suffering is
another? best, and that we should not give way to impatience, as
Yes. there is no knowing whether such things are good or evil;
But will he have no sorrow, or shall we say that although and nothing is gained by impatience; also, because no hu-
he cannot help sorrowing, he will moderate his sorrow? man thing is of serious importance, and grief stands in the
The latter, he said, is the truer statement. way of that which at the moment is most required.
Tell me: will he be more likely to struggle and hold out What is most required? he asked.
against his sorrow when he is seen by his equals, or when That we should take counsel about what has happened,
he is alone? and when the dice have been thrown order our affairs in
It will make a great difference whether he is seen or not. the way which reason deems best; not, like children who
When he is by himself he will not mind saying or doing have had a fall, keeping hold of the part struck and wast-
many things which he would be ashamed of any one hearing time in setting up a howl, but always accustoming the
ing or seeing him do? soul forthwith to apply a remedy, raising up that which is
True. sickly and fallen, banishing the cry of sorrow by the heal-
There is a principle of law and reason in him which bids ing art.
him resist, as well as a feeling of his misfortune which is Yes, he said, that is the true way of meeting the attacks
forcing him to indulge his sorrow? of fortune.
True. Yes, I said; and the higher principle is ready to follow this
But when a man is drawn in two opposite directions, to suggestion of reason?
278
Clearly. we shall be right in refusing to admit him into a well-or-
And the other principle, which inclines us to recollection dered State, because he awakens and nourishes and strength-
of our troubles and to lamentation, and can never have ens the feelings and impairs the reason. As in a city when
enough of them, we may call irrational, useless, and cow- the evil are permitted to have authority and the good are
ardly? put out of the way, so in the soul of man, as we maintain,
Indeed, we may. the imitative poet implants an evil constitution, for he in-
And does not the latter—I mean the rebellious principle— dulges the irrational nature which has no discernment of
furnish a great variety of materials for imitation? Whereas greater and less, but thinks the same thing at one time
the wise and calm temperament, being always nearly eq- great and at another small—he is a manufacturer of images
uable, is not easy to imitate or to appreciate when imi- and is very far removed from the truth.
tated, especially at a public festival when a promiscuous Exactly.
crowd is assembled in a theatre. For the feeling represented But we have not yet brought forward the heaviest count
is one to which they are strangers. in our accusation:—the power which poetry has of harming
Certainly. even the good (and there are very few who are not harmed),
Then the imitative poet who aims at being popular is not is surely an awful thing?
by nature made, nor is his art intended, to please or to Yes, certainly, if the effect is what you say.
affect the principle in the soul; but he will prefer the pas- Hear and judge: The best of us, as I conceive, when we
sionate and fitful temper, which is easily imitated? listen to a passage of Homer, or one of the tragedians, in
Clearly. which he represents some pitiful hero who is drawling out
And now we may fairly take him and place him by the his sorrows in a long oration, or weeping, and smiting his
side of the painter, for he is like him in two ways: first, breast—the best of us, you know, delight in giving way to
inasmuch as his creations have an inferior degree of truth— sympathy, and are in raptures at the excellence of the poet
in this, I say, he is like him; and he is also like him in being who stirs our feelings most.
concerned with an inferior part of the soul; and therefore Yes, of course I know.
279
But when any sorrow of our own happens to us, then you poem too? Few persons ever reflect, as I should imagine,
may observe that we pride ourselves on the opposite qual- that from the evil of other men something of evil is com-
ity—we would fain be quiet and patient; this is the manly municated to themselves. And so the feeling of sorrow which
part, and the other which delighted us in the recitation is has gathered strength at the sight of the misfortunes of
now deemed to be the part of a woman. others is with difficulty repressed in our own.
Very true, he said. How very true!
