Boundary Layer Theory

Professor
Ugur GUVEN
Aerospace Engineer
Spacecraft Propulsion Specialist
 Boundary Layer Definition
• Boundary Layer is the thin boundary region
between the flow and the solid surface, where
the flow is retarded due to friction between
the solid body and the fluid flow.
 Shear Layer
• Shear Layer is the thin boundary region
between the two flows with different
velocities.
What is the Significance of Boundary
Layers?
• Although friction exists in all types of flow,
practically it is only of consequence in the thin
region separating the flow and the solid body.
• Hence, as far as the physical system is
concerned, the boundary layer is the region
where mass transfer, momentum transfer,
heat transfer, friction effects and all viscosity
effects are felt.
 How Does a Boundary Layer Help
Engineers!
• This means that instead of solving for the whole
Navier Stokes equation set for the full flow, we
can approximate a solution by solving for the
boundary layer where the viscous effects are
felt.
• Thus, in order to calculate skin friction and
aerodynamic heating at the surface, you only
have to account for friction and thermal
conduction within the thin boundary layer.
Hence; you wont need to analyze the large flow
outside the boundary layer
Calculation of a Flow with a Boundary
Layer
 Boundary Layer Equations
• Boundary Layer concept was founded by Ludwig
Prandtl and it revolutionized the concept of
solving Navier Stokes questions.
• Boundary Layer Equations are partial differential
equations that apply inside the boundary layer.
Representation of a Boundary Layer
Representation of a Boundary Layer
Representation of a Boundary Layer
 Shape of a Boundary Layer

