CH 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies

Flow Over Immersed Bodies
General External Flow

Characteristics
Flow Over Immersed Bodies

Learning objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
identify and discuss the features of external flow.
Explain the fundamental characteristics of a boundary layer, including laminar,
transitional, and turbulent regimes.
Calculate boundary layer parameters for flow past a flat plate.
Provide a description of boundary layer separation.
Calculate the lift and drag forces for various objects.
General External Flow Characteristics
Flow past objects is termed external flow
Theoretical, numerical and experimental approaches are used to

study external flows
Well consider characteristics of external flows and learn how to

determine various forces on objects surrounded by moving fluid
Coordinate system fixed to the object is used to study external flows
One consider the fluid flowing past a stationary body with velocity U,
the upstream velocity
Shape of the body affects the flow characteristics
Flow Structure vs. Body Shape
I)
(a) two-dimensional
(b) axisymmetric
II)
streamlined bodies, blunt bodies
(c) three-dimensional
Lift and Drag Concepts

Forces from the surrounding fluid on a
two-dimensional object:
pressure force
viscous force
resultant force: drag and lift

(side force for 3D body)
notes
D p cos dA w sin dA
L p sin dA w cos dA
back
D p ni dA w i dA
A
L p nj dA w j dA
A
back
Example
back
Example
notes
Example
L p sin dA w cos dA
D p cos dA w sin dA
L pdA
top
top
dA
top
90o
bottom
270o
pdA 0
bottom
bottom
w dA 2 w dA 0.0992 lb
top
notes
Example
notes
Example
front
0o
back
180o
L p sin dA w cos dA
D p cos dA w sin dA
w dA
pdA
front
front
dA 0
back
pdA 55.6 lb
back
notes
Example
a)
L=0
D = 0.0992 lb
b)
L=0
D = 55.6 lb
c)
L0
D0
Lift and Drag Coefficients

Drag coefficient
CD
Lift coefficient
CL
A is ether frontal or planform area
D
1
U 2 A
2
L
1
U 2 A
2
Characteristics of Flow Past an Object

Character of the flow is function of the shape of the body
For a given-shaped body, characteristics of the flow
depends on the value of Reynolds, Mach and Froude
numbers
For most external flows 10 < Re < 109
Re > 100 - inertia effects dominate
Re < 1 viscous effect dominate
Characteristics
of Flow Past
an Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow
past a flat plate
parallel to the
upstream velocity:
a) low Reynolds number

flow,
b) moderate Reynolds
number flow,
c) large Reynolds
number flow
Characteristics
of Flow Past an
Object
Characteristics of the
steady, viscous flow past
a circular cylinder:
a) low Reynolds number

flow,
b) moderate Reynolds
number flow,
c) large Reynolds number
flow
back
Slide 16
Streamlined and Blunt Bodies

Shuttle landing Shuttle needs to be a relatively streamlined to glide properly.
Upon touchdown a drag chute is used to make it blunt object to slow it down.
Note: the wing tip vorticies (swirls) made visible by the smoke from the
skidding tires at the moment of touchdown.
Kayak and paddles A kayak is a streamlined to reduce drag. The paddle must
be blunt to impart the propulsive force to the kayak.
The Reynolds numbers for the paddle and the kayak are on the order of
100,000 to 1,000,000.
Human aerodynamic wake
Example
Slide 14
Boundary Layer Characteristics
notes
Boundary Layer
Structure and
Thickness
on a Flat Plate
Large Reynolds number flow fields may be divided into viscous and inviscid regions
Consider infinitely long flat plate. Define Reynolds number.
Fluid particles within boundary layer experience viscous effects
Flow is rotational within boundary layer and irrotational outside
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Rexcr ~ 2x105 to 3x106
Distinguishing feature of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular mixing of fluid

parcels. For laminar flows, mixing occurs only on the molecular scale
back
notes
Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate (video)
Three boundary layer thickness definitions are used in boundary

layer analysis:
standard boundary layer thickness
boundary layer displacement thickness *
boundary layer momentum thickness
notes
Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate
y where u 0.99U
notes
Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness
notes
Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness
u
1 dy
U
Displacement thickness represents the amount that the thickness of the

body must be increased so that the fictitious uniform inviscid flow has the
same mass flowrate properties as the actual viscous flow
It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the

viscous effects on the plate
Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness
notes
Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness
u
U
u
1 dy
U
Example
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution
Equations governing steady, two-dimensional, laminar flows with negligible

gravitational effects are obtained from Navier-Stokes & continuity equations
2u 2u 2u
u
u
u
u
p
u
v w gx
2 2
2
x
y
z
2 v 2v 2v
v
v
v
v
p
u v w gy
2 2
2
x
y
z
y
z
t
x y
2 w 2 w 2 w
w
w
w
w
p
u
v
w gz
2 2
2
x
y
z
Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

gravitational effects are
2u 2u
u
u
1 p
u
v

2
2
x
y
x
y
x
2 v 2 v
v
v
1 p
u v

2
2
x
y
y
x y
u v
0
x y
L. Prandtl simplified these equations using boundary layer concepts