Now can we be right in praising and admiring another And does not the same hold also of the ridiculous? There
who is doing that which any one of us would abominate are jests which you would be ashamed to make yourself,
and be ashamed of in his own person? and yet on the comic stage, or indeed in private, when you
No, he said, that is certainly not reasonable. hear them, you are greatly amused by them, and are not at
Nay, I said, quite reasonable from one point of view. all disgusted at their unseemliness;—the case of pity is
What point of view? repeated;—there is a principle in human nature which is
If you consider, I said, that when in misfortune we feel a disposed to raise a laugh, and this which you once restrained
natural hunger and desire to relieve our sorrow by weeping by reason, because you were afraid of being thought a buf-
and lamentation, and that this feeling which is kept under foon, is now let out again; and having stimulated the ris-
control in our own calamities is satisfied and delighted by ible faculty at the theatre, you are betrayed unconsciously
the poets;—the better nature in each of us, not having to yourself into playing the comic poet at home.
been sufficiently trained by reason or habit, allows the sym- Quite true, he said.
pathetic element to break loose because the sorrow is And the same may be said of lust and anger and all the
another’s; and the spectator fancies that there can be no other affections, of desire and pain and pleasure, which are
disgrace to himself in praising and pitying any one who held to be inseparable from every action—in all of them
comes telling him what a good man he is, and making a fuss poetry feeds and waters the passions instead of drying them
about his troubles; he thinks that the pleasure is a gain, up; she lets them rule, although they ought to be controlled,
and why should he be supercilious and lose this and the if mankind are ever to increase in happiness and virtue.
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I cannot deny it. ness or want of politeness, let us tell her that there is an
Therefore, Glaucon, I said, whenever you meet with any ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry; of which
of the eulogists of Homer declaring that he has been the there are many proofs, such as the saying of ‘the yelping
educator of Hellas, and that heis profitable for education hound howling at her lord,’ or of one ‘mighty in the vain
and for the ordering of human things, and that you should talk of fools,’ and ‘the mob of sages circumventing Zeus,’
take him up again and again and get to know him and and the ‘subtle thinkers who are beggars after all’; and there
regulate your whole life according to him, we may love are innumerable other signs of ancient enmity between them.
and honour those who say these things—they are excel- Notwithstanding this, let us assure our sweet friend and
lent people, as far as their lights extend; and we are ready the sister arts of imitation that if she will only prove her
to acknowledge that Homer is the greatest of poets and title to exist in a well-ordered State we shall be delighted
first of tragedy writers; but we must remain firm in our to receive her—we are very conscious of her charms; but we
conviction that hymns to the gods and praises of famous may not on that account betray the truth. I dare say,
men are the only poetry which ought to be admitted into Glaucon, that you are as much charmed by her as I am, es-
our State. For if you go beyond this and allow the hon- pecially when she appears in Homer?
eyed muse to enter, either in epic or lyric verse, not law Yes, indeed, I am greatly charmed.
and the reason of mankind, which by common consent Shall I propose, then, that she be allowed to return from
have ever been deemed best, but pleasure and pain will be exile, but upon this condition only—that she make a de-
the rulers in our State. fence of herself in lyrical or some other metre?
That is most true, he said. Certainly.
And now since we have reverted to the subject of poetry, And we may further grant to those of her defenders who
let this our defence serve to show the reasonableness of are lovers of poetry and yet not poets the permission to
our former judgment in sending away out of our State an speak in prose on her behalf: let them show not only that
art having the tendencies which we have described; for rea- she is pleasant but also useful to States and to human life,
son constrained us. But that she may impute to us any harsh- and we will listen in a kindly spirit; for if this can be proved
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we shall surely be the gainers—I mean, if there is a use in honour or money or power, aye, or under the excitement of
poetry as well as a delight? poetry, he neglect justice and virtue?
Certainly, he said, we shall the gainers. Yes, he said; I have been convinced by the argument, as I
If her defence fails, then, my dear friend, like other per- believe that any one else would have been.
sons who are enamoured of something, but put a restraint And yet no mention has been made of the greatest prizes
upon themselves when they think their desires are opposed and rewards which await virtue.
to their interests, so too must we after the manner of lov- What, are there any greater still? If there are, they must
ers give her up, though not without a struggle. We too are be of an inconceivable greatness.
inspired by that love of poetry which the education of noble Why, I said, what was ever great in a short time? The whole
States has implanted in us, and therefore we would have period of threescore years and ten is surely but a little thing
her appear at her best and truest; but so long as she is in comparison with eternity?
unable to make good her defence, this argument of ours Say rather ‘nothing,’ he replied.
shall be a charm to us, which we will repeat to ourselves And should an immortal being seriously think of this little
while we listen to her strains; that we may not fall away space rather than of the whole?
into the childish love of her which captivates the many. At Of the whole, certainly. But why do you ask?
all events we are well aware that poetry being such as we Are you not aware, I said, that the soul of man is immor-
have described is not to be regarded seriously as attaining tal and imperishable?
to the truth; and he who listens to her, fearing for the safety He looked at me in astonishment, and said: No, by heaven:
of the city which is within him, should be on his guard And are you really prepared to maintain this?
against her seductions and make our words his law. Yes, I said, I ought to be, and you too—there is no diffi-
Yes, he said, I quite agree with you. culty in proving it.