Because of No-Slip condition, the velocity of the fluid is

Zero at the surface and it gradually increases.
Boundary Layer Properties
Boundary Layer Properties
Velocity Boundary Layer
 Two Boundary Layers
• Hence, two boundary layers can be defined:
1) Velocity Boundary Layer with Thickness
2) Temperature Boundary Layer with
Thickness
 Properties of the Boundary Layer
• Hence since Prandtl number is 0.71 for air at
standard conditions, the thermal boundary
layer is thicker then the velocity boundary
Layer. (Remember Prandtl number is a
function of temperature).
• Both boundary layer thicknesses increase with
distance from the leading edge.
 Displacement Thickness
• Displacement Thickness is the distance between
the actual body surface and the effective body.
• Displacement Thickness can also be visualized as
the index proportional to the missing mass flow due
to the presence of the boundary layer.
Displacement Thickness
Displacement Thickness
 Momentum Thickness
• Ѳ or Momentum Thickness is an index that is
proportional to the decrement in momentum
flow due to the presence of the boundary
layer.
• Ѳ is also the height of a hypothetical stream,
which is carrying the missing momentum flow
at free stream conditions.
Displacement and Momentum
Thickness
 Generality of Boundary Layers
• The concepts outlined above such as velocity
boundary layer, thermal boundary layer,
displacement thickness and momentum
thickness hold true for all types of boundary
layers in viscous flow.
(Compressible/Incompressible,
Laminar/Turbulent Flow)
• In order to solve for a boundary layer, the
boundary layer must be very thin in
comparison
Solution of Boundary Layer
Boundary Layer Equations
Boundary Conditions
Solution of Boundary Layer Problems
• Solve Boundary Layer Equations
• Using Velocity and Temperature values from above
equations solve for shear stress and for heat transfer
using the Fourier formula.
• Use Numerical Methods to iterate
 Properties of Boundary Layers
• The external flow reacts to the edge of the
boundary layer just as it would to the physical
surface of an object. So the boundary layer
gives any object an "effective" shape which is
usually slightly different from the physical
shape. (Hence, the displacement thickness)
 Separation of Boundary Layers
• The boundary layer may lift off or "separate" from
the body and create an effective shape much
different from the physical shape. This happens
because the flow in the boundary has very low
energy (relative to the free stream) and is more
easily driven by changes in pressure.
• Boundary layer separation occurs when the portion
of the boundary layer closest to the wall reverses in
flow direction. As a result, the overall boundary
layer initially thickens suddenly and is then forced
off the surface by the reversed flow at its bottom
•
Separation of Boundary Layer
 How Does Boundary Separation
Occur?
• Separation is bound to occur in a sufficiently
large adverse pressure gradient.
• Boundary layers tend to separate from a solid
body when there is an increasing fluid
pressure in the direction of the flow.
• Increasing the fluid pressure is akin to
increasing the potential energy of the fluid,
leading to a reduced kinetic energy and a
deceleration of the fluid
Flow Separation in an NACA Airfoil
Flow Separation
 Flow Separation on a Sphere
• Flow Separation at Reynolds = 100 000
 What Happens When the Boundary
Layer Separates?
• When the boundary layer separates,
its displacement thickness increases sharply,
which modifies the outside potential flow and
pressure field.
• In the case of airfoils, the pressure field
modification results in an increase in pressure
drag, and if severe enough will also result in loss
of lift and stall.
• Another effect of boundary layer separation is
shedding vortices, known as Kármán vortex
sheet. The shedding of the vortices then could
cause vibrations in the structure
• Flow separation is the reason for wing stall at
high angle of attack
Wing Stall Due to Boundary Layer
Separation
Vortex Shedding due to Boundary
Layer Separation
 Effects of Boundary Layers on Flight
• In high-performance designs, such as sailplanes and
commercial transport aircraft, much attention is paid
to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to
minimize drag.
• Two effects have to be considered. First, the
boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the
body, through the displacement thickness, hence
increasing the pressure drag. Secondly,
the shear forces at the surface of the wing which
create skin friction drag.
• Of course, as mentioned in the ABOVE slides,
boundary layer separation can become a serious
flight stability issue due to its separation.
 Types of Boundary Layers
• As you know, the boundary layers are the thin,
sticky viscous region where the fluid is slowed
down and thus viscous effects take place.
• Boundary layers may be
either laminar (layered),
or turbulent (disordered) depending on the
value of the Reynolds number.
• The mathematical treatment of a laminar and
turbulent boundary layer differ greatly
 Laminar Boundary Layers
• For lower Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is
laminar and the streamwise velocity changes
uniformly as one moves away from the wall
 Laminar Boundary Layers
• In laminar flow, the fluid moves in smooth layers or
lamina. There is relatively little mixing and
consequently the velocity gradients are small and shear
stresses are low.
• The thickness of the laminar boundary layer increases
with distance from the start of the boundary layer and
decreases with Reynolds number.
Laminar Boundary Layers
 Laminar Flow and Laminar Boundary
Layers
• At lower Reynolds numbers, such as those seen
with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain
laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is
desirable. However, the same velocity profile which
gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction
also causes it to be badly affected by adverse
pressure gradients
• As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part
of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will
tend to separate from the surface. Such flow
separation causes a large increase in the pressure
drag
 Turbulent Boundary Layers
• For higher Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is
turbulent and the streamwise velocity is
characterized by unsteady (changing with time)
swirling flows inside the boundary layer.
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Turbulent Boundary Layer
 Turbulent Boundary Layers
• Turbulent boundary layer flow is characterized by
unsteady mixing due to eddies at many scales. The
result is higher shear stress at the wall, and a "fuller"
velocity profile.
• The wall shear stress is higher because the velocity
gradient near the wall is greater. This is because of the
more effective mixing associated with turbulent flow
Comparison of Boundary Layers
Turbulent - Laminar
 Transition from Laminar Boundary
Layer to Turbulent B.L.
• In reality, especially in fast motion dynamics, both a
laminar turbulent layer, as well as a turbulent
boundary layer will be present.
• There will also be a transitional boundary layer
between the laminar and turbulent layers.
 Comparison of Boundary Layers
Turbulent - Laminar
• So, it seems as if a laminar boundary layer is
better then a turbulent boundary layer, since
there doesn’t seem to be adverse velocity
gradients! Right??????
WRONGGGGGGGGGGG!
• Remember that a turbulent boundary layer (as
predictable as it may be, it will not allow a flow
separation to take place as easily as a laminar
boundary layer.
• When the flow separation does take place, it
happens further from the central axis of the body.
Comparison of Boundary Layers
Turbulent - Laminar
 Comparison of Boundary Layers
Turbulent - Laminar
• So does turbulent boundary layer work only
for golf balls? How about something more
common?
How About Boundary Layers and
Soccer?
 Comparison of Boundary Layers
Turbulent - Laminar
• How about our good childhood friend Frisby?

The rotation of a frisbee makes the boundary layer turbulent even with moderate
forward speed of the frisbee, which makes the frisbee into an efficient wing
with L/D allowing a long distance of travel under moderate initial speed