H. Blasius solved these simplified equations for the boundary layer flow past a flat
plate parallel to the flow

Assumptions made:
1.
v=u
and
=
x y
2. Pressure is constant throughout the fluid
With these assumptions governing equations

u v
0
x y
2u 2u
u
u
1 p
u
v

2
2
x
y
x
x
y
2 v 2 v
v
v
1 p
u v

2
2
x
y
y
x y
reduce to boundary layer equations:

Boundary layer equations:
u v
0
x y
u
u
2u
u v
2
x
y
y

Boundary layer equations:
u v
0
x y
u
u
2u
u v
2
x
y
y
Boundary conditions:
uv0
u U
on
as
y0
y
Further assumptions:
1. In dimensionless form boundary layer velocity profiles on a flat plate should
be similar regardless on the location along the plate
u
y
g
U

2. Boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of x and inversely
proportional to the square root of U
x
U

y
By introducing dimensionless similarity variable

and the stream function f xU
velocity components become
u Uf
, where
f f
U
x
is unknown function,
vU
f f
4x
Substituting u and v into governing equations after manipulations gives

2 f ff 0
Boundary conditions
f f 0 at 0
f 1
as
Boundary layer profiles in

dimensionless form
Similar boundary layer

profiles at different locations

y
From solution:
U
x
u U 0.99 when 5.0 .
Thus:
x
U
or
x
Re x
Laminar, flat plate boundary layer thickness grows as the square root of the
distance from the leading edge
Also
* 1.721
x
Re x
and
0.664
x
Re x
x
U
w 0.332 U 3
x
7.48 103 x m
U
at x 3 m
0.013 m
w 0.0716 N m 2
at x 6 m
0.0183 m
w 0.0506 N m 2
w 0.332 U 3
0.124
x
x
Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for

a Flat Plate

a Flat Plate
Momentum integral method provides an approximate technique to

analyze boundary layer flow
Consider uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume

a Flat Plate
Assumptions:
Flow is steady within control volume
Pressure is constant throughout the flow field
Flow at section 1 is uniform
Velocity at section 2 varies from zero at the plate to upstream velocity at the edge of
the boundary layer
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Equation for a Flat Plate
x component of the momentum equation
notes
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
x component of the momentum equation
uV n dA uV
n dA
where for a flat plate of with b
plate
w dA b
plate
w dx
and D is the drag that the plate exerts on the fluid
D = U bh b u 2 dy
2
Thus
From continuity equation
Ubh b udy
0
Then
D b u U u dy
0
notes
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer
D b u U u dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases, increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
notes
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
Drag on a flat plate is related to momentum deficit within the boundary layer
D b u U u dy
0
Boundary layer flow on a flat plate is governed by a balance between shear drag and a
decrease in the momentum of the fluid
As x increases, increases and the drag increases (but shear stress decreases!)
The thickness of the boundary layer is necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous shear
stress on the plate (in contrary to horizontal fully developed pipe flow)
Equation above was obtained by T. von Karman in 1921
notes
Momentum Integral
Boundary Layer
In term of the momentum thickness
D bU 2
Shear stress on a flat plate is proportional to the rate of boundary layer growth
w U 2
d
dx
Last equation is known as the momentum integral equation for the boundary layer flow on
a flat plate
notes
Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Method

Usefulness of the momentum integral equation lies in ability to obtain approximate
boundary layer results by using rather crude assumptions
Even a rather crude guess at the velocity profile will allow us to obtain reasonable drag and
shear stress results
Example
Consider the laminar flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate at y = 0 .

