I

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 1

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. DIFFERENT MODELS OF THE ATOM 1
3. ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS 3
4. A TOMS AND MOLECULES 4
5. THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 4

Chapter 2 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION 13

1. INTRODUCTION 13
2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 13
3. WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY 21
4. THE QUANTUM THEORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION 21
5. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 22
6. VISIBLE LIGHT 24
APPENDIX 29

Chapter 3 THE PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS 33

1. INTRODUCTION 33
2. THE PROPRTIES OF X-RAYS 33
3. THE PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS 34
4. THE QUALITY AND INTENSITY OF X-RAYS 43
5. FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY BEAM QUALITY
AND QUANTITY 45

Chapter 4 THE INTERACTION OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

WITH MATTER 53
1. POSSIBLE INTERACTIONS 53
2. THE TRANSMISSION OF A HOMOGENEOUS BEAM
THROUGH A MEDIUM 54
3. ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING PROCESSES 58
4. THE TRANSMISSION OF A HETEROGENEOUS BEAM
THROUGH A MEDIUM 72
5. FILTRATION 73
6. THE TRANSMISSION OF A BEAM THROUGH BODY
TISSUES 76
 II

Chapter 5 X-RAY AND GAMMA RAY 1VIEASUREMENTS 79

1. THE BASIS OF THE MEASUREMENTS 79

2. EXPOSURE 79
3. ABSORBED DOSE 84
4. HALF VALUE LA YER (THICKNESS) 89
5. OTHER METHODS OF MEASUREMENT 90

Chapter 6 RADIOACTIVITY 97
1. INTRODUCTION 97
2. THE DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY 97
3. NATURAL RADIOACTIVE DECAY SERIES 99
4. NUCLEAR FORCES AND BINDING ENERGY 101
5. TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES 104
6. BRANCHING DECAY SCHEMES 111
7. RADIOACTIVE DECAY 111
8. ARTIFICIAL OR INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY 115

000000000
 I

CHAPTERl

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. INTRODUCTION

Fundamental laws such as the law of conservation of matter (Matter is neither created
nor destroyed, but may change in chemicalform) and the law of conservation of energy
(T11e total amount ofenergy in a system is constant) are well known. The law of
conservation of momentum (The total linear or rotational momentum in a given system is
constant) is also one of the conservation laws. The study of mechanics is strongly based
on Newton's laws of motion. These are all classical laws of physics and as the nineteenth
century drew to a close, man's physical understanding of the world appeared to rest on
these firm foundations. Classical mechanics was then over 200 years old, and experience
showed that it worked well. Man's insight into the nature of space, time, matter, and
energy seemed to be fundamentally correct. While much exciting research continued, the
basic laws of the universe were considered to be known. Not many voices forecasted the
complete change in physics that would transform man's perception of the universe into
something undreamed of as the twentieth century began to unfold.

The totally unexpected discovery of X-rays by Roentgen on the 8th November 1895 in
Wuerzberg, Germany, is a convenient point to regard as marking the beginning of the
story of ionid,ng radiation in modern physics. To study this modem physics, some very
important aspects must be introduced to explain many of the phenomena discussed. We
will start with the structure of the atom, as the atom is the smallest building block of
matter.

2. DIFFERENT MODELS OF THE ATOM

Greek Atom

The first recorded reference to the atom

comes from the Greeks around 200 BC.
They thought all matter consisted of four
substances - earth, water, air, and fire.
They thought that all mater could be
desctibed as combinations of these four
basic substances in various prop01tions.
These substances were modified by four
basic essences - wet, dry, hot, and cold.
(Fig. 1.1 (a))

Symbolk: repr&ser.tation of the sub·

sten.ces and essances cf matter as viewed by
the ancient Greeks.

Fig. 1.1 (a)

 2

For the Greeks, the term atom (meaning indivisible) described the smallest part of the
four basic substances. Each one of the "atoms" was represented by a specific symbol.
(Fig. 1.2.A (a))

A MED ltVAL ATOM B OAlTON'S ATOM C THOMSON'S ATOM D BOHR'S ATOM

Through the years the atom has been represented by many symbols.
A, The Greeks envisioned four different atoms, representing afr, fire, earth, and wa-
ter. These symbols were adopted by medieval alchemists. a. Dalton's atoms had
hooks and eyes to account for chemical combination. C, Thomson's model of the
atom has been described as a plum pudding, with the plums representing electrons.
D, The Bohr atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by
electrons in precise energy levels.

Fig. 1.2 (a)

Dalton Atom

The Greek representation of the atom persisted for many years. It was not until the
nineteenth century that the foundation for the modem atomic theory was laid. In 1808, an
English schoolteacher, John Dalton, published a book in which he showed that different
elements could be classified according to integral values of atomic mass. According to
Dalton, an element was composed of identical atoms, each reacting in the same way in a
chemical reaction. Although they all looked alike, they reacted alike, and they were
constructed alike, they were very different from atoms of any other element. The physical
combination of one type of atom with another was interpreted as being a hook-and eye
configuration (Fig. 1.2.B (a~- Each element had a different size and also a different
number of hooks.

It was about 50 years after Dalton's publication, that Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian
scholar, showed that if the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic mass,
repetition of similar chemical properties occurred. About 65 elements had been identified
by then. This work lead to the first periodic table of elements. Although there were still
many openings in the table, the lmown elements could be placed in one of eight groups.
All the elements in the same group react chemically in a similar way and also have
similar physical properties.
 3

Thomson Atom

After Mendeleev published his periodic table, more elements were identified and the gaps
in the periodic table 8tarted filling up. Knowledge of the structure of the atoms remained
sparse. It became apparent that there was an electrical nature to the atomic structure of
matter.

In the late l 890's, while investigating the properties of cathode rays, J.J. Thompson
found that elect1·ons were an integral part of all atoms. He described the atom as looking
something like a plum pudding, where the plum represented negative electric charge and
the pudding was a shapeless mass of uniform positive electtification. (Fig. 1.2.C (a)) The
number of electrons equaled the quantity of positive electrification to ensure that the
atom was neutrally charged.

Ernest Rutherford, in 1911, after a series of experiments, disproved Thompson's model

of the atom. He introduced the nuclear model, which described the atom as containing a
small, dense, positively charged center surrounded by a negative cloud of electrons. He
called the center of the atom the nucleus.

Bohr Atom

Niels Bohr, in 1913, extended Rutherford's description of the atom. This provides a
simple picture of the atom as an electrical structure having three basic units, the proton,
the neutron, and the electron, and it is adequate for the discussion of most phenomena in
radiological physics. Bohr's model was like a miniature solar system in which the
electrons revolved about the nucleus - containing the protons and neutrons - in
prescribed orbits or energy levels. (Fig. 1.2.D (a)) This model will be discussed in more
detail later.

3. ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

All matter is made up of chemical substances, which can be divided, into two basic kinds,
elements and compounds.
Elements: An element is a distinct kind of matter, which cannot be decomposed
into two or more simpler kinds of matter.

Compounds: A compound is formed when two or more elements combine

together chemically to produce a more complex kind of matter.

For example, hydrogen and oxygen, are both elements; and neither of them can be
decomposed into simpler kinds of matter. They can combine together to make a complex
kind of matter, namely water, which is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.

We may also find matter composed of a mixture of elements or compounds. Air is a

mixture of mainly nitrogen and oxygen, but they are not combined chemically to form a
compound.
 4

4. ATOMS AND MOLECULES

From what we have learned so far it follows that an element is the simplest form in which
matter exists. If we have a sample of an element, e.g. a strip oflead, and cut it into two,
the resulting pieces will still be made of lead, the same element. If we go on doing this
repeatedly so that the samples get smaller and smaJler we will eventually reach the stage
where it would be impossible to cut the samples into smaller pieces. We would have
reached the smallest particle of the element, which can exist and still retain all the
properties of the element. This particle is known as an atom.
Atoms: Atoms are the smallest particles ofan element that can exist without
losing the chemical properties of the element.

If we cut up a sample of a compound rather than an element we will eventually reach a

stage where to cut any further would separate the compound into the individual elements
of which it is made.
lVIolecules: Molecules are the smallest particles ofa compound that can exist
without losing the chemical properties of the compound
A molecule comprises a number of atoms linked together, e.g. a molecule of water is
formed when two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (0) atom combines together
(H20). This is a very simple molecule, but some molecules such as the proteins found in
living organisms are highly complex and may contain many thousands of atoms.

We will now examine the way in which atoms am made in more detail to understand the
behaviour of matter.

5. THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

We shall use Bohr>s model or concept as the basis of our explanation of the construction
of an atom. He thought of the atom as being essentially electrical in nature and consisting
of minute particles - the so-called fundamental or elementary particles held together by
electric forces.

At the centre of an atom is the nucleus, about one ten thousandth of the diameter of the
atom. Circulating
around the nucleus at . Orbital electron
varying distances
(like planets around
the sun) are even
smaller particles, the
""~ ~Nucleus
electrons. The
nucleus carries a
positive electric
charge and the
electrons posses a Path of electron
negative electric
charge. The electric
force of attraction An atom of hydrogen.
between the positive
 5

nucleus and the negative electrons prevents the smaller particles from escaping. The
elliptical paths taken by the electrons around the nucleus are called orbits or shells,
representing "layers" at different distances from the nucleus.

The simplest atom is one of the element hydrogen. This consists of a central nucleus
comprising one proton around ,.,.,s:--
:-,.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------.
which one electron orbits.
(Fig. 1.3 Cb)) The atoms of all
the other elements have more
than one electron circulating
71,0\
Orbitat

around the nucleus.

For example, an atom of the

element carbon has six
electrons orbiting around its
nucleus, at various distances
from it. (Fig 1.4 Cb))

In general, the nucleus is not

a single particle, but consists
of two types of particle
packed together. They are
protons which each carry a
positive charge equal and
opposite to the charge of an
electron(= 1,6 x 10-19 C), and An atom of carbon.
neutrons which are neutral,
having no electrical charge.
Fig. 1.4Cb)

One would expect the protons to fly apart if they are packed together in the nucleus
because of the electric forces between them. (Like charges repel each other.) It was also
found that the number of neutrons present are crucial in overcoming this tendency. What
kind of binding force do the neutrons provide? One possible attraction force is gravity;
however, it has been found that although the distances between nuclear particles are very
small, their masses are insufficient for gravitational attraction to play a significant role in
holding the nucleus together. A new kind of force had to be conceived to explain why,
despite the presence of strong electrical forces of repulsion, nuclei are able to remain
intact. This force is known as the strong nuclear force. It provides a strong attraction
between all the particles inside the nucleus.

Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. Protons and neutrons have
about the same mass, whereas an electron is 1840 times lighter (proton mass =
1,66 x 10-27 kg; electron mass= 9,11 x 10-31 kg).
 6

Symbol Electric charge Mass Found in

(atomic units)f (atomic mass
units)'"

I
Proton p +1 I 1,00728 Nucleus
I Neutron n 11
I 0 I 1,00867 Nucleus
Electron e -1 ){840 Orbits
.. - 1,602 x 10
Tue d:iarge on the proton 1s numencally equal (butopposrt.e m sign) to that of an electron (- ·19
C.
"'The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as 1/12 ofthe mass of the most abundant isotope of carbon and is equal to 1,66 x 10·21 kg.

5.1 Atomic Number

The number and arrangement of orbital electrons around the nucleus determine the
chemical behaviour of atoms. This, in turn, depends on the number of protons in the
nucleus (which is equal to the number of electrons). This number is called the atomic
number (Z-number).
Atomic number: The atomic number ofan element is the number ofprotons in
the nucleus (which is equal to the number of electrons around the m1cleus) ofan
atom of that element.
The chemical behaviour of an atom thus is determined by its atomic number. Each
element has a different atomic number and therefore each element also has a different
group of chemical prope1ties. A complete sequence of elements is lmown to man, having
atomic numbers ranging from one to well over a hundred. The elements with atomic
numbers above 92 do not occur naturally but are manufactured artificially.

5.2 Mass Number

The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom can vary without altering the chemical
properties of the atom. The mass of the atom will change when the number of neutrons :
varies. The number of protons plus neutrons is called the mass number (A).
Mass number: The mass number ~fan atom is the total number ofprotons and
neutrons in the nucleus.

Protons and neutrons are known collectively as nucleons because they are found in the
nucleus. Specific arrangements of the nucleons in a nucleus·are called nuclides.
Nuclide: A nuclide is a particular variety ofatom characterized by a given atomic
number and a given mass number.

There is a convenient notation for writing down the numbers of pa1ticles in the nucleus of
an atom, using the chemical symbol and two prefixes, e.g. : X represents the element
"X" with a mass number of A and an atomic number of Z.

5.3 Isotopes

Although, by definition, all atoms of a single element have the same atomic number, they
do not necessarily all have the same mass number. For example, some atoms of hydrogen
have a mass number of two instead of one. These atoms of hydrogen are heavier than the
usual kind because they have a neutron in the nucleus and are called "heavy hydrogen" or
 7

deuterium. However, they combine with other chemicals in exactly the same way as
"normal» hydrogen.

Atoms such as these, having the same atomic number but different mass numbers are
called isotopes of an element.
Isotopes: Isotopes are nuclides that have the same number ofprotons but
dffferent numbers ofneutrons in their nuclei.

There are natural laws that relate the proportion of neutrons to protons in the nucleus of
an atom. Let us consider the element chlorine. Two isotopes of chlorine, ;; Cl and iI Cl,
are both stable, but the nucleus of another isotope of chlorine, :;cz,
which have a
different proportion of neutrons to protons, is unstable and undergoes radioactive
disintegration. The last isotope is therefore a radioactive isotope or radioisotope of
chlorine. We can also refer to it as an unstable nuclide and then we call it a 1·adionuclide.
Radioactivity will be discussed in detail later.

5 .4 Electron Shells

· We have been concentrating on the features of the nucleus of an atom but, it is the
number and arrangement of electrons orbiting around the nucleus that detennine how an
atom will form links with other atoms.

Electrons move in shells around the nucleus, specific distances from it. These distances
are governed by natural laws. The different shells represent different energy states or
levels of potential energy, just as different heights above the ground represent different
levels of gravitational potential energy. The further above the ground we go, the greater
the potential energy we store. In a similar way, the further an electron shell is from the
nucleus, the greater is the potential energy of the electrons in that shell. However, in an
atom, only certain specified energy levels, known as orbitals, are allowed; electrons can
not exist between these levels. This is analogous to that of cars in a multi-storey car park;
cars cannot be parked between floors, and electrons cannot be "parked" between shells.

Electron shells are identified by letters: the K shell is the level closest to the nucleus, the
next one is the L shell, then the 1\1 shell, the N shell, etc. As in a car park, each shell can
be filled by a limited number of electrons. The inner shells are always occupied first. For
example: 2 electrons in the K shell; 8 electrons in the L shell; 18 electrons in the M shell;
etc.

Note: (i) The outermost shell of an atom cannot except more than eight electrons.
(ii) The maximum electron capacity of the n111 shell can be determined by the
formula: Electron capacity= 2n2, were n refers to the number of the shell, i.e.
K = 1; L = 2; M = 3; etc.

The number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom largely governs the chemical
properties ofthe atom. In going through the elements of the periodic table, there is a
 8

repetitive pattern in the way in which the outer electrons are arranged in their atoms and
consequently there is a repetition of the chemical properties - hence the name, periodic
table. For example, in helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon, the outermost shell has a
full complement of electrons in each case and the chemical properties of these elements
are similar - they are all chemically inert gases.