Yes, I said, my dear Glaucon, for great is the issue at stake, I see a great difficulty; but I should like to hear you state
greater than appears, whether a man is to be good or bad. this argument of which you make so light.
And what will any one be profited if under the influence of Listen then.
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I am attending. certain that of such a nature there is no destruction?
There is a thing which you call good and another which That may be assumed.
you call evil? Well, I said, and is there no evil which corrupts the soul?
Yes, he replied. Yes, he said, there are all the evils which we were just now
Would you agree with me in thinking that the corrupting passing in review: unrighteousness, intemperance, coward-
and destroying element is the evil, and the saving and im- ice, ignorance.
proving element the good? But does any of these dissolve or destroy her?—and here
Yes. do not let us fall into the error of supposing that the
And you admit that every thing has a good and also an unjust and foolish man, when he is detected, perishes
evil; as ophthalmia is the evil of the eyes and disease of the through his own injustice, which is an evil of the soul.
whole body; as mildew is of corn, and rot of timber, or rust Take the analogy of the body: The evil of the body is a
of copper and iron: in everything, or in almost everything, disease which wastes and reduces and annihilates the body;
there is an inherent evil and disease? and all the things of which we were just now speaking
Yes, he said. come to annihilation through their own corruption attach-
And anything which is infected by any of these evils is ing to them and inhering in them and so destroying them.
made evil, and at last wholly dissolves and dies? Is not this true?
True. Yes.
The vice and evil which is inherent in each is the destruc- Consider the soul in like manner. Does the injustice or
tion of each; and if this does not destroy them there is other evil which exists in the soul waste and consume her?
nothing else that will; for good certainly will not destroy Do they by attaching to the soul and inhering in her at last
them, nor again, that which is neither good nor evil. bring her to death, and so separate her from the body ?
Certainly not. Certainly not.
If, then, we find any nature which having this inherent And yet, I said, it is unreasonable to suppose that any-
corruption cannot be dissolved or destroyed, we may be thing can perish from without through affection of exter-
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nal evil which could not be destroyed from within by a cor- or unrighteous in consequence of these things being done
ruption of its own? to the body; but that the soul, or anything else if not de-
It is, he replied. stroyed by an internal evil, can be destroyed by an exter-
Consider, I said, Glaucon, that even the badness of food, nal one, is not to be affirmed by any man.
whether staleness, decomposition, or any other bad qual- And surely, he replied, no one will ever prove that the
ity, when confined to the actual food, is not supposed to souls of men become more unjust in consequence of death.
destroy the body; although, if the badness of food commu- But if some one who would rather not admit the immor-
nicates corruption to the body, then we should say that tality of the soul boldly denies this, and says that the dy-
the body has been destroyed by a corruption of itself, which ing do really become more evil and unrighteous, then, if
is disease, brought on by this; but that the body, being the speaker is right, I suppose that injustice, like disease,
one thing, can be destroyed by the badness of food, which must be assumed to be fatal to the unjust, and that those
is another, and which does not engender any natural infec- who take this disorder die by the natural inherent power of
tion—this we shall absolutely deny? destruction which evil has, and which kills them sooner or
Very true. later, but in quite another way from that in which, at
And, on the same principle, unless some bodily evil can present, the wicked receive death at the hands of others as
produce an evil of the soul, we must not suppose that the the penalty of their deeds?