The boundary layer velocity profile is approximated as u = Uy/ for 0 y
y
and u = U for
as shown in the figure. Determine the shear stress by using
the momentum integral equation. Compare results with the Blasius solution
Solution
notes
Example

y
and u = U for
From momentum integral equation w U 2
U
0 U
d
dx
(1)
on the other hand
(2)
dy
(3)
U
6
U U 2 d
6
From (1), (2) and (3)
or d
dx
6 dx
U
Integrating from leading edge to arbitrary x we get
Momentum thickness
2 6
x
2 U
Combining (1), (3) and (4), wall shear stress
Blasuis value
w 0.332U 3 2
w 0.289U 3 2
or
3.46
x
U
(4)
Approximate velocity profiles are used with momentum integral equation
Accuracy of results depends on how closely the shape of the assumed

profile approximates the actual profile

Consider general velocity profile as a function of dimensionless coordinate
u
y
g gY
for
U

u
1
for Y 1
U
0 Y 1
Boundary conditions
g 0 0
dg
dY
0
Y 1
and
g 1 1

Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
2 C2 C1
x
Re x
and
C1C2 3 2
U
2
x
where
1
C1 g Y 1 g Y dY
0
dg
C2
dY
Re x
Y 0
Ux
Typical approximate boundary layer profile

used in the momentum integral equation
back
2 w
2C1C2
U 2
Re x
Local friction coefficient
cf
Friction drag coefficient
CDf
Friction drag
Df CDf
1 l
8C1C2
c
dx
f
l 0
Rel
1
U 2bl
2
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow

The boundary layer on a flat plate will become turbulent if the plate is long enough
On a flat plate the transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place at:
Re xcr 2 105 to Re xcr 3 106

We will use in calculations
Re xcr 5 105
Turbulent spots and the transition

from laminar to turbulent boundary
layer flow on a flat plate. Flow from
left to right video
Transition from
Laminar to
Turbulent Flow
Typical boundary layer profiles on a flat

plate for laminar, transitional, and
turbulent flow
back
Example
A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 3 m/s. At

approximately what location will the boundary layer become turbulent, and how
thick is the boundary layer at that point if the fluid is (a) water at 15C, (b)
standard air, or (c) glycerin at 20C
Solution
5
x
U
xcr
Re xcr
1.7 105
U
cr
x xcr
Results
Fluid
(m2/s)
a. Water
1.1210-6
0.190
b. Air
1.4610-5
2.482
c. Glycerin
1.1910-3
Xcr (m)
202.3
Cr
(m)
1.310-3
0.017
1.42
1190
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
Structure of turbulent boundary layer is complex, random and irregular
Flow is the mix of eddies of different size
Mass, momentum and energy are convected in x and y directions
Mass convection is small in y direction but there is considerable transfer of x

component of momentum in y direction
Plate acts as a momentum sink, extracting momentum from fluid
Wall shear stress for turbulent boundary layer flow is greater than for laminar
There is no exact solution for turbulent boundary layer since there is no

precise expression for shear stress in turbulent flow
Solution can be obtained by use of momentum integral equation. For that one
need: (Solve Example 9.6)
video
BL 1
approximate velocity profile

empirical relation for wall shear stress
Progress is being made in numerical integration of Navier-Stokes equations
Comments
Laminar boundary layer flow
Turbulent boundary layer flow
: x1 2
: x4 5
w : x 1 2
w : x 1 5
The random character of the turbulent flow causes a different structure of the
flow

Flat plate drag coefficient is a function of Rel and relative roughness /l
Friction drag coefficient for a flat

plate parallel to the upstream flow
back

Flat plate drag coefficient is a function of Rel and relative roughness /l
Friction drag coefficient for a flat

plate parallel to the upstream flow
GIVEN The water ski shown in Figure

moves through 20 C water with a velocity
U.
FIND Estimate the drag caused by the
shear stress on the bottom of the ski for 0
< U < 9 m/s.

U.
< U < 9 m/s.
SOLUTION
Df
1
U 2lbCDf 75U 2CDf
2
Rel
Ul
9.98 105 U
With U 3 m/s
D 1.8 N
Rel 10 6
CDf 0.455 log Re l
2.58
1700 Rel 2.7 103

U.
< U < 9 m/s.
SOLUTION
Effect of Pressure Gradient
For flow along a flat plate pressure is constant throughout. For flow
past body other than flat plate the pressure is not uniform
Pressure variation in direction normal to the surface is small but

pressure does vary along the body surface if surface is curved
Terminology: U upstream velocity; Ufs free-stream velocity, the

fluid velocity at the edge of the boundary layer
Variation in Ufs causes pressure gradient in the boundary layer
Characteristics of the entire flow are dependent on the pressure

gradient within the boundary layer
For a flat plate U = Ufs, for a curved surface body it is not
Notes
Effect of Pressure Gradient. Inviscid Flow