5.5 Electron energy states

Each electron shell represents a different electron energy level or state. In many
instances, it is more convenient to view the electron configuration of atoms (and
molecules) from an energy-state perspective rather than picturing the physical location
of electrons orbiting at different distances from th~ atomic nucleus.

It has been found that no two electrons in an atom can occupy exactly the same energy
state at the same time, each electron must occupy a different energy state. This is known
as the Pauli exclusioJl principle. A consequence of this exclusion principle is that each
electron shell (K, L, M, N, etc.) must represent a cluster of slightly different energy states ·
rather than a single energy state. This means that the K shell embraces two different
electron energy states; the L shell, eight states; the M shell, eighteen states, and so on.

The possible energy states of electrons in an atom are specified by four precise values.
These are called the quantum numbers, each of which defines a different aspect of an
electron's condition. They are known as follows:
• The principle quantum numbe1· (n) defines the main energy state, or shell, of an
orbiting electron. For the K shell, n = I; for the L shell, n = 2; for the M shell, n = 3;
etc.
• The azimuthal quantum number (I) describes the angular momentum of the
orbiting electron. This can have values 0, 1, 2, 3, ..... etc., up to a maximum value of
n - 1. Thus for the M shell (n = 3), l can have only three possible values: 0, 1, or 2.
• The magnetic quantum number (m) describes the spatial orientation of the plane of
the orbiting electron; m can have whole number values ranging from - l through zero
to+ l. Thus for the M shell: when l = 0, mis O; when l = 1, m can be - 1, 0, or+ I;
and when/= 2, m can be - 2, - 1, 0, + 1, + 2 giving a total of nine possible energy
states.
• The spin quantum number (ms) describes the direction of spin of the electron. The
spin of an electron can be in one of two directions, known as spin up and spin down,
and ms can only have two values: + 1h or - 'h. For the M shell, each of the nine states
referred to above can have one or the other of these two spin states, giving 18
different electron energy states altogether.

The energy levels in an atom can be represented as a series of horizontal lines forming
what is known as an energy level diagram. (Fig. 1.5 (b)) Each line represents a different
energy level characterized by its principal quantum number (n) or by the different shells,
e.g. K, L, M, etc. The lowest level has n = I, the next n = 2, etc. The energy of the level
where n = oo is zero. This is the baseline or reference level from which all the other
energy levels are measured. If an electron is raised to this level it becomes free of the
atom.
 9

Two fu1ther conventions are adopted:

11
Electron energy levels are expressed in electronvolt (eV) and not in the S.I. unit of
energy, the joule.
Electronvolt: One electronvolt is the energy ·· given to or the work done
on an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
(Note: I eV = 1,6 x 10-19 J)
111 Electron energy levels have negative values. Because energy levels are levels of
potential energy, which is a quantity relative to some reference level. In this case the
baseline or reference level is at zero and an the other levels are below this level, i.e.
they are negative.
Fig. 1.sCb>

z.em_ . ·-n'-=ro
- 0.38--------n = S
- 0.54 - - !'1 = 5
-0.85· n::.: 4

-1.51--------n=:3
t
- 3.39 - - - - - - - - - n " ' 2

Energy Pdncipat
ineV quantum
numberT n

- 13.6 ----·----rl"' 1

Electron energy levels in a hydrogen aton1.

Figure 1.5 shows the energy level diagram for a hydrogen atom. Hydrogen has only one
electron that nonnally occupies the lowest energy level, n = 1, which is known as the K
shell. When an atom of hydrogen is in this condition, we say that it is in the ground
state.

5.6 Excitation

If an atom that is in its ground state absorbs energy, e.g. by absorbing electromagnetic
radiation, one of its electrons may be lifted to an energy level higher up. This is the same
as thinking that the electron is moved to a shell that is further from the nucleus. This atom
is now in the excited state and it will be unstable. However, the atom can return to the
 10

ground state when the electron "falls" back to its original energy level. In this process it
will release the energy that was originally absorbed in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. The atom does not remain in the excited state for long.

5.7 Ionisation

An electron can absorb sufficient energy so that the electron may be raised to the level
where n = oo, and therefore may be freed completely from the atom. This will ionise the
atom; i.e. an electron will be completely removed from the atom. The remaining atom
will be deficient of negative charge because of the lost electron. It will not be neutral but
have an excess of positive charge, i.e. a positive ion, and the electron will be a free
negative ion. The ionisation thus causes the formation of an ion pair.

Referring to Fig. 1.5, it can be seen that the minimum energy necessary to ionise a
hydrogen atom which is in the ground state, is 13,6 eV. Different forms of
electromagnetic radiation, such as gamma radiation and X-rays, have enough energy and
are capable of ionising atoms. This type of radiation is known as ionising radiation.

5.8 The characteristic nature of electron ene1·gy levels

Consider the hydrogen atom that has the simplest configuration. All atoms of hydrogen
have exactly the same set of pennitted energy levels. In fact, all the atoms of any given
element have exactly the same set of energy levels (e.g. each atom of tungsten has the
same set of energy levels as every other atom of tungsten; each atom of copper has the
same set of energy levels as every other atom of copper; and so on). No two different
elements have the same set of energy levels, that is, each element has its own
characte1·istic set of energy levels. It is thus possible to characterize different atoms by
their configuration of energy levels (almost like a fingerprint).

5.9 Binding energy of the electron shells

In the previous sections, we discussed the potential energy of the electrons in the
different electron energy levels. We also saw that we need a minimum amount of energy
to completely remove an electron from its specific shell in an atom, i.e. to ionise the
atom. For example, we need at least 13 ,6 eV to remove an electron from the K shell of a
hydrogen atom. (Fig. 1.5 (b) Another way of referring to this minimum energy is the
binding energy of the electron. The electron binding energy of a shell is the amount of
work that must be done to remove an electron from that shell (nonnally stated in eV or
keV).

Let us now consider the different shells rather than the different energy levels. Because
the various electron shells are positioned at different distances from the atomic nucleus,
the electrons occupying these shells, experience different forces of attraction from the
nucleus. The electrostatic force of attraction between an electron and the nucleus is a
Coulomb force that results from the negative charge on the electron and the positive
charge of the nucleus. (The Coulombic force that binds an electron to the atomic nucleus
 11

is proportional to the charge on each. This force also decreases with the square of the

distance between them, th.at is, an inverse square relationship. Remember: F = k Q1~ 2
)
r
The K shell is the closest to the nucleus and so experience the greatest force of attraction
from the nucleus. It is therefore most difficult to remove an electron from the K shell -
that is; the K shell has the highest electron binding energy. The L shell is further away
from the nucleus and so experience less force of attraction. It also experiences some
repulsion from the electrons in the K shell. For this reason the binding energy of the
electrons in the L shell is less than the binding energy of the K shell for a particular atom.
There is thus a reduction in the binding energy as we move from the shells close to the
nucleus to the ones further out within a particular atom.

Another factor that strongly influences the magnitude ofthe binding energy of an
electron in a specific shell is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. Thus, the
higher the atomic number (Z number) of an ato~ the higher the binding energy of an
electron in a specific shell. The binding energy of an electron in the K shell of a copper
atom (Z = 29) is 9,0 keV and that of an electron in the K shell of a tungsten atom (Z = 74)
is 69,51 keV. (See Fig. 1.6(c))

ELECTRONS SlNDlNG ENERGY ELECTRONS BINDING ENERGY

t -,,a~-»-·~s"'~-"".N~"""-"'~~...,.,,...,..,,. ~:&1•· 2.
~--~~ p,t-~~-....:;w~., ke.V
" ' '" ........ ' 0·02.
GI

0
M {H)7
18
8
~-~~--..._.--~-----
~ 32 0·59
18 M 2·8
K
8 - - - - - - - - - 11·0

COPPER TUNGSTEN
(Z = 19) (Z =--" 74)

The electron energy levels for copper and tungsten~

Fig. 1.6cc)
We can now see that the energy necessary to free an electron from an atom by lifting it
from a specific energy level to the reference level (n = oo) is similar to the binding energy
of the electron in that specific shell. It is thus possible to have electron energy levels in
terms of the binding energies of the different shells instead of the potential energies of
the different levels. Fig. I. 6Cc) shows the electron energy level diagrams for copper and
tungsten in terms of the binding energies of their different shells. Note that the binding
 12

energies are positive values compared to the negative values of the electron potential
energies.

(a) BUSHONG, Stewart C- "Radiologic Science for Technologists"

(b) BALL, John & MOORE, Adrian D - "Essential Physics for Radiographers"
(c) lv1ERED1TH, William J & MASSEY, J B - "Fundamental Physics ofRadiology"
 13

CHAPTER2

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we need to study the properties of electromagnetic radiation. The

electromagnetic spectrum encompasses a wide range of radiation types such as gamma
rays, X-rays, visible light, radio waves, etc. Once we have identified the contents of the
electromagnetic spectrum, we will consider some parts of this spectrum in more detail as
these are of particular relevance to radiography.

We can see the world around us because our eyes are sensitive to a section of the
electromagnetic spectrnm that we know as light. We can also feel the heat from the sun
because our skin responds to the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However,
we can accidentally walk through a beam of X-rays or we may handle an isotope which is
producing gamma radicaion but we cannot feel the presence of these radiations as none of
our sense organs are able do detect them. While there are important differences between
these examples of electromagnetic radiation, there are also similarities between them. For
example, they all:
• Travel through a vacuum
• Travel at the same speed (the speed of light)
• Result from changes in the motion of electric charges
• Obey the duality principle and so can ·either be considered as waves or as quanta with
energy and momentum.
We will start this chapter by looking at the wave-like properties of electromagnetic
radiation. ·

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

2.1 The origin of electromagnetic radiation

An electric charge (such as an electron or an atomic nucleus) is surrounded by an electric

field and therefore exerts an influence on other electric charges in the neighbourhood. If
the charge is stationary, the electric field at any given point is constant. If the charges
moves with uniform velocity (e.g. if there is a steady flow of electrons), a magnetic field
is also observed. When charges accelerate, i.e. they experience a change in their motion
(e.g. an increase or decrease in speed, or a change in direction), both the magnetic and the
electric fields vary and they do so in a very special way. This combined variation of
electric and magnetic fields results in the loss of energy by the decelerating charge. The
charge radiates energy in the form known as electromagnetic radiation or
electromagnetic waves. In fact, whenever an electrically charged particle undergoes a
deceleration, energy is radiated by the particle in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

2.2 A model for electromagnetic radiation

 14

We need to explzj.n ihe QehavioU.f of electromagnetic ra.di:;i:tion. For this we need a

Goncept:ual model which will help u~ t_o 1.mder$tancJ the behaviotir of ekc;tromagnet.ic
radiation. To do this, we are going to use two quite different, but complimentary models
to explain the range of observed behaviour of electromagnetic radiation. According to
which P-~rticµliµ- a.$p~Gt we wish to expla_in, we may mc,del electromagnetic radi~tion
either a$ a. contimJou~ w~.:v~ phenqmenon (w3:v~ t.h~Qry)_,_ or a~ a. ~tre(ijll of inclivicll!l'l-1
packets of energy (quantum theory).

2.3 Wave theory

The electromagnetic variation or disturbance created when charges accelerate (or

decelerate) can be visualised as continuous waves. A useful analogy that can be used is to
imagine ~ o~iect. flqa{ing qn a. lake with perfectly c~m water. Any movement of thi~
object produces a disturbance in the water that causes surface waves to be generated.
These surface waves carry the disturbance outwards and away from the source. Other
objects floating nearby would experience these surface waves and would be disturbed by
th~m. ~q the.y wqi.;tld ~l~Q ~t~tt (Q mQve.. Tq prqcJ:uG~ ihi$ ~ffoqt,. the ~l).rfi!.ce. wayes mt;tst
transfer energy to the nearby objects. Electromagnetic waves can also transfer energy in
the same way.

It is very impott~nt tq no.te. th~t th~ &u.rf~G~ qfth~ w~t~r mqve.s lJ.P. ~ncJ. cl,qwn,. but it. cJ.oes
not flow in the dir~'1tion of the wa,ve.. It may sometime.s give th~t impr~s$ion, for ~xa,mple
when we look at waves breaking on the seashore.

The s1.1rfa,Ge w~ve;s qn wate.r clJ)l be ill1,1s.trated in the form of sim.;i,sokl~l gr1;1,phs. Con~ider
the contour of the water surface "frozen" at an instant in time. (Fig. 2.1<a)) The vertical
axis shows the vertical displacement of the surface above and below its mean (i.e.
undisturbed) level. The horizontal axis represents the distance measured in the direction
of propagation of the surface waves. Both axes are scaled in units of distance.
Fig. 2.l<a)

Displacement of
surface {cm}
Wavelength {,-}

-8

A graph of displacement ag-.unst distance for surface waves on water. The diagrr..m
represents a frozen moment in time, a sort of 'snapshoe of the contours of the water surfuee. In the
example shown, the amplitude (a) of the wave is 6cm and its wavelength (A) is 40 cm.

We can identify three characteristics of waves from the graph:

 15

a The wavelength (A.) - the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent
waves.
• The amplitude of the wave - the maximum amount by which the surface is raised
above or depressed below the mean level.
• The general sinusoidal shape of the wave.

We can also represent the wave with a graph showing how the level of the water surface
at one particular point varies with time as it oscillates up and down. (Fig. 2.2<a)) The
vertical axis shows the displacement of the water surface from the mean level. The
horizontal axis refers to the time elapsed. The axes of the graph are scaled in different
units (distance and time).
Fig. 2.z<a)

Displacement of
surface (cm)
Period {T}
~1
I
Mean level - - - - l ' - - ' - ---'C->,..--'-- - ' 4 - - - L . - - L - - ' - - - T- - - ' - -- ' -- J.---"'-_;_-->
of surface 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3. Time {s}

-4
-6
-8

A graph of displacement against time for surface waves on water. The graph shows h.ow
the level of one particular point on the water surface varies with the passage of time. The sinusoidal
pattern indicates that the surface is _undergoing repeating cycle..<; CJf rising and fi•Jling. In the example
shown, the wave amplitude {a) is 6 cm, white the period (1) of the wave is 0.8 s. The wave frequency
(/) is 1/T= 1/0.8= 1.25 Hz (see Section 14.3.2.4). N.B. Although at first sight this graph appears
very similar to Fig. 14.2, the two graphs prov1de di:ffe:reot information about the wave motion
because their horizontal axes are fundamentally different. In order to interpret wave diagrams
correctly, we must .always take care to check whether the horizontal a.xis of the graph represents
distance or whether it represents time.

From this graph we can identify the following characteristics:

• The period (1)- the time taken for the surface to undergo one complete cycle.
• The amplitude - the maximum amount by which the surface is displaced from the
mean level (i.e. up or down).
• The shape of the wave is again sinusoidal.

2.4 Wave properties applied to electromagnetic radiation

For electromagnetic waves, we must first identify what is oscillating, i.e. what is
represented by the vertical axes of the graphs when they are used to indicate
electromagnetic waves. The quantity that varies with time is the electric - and magnetic
field strengths. Figure z.3(a) is a diagrammatic representation of an electromagnetic wave
. in three dimensions. The magnetic and electric fields are pe1pendicular to each other.
This is because an oscillating electric field always induce an oscillating magnetic field
 16

and an oscillating magnetic field always induce an oscillating electric field. This is
because of electromagnetic induction. We call this combination of mutually dependant
oscillating fields an electromagnetic wave. The oscillations of both fields (which are
mutually perpendicular) are at right angles to the direction of propagation of the
electromagnetic wave.
Fig. 2.3<a)

Magnetic f;eld
strength

Electric field
strength

Oscillations in
magnetic field

,,,)
1~) '

Distance

A diagrammatic 'snapshot in time' of electromagnetic waves. The diagram is an attempt

to show in three dimensions how the magnetic field strength and the electric field strength vary at
different distances, measured along the direction of travel of the wave. As with Figs and ~a
similar diagram could have been drawn to show how the field strengths at a fixed point vary with the
passage of time. The distance aris would then be replaced by a time axis. Note that t&l-ie decision to
show the magnetic field as vertical is a ·purely arbitrary one; any direction could have been selected.
However, whatever dire.ction is chosen for the magnetic field, the electric field and the direction of
travel are always mutually perpendicular to it.