For a rapidly rotating frisbee, the boundary layer can become

turbulent which can drastically improve the lift/drag quotient and
improve flight characteristics.
 Properties of a Turbulent Boundary
Layer in Flight
• Viscous flow with a laminar boundary layer
separates at the crest and gives poor lift and large
drag.
• The perturbed flow does not separate at the
crest because the boundary layer is turbulent
 Why Do We Want a Turbulent
Boundary Layer on an Aircraft?
• The fuller velocity profile of the turbulent
boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse
pressure gradient without separating. Thus,
although the skin friction is increased, overall
drag is decreased.
 Properties of a Turbulent Boundary
Layer in Flight
• So in actual life in viscous flow situations, we
want a turbulent boundary layer, just as we want
turbulent flow for high speed aircraft and
spacecraft.
• What determines if the boundary layer is
turbulent (which is good) or laminar (which is
bad) is the
Reynolds number
SO HIGHER REYNOLDS NUMBER FLIGHTS ARE
BETTER FOR STABILITY, SINCE HIGH REYNOLDS
NUMBERS MEAN TURBULENT FLOW AND A
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
 How Does a Turbulent Boundary
Layer Form?
• In laminar flow, The viscous shear stresses have held the fluid
particles in a constant motion within layers. They become
small as the boundary layer increases in thickness and the
velocity gradient gets smaller. Eventually they are no longer
able to hold the flow in layers and the fluid starts to rotate.

This causes the fluid motion to rapidly becomes turbulent

 How Does a Turbulent Boundary
•
Layer Form?
Fluid from the fast moving region moves to the slower zone transferring
momentum and thus maintaining the fluid by the wall in motion.
Conversely, slow moving fluid moves to the faster moving region slowing it
down. The net effect is an increase in momentum in the boundary layer.
We call the part of the boundary layer the turbulent boundary layer.
 Boundary Layer Separation
• At the edge of the separated boundary layer, where the
velocities change direction, a line of vortices occur (known as
a vortex sheet). This happens because fluid to either side is
moving in the opposite direction.

This boundary layer separation and increase in the

turbulence because of the vortices results in very large
energy losses in the flow
Boundary Layer Separation
 Some Usage of Turbulent Boundary
Layers on Aircraft
• Turbulent flow and turbulent boundary layers are
especially welcome on high speed aircraft. In order to
introduce turbulent boundary layers, leading edge
extension (LEX) are used to delay flow separation
 Vortex Generators on Aircraft
• Vortex generators are often placed along the outer portion of
a wing in order to promote a turbulent boundary layer that
adds forward momentum to the flow. As in the case of the
golf ball, this turbulent boundary layer helps the flow
overcome an adverse pressure gradient and remain attached
to the surface longer than it would otherwise.
Boundary Layers on the Space Shuttle
•
How to Prevent Stalling?
If the angle of the wing becomes too great and boundary layer
separation occurs on the top of the aerofoil ,the pressure pattern
will change dramatically. This phenomenon is known as stalling. The
separation of the boundary layer can cause stalling due to huge loss
of momentum and energy instantaneously.
• When stalling occurs, all, or most, of the 'suction' pressure is lost,
and the plane will suddenly drop from the sky! The only solution to
this is to put the plane into a dive to regain the boundary layer. A
transverse lift force is then exerted on the wing, which gives the
pilot some control and allows the plane to be pulled out of the dive.
 Laminar Boundary Layer of a Flow
Over a Flat Plate (Blasius Flow)
• A Blasius boundary layer, in physics and fluid
mechanics, describes the steady two-
dimensional boundary layer that forms on a
semi-infinite plate which is held parallel to a
constant unidirectional flow U.

A schematic diagram of the Blasius flow profile

 Laminar Boundary Layer of a Flow
Over a Flat Plate (Blasius Flow)
• the semi-infinite plate has no natural length
scale L and so the steady, incompressible, two-
dimensional boundary-layer equations for
continuity and momentum are:
 Blasius Solution

This suggests adopting the similarity variable

u = Uf'(η).

It proves convenient to work with the stream function ψ, in which case

ψ = (νUx)1 / 2f(η)
and on differentiating, to find the velocities, and substituting into the
boundary-layer equation we obtain the Blasius equation

f = f' = 0 on η = 0 AND
 Laminar Boundary Layer of a
Incompressible Flow Over a Flat Plate
(Blasius Flow)
 Turbulent Boundary Layer of a Flow
Over a Flat Plate
• Using the standard Boundary Layer equations,
the solution for the boundary layer of a
turbulent incompressible flow over a flat
plate:

0.074

0.37 x Cf  1
1
5
Re 5 Re
Summary of General Boundary Layer
Equations
Boundary Layer Example Problem
• Consider a flat plate at zero angle of attack in
an airflow at standard sea level conditions.
The chord length of the plate (distance from
the leading edge to the trailing edge is ) 2
meters. The planform area of the plate is 40
m^2. Assume the wall temperature is the
adibatic wall temperature Taw.
• Calculate the friction drag on the plate when
the freestream velocity is 100 m/s:
a) Laminar Flow and b) Turbulent Flow