For inviscid flow:
0,
Re , =0,
U fs v s
ps is determined from Bernoulli equation
Pressure is symmetrical and drag is zero
Experiment shows that drag is nonzero,

moreover, drag is essentially independent of
the value of
Notes
Effect of Pressure Gradient. Inviscid Flow
For inviscid flow fluid particle travel

without loss of energy
It is accelerated from Ufs = 0 at stagnation

point to Ufs = 2U at the top, and than
decelerated to Ufs = 0 at the rear
There is exchange of pressure and kinetic

energy
The decrease in pressure in the direction

of flow along front half of the cylinder is
termed favorable pressure gradient
The increase in pressure in the direction

of flow along the rear half of the cylinder is
termed adverse pressure gradient
Notes
Effect of Pressure Gradient. Viscous Flow
For viscid flow the particle in the

boundary layer experiences a
loss of energy due to friction
The kinetic energy of a particle is

not enough to reach the rear end,
and the flow separates from the
surface
Because of the boundary layer

separation the average pressure
on the rear half of the cylinder is
considerably less than that on the
front half, and large pressure drag
is developed
Viscous effects within the

boundary layer cause boundary
layer separation
Notes
Effect of Pressure Gradient. Viscous Flow
Location of separation, width of the wake

region, and pressure distribution depend
on the nature of the boundary layer
Turbulent boundary layer has more

kinetic energy and momentum than
laminar boundary layer because:
velocity profile is fuller
there is energy associated with
swirling motion
Turbulent boundary layer separation

occurs later along the surface
Video 1
Video 2
Notes
Drag and Lift
Generalized Formulae for Drag and Lift
Any object moving through fluid experiences drag. Drag is due to pressure
(pressure drag) and shear forces (friction drag)
Non-symmetrical objects experience lift
Generalized formulae for drag and lift calculations:

D p ni dA w i dA
A
L p nj dA w j dA
A
Compare with eqs. 9.1, 9.2
notes
Drag
Drag can be determined by use of equation
D p ni dA w i dA
A
if pressure distribution and wall shear stress are known.
Most of information of drag is obtained from experiment
Experimental results are given in the form of a drag coefficient:

CD
D
1
U 2 A
2
CD is a function of shape of the body, Reynolds number, Mach number, Froude

number and relative roughness:
CD shape, Re, Ma, Fr, l

notes
Friction Drag
Friction drag is a function of wall shear stress and orientation of a

surface
Df w i dA
Consider plate parallel and perpendicular to the flow
For blunt bodies and high Reynolds number flows friction drag is
small
For highly streamlined bodies and low Reynolds number flows most
of the drag is due to friction
notes
Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
Df w i dA
or from
Df
1
U 2blCDf
2
Where friction drag coefficient can be obtained from Figure or Table
notes
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more
advanced theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the
separation location at 108.8, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The
shear stress on the cylinder in the wake region, 108.8<<180, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient
for the cylinder based on the friction drag only
notes
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in the Fig. a. According to a more advanced
theory of boundary layer flow, the boundary layer remains attached to the cylinder up to the separation location at
108.8, with the dimensionless wall shear stress as is indicated in Fig. b. The shear stress on the cylinder in the wake
region, 108.8<<180, is negligible. Determine the drag coefficient for the cylinder based on the friction drag only
Solution:
D
Df w i dA 2 b w sin d
A
0
2
2Df
2
CDf
sin d
2
2 0 w
U bD U
CDf
2 w
1
sin
U 2
Re
2 w Re
sin d
U 2
notes
Example (cntd.)
CDf
Re
F sin d
0
Answer:
CDf
5.93
Re
Result is valid only for laminar boundary layer flow
notes
Pressure Drag
Pressure drag is produced by the normal stresses.
Pressure (form) drag strongly depends of the body shape.
It can be determined from
Dp p ni dA
A
or in terms of the pressure drag coefficient