soul, which is one thing, can be dissolved by any merely Nay, he said, in that case injustice, if fatal to the unjust,
external evil which belongs to another? will not be so very terrible to him, for he will be delivered
Yes, he said, there is reason in that. from evil. But I rather suspect the opposite to be the truth,
Either then, let us refute this conclusion, or, while it re- and that injustice which, if it have the power, will murder
mains unrefuted, let us never say that fever, or any other others, keeps the murderer alive—aye, and well awake too;
disease, or the knife put to the throat, or even the cutting so far removed is her dwelling-place from being a house of
up of the whole body into the minutest pieces, can destroy death.
the soul, until she herself is proved to become more unholy True, I said; if the inherent natural vice or evil of the soul
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is unable to kill or destroy her, hardly will that which is Her immortality is demonstrated by the previous argu-
appointed to be the destruction of some other body, de- ment, and there are many other proofs; but to see her as
stroy a soul or anything else except that of which it was she really is, not as we now behold her, marred by commun-
appointed to be the destruction. ion with the body and other miseries, you must contem-
Yes, that can hardly be. plate her with the eye of reason, in her original purity; and
But the soul which cannot be destroyed by an evil, whether then her beauty will be revealed, and justice and injustice
inherent or external, must exist for ever, and if existing for and all the things which we have described will be mani-
ever, must be immortal? fested more clearly. Thus far, we have spoken the truth con-
Certainly. cerning her as she appears at present, but we must remem-
That is the conclusion, I said; and, if a true conclusion, ber also that we have seen her only in a condition which
then the souls must always be the same, for if none be may be compared to that of the sea-god Glaucus, whose
destroyed they will not diminish in number. Neither will original image can hardly be discerned because his natural
they increase, for the increase of the immortal natures must members are broken off and crushed and damaged by the
come from something mortal, and all things would thus waves in all sorts of ways, and incrustations have grown
end in immortality. over them of seaweed and shells and stones, so that he is
Very true. more like some monster than he is to his own natural form.
But this we cannot believe—reason will not allow us— And the soul which we behold is in a similar condition, dis-
any more than we can believe the soul, in her truest nature, figured by ten thousand ills. But not there, Glaucon, not
to be full of variety and difference and dissimilarity. there must we look.
What do you mean? he said. Where then?
The soul, I said, being, as is now proven, immortal, must At her love of wisdom. Let us see whom she affects, and
be the fairest of compositions and cannot be compounded what society and converse she seeks in virtue of her near
of many elements? kindred with the immortal and eternal and divine; also how
Certainly not. different she would become if wholly following this supe-
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rior principle, and borne by a divine impulse out of the ocean Will you repay me, then, what you borrowed in the argu-
in which she now is, and disengaged from the stones and ment?
shells and things of earth and rock which in wild variety What did I borrow?
spring up around her because she feeds upon earth, and is The assumption that the just man should appear unjust
overgrown by the good things of this life as they are termed: and the unjust just: for you were of opinion that even if
then you would see her as she is, and know whether she the true state of the case could not possibly escape the
has one shape only or many, or what her nature is. Of her eyes of gods and men, still this admission ought to be made
affections and of the forms which she takes in this present for the sake of the argument, in order that pure justice
life I think that we have now said enough. might be weighed against pure injustice. Do you remem-
True, he replied. ber?
And thus, I said, we have fulfilled the conditions of the I should be much to blame if I had forgotten.
argument; we have not introduced the rewards and glories Then, as the cause is decided, I demand on behalf of jus-
of justice, which, as you were saying, are to be found in tice that the estimation in which she is held by gods and
Homer and Hesiod; but justice in her own nature has been men and which we acknowledge to be her due should now
shown to be best for the soul in her own nature. Let a man be restored to her by us; since she has been shown to con-
do what is just, whether he have the ring of Gyges or not, fer reality, and not to deceive those who truly possess her,
and even if in addition to the ring of Gyges he put on the let what has been taken from her be given back, that so she
helmet of Hades. may win that palm of appearance which is hers also, and
Very true. which she gives to her own.
And now, Glaucon, there will be no harm in further enu- The demand, he said, is just.
merating how many and how great are the rewards which In the first place, I said—and this is the first thing which
justice and the other virtues procure to the soul from gods you will have to give back—the nature both of the just
and men, both in life and after death. and unjust is truly known to the gods.
Certainly not, he said. Granted.