Note: For simplicity, it is customary to only consider one of the two fields (i.e. either the
electric field or the magnetic field) which can then be represented in the same way as the
water wave. In this case the vertical axis will indicate either the electric field strength or
the magnetic field strength.

Let us now consider the properties of such an electromagnetic wave:

Amplitude: The amplitude ofan elect:romagn,etic wave at a parti.culcn· point in
space is the maximum electric (or magn,etic) field experienced at that point.

Wavelength ('.11): The wavelengt,h is the distance between corresponding points on

two successive waves.
 17

The wavelength of electromagnetic waves covers a tremendous range of values, from as

little as 10-16 m (for high-energy gamma rays) to over 104 m (for long wave radio
transmissions).

Period ( 1): The period qfan electromagnetic wave is the time taken for the
electromagnetic field to undergo one complete cycle ofoscillation.
The rate of oscillation for electromagnetic radiation is very rapid; giving a period whose
24 4
value varies from about 10- seconds (for high-energy gamma radiation) to l 0' seconds
(for long-wave radio).

Frequency (J or v): The frequency ofan electromagnetic wave is the number of

oscillations that passes a f zxed point per unit time.
Ifwe know the period (i.e. the time for one complete oscillation), we can determine the
frequency (Le. how many oscHlations occur in one unit of time). That is, the frequency of
a wave is given by:
I=]_
T
T has very low values for electromagnetic waves, that means that the frequency must be
very great, varying from about 104 cycles per second (Hz) (for long-wave radio) to
1024 Hz (for high-energy gamma rays).

Velocity (c): The velocity ofan electromagnetic wave is the distance traveled
forward per unit time.
AH electromagnetic waves travel at the same velocity in vacuum. The value of c,
commonly known as the velocity (or speed) of light, is 3 x 108 mis (299 792 459 mis to
be more precise).

Let us now look at the relationship between the velocity, wavelength and frequency of an
electromagnetic wave. If/is the frequency of a wave (i.e./waves will pass a given point
in unit time), and if each wave has a length 1, then the total length of/ waves will be
/ x :A.. This means that a collection of waves of total length fl-. will pass the given point per
unit time. The velocity of the wave (c) must therefore be given by:
c=/J..,
This relationship holds for all types of wave motion. This means that ifwe know the
wavelength of electromagnetic radiation we can calculate its frequency and if we Imow
the frequency we can calculate its wavelength.

Electromagnetic radiation conveys energy. We need to quantify this energy flow or

energy flux.
Intensity: The intensity ofelectromagnetic radiation is the rate ofenergy flow
(i.e. the amount of energy flowing per unit time) through unit a,rea, measured at
right angles to the direction ofpropagation.
The term energy fluence rate ('¥) is sometimes used instead of intensity. Fig. 2. 4<d) can be
used to illustrate this concept. It shows a parallel beam of radiation falling on an
imaginary flat surface placed perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The intensity
of the radiation is numerically equal to the quantity of energy falling in unit time through
2
a "window,, of unit area in this imaginary surface. The S.I. unit for intensity is W/m .

. ···---·------
 18

Fig. 2.4<a)

--:§>

I
---~ I ---:,!It,,
I
- - -- - Unit.,_ · _______ __
Energy--+ 1 m ar,a ENERGY.__. .
~

- - - - - - - - ---- .IC...----.---~
1 second

/)unit timeJ
--+

A diagram illustrating the concept of radia.tion intensity. The intensity of a beam of

radiation 1s the amount of energy flowing per Wlit time per unit area measured at right angles to the
direction of the beam. In SI units, intensity is expressed in watts per square metre {W m-2).

2.5 The inverse-square law of radiation

Electromagnetic waves travel in straight lines, we say they exhibit rectilinear

propagation. They may deviate when crossing an interface between two different media;
for example, light is refracted (bent) when it passes from air to glass (as in an optical
lens). Because of the high energies of X-rays and gamma rays, refraction is not apparent
with them, and for most practical purposes we may assume that these rays travel in
straight lines without deviation. If electromagnetic waves are generated from a point
source, they will diverge from the source radially outwards. (Fig. 2.s<a)) This will cause a
reduction in the intensity as the distance from the source is increased.
 19

\ \

Imaginary sphere
1 of radius d
"

d
----1
S is a point ;ource of electromagnetic radiation, emitting equally in all directions. The
diagram shows the radiation passing thrnugh the surface of an imaginary sphere of radius d. Because
the surface area of such a sphere is 41t d:2-, we can deduce th3.t the intensity of radiation conforms to
an invers.e square relationship Note that part oft.tie sphere has been cut away to
reveal the source more clearly.

Fig. 2.s<a)

The relationship between the intensity and the distance from the source is an inverse-
square law, provided that the reduction in intensity is due only to the geometrical
divergence and no absorption or scattering of the rays by the medium through which they
are passing. Fig. 2.6{b)

This is seen from Figure

2.6<0\ which illustrates the
divergence of rays from the
point source at 0. OP, OQ,
OR and OS represent the rays
which pass through the
corners a, b, c and d of unit
area at lm from 0. At 2 m
from 0, the same rays pass
through the corners of the
area represented by e,f, g, I I I
and Ii. By the geometry of 1----·im·---- - i Q
!....... - - - - -2 m - - - - - -j
similar triangles, side ef is
equal to twice side ab, and
A d.iagrnm iilusuuting the in.verse-square law.
side f g is equal to twice side
be. Therefore area efgh is
 20

four times the area abed. As there is no loss of energy by absorption or scattering, all the
energy passing through area abed also passes through area efglt. Therefore the intensity
at 2 m is one-quruter of the intensity at 1 m.
Inverse square law for radiation: The inverse square law for radiation states
that the intensity of the radiation.from a point source varies inversely as the
square of the distance from the source, provided that there is no absorption or
scattering by the medium.
The law is represented by the equation:

. I
1ntenszty a
(Di~tance) 2
Which can also be written as:
r. . k
1ntenszty =
(Distance) 2
where k is a constant. This may also be expressed as:
. 1/ 2
Intensity at d 1 / d1 d;
Intensityatd2 = l/ 2 = df
/d2

To summarize, the following conditions must be satisfied to apply the inverse square law:
• The source ofradiation is a point source, i.e. infinitely small. We can never achieve
a point source in practice. However, as long as the source dimensions are very small
compared to the distance at which we consider the intensity.
• The radiation travels in straight lines. This is correct if the radiation travels only
through a vacuum. If it interacts with any obstacle in its path, its direction may be
modified, e.g. due to reflection, refraction, diffraction, or scattering.
• The radiation is emitted equally in all directions. This is definitely not true in the
case of an X-ray tube. However, if the energy distribution is uniform over the area
being investigated then intensity calculations may still be correct.
• The energy is radiated at a constant rate. In some instances this may be true but in
other cases this is not the case. The output from an X-ray tube might be pulsed
depending on the type of rectification used. However, the average X-ray output over
a number of wave cycles is likely to be constant and the mean intensity of radiation 0
may obey the inverse-square law.
• No radiation energy is lost on its way fi·om the point source to the point of
measurement. If the radiation only passed through a vacuum this would be correct. In
practice, this is hardly the case. For example, a diagnostic X-ray beam must pass
through various filters as it leaves the X-ray tube, it must pass through the air, and it
must also pass through the patient's tissues before it reaches the film. During this
time it will interact with all these obstacles, imparting energy to them. The radiation
intensity thus reduces with distance not only because of its divergence, but also
because of the energy depleted through interactions with matter. In practice, the
inverse-square law is applied to X-rays travelling through air if they are generated at
voltages above 50 kVp. At lower voltages, absorption and scattering by the air are not
negligible; they cause the intensity to decrease with distance more rapidly than
would be expected from the inverse-square law.
 21

3 \VAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

We now return to our analogy where we compared electromagnetic radiation with the
surface waves on a pond. Ifwe look at the surface waves on a pond from a distance, they
appear to be perfectly continuous. But water consists of a vast number of individual
molecules and therefore it is a "grainy" substance. Let us now examine the water surface
very closely. Now we would be able to distinguish the individual molecules that make up
the surface. The surface won't look continuous anymore.

If our interest is in the effects of surface waves on structures that has similar dimensions
as the waves, we don't have to consider the individual water molecules that make up the
water surface. But ifwe want to study the molecular or microscopic level, the movement
of the individual molecules of water becomes very important. It is thus important what
nature of interactions we are investigating. From this the choice of explanation would be
made. Each explanation., i.e. the continuous wave explanation or the individual molecule
explanation, is thus valid as long as it is applied in the appropriate discussion..

Electromagnetic radiation may also be considered as being smooth, i.e. wave-like, and
grainy, i.e. particle-like. Electromagnetic radiation has thus a wave-particle duality.

4 THE QUANTUM THEORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Up to now we have described electromagnetic radiation in terms of the wave theory.

However, certain properties of the radiation are better described in terms of a particle or
corpuscular theory. For example, the wave theory gives a good account of the
transmission of light but the particle theory must be used to explain the way in which
light energy is emitted from a source and absorbed by a detector.

Ifwe want to examine how radiation interacts at an atomic or even sub-atomic scale such
as the case in X-rays and gamma rays, then ith essential to switch from the wave theory
to the grainy nature (particle theory) of the radiation.

Max Planck (1890s) proposed that energy could only be transferred in discrete amounts
known as quanta. (Quanta are to energy what elementary particles such as protons and
electrons are to matter.) A quantum is an amount of energy that cannot be fu1ther
subdivided. One quantum may represent a different amount of energy from another, but
each individual quantum is a discrete entity that cannot be divided into smaller parts.
These quanta, which have no mass or electric charge, and which consists solely of
energy, are also known as photons. Photons have some of the properties of particles e.g.
they may be rebound or be scattered if they collide with particles such as an electron).
Photons are indivisible; they cannot be split into smaller units.

Planck combined the wave theory and the pruticle or corpuscular theory into one theory,
the quantum theory of radiation that recognizes the duality of electromagnetic radiation.
Quantum theory: The quantum theory states that energy is emitted or absorbed
only in small units or ''packets" of energy knawn as quanta (singular: quantum).
 22

Planck deduced that the energy of a photon (known as photon energy, E) depends only
on the frequency (/) of the electromagnetic radiation associated with it. He defined a
simple mathematical relationship between these two quantities:
Eaf
or
E=hf
where his a constant of proportionality. Further work by Einstein and others confomed
Planck's postulation. The relationship E = hfis known as Planck's law and the constant,
h, is known as Planck's constant where h = 6,626 x 10-34 J.s (joule second).

This law provides an important link between the wave nature of electromagnetic
radiation ( characterized by the frequency of a wave) and the particle nature of
electromagnetic radiation (characterized by its photons).

From the equation, c = )..f, therefore/= c-1, and the above equation, we can now find a
relationship between the energy and the wavelength of the wave:
E= he*
;i
or
Ea]:_
A
If we know the wave characteristics of a paiticular form of electromagnetic radiation (i.e.
its frequency or its wavelength), then we can calculate the energy ofits photons. Or, ifwe
know the photon energy of the radiation, we can calculate its wave characteristics.

Note: We know that I electron-volt is equal to 1,602 x 10-19 joules; Planck's constant, h
is equal to 6,626 x 10-34 J.s; and the velocity ofelectromagn,etic radiation, c, is
8
3 x 10 mis. If we substitute these values into the above equation* we can derive a
very important relationship between the photon energy in keV (J keV = 103 eV)
and the wavelength in nanometers (J nm= 10-9 m):
EUoule) = ~ = 6,626x10- J.sx3 x10 m/ s = l,988x 10- J.m
34 8 25

J(m) A(m) J(m)

25
E(keV) = l,988xl0- J.m = 1,24
19 9 3
J(nm)xl,6xl0- Jxl0- mxl0 ,1.(nm)

5 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Now that we have discussed the wave nature and the particle nature of electromagnetic
radiation, we can turn our attention to the electromagnetic spectrum (see Fig. 2. ic)) that
consists of a whole range of electromagnetic radiations. They all have the characteristics
described in the previous sections.
Fig. 2.,<c)
 23

THE EL~CTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Energy Frequency Wa\'alength

(eV} {H2) {m)
10~G
1024
109 1023
. { Megavoltage therapy
108 1022 Gammzfrays SupervoRage therapy
107 X rays Superficial therapy
1021 Oiagnostie
1 MeV --"P-10" Contact therapy
l Grenz rays

rviolet
blue
Visueil green
Imaging yellow
{ red

MR UHF
Imaging VHF
Radlow2ves shortwave
{ standard broadcast
longwave
104
t
1 kilohertz _ .:.:o1,.......,--,,-to3
102

The electromagnetic spectrum extends over more than 25 orders of mag-

nitude. This chart shows the values of energy, frequency, and wavelength and
identifies some common values and regions of the spectrum.

We will briefly discuss the way in which they are produced and ways to detect them.
a) Radio, television and radar waves: They are found at the long-wavelength end ( or
low frequency end) of the electromagnetic spectrum and are generated by high-
frequency alternating currents (i.e. decelerating electrons) flowing in the aerial of a
radio or similar type of transmitter. They can be detected by placing a length of wire
(i.e. a receiving aerial) in the path of the radiation; the waves induce an e.m.f. in the
wire which is then amplified in the radio receiver.
b) Infrared rays: They are radiated by the vibrating atoms or molecules in a moderately
hot object of which a good example is the hot element of a radiant electric heater.
They can be sensed by the body as a feeling of warmth and also detected either by
photographic film or as an electlic current generated when the radiation falls on a cell
made from certain semiconductor materials (e.g. infrared detectors used in burglar
alarms).
c) Visible light rays: They only occupy a very narrow band of wavelengths and are so
called because the human eye is sensitive to them. They can be produced in two
ways: (i) they are emitted by the vibrating atoms or molecules in a very hot object,
 24

and (ii) they are emitted when orbital electrons jump between outer energy levels in
atoms or molecules. In addition to being sensed by the eye, they can be detected
either by photographic film or by a photoelectric cell. We will discus them in more
detail later.
d) Ultraviolet rays: They have shorter wavelengths than those of visible light. They are
generated mainly by the movement of orbital electrons between energy levels in
atoms. The process is similar to that for the production of visible light but involves
higher energies and consequently shorter wavelengths. Ultraviolet rays cause
pigmentary changes in the skin and can be detected either by photographic film or by
certain types of photoelectric cells designed to be sensitive to this section of the
electromagnetic spectmm.
e) X and gamma rays: They are at the short-wavelength end (or high-frequency end) of
the electromagnetic spectrnm. X rays can be produced in two ways: (i) they are
emitted when fast moving electrons are decelerated, and (ii) they are emitted when
orbital electrons jump between inner shells in atoms. Both processes can occur in the
target of an X ray tube. See later. Gamma rays are emitted from the nuclei of atoms of
some radioactive isotopes. (Yve will discuss this when we discuss radioactivity.) X
and gamma rays can be detected in several ways using one of their various properties
that will be discussed later. Of particular importance is the detection of X and gamma
radiation by the ionization that they produce in air.