2 p ni dA
C p n i dA
2Dp
CDp
U 2 A
U 2 A
A
where pressure coefficient (dimensionless form of the pressure)
2 p p0
Cp
U 2
For high Reynolds number flows CDp is relatively independent of Reynolds
number
For very small Reynolds number flows CDp is proportional to 1/Re
notes
Example
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
notes
Example (cntd.)
A viscous, incompressible fluid flows past the circular cylinder shown in Fig. a. The pressure coefficient on
the surface of the cylinder (as determined from experimental measurements) is as indicated in Fig. b
Determine the pressure drag coefficient for this flow.
Combine the results of this and previous examples to determine the drag coefficient for a circular cylinder.
Compare your results with those given in Fig. 9.21 of the text.
CDp
2
1
1 2
D
C p cos dA
C p cos b d C p cos d
0
A
bD 0
2
Pressure drag coefficient
CDp 1.17
notes
Example (cntd.)
Drag coefficient
Friction drag to total drag ratio
CD CDf CDp
Df
D
CDf
CD
5.93
1.17
Re
5.93
5.93
Re
Re 1.17
1
1 0.197 Re
For Re = 103, 104, and 105 ratio is 0.138, 0.0483, and 0.0158
Most of the drag on the blunt cylinder is the
pressure drag a result of the boundary
layer separation
Comparison with the experimental data
notes
Drag Coefficient Data
Shape Dependence
video
Drag coefficient for an ellipse

with the characteristic area
either the frontal area, A = bD,
or the planform area, A = bl
notes
Shape Dependence
(amount of streamlining)
Two objects of considerably different size that gave the same drag force:
(a) circular cylinder CD = 1.2; (b) streamlined strut CD = 0.12
notes
Reynolds Number Dependence

Consider low, moderate and large Reynolds number flows
notes

Case 1. Low Reynolds number (Re<1)
notes

Case 1. Low Reynolds number (Re<1)
For very low Reynolds number flows, inertia is negligible, and drag coefficient varies inversely with Re
Example
A small grain of sand, diameter d = 0.10 mm and specific gravity SG = 2.3, settles to the bottom of a lake
after having been stirred up by a passing boat. Determine now fast it falls through the still water.
notes
Example
notes
Example
W D Fb
Example
W D Fb
W SG H 2O
3
d
6
Example
W D Fb
W SG H 2O
3
d
6
FB H 2O
3
d
6
Example
W SG H 2O
W D Fb
Assume
CD
24
Re
3
d
6
FB H 2O
3
d
6
Example
W SG H 2O
W D Fb
Assume
Then
CD
3
d
6
FB H 2O
3
d
6
24
Re
1
1
24
2
2
2
2
D H2OU
d CD H2OU
d
2
4
2
4 H2OU d H 2O
Example
W SG H 2O
W D Fb
Assume
Then
or
CD
3
d
6
FB H 2O
3
d
6
24
Re
1
1
24
2
2
2
2
D H2OU
d CD H2OU
d
2
4
2
4 H2OU d H 2O
D 3H2OUd
- Stokes law
Example
W SG H 2O
W D Fb
Assume
Then
or
CD
3
d
6
FB H 2O
3
d
6
24
Re
1
1
24
2
2
2
2
D H2OU
d CD H2OU
d
2
4
2
4 H2OU d H 2O
D 3H2OUd
U 6.32 103 m/s
- Stokes law
Re 0.564

Case 2. Moderate and large Reynolds number flows
Flow past a circular cylinder can take on a variety of different structures
Drag coefficient may change considerably when the boundary layer becomes turbulent
Karman vortex street Flow past cylinder
Oscillating sign
Flow past an ellipse
Flow past a flat plate
Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds

number for objects with various degrees of streamlining
Flat plate
Compressibility Effects
For large U, compressibility effects become important and CD = (Re, Ma)
Precise dependence of CD on Re and Ma is complex.
Drag coefficient is usually independent of Mach number for Ma < 0.5. For
larger Mach number, CD strongly depend on Ma, with secondary Reynolds
number effects. Figure
For most objects CD increases intensely in the vicinity of Ma = 1 due to

existence of shock waves. Character of CD is different for blunt and sharp
bodies Figure
Surface Roughness
Depending on the body shape, an increase in surface roughness may

increase or decrease drag
For streamline bodies (flat plate parallel to flow) drag increases with
increasing surface roughness
For extremely blunt body (flat plate normal to flow) drag is independent of
surface roughness
For blunt bodies like a circular cylinder or sphere, an increase in surface

roughness can cause a decrease in the drag Figure
Froude Number Effects
Froude number is the ratio of free-stream speed to wave speed on the

interface of two fluids.
Object moving on the surface produces waves that require the source of
energy.
Drag coefficient for surface ships is a function of Reynolds number (viscous

effects) and Froude number (wave-making effects)
Viscous and wave effect can be separated
Wave-making drag Dw is a complex function of the Froude number and the

body shape Figure
Composite Body Drag
Drag on a complex body can be approximated as the sum of the drag on its
parts Example
Aerodynamic drag on automobiles provides one more example of the use of