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And if they are both known to them, one must be the case of runners, who run well from the starting-place to the
friend and the other the enemy of the gods, as we admitted goal but not back again from the goal: they go off at a
from the beginning? great pace, but in the end only look foolish, slinking away
True. with their ears draggling on their shoulders, and without a
And the friend of the gods may be supposed to receive crown; but the true runner comes to the finish and receives
from them all things at their best, excepting only such evil the prize and is crowned. And this is the way with the just;
as is the necessary consequence of former sins? he who endures to the end of every action and occasion of
Certainly. his entire life has a good report and carries off the prize
Then this must be our notion of the just man, that even which men have to bestow.
when he is in poverty or sickness, or any other seeming True.
misfortune, all things will in the end work together for good And now you must allow me to repeat of the just the
to him in life and death: for the gods have a care of any one blessings which you were attributing to the fortunate un-
whose desire is to become just and to be like God, as far as just. I shall say of them, what you were saying of the oth-
man can attain the divine likeness, by the pursuit of vir- ers, that as they grow older, they become rulers in their
tue? own city if they care to be; they marry whom they like and
Yes, he said; if he is like God he will surely not be ne- give in marriage to whom they will; all that you said of the
glected by him. others I now say of these. And, on the other hand, of the
And of the unjust may not the opposite be supposed? unjust I say that the greater number, even though they
Certainly. escape in their youth, are found out at last and look fool-
Such, then, are the palms of victory which the gods give ish at the end of their course, and when they come to be
the just? old and miserable are flouted alike by stranger and citizen;
That is my conviction. they are beaten and then come those things unfit for ears
And what do they receive of men? Look at things as they polite, as you truly term them; they will be racked and have
really are, and you will see that the clever unjust are in the their eyes burned out, as you were saying. And you may
287
suppose that I have repeated the remainder of your tale of corruption, his body was found unaffected by decay, and
horrors. But will you let me assume, without reciting them, carried away home to be buried. And on the twelfth day, as
that these things are true? he was lying on the funeral pile, he returned to life and
Certainly, he said, what you say is true. told them what he had seen in the other world. He said
These, then, are the prizes and rewards and gifts which that when his soul left the body he went on a journey with
are bestowed upon the just by gods and men in this present a great company, and that they came to a mysterious place
life, in addition to the other good things which justice of at which there were two openings in the earth; they were
herself provides. near together, and over against them were two other open-
Yes, he said; and they are fair and lasting. ings in the heaven above. In the intermediate space there
And yet, I said, all these are as nothing, either in number were judges seated, who commanded the just, after they
or greatness in comparison with those other recompenses had given judgment on them and had bound their sentences
which await both just and unjust after death. And you ought in front of them, to ascend by the heavenly way on the
to hear them, and then both just and unjust will have re- right hand; and in like manner the unjust were bidden by
ceived from us a full payment of the debt which the argu- them to descend by the lower way on the left hand; these
ment owes to them. also bore the symbols of their deeds, but fastened on their
Speak, he said; there are few things which I would more backs. He drew near, and they told him that he was to be
gladly hear. the messenger who would carry the report of the other world
to men, and they bade him hear and see all that was to be
SOCRATES heard and seen in that place. Then he beheld and saw on
one side the souls departing at either opening of heaven
Well, I said, I will tell you a tale; not one of the tales
and earth when sentence had been given on them; and at
which Odysseus tells to the hero Alcinous, yet this too is a
the two other openings other souls, some ascending out of
tale of a hero, Er the son of Armenius, a Pamphylian by
the earth dusty and worn with travel, some descending out
birth. He was slain in battle, and ten days afterwards, when
of heaven clean and bright. And arriving ever and anon they
the bodies of the dead were taken up already in a state of
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seemed to have come from a long journey, and they went piety and impiety to gods and parents, and of murderers,
forth with gladness into the meadow, where they encamped there were retributions other and greater far which he de-
as at a festival; and those who knew one another embraced scribed. He mentioned that he was present when one of the
and conversed, the souls which came from earth curiously spirits asked another, ‘Where is Ardiaeus the Great?’ (Now
enquiring about the things above, and the souls which came this Ardiaeus lived a thousand years before the time of Er:
from heaven about the things beneath. And they told one he had been the tyrant of some city of Pamphylia, and had
another of what had happened by the way, those from be- murdered his aged father and his elder brother, and was
low weeping and sorrowing at the remembrance of the things said to have committed many other abominable crimes.)