6. VISIBLE LIGHT

The properties of visible light are more familiar and hopefully this will enable us to
understand the processes that are involved in the production of X-rays better.

Visible light is electromagnetic radiation having wavelengths in the small range over
which the eye is sensitive to such radiation. This ranf.e extends from about 700 nm to
400 nm in terms of the wavelength, or from 4,3 x 10 4 Hz to 7,5 x 10 14 Hz in terms of the
frequency. In terms of the photon energy, the range is from 1,77 eV to 3, 1 eV.

6.1 The production of visible light

Visible light can be produced in two ways. First, when a solid body is heated the atoms
and molecules vibrate and the vibration results in the emission of photons. This is called
incandescence. Second, photons are emitted when electrons jump between outer energy
levels in atoms following ionization or excitation. This is called luminescence.

6.1.1 Incandescence

Incandescence is the emission of visible light when an object when it is heated. The
internal energy of the substance increases when the temperature is raised. This increase in
the internal energy causes electrons in the atoms of the substance to jump to higher
energy level$. This causes the atoms to be in an excited state and the electrons will soon
return to their ground states. In doing so, they give up the surplus energy in the form of
photons of electromagnetic radiation. The energy of these photons represents the energy
changes experienced by each individual electron. A range of energies is thus possible.
 25

Depending on the nature of the substance being heated, the spectrum of the radiation
emitted may be a line spectrum, a band spectrum or a continuous spectrum.

In a monatomic gas such as sodium vapour where the molecules contain only one atom,
the individual atoms are far enough apart for their electron energy states not to be
influenced by their neighbours. We know that all the atoms of a specific element have the
same characteristic electron energy states. Therefore, when the excited atoms of the
monatomic gas return to their ground states, the energies of the photons emitted will have
characteristic energies of the particular types of atoms. This will result in a line spects·u m
or characteristic spectrum.

If the heated substance were a gas or vapour where the molecules contain more than one
atom, a band spectrum would result. Such a spectrum contains groups of lines known as
bands. The atoms within each molecule are close enough to each other to influence the
permitted electron energy· states. In an isolated atom we had single discreet energy levels
but in this case we have a cluster of energy levels or an energy band. The combination of
energies (or wavelengths) in a band spectrum is characteristic of the molecules involved.

If we consider a liquid or a solid that is heated, the atoms are very close together and a
nearly infinite number of possible electron energy levels are available. This results in a
continuous range of possible electron energies that produces a continuous spectrum.
The temperature of the heated substance determines the.relative intensities of the vaiious
wavelengths. At any temperature above OKelvin infrared radiation is emitted. If the
temperature reaches high enough levels, visible light will be radiated. Firstly> red light
will be emitted and we say that the object is "red hot". If we increase the temperature
fi.nther> the minimum wavelength (i.e. maximum energy) will get shorter and yellow,
green, and eventually blue light will be produced. If all the colors are present, the eye
would perceive this mixture of colors as «white" light. The object will now be ''white
hot". It is the process of incandescence that causes the tungsten filament in an electric
bulb to emit light.

Increasing the temperature of a substance is not the only way to lift the electrons to
higher energy levels. The following methods can be used to stimulate the material to emit
light:
11 Exposing the material to ultraviolet light.
• Exposing the material to ionising radiation such as X-rays or gamma rays.
• Bombarding it with high-energy pmticles.
11 Applying a strong electromagnetic field.
The above methods can be used to emit visible light at temperatures far below those at
which incandescent bodies does. We refer to these as "cold'> light emission, which is
known as luminescence. ·

6.1.2 Luminescence (cold light emissionl

Phosphorescence, fluorescence, thermoluminescence, scintillation, and the stimulated

emission of light employed in lasers are all processes encompassed in luminescence. The
emission of light occurs at temperatures below those required to produce incandescence.
 26

Certain crystalline semiconductor materials, known as phosphors, posses the property of

luminescence. To explain this we need to revise the electron band theory of
semiconductor materials. Let us look at some of the important features:
• Conduction band - electrons are able to move freely through the material in the
conduction band.
• Valence band - electrons in the valence band are bound to the nucleus of an atom and
when they are removed they leave behind a vacancy in the valence band, called a
hole.
• Forbidden gap-the forbidden gap is between the valence band and the conduction
band and in pure semiconductors it contains no permitted energy levels. Therefore, no
electrons can exist in the forbidden gap.
• Doping - "impurities» can be added to the semiconductor material under controlled
conditions during manufacturing. These impurities or doping agent will modify the
properties of the semiconductor. They do it by introducing pennitted energy levels
known as luminescent centres into the forbidden gap. Electrons use these centres as
"steps" as they fall back from the conduction band to the valence band.
• Electron traps - because the crystal structure of a semiconductor is never perfect,
imperfections exist that can create extra energy levels known as electron traps in the
forbidden gap. When an electron is trapped here it can only escape from it if it gain
sufficient energy that would allow it to jump upwards into the conduction band.

If a luminescent phosphor is stimulated by any of the four processes named in

section 6.1.1, it causes an electron to be lifted from the valence band into the conduction
band. This will leave holes in the valence band. After this stimulation, the sequence of
events that follow depends on the particular type ofluminescence involved.

a) Fluorescence: Materials that fluoresces have no electron traps but many luminescent
centres. The electrons raised from the valence band to the conduction band are able to
return immediately to the valence band through the luminescent centres to fill the
holes in the valence band. The excess energy of the electrons is emitted as flashes of
visible light as they fall through the luminescent centres. This is indicated in Figure
2.8(a). The process of returning to the valence band and the emission of the excess
energy as light is instantaneous (it takes less than 1o·8 s). The energy ( or wavelength)
of the light emitted depends on the difference in energy across the luminescent centre.
As energy cannot be created, this emitted energy will always be less than the energy
that originally stimulated the fluorescence. The spectrum of light emitted by a
fluorescent phosphor is characteristic of its crystalline structure.
 27

Electron !ifred
across forbidden
gap into conduction
band when
phosphor is
"'\.,__
stimulated
· Photon of
!ight emitted

Energy band diagram !'epresenting a fluorescent phosphor. After being excited into the
conduction band, an elect11>n returns to the valence band via the luminescence centre. The light
emitted has a photon energy equal to the energy difference across the luminescence centre. This
determines the wavelength, and t.h.erefore rhe colour of the fluorescence.

Fig. 2.8(a)

b) Phosphorescence: This process is caused by the presence of electron traps in the

forbidden gap of the material. When the phosphor is stimulated, and electrons are
lifted to the conduction band, the traps interfere when the electrons want to return to
the valence band. Some of the electrons will be trapped in these traps and they cannot
fall downwards to the valence band. They must first acquire enough energy to jump
upward back into the conduction band. From the conduction band they may fall down
to the valence band via a luminescent centre. In doing so, they will emit light. As long
as the electron traps are close to the conduction band, even at room temperature the
internal energy in a phosphor can provide enough energy to lift the trapped electrons
sooner or later into the conduction band. The acquisition of enough energy for the
electrons to escape the traps and produce luminescence is a random process, which
happens over a measurable time. The emission of light due to phosphorescence
continues for a while after the initial stimulation of the phosphor has stopped. The
emission of light decays exponentially with time. See Figure 2. 9(a) for this process.

c) Thermoluminescence: In this process the electron traps are situated well below the
conduction band and not like in phosphorescence where they are situated just below
the conduction band. This means that, at room temperature, the internal energy in the
phosphor is not sufficient to lift the trapped electrons to the conduction band.
However, the internal energy can be raised by heating the phosphor and therefore
enabling the electrons in the traps to jump to the conduction band. They can then
participate in luminescence. (Fig. 2.1 o(a)) The energy absorbed by the phosphor when
it was stimulated from an external source is therefore stored until the phosphor is
heated, when the energy is released as light. The amount of light emitted is therefore
proportional to the initial energy that was absorbed. Thermoluminescent dosimetry
used in personal dosimeters is- based on this process.
 28

Trapped electron
escapes by jumping1- - + - + -
upwards into
conduction band

"~ Photon of
light emitted

: An energy band \liagram repr~senting a phosphorescent phosphor. After being excited

into the conduction band, an electron becomes lodged in an electron trap in the upper levels of the
forbidden gap. At room temperature, the electron eventually acquires the small i11jecrion o~energy
to lift itself back into the conduction band from where it can return to the valence band vta a
luminescence centre. Again, the light emitted has a photon energy equal to the energy difference
across the luminescence centre.

Fig. 2.9Ca)

d) Scintillation: Stimulation of a fluorescent phosphor with a single high energy photon

of X- or gamma radiation will lead to the emission of many photons of light. All these
light photons are emitted simultaneously. This results in the emission of a tiny flash
oflightthat may be visible to the naked eye. If the phosphor is exposed to stream of
X- or gamma radiation it would result in a series of tiny flashes, each one
representing the absorption of a single high-energy photon. This series of light flashes
is known as scintillation. Scintillation in a thallium-activated sodium iodide
scintillation crystal is employed in a gamma camera used in nuclear medicine.

e) Stimulated emission of light: This is the mechanism by which lasers generate light.
We will not discuss the process any further.

t) Photon stimulated luminescence: This process is similar in many respects to

thermoluminescence. When a phosphor is exposed to ionising radiation, it stores the
energy absorbed from the radiation. If the phosphor is later stimulated by exposure to
an appropriate light source, the energy stored in the phosphor is released as visible
light. We won't consider this process any further.
 29

Energy Electron returning to

Only when phosphor

is heated, can
trapped electron
escape by jumping f\ f\ -i.
', ' ' ' ': ' l
upwards into ·... · ·.,VVV' ·'\.,
conduction band ' . ' . '

Electron !ifted across "Photon of light

forbidden gap into emitted
conduction band when
phosphor 1s first
stimulated

An energy band diagram sho,\fog a deep-lying electron trap in a thermoluminescent

phosphor. A trapped electron can only escape if it acquires a substantial injection of energy
sufficient to lift it from the trap into the conduction band. At room temperature, background
internal energy is not great enough to achieve this, and only when the phosphor is oven-heated to
around 200°C can the electron escape into the conduction band. It then returns to the valence band
via a luminescence centre, emitting a photon of light as it does so.

Fig.2.1o<a)

APPENDIX

Spectral emission curves (o1· spectra)

The electromagnetic radiation emitted from a source often comprises streams of photons
carrying different amounts of energy. If we consider the wave theory, we would say that
the radiation consists of a collection of electromagnetic waves having different
frequencies and wavelengths. Consider a beam of white light that contains photons with
energies varying from 1,77 eV to 3,1 eV (and wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm). We
want to be able to investigate the composition of the beam of radiation, by looking at the
contribution made to the beam as a whole by the different photon energies or different
wavelengths that is present in the beam. Tbis can be represented in the form of a spectral
emission curve or a spectrum. This is a graph of the intensity of the radiation plotted
versus photon energy or versus wavelength.

To explain this, lets look at an analogy used by Bushong<c)_ Consider a pitching machine,
a device used by baseball and cricket players for batting practice so that the pitchers or
bowlers do not get tired. (See Fig. 2. 11 (c)) There are similar machines for automatically
ejecting bowling balls, tennis balls, and even table tennis balls.

Suppose that our machine could eject all these different balls at random at a rate of one
per second. We need a way to determine how often each type of ball was ejected on the
 30

1<@ Q;)
®~e
© ©© @®®@
@0©~ cr>@®
@@©@ <l>®®®
©@0@ @©©@
67 156 212 132 33
Ping-Pong golf base. soft- basket-
b.alis balls ba11s bails balls

!n a 10·mir.ute period an automatic ball-throwing machine might eject

600 balls, distributed as shown. ·
Fig. 2.11
average. An easy way would be to catch each ball as it was ejected, then to identify it,
and then to drop it into a basket that contained the same type of balls. At the end of the
observation period the total number of each type of ball could be counted from each

,~ ~ 212
Cl')
w
200
::i
I-
z
~
0
~

~
150 ~
~
_,
~ mo
u.
0
a:
UJ
m 50
::1:
::l
z
0
Ping• golf base· soft· basl:ei·
Pong balls balls balls bans
bails

Bar graph representing results of 10-minute observation of baiis ejected

by the automatic pitching machine

Fig. 2.12 c
 31

basket. Suppose that after 10 minutes there is 67 ping-pong balls, 156 golf balls, 212
baseballs, 132 softballs and 33 basket-balls in the respective baskets, i.e. 600 balls were
ejected. We can represent these results graphically by plotting the total number of each
type of ball emitted during the 10-minute period and represent each total by a bar. (Fig.
2.12<c)) The bar graph in the figure can be desctibed as a discrete ball-ejection spectrum
representative of the automatic pitching machine. It is a plot of the number of balls
ejected per unit time as a function of the type of ball. We say it is discrete because there
are only five distinct types of balls. Ifwe cotmect the top of the bars with a smooth curve
(the dashed line) we can predict the distribution for a large number of different balls. This
curve is called a continuous ejection spectrum. Spectrum refers to the range of types.
The total number ofballs ejected is represented by the sum of the areas under the bars, in
the case of the discrete spectrum, and the area under the curve, in the case of the
continuous spectrum.

Without regard to the absolute number of balls emitted, the figure could also be identified
as a relative ball-ejection spectrum. One can tell at a glance the relative frequency of
ejection of each type of ball. Baseballs are ejected most frequently, and basketballs least
frequently. The results of this IO-minute observation period would be characteristic of
any time of observation if the ball-ejection machine operated randomly.

(Note: This type of relationship is fundamental to describing the output of an X-ray

machine. If one could stand in the middle of the useful beam of an X-ray
machine, catch each individual X-ray photon, and measure its energy, one could
describe the X-ray emission spectrum. (See Chapter 3.) There are instruments
available that enable us to do measure these spectra. Understanding X-ray
emission spectra are a key to understanding how changes in kVp, mA, time, and
filtration affect the optical density and contrast of a radiograph.)

Let us now return to spectral emission curves. On spectral emission curves it is usual to
plot intensity as a relative rather than an absolute value. The peak (maximum) intensity is
assigned the value of 100%, and all other intensities are quoted relative to this.

For electromagnetic radiation, we can either plot the relative intensity versus the
wavelength or versus the energy of the photons. (See Chapter 3.) The choice whether to
use a wavelength spectrum or a photon energy spectrum depends on the context in which
the radiation is being considered. Ifwe are considering the refraction of light through a
lens, the wave theory of light is more relevant than the quantum theory, so we will use a
wavelength spectrum. lfwe are discussing the interactions between X-ray photons and
atoms, the quantum nature of radiation is relevant, and a photon energy spectrum will be
used. For this reason we shall be employing mainly photon energy spectra in our
discussions ofX- and gamma radiation.

Up till now we considered beams of radiation in which we assumed that many different
photon energies are present with no discontinuities such as gaps or sudden peaks, i.e.
continuous spectra. In some cases it is possible to produce a beam containing only a few
specific photon energies (like the discrete types of balls in our example). The spectral
emission curve for this type of beam is known as a line spectrum or characteristic
spectrum. In some cases we may get both types of spectra superimposed. (See Chapter
3.)
 32

(a) BALL, John & MOORE, Adrian D - 11Essential Physics for Radiographers11
(b) HAY, George A& HUGHES, Donald- "First-Year Physics/or Radiographers"
(c) BUSHONG, Stewart C - "Radiologi,cal Science.for Technologists"

• I~ ; . -...
·>.· .