composite bodies Drag on a truck Figure Automobile streamlining
Drag coefficient information is available in the literature Figures
How to reduce the drag?
Example
A high-speed car with m = 2000 kg, CD = 0.3, and A = 1 m2 deploys a 2-m parachute to slow
down from an initial velocity of 100 m/s. Assuming constant CD, brakes free, and no rolling
resistance, calculate the distance and velocity of the car after 1, 10, 100, and 1000 s. For air
assume = 1.2 kg/m3, and neglect interference between the wake of the car and the
parachute.
notes
Example
parachute.
dV
1
Fc Fp V 2 CDc Ac CDp Ap
dt
2
dV
K
Rearrange
V2
where
K CD A
dt
m
2
V dV
K t
K
1
1
Separate variables and integrate
dt
or
V
t
0
V0 V 2
m 0
m
CDc Ac CDp Ap
V0
Rearrange and solve for V
V
K
(1)
1 K m V0t
2
notes
Apply Newton's law
Fx m
Example
parachute.
V0
ln 1 t
1.2
K
V0
m
Integrate (1) to find distance traveled
From table
CDp
Hence
CDc Ac CDp Ap 0.3 1 m 2 1.2
Then
K
V 0.122 s -1
m
(2)
2 m 2 4.07 m 2
4
notes
Example
parachute.
t, s
10
100
1000
V, m/s
89
45
7.6
0.8
S, m
94
654
2110
3940
notes
Lift
Lift
How lift is generated?
Do we need lift?
Lift coefficient
CL
L
1
U 2 A
2
CL = (shape, Re, Ma, Fr, /l)
Body shape is the most important parameter that effects the lift coefficient
For large Re most of the lift comes from pressure forces

notes
Lift
Pressure distribution on a surface of an automobile
Lift
For creeping flows (Re<1) shear stress and pressure effects may be
comparable
Airfoils produce lift by generating pressure distribution that is different on the

top and bottom surfaces
For large Re pressure distributions are directly proportional to the dynamic

pressure, hence lift is proportional to square of the air speed
Airfoil
Airfoil
angle of attack
chord length
A = bc
planform area
= b2/A
aspect ratio
= b/c
if c is constant
Lift and drag coefficients for wings are functions of the angle of attack and aspect ratio Figure
At large angles of attack the boundary layer separates and the wing stalls Figures video
Flaps alter the lift and drag characteristics of a wing Figure video video2
video
Circulation
Wind tip vortices
Circulation
Circulation
Circulation
Now its end of topic
Forces and moments on a body immersed in a uniform flow
back
w 0.332 U 3
Typical characteristics of
boundary layer thickness and
wall shear stress for laminar
and turbulent boundary layers
back
Navier-Stokes equations
2u 2u 2u
u
u
u
u
p
u
v w gx
2 2
2
x
y
z
2 v 2 v 2 v
v
v
v
v
p
u v w gy
2 2
2
x
y
z
y
z
t
x y
2 w 2 w 2 w
w
w
w
w
p
u
v
w gz
2 2
2
x
y
z
back

for a flat plate parallel to
the upstream flow
back
back
Drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number

for a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere
back to ex 1
Re s 2.24 107
CDs 0.3
Rec 8.41 106
C Dc 0.7
back to ex 2
Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for twodimensional objects in subsonic flow
back
Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for supersonic flow
back
Surface Roughness
Effect of surface roughness on the drag coefficient of a sphere in the Reynolds

number range for which the laminar boundary layer becomes turbulent
back
Froude Number Effects
Typical drag coefficient data as a function of Froude number and hull

characteristics for that portion of the drag due to the generation of waves
back
Composite Body Drag

Example: A 60-mph (i.e. 88-fps) wind blows past the water tower shown in Fig. a. Estimate the moment, M,
needed at the base to keep the tower from tipping over.
Solution: Free-body diagram is shown in Fig. b
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Ds
U 2 Ds2CDs
2
4
Dc
1
U 2bDcC Dc
2
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Ds
U 2 Ds2CDs
2
4
Re s
UDs
2.24 107
Dc
1
U 2bDcC Dc
2
Rec
UDc
8.41106
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Ds
U 2 Ds2CDs
2
4
Re s
UDs
2.24 107
From Figure 9.21
Dc
1
U 2bDcC Dc
2
Rec
UDc
8.41106
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Ds
U 2 Ds2CDs
2
4
Re s
UDs
2.24 107
From Figure 9.21
CDs 0.3
and
CDc 0.7
Dc
1
U 2bDc CDc
2
Rec
UDc
8.41106
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Ds
U 2 Ds2CDs
2
4
Re s
UDs
2.24 107
Dc
Rec
From Figure 9.21
CDs 0.3
Ds 3470 lb
and
1
U 2bDc CDc
2
CDc 0.7
Dc 4840lb
UDc
8.41106
Composite Body Drag