which they had endured and seen in their journey beneath The answer of the other spirit was: ‘He comes not hither
the earth (now the journey lasted a thousand years), while and will never come. And this,’ said he, ‘was one of the dread-
those from above were describing heavenly delights and ful sights which we ourselves witnessed. We were at the
visions of inconceivable beauty. The Story, Glaucon, would mouth of the cavern, and, having completed all our experi-
take too long to tell; but the sum was this:—He said that ences, were about to reascend, when of a sudden Ardiaeus
for every wrong which they had done to any one they suf- appeared and several others, most of whom were tyrants;
fered tenfold; or once in a hundred years—such being reck- and there were also besides the tyrants private individuals
oned to be the length of man’s life, and the penalty being who had been great criminals: they were just, as they fan-
thus paid ten times in a thousand years. If, for example, cied, about to return into the upper world, but the mouth,
there were any who had been the cause of many deaths, or instead of admitting them, gave a roar, whenever any of
had betrayed or enslaved cities or armies, or been guilty of these incurable sinners or some one who had not been suf-
any other evil behaviour, for each and all of their offences ficiently punished tried to ascend; and then wild men of
they received punishment ten times over, and the rewards fiery aspect, who were standing by and heard the sound,
of beneficence and justice and holiness were in the same seized and carried them off; and Ardiaeus and others they
proportion. I need hardly repeat what he said concerning bound head and foot and hand, and threw them down and
young children dying almost as soon as they were born. Of flayed them with scourges, and dragged them along the
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road at the side, carding them on thorns like wool, and the whorl is in form like the whorl used on earth; and the
declaring to the passers- by what were their crimes, and description of it implied that there is one large hollow whorl
that they were being taken away to be cast into hell.’ And which is quite scooped out, and into this is fitted another
of all the many terrors which they had endured, he said lesser one, and another, and another, and four others, mak-
that there was none like the terror which each of them felt ing eight in all, like vessels which fit into one another; the
at that moment, lest they should hear the voice; and when whorls show their edges on the upper side, and on their
there was silence, one by one they ascended with exceed- lower side all together form one continuous whorl. This is
ing joy. These, said Er, were the penalties and retributions, pierced by the spindle, which is driven home through the
and there were blessings as great. center of the eighth. The first and outermost whorl has the
Now when the spirits which were in the meadow had tar- rim broadest, and the seven inner whorls are narrower, in
ried seven days, on the eighth they were obliged to pro- the following proportions—the sixth is next to the first in
ceed on their journey, and, on the fourth day after, he said size, the fourth next to the sixth; then comes the eighth;
that they came to a place where they could see from above the seventh is fifth, the fifth is sixth, the third is seventh,
a line of light, straight as a column, extending right through last and eighth comes the second. The largest (of fixed stars)
the whole heaven and through the earth, in colour resem- is spangled, and the seventh (or sun) is brightest; the
bling the rainbow, only brighter and purer; another day’s eighth (or moon) coloured by the reflected light of the
journey brought them to the place, and there, in the midst seventh; the second and fifth (Saturn and Mercury) are in
of the light, they saw the ends of the chains of heaven let colour like one another, and yellower than the preceding;
down from above: for this light is the belt of heaven, and the third (Venus) has the whitest light; the fourth (Mars)
holds together the circle of the universe, like the under- is reddish; the sixth (Jupiter) is in whiteness second. Now
girders of a trireme. From these ends is extended the spindle the whole spindle has the same motion; but, as the whole
of Necessity, on which all the revolutions turn. The shaft revolves in one direction, the seven inner circles move slowly
and hook of this spindle are made of steel, and the whorl is in the other, and of these the swiftest is the eighth; next in
made partly of steel and also partly of other materials. Now swiftness are the seventh, sixth, and fifth, which move to-
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gether; third in swiftness appeared to move according to of life and mortality. Your genius will not be allotted to
the law of this reversed motion the fourth; the third ap- you, but you choose your genius; and let him who draws
peared fourth and the second fifth. The spindle turns on the first lot have the first choice, and the life which he
the knees of Necessity; and on the upper surface of each chooses shall be his destiny. Virtue is free, and as a man
circle is a siren, who goes round with them, hymning a single honours or dishonours her he will have more or less of her;
tone or note. The eight together form one harmony; and the responsibility is with the chooser—God is justified.’