:::
 33

CHAPTER3

THE PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

1. INTRODUCTION

X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in November 1895, in Wurzburg,

whilst he was experimenting with the passage of electricity through a gas at very low
pressure. The vital piece of his apparatus was a long glass vessel from which as much air
as possible had been removed. Into each end a short platinum electrode was sealed. When
an electric discharge at high voltage was passed through the almost evacuated tube,
Roentgen noticed a glow on a piece of glass, covered with zinc sulphide, which was lying
a short distance from the tube. The glow persisted even when the discharge tube was
shrouded in black paper, and Roentgen was quickly able to establish that ·the cause was a
hitherto undiscovered radiation. He also found that the radiation would fog photographic
paper. The rays were very penetrating and they were not deflected in a magnetic field.
Rontgen therefore concluded that they were not streams of electrically charged particles
that would have been deflected like a conductor carrying a current. As their nature was
unknown, he called them "X-rays», X being the established symbol for the unknown
quantity. Later, in 1912, they were shown to be electromagnetic radiation of very short
wavelength.

Although a modem X-ray tube bears no very obvious resemblance to the discharge tube
of Roentgen's apparatus, the basic mechanism of X-ray production remains the same. X-
rays are produced whenever high-speed electrons are suddenly brought to rest. In this
process, ·some of their kinetic energy is being converted into electromagnetic radiation. In
the original apparatus the source of electrons was the residual gas in the tube. Accelerated
by the applied voltage they were brought to rest by the glass end of the tube, whence the
X-rays were emitted. Nowadays the efectrons conie, by ·thermionic emission, from an
electrically heated filament oftungsten. This means that the supply is more easily
controlled. The electrons are brought to rest by a block of material of high atomic
number. in which X-ray .production occurs much more efficiently. than in glass.
.

2. THE PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

Before we study the production of X-rays, we will briefly look at the properties ofX-
rays. These may be grouped under the following headings:
a)· Fluorescence: X-rays produce fluorescence in materials such as calcium tungstate,
zinc cadmium sulphide and caesium iodide. This effect produces the visible pattern
seen on the simple screen in X~ray fluoroscopy ("screening") and is utilised in
intensifying screens.
b) Photographic effect: X-rays produce a latent image on photographic film that can be
developed to give a visible image. as in an ordinary photographic negative. This
direct effect is utilised in film badge dosimetry for radiation protection. A
radiographic film is most often used in a cassette containing a pair of fluorescent
intensifying screens. Only about 5% of the image is formed by the direct action of the
 34

X-rays; the remaining 95% is due to the visible and ultra-violet light emitted by the
intensifying screens. The film is much more sensitive to these radiations.
c) Penetration: X-rays penetrate substances that are opaque to visible light. They are
gradually absorbed the farther they pass through an object; the amount of absorption
depends on the atomic number and the density of the object and the energy of the X-
rays. An understanding of the way in which X-rays are absorbed has several
important applications: diagnostic radiology is based on differences of absorption in
body structures; radiotherapy requires the calculation of the doses of radiation
absorbed by body parts; and radiological protection involves the design of shielding
to absorb radiation.
d) Ionisation and excitation: X-rays produce ionisation and excitation of the atoms and
molecules of the substances through which they pass. These processes are important
in all interactions of X-rays with matter and it forms the basis of the properties listed
here. The ionisation of air by X-rays passing through it can be demonstrated by
irradiating the air surrounding a gold~leaf electroscope. Air is normally a good
insulator; however, it becomes a conductor of electricity when ionised. The leaves of
the electroscope then fall together as the electric charge leaks away. The standard
method of measuring. quantity
,. .
ofX-radiation or exposure
.
is based on the ionisation of
arr.
e) Chemical changes: X-rays produce chemical changes in substances through which
they pass. One important change is the oxidation of ferrous sulphate (FeS04) in
solution to ferric sulphate. The amount of ferric sulphate (Fe(S0 4) 3) produced can be
used as a measure of the quantity ofX-radiation absorbed. This is the basis of for a
chemical system of dosimetry named after Fricke, i.e. a Fricke dosimeter.
t) Biological effects: X-rays produce biological effects in living organisms, either by
direct action on the cells or indirectly as a result of chemical changes near the cells.
The cells can be either damaged (i.e. modified) or killed. As a result, the organism
itself can be injured or killed, or in reproductive cell the genes can undergo mutations
resulting in inherent changes in subsequent generations. Biological effects have to be
considered in various contexts, for example, the need to protect individuals from
overexposure, the planned killing of malignant tumour cells in radiotherapy, and the
sterilisation of hospital supplies, such as syringes and dressings, by large doses of
radiatioR

3. THE PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

3.1 Energy loss by electrons

X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons give up energy by either one of two
processes:
• The deceleration of a fast-moving electron resulting in the conversion of some of its
kinetic energy into X-ray energy.
• The movement of an electron between two inner shells in an atom with the difference
between the binding energies of the two shells being radiated as an X-ray photon.
Both these processes can occur in the target of an X-ray tube. Most of the output of an X-
ray
.
tube is ihe result of the first type
. .
of event taking place,
.. but in some circumstances
 35

(e.g. mammography equipment) the second type of event may contribute significantly to
the total X-ray output.

An X-ray tube is a device that is designed to produce fast moving electrons and to cause
them to deviate violently from their original direction of movement. Let us now consider
the basic features of such a tube.

3.2 The pi·inciple of operation of an X-ray tube

As illustrated in Figure 3. l<a), every X-ray tube contains the following:

• A heated filament that is part of a negative cathode, which releases negative electrons
by thermionic emission.
• A positive anode that attracts these electrons.
• A high-tension supply that accelerates the electrons to very high speeds.
• A target that is part of the anode, whose job is to force the fast moving electrons to
deviate very rapidly from their direction of movement, thus causing the emission of
X-rays.

V
s

: A stationary anode X-ray tube insert. Key: T~tungsten target; A-coppei

\fat:l~~e; $-re-entrant seal; G-glass envelope; V-vacuum; F-tungsten filament;
) ~focusing cup; K-cathode support

Fig. 3.l<a)

Let us now look at the principle of operation.* The filament (usually a spiral of tungsten
wire) is heated by passing an electric current through it from a low-voltage supply.
Electrons are then released from the :filament by thermionic emission. The filament is part
of the cathode assembly and one side of the filament is in contact with the cathode. A
shield or focusing cup mounted near the filament also forms part of the cathode
assembly. This is shaped that it produces an electric field that focuses the electrons on to
a small area of the target known as the focal area.

A high-voltage supply is connected between the cathode and the target that is part of the
anode of the tube. The target is usually made of tungsten, which has a high melting point,
 36

adequate thermal conductivity, and a high atomic number (74) that increases the
efficiency of X-ray production.

Kinetic energy is gained by the negative electrons released from the filament as they are
accelerated to a high velocity across the tube. The negative potential on the cathode
repels the negative electrons and the positive anode attracts them. The electrons in
interactions with the target then give up this energy.

The cathode and the anode assemblies are contained in a glass envelope. A high vacuum
exists in the tube so that there is no gas present to produce electrons by ionisation when
the high-speed electrons interact with the gas molecules, as was the case in Roentgen's
original experiments. In the case of Roentgen• s experiments, electrons released by
ionisation of the gas molecules in the tube produced the X-rays at the positive electrode.

We will now look in more detail at the processes involved at subatomic level in the target
of the X-ray tube.
*(NOTE: The construction and operation of an X-ray tube is treated ht much more detail as part of the
course material for the subject "EQUIPMENT".)

3.3 Interactions of electrons with the target

Electrons reaching the target from the filament of a diagnostic X-ray tube may possess up
to 150 keV of kinetic energy, depending on the kilo-voltage applied across the X-ray
tube. These high~energy electrons interact with the atoms of the target material in a
number ofways, most of which merely serve to increase the temperature of the target.
These are:
• The loss of energy by the electrons from the filament because of interactions between
them and the outer shell electrons surrounding the atoms of the target material.
• The loss of energy by the electrons from the filament because of interactions between
them and the nuclei of the atoms of the target material.
• The lo·ss of energy by electrons from the filament because of interactions between
them and individual inner shell electrons of the target atoms.

Although two types of interactions result in the emission of X-rays, the heat-producing
interactions are far more likely to occur. In fact, less than 1% of the energy deposited on
the target of a diagnostic X-ray tube is converted into X-rays. At much higher voltages
the efficiency of X-ray production is far greater (e.g. when X-rays are produced at 4 MeV
in a linear accelerator, the efficiency is about 40%). It is also important to realise that an
electron from the filament may experience many interactions (typically I 000) before it is
brought to rest within 0,25 to 0,5 nun of the target material.

Four types of interactions are possible when an electron arrives at the target:
a) Excitation involving an electron in an outer site/I of an atom in the target. The
incident electron coming from the filament transfers a small amount of energy ( only a
few electron volts) to an electron in an outer shell of the target and displaces it to an
energy level farther out. The process is that of excitation. The electron returns to the
 37

vacancy in the shell and the energy released in this transition is emitted as a photon of
electromagnetic radiation. The energy of this photon is such that it falls into the
infrared part of the spectrum and so beat is produced in the target material.

b) Ionisation by the 1·emoval of au electron from an outer shell of an atom in the

target. The incident electron transfers sufficient energy to ionise an atom of the target
by the removal of an electron from an outer shell. The displaced electron, known as a
secondary.electron, may produce fiuther ionisation or excitation in other atoms of the
target until it has lost all its energy. Again only a small amount of energy is given up
by the incident electron. A "free" electron, i.e. an electron that has lost all its energy
and that are not bound to an atom, can fill the vacancy in the outer shell. The energy
of the photon emitted in this process win also fall in the infrared region and heat is
produced in the target material.

PROltCTILE EltC1RON

Characteristic x-rays are produced following the ionization of a K-sheH

electron. When an outer-shell electron fills the vacancy in the K shell, an x.-rny is
emitted.

Fig. 3.2(b)

c) Ionisation by the removal of an electron from an inner sltell of an atom in the

target. (See Fig. 3.2(b)) The incident electron transfers sufficient energy to remove an
electron from an inner shell of an atom in the target. To do this, the incident electron
must have energy equal to or greater than the binding energy for that shell. The
 38

difference between the binding energy and the amount of energy transferred from the
incident electron is carried away by the displaced electron (the secondary electron) as
kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is given up by the secondary electron as it
produces ionisation and excitation of other atoms in the target. The vacancy in the
inner shell is filled by an electron moving inwards from another shell in the atom that
is further out. Wnen this transition or jump occurs, it is accompanied by the emission
of an X-ray photon of energy equal to the difference between the binding energies of
the two shells involved, E = E1- E2, where E1 is the binding energy of the inner shell
and /::.,2 is the binding energy of the outer shell. This photon is known as a
characteristic X-ray photon. It is characteristic of the element of which the target is
made because its energy is related to the binding energies of shells in an atom of that
particular element. This process gives rise to the characteristic X-ray spectrum.
(Fig 3.3(b))

I
f I . I . I

0 25 50 75 100
Xmray Energy (keV)

Characteristic x-ray emission spectrum for tungsten contains fifteen dif·

ferent x-ray energies.

. 3.3(b)
F1g.

d) Bremsstrahlung ("braking'') radiation production. (See Fig. 3.4Cb)) Consider one

high~energy electron arriving from the filament and entering the target. Its path takes
it deep inside a target atom such that it passes close enough to the nucleus for it to be
influenced by the electric field around the nucleus. The negatively charged electron
experiences an electric force of attraction to the positively charged nucleus, making it
deviate towards the nucleus. The sudden change in motion of the electron constitutes
a violent deceleration. which disturbs the electromagnetic field, and a photon ofX-
radiation is emitted. The energy of the X-ray photon is equal to the loss in kinetic
energy of the electron when it was decelerated. Consequently, the electron must now
be travelling more slowly than before the interaction. This slowing down of the
electron, which accompanies the emission of an X-ray photon, provides the origin of
 39

the term braking radiation or, more commonly, Bremsstrahlung, the German word
for slowing down.

PROJECTILE ELECTROfiS

j
I

LOW- ENERGY
BREMSSTRAHLUNG HUW

Bremsstrahlung xMrays result from an interaction between a projectile

electron and a target nucleus. The electron is slowed down, and its direction is
changed.

Fig. 3.4(b)

The interaction of an incident electron with an atomic nucleus in the target varies in
its severity according to how powerful an electric field the nucleus produces, and how
close to the nucleus the electron passes. At one extreme, the electron may not be
influenced at all, because it does not penetrate deep enough into the atom. At the
other extreme, the electron may be so severely affected that all its kinetic energy is
consumed in producing a single X-ray photo~ and the electron is brought to rest in
one interaction. The energy of photons of Bremsstrahlung radiation may therefore be
of any value between zero and a maximum equal to the initial kinetic energy of the
incident electron. When we make an X-ray exposure, millions of electrons undergo
Bremsstrahlung interactions, so photons of all energies in this ranJe are created. The
result is an X-ray beam having a continuous spectrum. (Fig. 3.5 o))
 40

25 50 75 iOO
X~ray Energy {keV}
Bremsstrah!i..mg x~ray emission spectrum extends from zero to maximum
projectile electron energy, with the highest number of x-rays having approximately
one thiid the maximum energy. .

Fig. 3.5(b)

3 .4 The X-ray spectrum

We have seen in the previous chapter that both line and continuous spectra can be
produced. In the case of visible light, these spectra can exist on their own. Unlike light,
the X-ray line spectrum can never be produced alone in an X-ray tube. When the line
spectrnm is present, it is always superimposed on a continuous spectrum.

Electrons filling vacancies in the K-shell of the tungsten target causes the most prominent
line spectra. These vacancies are most likely to be filled by L- or M-shell electrons. The
group of line spectra created by these transitions are called the K-series emissions. The
X-ray photon emitted by an electron moving from the L shell to fill a vacancy in the K-
shell is known as Ka.-radiation. The transition of an electron from the M-shell to the K-
shell gives rise to Kj3-radiation. Electron transitions into the K-shell from even higher
shells are possible (e.g. N-to-K transitions), but their probabilities are so low that they do
not contribute significantly to the output of an X-ray tube.

Characteristic radiation resulting from electron transitions into the L shell creates the L-
series emissions, while that from transitions into the M shell produces the M-series
emissions.

The photons of the K-series are usually the only characteristic radiations with sufficient
energy to emerge from a medical X-ray tube, of these the~ and K13 are the most
prominent. For a tungsten target, the L-series photons have energies in the range 11 - 8
keV, and the M-series photons have energies of less than 2 keV. These photons have such
 41

low energies that they do not contribute neither to image formation nor patient radiation
dose because they are almost completely absorbed before emerging from the window of.
the tube.

The energies of the characteristic X-ray photons, being dependant on the binding
energies, are greater the higher the atomic number of the target material, because the
binding energies increase with increasing atomic number. For tungsten the photon
energies of the Kx and K{) radiations are respectively about 59 and 69 keV, which
con-espond to wavelengths of 0,021 and 0,018 nm. As the critical voltage for production
ofK characteristic radiation depends on the binding energy of the electrons in the K shell
of atoms in the target, it increases with increasing atomic number of the target. For
tungsten, the critical voltage is about 70 kV.