M Ds b s Dc
2
Ds
U 2 Ds2CDs
2
4
Re s
UDs
2.24 107
Dc
1
U 2bDc CDc
2
Rec
UDc
8.41106
From Figure 9.21
CDs 0.3
Ds 3470 lb
Answer:
and
CDc 0.7
Dc 4840lb
M 3.64 105 ftlb 493.52 kNm
Example: (cntd.)
Comments: Above result is only an estimate because

(a) wind is not uniform
(b) tower is not exactly combination of smooth sphere and circular cylinder
(c) cylinder is not of infinite length
(d) due to interaction of cylinder and sphere the net drag is not the sum of the two
(e) drag coefficient was obtained by extrapolation
back
Composite Body Drag
Historical trend of streamlining automobiles to reduce their

aerodynamic drag and increase their fuel economy
back
Composite Body Drag
Drag reduction of a tractor-trailer truck: (a) horsepower required to overcome resistance;

(b) deflector added to cab reduces air drag by 20 percent.
back
Composite Body Drag

Regular two-dimensional objects
Composite Body Drag

Regular Three-dimensional objects
Composite Body Drag

Other objects
back
Typical lift and drag coefficient

data as a function of angle of attack
and the aspect ratio of the airfoil
next
back
Flow visualization photographs of flow past an airfoil:

(a) zero angle of attack, no separation,
(b)
5 angle of attack, flow separation
next
Two representation of the same lift and drag data for a typical airfoil:
(a) lift-to-drag ratio as a function of angle of attack,
(b) the lift and drag polar diagram
back
Typical lift and drag alterations

possible with the use of various
types of flap design
back

Assume (guess) velocity profile in the boundary layer
u u U, y
u
U
Obtain equation for from
Calculate shear stress from
w U 2
Calculate drag from
u
1
dy
U
d
dx
D bU 2
Even crude guess at the velocity profile gives reasonable drag and shear stress
Example
The water ski shown in figure moves through 70 F water with a velocity U.
Estimate the drag caused by the shear stress on the bottom of the ski for 0 < U < 30
ft/s
Solution
Assumptions: Ski is a flat plate parallel to the upstream flow
1
U 2blCDf 1.94U 2CDf
2
Ul
Re x
3.8 105 U
Df
For U 10 ft/s Rel =3.8 106
For U 30 ft/s
Df 0.598 lb
Df 9.76 lb
Total drag is more than just friction drag.

Pressure drag must be accounted for.
Momentum-Integral Boundary Layer Equation

with Nonzero Pressure Gradient
Pressure gradient effects can be included in the momentum integral equation

Free-stream velocity is not constant along the curved body
U fs U
U fs U fs x
Total pressure is constant along the streamlines outside the boundary layer
p U 2fs 2 const
Pressure gradient
dU fs
dp
U fs
dx
dx
Momentum integral equation with pressure gradient:
dU fs
d
2
*
U
U
fs
fs
dx
dx
This equation represents a balance between viscous forces, pressure forces and the fluid
momentum

Then boundary layer results with this general velocity profile are
2 C2 C1
x
Re x
and
C1C2 3 2
U
2
x
where
1
C1 g Y 1 g Y dY
0
C2
dg
dY
Re x
Y 0
Ux
For any assumed profile the functional dependence of and w on , , U and x is

the same, only constants are different. That is
x U
or
Re x x const
and
w :
U 3 x
Friction Drag
Friction drag on a flat plate parallel to the flow can be calculated from
Df w i dA
or from
Df
1
U 2blCDf
2
Where friction drag coefficient can be obtained from Figure or Table
Wall shear stress along the surface of a curved body is difficult to determine.
Approximate results may be obtained.
If shear stress is known, friction drag can be determined
Example

y
and u = U for
d
dx
(1)
Example

y
and u = U for
on the other hand
d
dx
(1)
(2)
Example

y
and u = U for
on the other hand
Momentum thickness
0 U
d
dx
(1)
(2)
dy
(3)
U
6
Example

y
and u = U for
on the other hand
Momentum thickness
From (1), (2) and (3)
0 U
d
dx
U U 2 d
6 dx
(1)
(2)
dy
(3)
U
6
6
or d
dx
U
Example