round about, at equal intervals, there is another band, three When the Interpreter had thus spoken he scattered lots
in number, each sitting upon her throne: these are the Fates, indifferently among them all, and each of them took up
daughters of Necessity, who are clothed in white robes and the lot which fell near him, all but Er himself (he was not
have chaplets upon their heads, Lachesis and Clotho and allowed), and each as he took his lot perceived the number
Atropos, who accompany with their voices the harmony of which he had obtained. Then the Interpreter placed on the
the sirens—Lachesis singing of the past, Clotho of the ground before them the samples of lives; and there were
present, Atropos of the future; Clotho from time to time many more lives than the souls present, and they were of
assisting with a touch of her right hand the revolution of all sorts. There were lives of every animal and of man in
the outer circle of the whorl or spindle, and Atropos with every condition. And there were tyrannies among them,
her left hand touching and guiding the inner ones, and some lasting out the tyrant’s life, others which broke off in
Lachesis laying hold of either in turn, first with one hand the middle and came to an end in poverty and exile and
and then with the other. beggary; and there were lives of famous men, some who
When Er and the spirits arrived, their duty was to go at were famous for their form and beauty as well as for their
once to Lachesis; but first of all there came a prophet who strength and success in games, or, again, for their birth and
arranged them in order; then he took from the knees of the qualities of their ancestors; and some who were the
Lachesis lots and samples of lives, and having mounted a reverse of famous for the opposite qualities. And of women
high pulpit, spoke as follows: ‘Hear the word of Lachesis, likewise; there was not, however, any definite character
the daughter of Necessity. Mortal souls, behold a new cycle them, because the soul, when choosing a new life, must of
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necessity become different. But there was every other qual- both in life and after death. A man must take with him into
ity, and the all mingled with one another, and also with the world below an adamantine faith in truth and right,
elements of wealth and poverty, and disease and health; that there too he may be undazzled by the desire of wealth
and there were mean states also. And here, my dear Glaucon, or the other allurements of evil, lest, coming upon tyran-
is the supreme peril of our human state; and therefore the nies and similar villainies, he do irremediable wrongs to
utmost care should be taken. Let each one of us leave every others and suffer yet worse himself; but let him know how
other kind of knowledge and seek and follow one thing to choose the mean and avoid the extremes on either side,
only, if peradventure he may be able to learn and may find as far as possible, not only in this life but in all that which
some one who will make him able to learn and discern be- is to come. For this is the way of happiness.
tween good and evil, and so to choose always and every- And according to the report of the messenger from the
where the better life as he has opportunity. He should con- other world this was what the prophet said at the time:
sider the bearing of all these things which have been men- ‘Even for the last comer, if he chooses wisely and will live
tioned severally and collectively upon virtue; he should know diligently, there is appointed a happy and not undesirable
what the effect of beauty is when combined with poverty existence. Let not him who chooses first be careless, and
or wealth in a particular soul, and what are the good and let not the last despair.’ And when he had spoken, he who
evil consequences of noble and humble birth, of private had the first choice came forward and in a moment chose
and public station, of strength and weakness, of cleverness the greatest tyranny; his mind having been darkened by
and dullness, and of all the soul, and the operation of them folly and sensuality, he had not thought out the whole
when conjoined; he will then look at the nature of the soul, matter before he chose, and did not at first sight perceive
and from the consideration of all these qualities he will be that he was fated, among other evils, to devour his own
able to determine which is the better and which is the worse; children. But when he had time to reflect, and saw what
and so he will choose, giving the name of evil to the life was in the lot, he began to beat his breast and lament over
which will make his soul more unjust, and good to the life his choice, forgetting the proclamation of the prophet; for,
which will make his soul more just; all else he will disre- instead of throwing the blame of his misfortune on him-
gard. For we have seen and know that this is the best choice
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self, he accused chance and the gods, and everything rather of a nightingale; birds, on the other hand, like the swan
than himself. Now he was one of those who came from and other musicians, wanting to be men. The soul which
heaven, and in a former life had dwelt in a well-ordered obtained the twentieth lot chose the life of a lion, and this