The continuous spectrum is the result of Bremsstrahlung production and it has the
following main features:
• A definite upper photon energy limit, Ema,;, or short-wavelength limit, Amin· For any
particular tube voltage there will be a con-esponding upper photon energy limit
because the tube voltage detennines the amount of kinetic energy possessed by
electrons arriving at the target from the filament and therefore the maximum energy
of the X-ray photons produced by the Bremsstrahlung process. An electron
accelerated by a tube voltage of 50 kV will acquire 50 keV of kinetic energy. If all
this energy is transformed into an X-ray photon in a single Bremsstrahlung
interaction, the photon will have 50 keV of energy. Most X-ray generators supply a
pulsating rather than a constant voltage; therefore the maximum energy acquired by
the electrons is determined by the peak applied tube voltage (kVp). Consequently, the
maximum energy (Emw.) of the resulting X-ray photons is set by a peak tube
kilovoltage (kVp). ·
• All wavelengths greater than the short-wavelength limit Amin are present in the
radiation spectrum until the long-wavelength limit Amax is reached, i.e. the spectrum is
continuous.
• The long-wavelength limit is not as clearly defined as the short wavelength limit.
Remember, X-rays of all wavelengths longer than the minimum are generated in the
target of an X-ray tube. The energy of the X-ray photon depends on the degree to
which the electron is decelerated by the attraction of the nucleus; the photon energy
can take any value from zero to the maximum. But, those of very long wavelength
(low photon energy) do not emerge from the tube assembly because of attenuation:
(a) in the target itself; (b) in the materials of the tube and of the window in the tube
housing; (c) in the cooling oil; and (d) in any added filters. (See Fig. 3.6<a))
11 A peak in the intensity occurs at a wavelength two or three times the minimum
wavelength for the usual amounts of filtration.
 42

Intensity
of
radiation
Spectrum from target ignoring
attenuation by target material

Energy of photons {keV)

~~!lt~t~ij~~~~flt~~~~81~f~r.~~i1,~~l{;~l~;;!.~~~1~;.3.t7
• 3 .6(a)
F1g.

X-ray photons of maximum photon energy (minimum wavelength) in the spectrum are
produced only when both of the following occur to one electron:
a) It is accelerated across the X-ray tube to the target by the peak value of the
applied voltage.
b) It passes so close to the nucleus of an atom in the target that it is decelerated
to rest with all its kinetic energy being converted irito a single X-ray photon.
The energy of this photon ( the maximum photon energy in the spectrum) is consequently
proportional to the peak value of the applied voltage; its wavelength, the minimum
wavelength in the spectrum, is inversely proportional to the peak voltage. The energy of
an electron arriving at the target after being accelerated by the peak voltage is e Vp. But
this is all converted into the energy of a photon of minimum wavelength (maximum
energy), i.e.
eVp =Emax
If we apply the quantum theory we can derive a similar relationship as we got in Section
4 in Chapter 2:
1 24
E(keV) = '
A(nm)
This equation will now become the following:
A . = 1,24 nm
oun kVp
This relationship is sometimes known as the Duane-Hunt law. As the tube voltage is
increased, maximum photon energy is increased and minimum wavelength is decreased.
 43

(Note: We must not get confused between the apparent similarities between the units we
are using to express X-ray tube voltages and X-ray photon energies. We saw in
the examples used in the preceding paragraphs that the tube voltage (in kV or
kVp) is numerically equal to the maximum photon energy (in keV). This is often
the case. Therefore, we must be certain that we do not interchange kilovolts (kV)
and kiloelectronvolts (keV) because they are quite different. The kilovolt (kV)
and peak kilovolt (kVp) are measures of electrical potential difference, whereas
the electronvolt (eV) and kiloelectronvolts (keV) are measures of energy.)

4. THE QUALITY AND INTENSITY OF X-RAYS

It is necessary to be able to describe the quality of a beam of radiation (i.e. to describe

how penetrating it is) as well as to state the amount or quantity involved. We can
compare these terms with the colour of light and the brightness of the colour.

With homogeneous (monochromatic or monoenergetic) radiation, where there is only a

single wavelength present, i.e. where all the photons in the beam have the same energy,
the quality is completely described by stating the wavelength or photon energy. The
beam from an X-ray tube, however, is heterogeneous, i.e. many wavelengths or photon
energies are present. To describe folly the quality of such a beam, the spectrum of the
radiation must be given, i.e. the relative intensities of radiation of each wavelength or
photon energy must be stated. In radiology it is not often necessary for the description to
be as detailed as this. In practice in radiography it is more usual to quote one ore more of
the following characteristics:
• The generating voltage
• The half-value thickness
• The beam filtration
• The effective photon energy.

For some applications, the quality of the beam of X-rays can be adequately described in
terms of its half-value layer (h. v. l.), also called the half-value thickness (h. v. t. ).
Half-value layer: The half-value layer or half-value thickness of a beam of
radiation is that thickness of a stated material that reduces the exposure rate of
the beam to one half

The material specified is chosen so that the half-value layer is a convenient thickness for
measurement. Aluminium is commonly used for X-radiation generated by voltages up to
120 kVp and copper for higher voltages. (We wm discuss the measurement of the half-
value layer later.)

The quality of a heterogeneous beam can also be described in terms of its effective
photon energy (or effective wavelength).
Effective photon energy (or effective wavelength): The effective photon energy
(or effective wavelength) ofa heterogeneous beam ofradiation is the photon
 44

energy (or wavelength) ofthat homogeneous beam which has the same half-value
layer as the heterogeneous beam.

..
Relative
intensity 1 i -:
·-
l
l
Individual
components
of the beam

0 .f---,-_l;:.l~~..:3:;.::;p..:.~~+::..:q.~+-ai..:.+c.1...'1---.---,----,--
0 100
Photon energy O<eV}

Re!ative ·
rntensity
11
I
Area under
/ the curve
/.,/

50 100
Photon energy (k.eV}

(a) The spectrum of a typic,ai heterogeneous X-ray be-am analysed into 17 individual
elements. Because it spans a much narrower range of photon energy, each element approidmates to a
monochromatic component of the beam. The tota! intensity of the beam is proportional to the sum .:
of the areas (shaded) of ea.ch. component. (b) If the beam was analysed into a much larger number of ·
components, t.\e total intensity would be proportional to the area {shaded) under the curve of the
spectrum.

Fig. 3.7(c)
 45

We can express the quantity of radiation flowing per unit time in terms of the intensity
or energy fluence rate of the beam of X-rays.
Intensity or Energy fluence rate: The intensity or energy fluence rate is the
amount of energy flowing per unit time through unit area ofa ~lane normal (i.e.
at right-angles to) the direction ofpropagation. (See Fig. 2.4<3 )
Its units are watts per square meter (W/m2).

The total intensity of an X-ray beam is represented by the sum of the intensities of the
separate components of the beam. A complex heterogeneous beam such as an X-ray
beam, consisting of a wide range of different photon energies, can be thought of as a
combination of a large number of separate monochromatic (homogeneous) components,
each possessing its own individual intensity. The total intensity of the heterogeneous
beam is then seen as the sum of the intensities of its individual components. In terms of
the spectral emission curve of the beam from an X-ray tube, the total intensity of the
beam is proportional to the area enclosed by the curve. (Fig. 3. i,c))

Unfortunately, there are practical difficulties in measuring directly the intensity of an X-

ray beam. For this reason, in radiography we usually prefer to measure the quantity of
radiation in terms of one of its effects rather than in terms of intensity, e.g. the ionising
effect on air, which we call exposure. This is measured in coulombs per kilogram of air
(C/kg of air) and not in the basic units of intensity.

Note: The word "exposure" is sometimes used in another sense; it can refer to the product
of the tube current and the time interval for which the X-ray tube is energised when
taking a radiograph or giving a treatment in radiotherapy, i.e. mA x seconds.

5. FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY BEAM QUALITY AND QUANTITY

Let us now consider the various factors, which influence the quantity and/or quali'ty of an
X-ray beam. Five factors are involved here:
• X-ray tube voltage (kVp)
• Tube current (mA)
• Target material
• Type of rectification
11 Filtration

5. 1 The effect of the kVI! (X-ray type voltage) on the X-ray beam

The kVp across the X-ray tube influences the force of attraction experienced by an
electron released by the filament as it moves towards the anode. Thus, if the kVp is
increased, then the kinetic energy of the electron at the point when it starts to interact
with the target will be increased. Subsequently, the intensities at all photon energies
present increase as the kVP is increased; this results in the total intensity, given by the
area under the curve of a spectrum, being approximately proportional to the applied
voltage squared (kV/). (Note: The kV alters the energy with which the electrons strike
 46

the target, but not the number of electrons striking the target.) It means that the X-ray
process becomes more efficient.

Intensity

Energy
The effect o.f kVp on the X-ray spectrum. Note that the kVp affects both the
quantity and the quality of the radiation beam. Also note that the lower of the two curves is
unab[e to produce K-characteristic radiation although both curves can produce L-Hnes.

• 3 •g(a)
F 1g.

Increasing the kVP will also increase the energy of the maximum-energy photons (Emax)
in the beam. If the kVp is 50 kV then the maximum photon energy is 50 keV and if the
kVp is 100 kV then the maximum photon energy is 100 keV. Thus, the higher the kVp,
the more penetrating the beam becomes. The average photon energy is approximately
30% to 50% of the maximum photon energy; therefore, increasing the maximum photon
energy will also increase the average photon energy.

Tube voltage also affects the presence or absence of line spectra because if the tube
voltage is below a critical value, none of the electrons hitting the target will possess
enough energy to cause K-series emissions. The electrons must possess energy at least
equal to the K-shell binding energy of the target material in order to remove K-shell
electrons and thereby promote transitions into the K-shell from shells further out. For a
tungsten target, the critical energy required is just less than 70 keV (69,5 keV) and the
tube voltage must therefore reach a peak of at least 70 kV, the critical voltage, for K-
 47

emissions to occur. For a molybdenum target, the critical voltage for K-series emissions
is 20 kV.

Summary: We can s<zy that the kVp selectedfor an exposure affects both the quantity and
the quality of the X-ray beam produced- an increase in the kVp will produce an increase
in the quantity (Intensity is approximately proportional to the kV/) and the quality of the
radiation from the target. (See Fig. 3. 8(a))

5.2 The effect of the mA (tube current) on the X-ray beam

The value of the tube current (mA) affects only the intensity of the beam; it does not
affect its quality. If the current through the X-ray tube is doubled, for example, the
number of electrons flowing across the tube in unit time is doubled. (Remember: Current
= charge/unit time) If all the other factors remain unchanged, each electron will have the
same chance of creating X-ray photons and so the number of photons of each energy
produced per unit time will be doubled. If the mA is halved, the same argument can be
used to show that the number of X-ray photons of each energy is also halved. Thus we
can say that the quantity of the X-ray beam per unit time (or the beam intensity) is
directly proportional to the mA through the tube:
Intensity cc mA

Intensity
of
radiation IK-tines
400mA

Energy of X-ray pi1otons {keV}

The effect of the mA on the X-ray spectrum. Note that the quantity of the
radiation changes-as shown by the alteration of the area under each curve--but the quality
of the radiation is una!tered-as shown by the- maximum photon energy and the peak photon
energy being at the same energy for ea.ch graph.

Fig. 3.9ca)

See Figure 3 .9Ca) which indicates the effect on the X-ray beam of altering the mA The
area under the graph for 200 mA is half of the area under the graph for 400 mA. The
 48

maximum photon energy (Emax) and the minimum photon energy are the same in each
case and the average photon energy remains unaltered.

Summary: We can say that the mA selectedfor an exposure affects the quan.tity of
the X-ray beam but does not ajfect the quality of the beam - an increase in the mA
will produce an increase in the quantity of radiation.from the target.

5.3 The effect of the target material on the X-ray beam

The atomic number of the target material has an effect on the X-ray beam from the tube.
The higher the atomic number of the target material the more positive charge in the
nucleus of the target atom and so the more the force of attraction between the electrons
from the filament which pass close to it and the positive charge of the nucleus. Thus the
production of X-rays by the Bremsstrahlung process is more efficient and the intensity of
the beam is increased. The intensities at all the photon energies increase with increase in
the atomic number so that the total intensity is approximately proportional to the atomic
number. The target material does not affect the maximum and the minimum energies in
the beam. (See Fig. 3 .1 o<a1

Intensity
of
radiation K-lines
Tungsten

Energy of X-ray photons (keV}

The effect of the target material on the X-ray spectrum. Note that the lower
atomic number of molybdenum means that there is a reduction In the quantity of the radiation
but the quality of the Bremsstrahlung radiation is not affected. The characteristic radiation is
at a lower photon energy for the target with the lower atomic number.

Fig. 3.to<a)

The target material also affects the characteristic radiation produced. The energies of the
characteristic radiations from a tungsten and a molybdenum target are sho\1\rn in the
following table:
 49

Energy from Ka-radiation from La-radiation

Tungsten 59,32 keV 8,39 keV
Molybdenum 17,48 keV 2,22 keV

Summary: Although the target material does not affect the quality ofthe
Bremsstrahlung radiation, it does affect the energy ofthe characteristic radiation
and this does have some effect on the overall quality of the X-ray beam- this
effect may be enhanced by filtering the radiation with the same material as the
target material. The intensities ofall the photon energi,es increase with increase
in atomic number so that the total intensity is approximately proportional to the
atomic number.

5.4 The effect of rectification on the X-ray beam

The type of high-tension rectification of the X-ray generator affects the spectrum of
radiation produced at the target of the X-ray tube. If the instantaneous value ofthe
applied voltage is constant, as in a set with a constant potential generator, the spectrum of
the X-ray beam during every small interval of time will be the same. If, however, the
instantaneous value of the applied voltage is not constant, e.g. in a set with self-
rectification or with pulsating voltage, the spectmm changes from moment to moment as
the voltages across the tube changes. Consequently, the shape of the average or overall
spectrum in the latter case is different from the shape of the spectrum produced at
constant potential because it includes a greater prop01tion of low energy radiation. (Fig.
3.ll(a))

Summary: The rectification - or the type ofX-ray generator- affects both the
quantity and the quality ofthe X-ray beam produced The nearer the voltage
across the tube is to a constant potential, the higher the quantity and the quality
ofthe radiation produced at the target.

5.5 The effect of filtration on the X-ray beam

1n all the discussions so far we have considered the beam ofX-radiation produced at the
target of the X-ray tube in its virgin state, i.e. unaffected by any interactions it may suffer
as it passes through matter. Before this radiation can be utilised in radiography or
radiotherapy, it must first leave the tube. In leaving the tube the radiation beam must first
pass through the glass of the tube insert, the oil in the housing, which sun-ounds the tube,
and finally the window of the housing- plus any additional filtration. It is filtered at each
stage of this process. Thus, to consider the beam that will interact with the patient, we
need to consider the effect of filtration on the spectrum of radiation produced at the tube
target.
 50

kV

l
intensity

A C
(a) Energy

Intensity

Energy
{b}
(a) The spectrum of radiation produced if a constant potential of value B or C
were applied across the X-ray tube; (b} shows the effect of rectification on the X-ray ·
spectrum where the constantcpotential generator produces radiation of higher quantity and
higher quality.

Fig. 3.11(a)

Consider spectrum A in Figure 3.12<a) which shows the distribution of the energies
emitted from the tube target. This is the spectrum of the radiation before it leaves the
 51

glass envelope of the tube. When a beam of radiation passes through any medium, the
beam is attenuated by the processes of absorption and scattering. We will see later that
the lower the photon energy, the higher the chance of it being absorbed or scattered. So
the passage of the X-ray beam through the glass envelope, the oil and the exit window of
the shield result in selective attenuation of the lower-energy photons. Since this filtration
is inherent to the tube construction, it is known as inherent filtration of the specific X-ray
tube. The spectrum emitted after inherent filtration is shown as spectrum Bin the figure.