y
and u = U for
U
0 U
d
dx
(1)
on the other hand
(2)
dy
(3)
U
6
U U 2 d
6
From (1), (2) and (3)
or d
dx
6 dx
U
Momentum thickness
2 6
x
2 U
or
3.46
x
U
(4)
Example

y
and u = U for
U
0 U
d
dx
(1)
on the other hand
(2)
dy
(3)
U
6
U U 2 d
6
From (1), (2) and (3)
or d
dx
6 dx
U
Momentum thickness
2 6
x
2 U
Combining (1), (3) and (4), wall shear stress
Blasuis value
w 0.332U 3 2
w 0.289U 3 2
or
3.46
x
U
x
back
(4)
Example 9.6 Consider turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid past a flat plate.
the boundary layer velocity profile is assumed to be u/U = (y/)1/7 = Y1/7 for
Y = y/ 1 and u = U for Y > 1. This is a reasonable approximation of
experimentally observed profiles, except very near the plate where this formula
gives u/y = at y = 0. Note the differences between the assumed turbulent
profile and the laminar profile. Also assume that the shear stress agrees with the
experimentally determined formula:

w 0.225U 2
14
Determine the boundary layer thicknesses ,

*, and and the wall shear stress, w, as the
function of x. Determine the friction drag
coefficient, CDf
Solution Momentum integral equation

14
2 d

U
w 0.225 U
w
dx
U
For assumed velocity profile, boundary layer momentum thickness
2
u
Y1 7
U
u
U
1 u
u
u
1
dy
dY
0 U
U
U
or by integration
7
0
72
Boundary layer thickness is obtained from differential equation
1
Y 1 7 1 Y 1 7 dY

0.225 U 2
14
7
d
U 2
72
dx

1 4 d 0.231
U
14
15
By integration from 0 at x 0:
or in dimensionless form
dx

0.370 x 4 5
U
0.370
x Re1x 5
Displacement thickness
1
u
1
u
* 1 dy 1 dY 1 Y 1 7 dY
0
0
U
8
0
U

* 0.0463
U
15
x4 5
Momentum thickness
7

0.0360
72
U
15
x4 5
Wall shear stress
w 0.0225 U
14
U 0.370 U
15
x
45
0.228 U 2
Re1x 5
Friction drag
l
Df b w dx 0.0360 U 2
0
bl
Re1l 5

Df
Df
1
U 2 A
2
0.0720
Re1l 5
back
Momentum Integral Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient
dU fs
d
U 2fs *U fs
dx
dx
Notes
Thats all
But
For those who wants to know more

CH 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies

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Flow Over Immersed Bodies

General External Flow

Flow Over Immersed Bodies

General External Flow Characteristics

Flow past objects is termed external flow

Theoretical, numerical and experimental approaches are used to

Well consider characteristics of external flows and learn how to

Coordinate system fixed to the object is used to study external flows

Shape of the body affects the flow characteristics

Flow Structure vs. Body Shape

streamlined bodies, blunt bodies

Lift and Drag Concepts

resultant force: drag and lift

Lift and Drag Concepts

Lift and Drag Concepts

Lift and Drag Concepts

Lift and Drag Coefficients

A is ether frontal or planform area

Characteristics of Flow Past an Object

a) low Reynolds number

a) low Reynolds number

Streamlined and Blunt Bodies

Boundary Layer Characteristics

Consider infinitely long flat plate. Define Reynolds number.

Fluid particles within boundary layer experience viscous effects

Flow is rotational within boundary layer and irrotational outside

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at Rexcr ~ 2x105 to 3x106

Distinguishing feature of turbulent flow is the occurrence of irregular mixing of fluid

Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate (video)

Three boundary layer thickness definitions are used in boundary

Boundary Layer Thickness on a Flat Plate

Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness

Boundary Layer Displacement Thickness

Displacement thickness represents the amount that the thickness of the

It represents the outward displacement of the streamlines caused by the

Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness

Boundary Layer Momentum Thickness

Boundary Layer Characteristics

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Equations governing steady, two-dimensional, laminar flows with negligible

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Equations governing steady, two-dimensional laminar flows with negligible

L. Prandtl simplified these equations using boundary layer concepts

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

2. Pressure is constant throughout the fluid

With these assumptions governing equations

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

By introducing dimensionless similarity variable

Substituting u and v into governing equations after manipulations gives

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Boundary layer profiles in

Similar boundary layer

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution

u U 0.99 when 5.0 .