State, but his virtue was a matter of habit only, and he had was the soul of Ajax the son of Telamon, who would not be
no philosophy. And it was true of others who were similarly a man, remembering the injustice which was done him the
overtaken, that the greater number of them came from judgment about the arms. The next was Agamemnon, who
heaven and therefore they had never been schooled by trial, took the life of an eagle, because, like Ajax, he hated hu-
whereas the pilgrims who came from earth, having them- man nature by reason of his sufferings. About the middle
selves suffered and seen others suffer, were not in a hurry came the lot of Atalanta; she, seeing the great fame of an
to choose. And owing to this inexperience of theirs, and athlete, was unable to resist the temptation: and after her
also because the lot was a chance, many of the souls ex- there followed the soul of Epeus the son of Panopeus pass-
changed a good destiny for an evil or an evil for a good. For ing into the nature of a woman cunning in the arts; and far
if a man had always on his arrival in this world dedicated away among the last who chose, the soul of the jester
himself from the first to sound philosophy, and had been Thersites was putting on the form of a monkey. There came
moderately fortunate in the number of the lot, he might, also the soul of Odysseus having yet to make a choice, and
as the messenger reported, be happy here, and also his jour- his lot happened to be the last of them all. Now the recol-
ney to another life and return to this, instead of being lection of former tolls had disenchanted him of ambition,
rough and underground, would be smooth and heavenly. and he went about for a considerable time in search of the
Most curious, he said, was the spectacle—sad and laugh- life of a private man who had no cares; he had some diffi-
able and strange; for the choice of the souls was in most culty in finding this, which was lying about and had been
cases based on their experience of a previous life. There he neglected by everybody else; and when he saw it, he said
saw the soul which had once been Orpheus choosing the that he would have done the had his lot been first instead
life of a swan out of enmity to the race of women, hating of last, and that he was delighted to have it. And not only
to be born of a woman because they had been his murder- did men pass into animals, but I must also mention that
ers; he beheld also the soul of Thamyras choosing the life there were animals tame and wild who changed into one
293
another and into corresponding human natures—the good hindered from drinking the water. But in what manner or
into the gentle and the evil into the savage, in all sorts of by what means he returned to the body he could not say;
combinations. only, in the morning, awaking suddenly, he found himself
All the souls had now chosen their lives, and they went in lying on the pyre.
the order of their choice to Lachesis, who sent with them And thus, Glaucon, the tale has been saved and has not
the genius whom they had severally chosen, to be the guard- perished, and will save us if we are obedient to the word
ian of their lives and the fulfiller of the choice: this genius spoken; and we shall pass safely over the river of Forgetful-
led the souls first to Clotho, and drew them within the revo- ness and our soul will not be defiled. Wherefore my counsel
lution of the spindle impelled by her hand, thus ratifying is that we hold fast ever to the heavenly way and follow
the destiny of each; and then, when they were fastened to after justice and virtue always, considering that the soul is
this, carried them to Atropos, who spun the threads and immortal and able to endure every sort of good and every
made them irreversible, whence without turning round they sort of evil. Thus shall we live dear to one another and to
passed beneath the throne of Necessity; and when they the gods, both while remaining here and when, like con-
had all passed, they marched on in a scorching heat to the querors in the games who go round to gather gifts, we re-
plain of Forgetfulness, which was a barren waste destitute ceive our reward. And it shall be well with us both in this
of trees and verdure; and then towards evening they en- life and in the pilgrimage of a thousand years which we
camped by the river of Unmindfulness, whose water no ves- have been describing.
sel can hold; of this they were all obliged to drink a certain
quantity, and those who were not saved by wisdom drank
more than was necessary; and each one as he drank forgot
all things. Now after they had gone to rest, about the middle
of the night there was a thunderstorm and earthquake, and
Bust of Socrates
then in an instant they were driven upwards in all manner
of ways to their birth, like stars shooting. He himself was
294

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The Republic

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BOOK I SOCRATES - POLEMARCHUS - GLAUCON -

Thou hast wronged me, O far-darter, most abominable

Most true. affirming,—that the guardians were not to have houses or

Impossible. And the anticipations of future pleasures and pains are

Proceed. bad qualities which develop themselves in use; for example,

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