This beam still contains a significant number oflow-energy photons. If these were
allowed to interact with the tissues of a patient, they would be absorbed by superficial
tissues and so would contribute to the patient dose but would make no contribution to the
radiograph or to the tumour treatment in the case of radiotherapy. This amount of low-
energy photons in the spectrum can be significantly reduced by applying additional
filtration into the beam, usually near the exit port of the tube, before it interacts with the
patient's tissues. This is shown in spectrum C of the figure. This is called addedfiltration
and the total.filtration is the sum ofthe added filtration and the added filtration.

·Intensity

Energy
The effect of mtration on the X-ray spectrum. Graph A represents the spectrum
produced at the target of the X-ray tube; .graph B shows how thls spectrum is modified
because of the ir.t1erent filtration of the tube; and graph C shows how tile spectrum is
modified because of the total rntration. Note that rntration causes a reduction in the qua.nlltvof
the radiation but an increase in the quality. .,

Fig. 3.t2Ca)

.... - - · · - - · · · · · ------------------
 52

Summary: J<zltration qffects both the quantity and the quality of the X-ray beam -
the greater the thickness of the filtration in the X-ray beam, the less the quantity
but the greater the quality of the X-ray beam emergi,ngfrom the X-ray tube.

5.6 Summary of the factors affecting the guantity and quality of the X-ray beam

The factors, which affect the quantity and/or quality of the beam ofX-radiation emerging
from a tube, are summarised in the following table:

Produces an increase in the

The quality of the radiation from
quantity of radiation directly
Increase in tube cmTent (m.A) the tube is unaffected by the tube
proJX)rtional to the increase in
current
mA
An increase in the kVP produces
Increase in the potential an increase in the average energy
difference (kVp) across the X-
Produces an increase in the
quantity
of the photons in the X-my beam 0
ray tube and so an increase the beam
uali
A change in the atomic munber
will produce no change in the
An increase in the atomic munber quality of the beam produced by
of the target material will produce the Bremsstrahlung process. A
an increase in the quantity of higher atomic number will
Target material
radiation produced directly produce characteristic radiation
proportion.al to the change in the of higl1er energy and, if this is in
atomic munber significant amounts, it may
increase the quality oftl1c overall
s ctrum
The closer the voltage waveform The closer the voltage waveform
across the X-ray tube is to a across the X-ray tube is to a
Rectification
constant potential the greater the constant potential the higher the
uanti · of radiation roduced uali of radiation roduced
Filtration reduces the quantity of
Filtration improves tlte quality of
radiation emerging from tJ1c X-
the radiation from an X-ray tube
Filtration ray tube. The reduction is related
by the selective removal of low-
to the tliickness and the atomic
energy photons
munber of the filter

(a) GRAHAM, Donald T - ''Principles ofRadiologi,cal Physics.''

(b) BUSHONG, Stewrut C - "Radi.ological Science for Technologists."
(c) BALL, iohn & MOORE, Adriaan D - "Essential Physics for Radiographers."
 53

CHAPTER4

THE INTERACTION OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA

RAYS WITH MATTER

There are a number of mechanisms by which electromagnetic radiation can interact with
matter. The probability that any one of them will come into play depends on the energy
of the photons and on the chemical and phys;calfonn of the matter with which they
might interact. In this chapter we will consider the interaction of X-rays and gamma rays
with matter. It is important to note that X-rays and gamma rays are exactly the same type
of radiation; it is only the way in which they are produced that differs. They will
therefore interact in a similar way with matter. We will therefore consider the interactions
of X-rays, remembering that for gamma rays it would be the same.

1. POSSIBLE INTERACTIONS

When a beam of X-rays interacts with a medium, for example an area of patient tissue,
there are a number of possible interactions between the X-ray photons and the atoms of
the medium. See Figure 4.1 <a>. If we consider photon (A) we see that this interacts with an
atom of the medium and it is deflected from its path. This deflection may or may not be
accompanied by a loss of photon energy. This process is known as scattering. Photon (B)
interacts with an atom of the medium and loses all of its energy to the atom. This process
is known as absorption. The third photon, photon (C), passes through the material
without interacting with any of the atoms. We say that it is transmitted through the beam. ·
Photon A Photon C Photon B

.--c:-=::..._---,~:::::::::----i:-c::=::==-...., Intensity is
measured
in the
.__....::-.____,=-----::,.._"""""'_ __ __,,__=---' rectangle

Intensity is
measured
in the
'--- - - - - - - - ' . ; . . _- = = = - - - - - - - - l rectangle

Mechanisms cf interaction of X-ray photons with matter. Photon A is scattered,

photon Bis absorbed and photon C is transmitted. Note that the number of photons passing
through the lower rectangle is less than the number passing through the upper rectangle and
so attenuation has taken place.
F • 4 • l(a)
1g.
 54

Ifwe measure the intensity of the beam of radiation (i.e. the energy per unit area per unit
time) in a given area before it interacts with the medium and again in a similar area after
the interactions, we will find that the intensity has decreased after passing through the
medium - the beam of radiation has been attenuated.

Attenuation: Attenuation is the reduction ofthe intensity ofa beam as it passes

through a medium.

Absorption: Absorption is the transference ofenergy from the radiation to the

medium; after transfer, the energy is present ;n the medium initially as kinetic
energy ofelectrons.

Scattering: Scattering is a change in the direction ofa photon (due to an

interaction with the medium), with or without loss ofenergy by the photon.

The reactions considered so far involve an interaction between a photon and an orbiting
electron rather than between a photon and the nucleus of the atom. (We will discuss this
in more detail.) For an interaction to occur, a photon must pass close to the electron
orbitals of the atom with which it is capable of interacting. Thus we can consider the
atoms in a medium as targets which, if hit, will attenuate a photon from the primary
radiation beam.

The energy, which is absorbed by the medium, causes the changes that we observe in the
medium, e.g. chemical and biological changes. The energy is absorbed by different
processes and is conve1ted initially into kinetic energy of electrons in the medium. The
electrons then move through the medium producing ionization and excitation of atoms
and molecules resulting in turn in chemical changes. ·

If the radiation is passing through biological material, the ionization and excitation may
occur in biologically important molecules, thus damaging or killing cells by direct action.
Alternatively, cells may be damaged or killed as a consequence of chemical changes
produced in the medium surrounding them, which is largely water; this is knov.,n as
indirect action. (We will discuss this in the section on Radiation Protection.)

2. THE TRANSMISSION OF A HOMOGENEOUS .BEAM THROUGH A

MEDIUM

2.1 Homogeneous and heterogeneous beams

A beam of X-rays or gamma rays may be regarded as a stream of photons, each photon
having energy of a certain value. In a homogeneous (monochromatic or
monoenergetic) beam all the photons have the same energy, for example in the case of
gamma radiation where the gamma ray photons emitted from a radionuclide will all have
the same characteristic energy. In a heterngeneous beam, however, the photons are not
all of the same energy; their energy covers a range of values, for example in the
continuous spectrum of X~radiation.
 55

We shall first deal with the attenuation of a homogeneous beam of radiation, because it is
simpler, and then with the attenuation of a heterogeneous beam.

2.2 The Exponential law

As a parallel beam of homogeneous"' radiation passes through a uniform medium, equal

thicknesses of the medium attenuate the beam by a constant fraction. If, for example, a
10 mm thickness of a medium attenuates a beam by a factor of one half, then the
remaining half of the beam is transmitted through that thickness. The next 10 mm of the
medium will attenuate the beam by a further factor of one half, so that one-quarter of the
initial intensity remains after passing through a total of20 mm. A further 10 mm of
medium will attenuate the radiation by one half again, so that one-eighth of the initial
intensity is transmitted through 30 mm, and so on.

This type ofrelationship is known mathematicaJly as an exponential Jaw. If the intensity

of the radiation transmitted (expressed as a percentage of the initial intensity) is plotted
against the thickness of the medium traversed, it results in an exponential curve. (See
Figure 4.2'b)) This transmission curve can be represented by the equation
I= 1oe·µ 1
Where I is the intensity transmitted through thickness t,
10 is the initial intensity of the beam, i.e. when t = 0
e is a mathematical constant (e = 2,718281828), and
µ is the total linear attenuation coefficient of tl1e medium for the energy of the
particular radiation.

Hotf - volue loyer = 10 mm

70

60 ]-
so I- - - - - - , Aller: holf - vuiue ioyer
I
40
:,Q I
25 - - - - ~ - -
20
12 5 - - - - -[- - -
10

00 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Thickness of rnedium ,n mm ( linear qroori scole I

A transmission curve. plotted on linear graph scales. for homogeneous radiation

passing through a medium.

. 4 .2(b)
.F 1g.
 56

In Figure 4.2Cb\ the transmission curve is plotted with linear scales for both axes of the
graph. It resulted in an exponential curve. Ifwe take the log on both sides of the above
equation, it is possible to obtain an equation, which has the form of a straight-line curve
(Y = mX + c).
logJ = Iog(J 0 e-µ1 )
log/= log(e-µ')+ log/0
log] =-µt+log/0

From this it is clear that if we re-plot the curve using a logarithmic scale (i.e. one in
which equal distances along the axis represents equal ratios of the quantity} for the
intensity axis and a linear scale for the thickness axis, a straight line will be obtained.
The slope of the straight line is numerically equal top. (See Figure 4.3<bl). We would also
obtain a straight-line curve if we plot the value of log I versus the thickness ton linear
· graph paper.

Holt -value ioyer , :0 mm

-'. _ _ _ _ After 2 l'lolf-voiue 1oyers

I

io 5 10 :5 20 25 30 •ll)
Th1ckness of rl"IE:-dnJm 1n mm l hneo, •1rooh c:roi.:. ~

. .· A transmission curv~, ploth!d on log-lim:ar ~raph scak~. for IH>m<H!cncous

ra<l1at1on. -

Fig. 4.3<v>

2.3 Attenuation coefficients

The effectiveness of a medium as an attenuator or "absorber'' of radiation passing

through it is measured in terms of an attenuation coefficient such as the total linear
attenuation coefficientµ.
Total linear attenuation coefficient: The total linear attenuat;on coefficient is the
fractional reduction in the intensity ofa parqllel beam ofradiation per unit
thickness ofthe medium traversed.
 57

The coefficientµ is called total because it includes all the processes by which the
radiation is attenuated. It is called linear because the attenuation per unit tJ1ickness of
medium is being considered.

The value ofµ for a given medium and for a homogeneous beam of given energy can be
calculated if the half-value layer is known. We know that the intensity I= 1h10 when the
thickness tis equal to the half-value layer (h. v.l.), therefore:

_!_Io =loe-µ(h.v.1>
2
In!= ln(e-µ(n.vl.J)
2
- 0,693 == -µ(h.v.l.)
0,693
µ=---
(h.v.l.)
The units of p are "per unit thickness,,, e.g. mm· 1 or c111· 1, because it is defined as a
fraction (a number without dimensions) per unit thickness.

The value of the total linear attenuation coefficient depends on the probability of
interactions or "encounters" taking place between the X-ray photons in the beam and the
atoms of the attenuating medium. The number of interactions per unit distance traveled
through the medium depends on two fundamental properties of the attenuating medium:
(i) The "target area" presented to the incoming X-ray photons by each of the atoms in
the medium. Photons are more likely to interact with large atoms (which present
them with a bigger target) than small atoms. Consequently, the photons are more
likely to suffer encounters in a medium with a high proton number (whose atoms
possess lots of orbital electrons) than in a medium with a low proton number (i.e.
the Z-number).
(ii) The spacing between the atoms in the medium (i.e. the number of atoms per unit
volume). Encounters are more likely to occur in a medium in which the atoms
densely packed than in a medium in which the atoms are more widely spaced. A
dense medium therefore provides a higher probability of interactions than a less
dense medium, even if it has the same Z-number. For example, if a medium is
compressed or changes its physical state from solid to liquid or to gas, the value of
Ji changes.

The linear attenuation coefficient of a medium therefore varies with density, even for the
same medium. This makes it extremely difficult to provide tables of linear attenuation
coefficients, because not only must different values be provided to correspond with
different energies, but the possibility of changes in the density (p) of the medium must
also be considered.

In order to eliminate the complicating effect of density on the linear attenuation

coefficient it is usual to divide by the density. The result (pip) is known as the total mass
attenuation coefficient and its value for a given medium is quite independent of density.
 58

Total mass attenuation coefficient: The total mass attenuation coefficient is the
fractional reduction in the intensity of the radiation per unit mass ofthe medium
traversed by a parallel beam ofunit cross-sectional area.

The dimensions ofµ are (cm· 1) and that of pare (g.cni"\ so that the units of µIp are
(cm 2.g1). The SJ. unit of mass attenuation coefficient is the square meter per kilogram
(nl.kg-1)_

3. ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING PROCESSES

A fundamental relationship of electromagnetic radiation is that it normaily interacts with

structures similar in size to the wavelength of the radiation. X-rays have very small
wavelengths, approximately 10·3 to 10·9 m. The higher the energy of an X-ray, the sho1ter
is its wavelength. Consequently, low-energy X-rays (longer wavelength) tend to interact
with whole atoms, which have diameters approximately 1 0·9 to 10· 10 m. Moderate-energy
X-rays generally interact with electrons; and high-energy X-rays generally interact with
nuclei.

There are five different processes by which X-rays and gamma rays may be absorbed or
scattered when they pass through a medium:
a) Classical or unmodified scattering
b) · Photoelectric absorption
c) Compton or modified scattering
d) Pair production
e) Photonuclear disintegration

The amounts of absorption and scattering and the proportions of the individual processes
that occur when a beam passes through a medium depend on: (a) the energy ofthe
radiation, and (b) the atomic number ofthe medium. This will be considered for each
process.

3.l Classical or unmodified scattel'ing

Classical or unmodified scattering can occur when the photons in the beam have energies
which are small compared to the binding energies of electrons in the atoms of the
medium. The process therefore takes place mainly with long-wavelength (i.e. low photon
energy) radiation and a medium of high atomic number (high binding energies).

In this process the incoming photon collides with an electron and raises its energy but
does not give it sufficient energy to become excited or ionized. The electron then returns
to its previous energy level by the emission of a photon, which is equal in energy to the
incoming photon, but in a different direction - hence scatter;ng has occu1Ted. (See Figure
4.4Cc)) The photon is scattered predominantly in the forward direction. There is no
absorption of energy by the medium and the attenuation, although present, is small since
the majority of the photons are only scattered through a small angle. This is particularly
so if the energy of the photon is higher than 100 eVand the atomic number of the
attenuator is relatively low.
 59

INCIDENT X-RAY SCATTERED x-RAY

Classical scattering is an interaction between low-energy x-rays and

atoms. The x-ray loses no energy but changes direction slightly. The wavelength of
the incident x-ray is equal to the wavelength of the scattered x-ray.

Fig. 4.4<c)

In medical radiography, the effect of classical scattering can be largely ignored since the
average atomic number of tissue is low (approximately 7,4) and the photon energy is too
high to allow significant classical scattering.

3.2 Photoelectric absorption

Photoelectric absorption can occur when an incident photon has energy equal or greater
than the binding energy of an electron in an atom of the medium. In this case the photon
can ionize the atom by ejecting an electron from a shell. The incident photon gives up all
its energy to the atom, i.e. a process ofabsorption. The electron, known as the secondary
electron or photoelectron, is ejected with kinetic energy equal to the energy of the
incident photon minus the binding energy. Mathematically, this is shown as:
Ei = EB + EKE
Where E; is the energy of the incident photon, E 8 is the binding energy of the electron
and EKE is the kinetic energy of the photoelectron.

An electron jumping inwards from another shell farther away from the nucleus then fills
the vacant site in the shell. This transition is accompanied by the emission of
charactel'istic X~radiation in the form of a secon~ary photon whose energy is equal to
the difference between the binding energies of the two shells involved in the transition.
(See Figure 4.5(c))

........ ·---------------------
 60

--·- - - ........ - - - - - · - - -·- - ···-------_,......... _____________ ----·-·---·---····--·. -

<::) PHOTOElECTRON

~e-._-
l·H I . ,,----0 . -

X·RAN\Jv--1 ! ~) \ ~
*
INCIDENT

(3 \
-\ 0 ·_· j0J
"e ~"--e-- /
~--8
Photoelectric effect occurs when an incident x-ray is totally absorbed
during the ionization of an inner-shell electron. The incident photon disappears,
and the K-shell electron, now called a photoelectron, is ejected from the atom.

Fig. 4.s<c)

In this process, no scattering occurs because the incident photon gives up all its energy
and ceases to exist. Energy is absorbed and is present in the medium initially as the
kinetic energy of the photoelectron. This then moves through the medium giving up its
energy by producing ionization or excitation in other atoms.

3.2. l Effect of plwton energy on photoelectdc absorption

The probability of photoelectric absorption occurring at a particular shell is greatest when

the energy of the incoming photon just equals the binding energy of the electrons in that
she11. The probability is zero when the energy of the photon is less than the binding
energy of the electron and it decreases rapidly with increasing photon energies greater
than the binding energy. ·

A golving analogv(d)

A golfer uying to hole a putt must ensure that the ball is struck at the correct speed as well as in the right
direction. If the ball is hit too weakly it will not reach the hole and therefore cannot drop in. If the ball is hit
too strongly it may pass straight over the hole without dropping in. However, if the ball is struck correctly,
with just the right force, its chances of falling into the hole are very much greater, assuming, of course, that
its direction is co1Tect. (Note: This is an analogy and it is the energy, rather than the speed of photons,
which must be within certain limits for photoelecu·ic absorpti<;m to occur. All photons, whatever their
energy, travel at the same speed, i.e. 3 x 108 mis.)

Suppose the golfer visit the practice putting green. It is a level putting surface and the three practice holes
are positioned at different distances from the tee, all in exactly the same direction. To reach the furthest
holes, the golfer must therefore strike the ball hard enough for it to pass directly over the nearer holes. He
 61

has no problem striking the ball in the 1ight direction, but he tends to over hit or under hit the ball. To
practice, he tries hitting the balls towards the holes with gradually increasing force.

He strikes the first few balls so weakly that they do not even reach the first hole. He then snikes the balls
sufficiently hard to reach the first hole, and begins to hole his puts. He continues by striking the balls even
harder, but now his success rate falls: an increasing number of balls pass right over the first hole instead of
falling in. Yet they do not have sufficient momentum to take them onto the second hole. The harder he
strikes the balls, the lower his success rate becomes until, suddenly, he begins to strike the balls hard
enough to reach, and drop into, the second hole. His success rate therefore recovers.

When the golfer continues to persevere and strikes the balls with ever-increasing force, his success rate
again falls away until he strikes the balls hard enough to reach the third hole and the pattern is repeated.
Figure 4.6<dl shows graphically how the golfer's success rate at holing h.is putts varies with the force he uses
to strike the ball. How does this compare to photoelectric absorption?

Maximum success rates

100 - - - - - when the balls are struck
with just the right strength
Success
rate(%)
- - ~ , . . / - - - - - - ' . - - - - Success rates falling
because the balls are
overshooting the hole

I
I
I
I
0 /
This is the minimum
/
Minimum to
I
Minimum to
Striking
force
-

force needed to reach second reach third

reach the first hole hole hole

The golfer's record of success :it holing his putts on the practice green. He must hit the
ball with a certain minimum force even to reach the first hole. Bdow chat minimum level his success
rate wiil be zero because none of his attempts will reach the hole. Hitting the bail slightly too hard
results in some attempts passing over hole l (hut stopping before hole 2). His success rate therefore
reduces as his striking force increases. Hitting with a force equal to the hole 2 minimum suddenly
raises the success rate because balls can now reach and drop into hole 2. :\ similar pattern of changes
in success rate occurs when che striking force is increased further.

F.1g. 4 •6(<1)

The experience of the golf balls is analogous to those of X-ray photons interacting with
matter. To an incident photon ofX-radiation (the golf ball), an atom presents a number of
potential targets (the holes) that the photon can interact with (drop into) to produce
photoelectric absorption. Interactions that require tow energy generally involve the outer
shell electrons of atoms (represented by the nearer holes) whose binding energies are low.
Interactions requiring greater energy involve inner shell electrons (represented by more
distant holes) whose binding energies are much higher.
 62

Very low energy photons may not have enough energy even to remove electrons from the
outer shells of atoms. This is the case of non-ionizing radiation such as visible light.
However, as the energy of the incoming photons increases, a point is reached where such
ionization suddenly begins to occur (the success rate suddenly rises). Further increases in
photon energy result in a reduction in the likelihood of ionization (the balls pass over the
hole) until the next energy threshold is reached and electrons can be ejected .from that
level (the balls now reach the second hole).

This pattern of change - a gradual fall leading to a sudden increase - in the likelihood of
photoelectric absorption occurring, is repeated again and again as photon energy
increases, until the highest binding energy of the atom is reached (the final hole). Further
increases in photon energy then results in a final gradual decrease in the incidence of
photoelectric absorption. (Fig. 4.id))

,.o
Incidence of
photoelectric
absorption
(relative scale) · Ledge
- - (15.9keV)

0.5

Kedge
(88 keV)

o.l----------===:::!..-~-
\
o 20 . 40 60 80 100

Photon energy (keV)

The incidence of photoelectric absorption in lead ar different photon energies. The

graph shows that: (I) the probability of a photoelectric interaction occurring decreases markedly as
photon energy increases; (2) there are sudden changes in probability (known as absorption edges)
at specific photon energies, characteristic of the absorbing material (e.g. 15.9 keV and 88 keV for
lead).

. 4 •7(d).
F 1g.

If the incidence of photoelectric absorption is high, more attenuation will take place so
that the mass attenuation coefficient will be correspondingly higher. The total mass
attenuation coefficient is the sum of several coefficients each related to a different
 63

attenuation process. Part of the total mass attenuation coefficient is due to the attenuation
from photoelectric absorption, i.e. the mass attenuation for photoelectric absorption, rip.
(The component of the total linear attenuation coefficient(µ) due to photoelectric
absorption is represented by the symbol T.) Figure 4.s<d> shows how the mass attenuation
coefficient for photoelectric absorption, rip, changes with photon energy. This is very
similar to Fig. 4.id>. The discontinuities, where attenuation is suddenly increase, are
called absorption edges, for example the K-absorption edge, the L-absorption edge, etc.
The photon energies at which they occur depend on the binding energies of the medium
concerned. ·

120
PEMAC ='C/p
(cm 2 g- 11 Ledge
(15.9 keV)
100

80

60

\\
40 \
\

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

The variation in the photoelectric mass attenuation coefficient (PEMAC) for lead at
different photon energies. The value of PEMAC (t/p) for lead falls from around 120 cm 2 g-1 at
2
5 keV to 5 cm g-l at 110 keV. Sudden increases in the value oft/ p occur ar absorption edges, when
a further shell of electrons becomes susceptible to photoelectric interactions. For lead (Z = 82), at
beam energies above 15.9 keV, aJI the orbital electrons except those in the K shell are potential
targets for photoelectric interactions. Above 88 ke V, all 82 orbiul electrons are potential targets.
Note that only two absorption edges are illustrated in the diagram: lead has further L-, and M edges
(e.g. at 13 keV, 3 keV, and 2.5 keV), but these are grouped too closely together to show dearly on the
photon energy scale employed above.

F .1g. 4 .s<d>

Between the absorption edges the mass attenuation coefficient due to the photoelectric
effect (r/p) is approximately proportional- to I1£3. Quite small increases in photon energy
can therefore produce significant reductions in the amount of photoelectric absorption
taking place.
 64

3.2.2 EffecJ of attenuating medium (Z-number) on photoe\eddc @bso1rption

If the photon energy is kept constant, and a range of different attenuating media (i.e.
different Z-numbers) is considered, photoelectric absorption occurs to a much greater
degree in materials having a high Z-number. It has been found that the value of the mass
attenuation coefficient for photoelectric absorption (rip) is directly proportional to the
cube of the Z-number of the attenuator:
r
-ex:: zl
p
The significance of this is that for this form of attenuation, a slight change in the Z-
n umber of the medium produces a large change in the intensity of the transmitted beam
ofradiation. This sensitivity of photoelectric absorption to the Z-number ofthe attenuator
is of great significance in diagnostic radiography.

3.3 Compton or modified scatter

Compton or modified scatter can occur when an incident photon has much greater energy
than the binding energy of an electron in an atom of the medium, so that the electron
behaves as if it were free.

SCATTERED X-RAY

>. < X
. Compton effect occurs between moderate-energy x-rays and outer-shell
electrons. It results in ionization of the target atom, change in photon direction,
and redu.ction of photon energy. The wavelength of the scattered x-ray is greater
than that of the incident x-ray.

fig. 4,9(C)•

In this process (see Fig. 4.9<c>) the incident photon interacts with an outer shell electron
and ejects it from the atom, thereby ionizing the atom. The photon continues in an altered
 65

direction with decreased energy (increased wavelength). The energy of the Compton-
scattered photon is equal to the difference between the energy of the incident photon and
the energy imparted to the electron. The energy imparted to the electron is equal to its
binding energy plus the kinetic energy with which it leaves the atom. Mathematically,
this energy transfer is represented as:
Ei = Es + (Ea + EKE)

Where Ei is the energy of the incident photon, Es is the energy of the scattered photon, EB
is the binding energy of the electron; and EKE is the kinetic energy of the electron.

During a Compton interaction, most of the energy is divided between the scattered
photon and the secondary electron, also call<:Jd the Compton electron. Both the
scattered photon and the secondary electron may have sufficient energy to undergo many
more ionizing interactions before losing all their energy. Ultimately, the scattered photon
will be absorbed photoelectrically, and the secondary electron will drop into an atomic
shell vacancy created by some other ionizing event.

In this process, both scattering of the photon and absorption of energy take place. The
absorbed eri.ergy is present in the medium initially as the kinetic energy of the secondary ·
electron.

The increase in the wavelength (6J.) of the scattered photon depends on the angle e
through which it is scattered and it is independent of the composition of the medium and
of the actual wavelength of the photon. (Note: In Fig. 4.9<0 ) this angle is called the angle
of deflection.) Mathematically, the change in wavelength can be written as:
LJ,l = ,l' - }, = 0,0024 (1 - cosO) nm

Where ,l' is the wavelength of the scattered photon, ,l is the wavelength of the incident
photon; and 9 is the angle of deflection. Compton-scattered photons can be deflected in
any direction, including 180° from the incident photon. At a deflection of 0° no energy is
transferred as L'.I.A = 0. As the angle of deflection increases to 180°, more energy is
transferred to the secondaiy electron and it is a maximum at 180° where LU= 0,0048 nm.
In consequence, when sho1t-wavelength (high-energy) radiation is scattered through a
given angle, the percentage change in the wavelength is greater than when long-
wavelength (low-energy) radiation is scattered through the same angle. In other words,
when short-wavelength radiation is scattered by the Compton process, the change in the
quality is more marked than when long-wavelength radiation is scattered.

3.3.1 Effect of photon en.erg_p and attenuating medium on Compton scatter

We saw that the associated wavelength increase does not depend on the photon's original
wavelength, nor on the attenuating medium, but the angle through which the photon is
deflected. This angle tends to be smaller for photons with high energies (short
wavelengths) as they are less likely to be deflected off course by collisions with
electrons. The incidences of Compton scatter decreases as the photon energy of the beam
increases. This affects the mass attenuation coefficient due to the Compton effect (cr/p),
which also decreases as the photon energy is raised. Mathematically, we have:
 66

(j 1
-oc-
p E

See Figure 4.1 o(a} which shows the graph of the mass attenuation coefficient for the
Compton process (cr/p) versus the photon energy.

~
1C:
§_ 0.01
--
E
8
.2
~
C:
.9'?
.2 0.001 ''
l~ '~'
p '
~

0.0001 -+-----~-----.-----.----'''-----.---
''
0.01 0.1 l.O 10 lOO

Energy of photon (MeVI

The mass attenuation, mass absorption and mass scattering coetticients for
Compton scattering. As the energy increases, the absorbed energy (o.fi)J becomes an
increasing proportion ol the total energy of the interaction (alp}.
Fig. 4.lO<a)

In contrast to the photoelectric mass attenuation coefficient (;;/p), at a fixed energy the
value of the Compton mass attenuation coefficient (cr/p) depends on the density of the
attenuating medium rather than its atomic (Z) number. This means that cr/p is almost
independent of the composition of the medium. In other words, the mass attenuation
coefficient for the Compton process is approximately the same for all media.

3.4 Pair p1·oduction

Pair production can only occur when the photon energy exceeds 1,02 MeV. As the
photon passes close to the nucleus of an atom in the attenuating medium, it experiences a
strong electric force around the nucleus caused by the positive charges on ihe nuclear
protons. As a result, the photon undergoes a dramatic change of state: the photon's
ener~ is spontaneously transfonned into a pair of minute particles ofmatter. (See Fig.
4.11 c>). Hence the process is called pair production. The two particles created are
electrons. One of them is a nonnal electron, carrying a negative electric charge
(sometimes called a negatron). The other particle is called a positron, which is a particle
with a positive charge equal to that of an electron and mass also equal to that of an
electron. We say it is the anti-matter equivalent of an electron. The original photon of
radiation catTied no electric charge; and because the charges on a negatron and positron
are equal and opposite in magnitude(+ and - 1,6 x 10·19 Coulombs), the total electric
charge of the universe both before and after the pair production process did not change,
i.e. there has been no net gain or.loss of electric charge.
 67

POSITRON

Pair production occurs with x·rays that have energies greater than 1.02
MeV. The photon interacts with the nuclear force field. and two electrons that have
opposite electrostatic charges are created.

Fig. 4.11 (c)

Why must the iucident ehoto11 possess at least 1,02 MeV to produce Pair production? Cd)

In this process, mass and energy are seen to be interchangeable. Einstein showed that they are related by
the equation:
E=mc2
Where E is the energy needed to create mass m, and c is a constant equal to the velocity of electromagnetic
waves in vacuum (3 x I0 8 mis). Conversely, Eis the energy that will be produced if a mass m is completely
destroyed or annihilated.

The pair production process creates two particles whose total mass (m) is twice the mass of an electron,
31
which is 9,11 x 10· kg. Therefore: .
m = 2 X 9,1 l X 10'31 kg= 18,22 X 10"31 kg
Consequently, the energy equivalent (E) of the two pa1ticles created during pair production is:
E = mc2 = rn,22 x 10·31 kg x (3 x 108 mls)2 = 1,64 x 10· 13 Joules
19
However, I e V = 1,60 x I 0· Joules. Therefore:
E = (J ,64 X 10· 13 / 1,60 X 10" 19) eV = 1,02 X 106 eV = 1,02 MeV

Hence the combined mass of the negatron and positron created during pair production has a total energy
equivalent of 1,02 MeV. Consequently, at least 1,02 MeV of energy is required to produce these two
particles. The photon of radiation must therefore carry at least 1,02 Me V energy to cause pair production.

If the incident photon possesses more than 1,02 MeV of energy, the excess is shared
equally between the negatron and the positron as kinetic energy. Because all the original
energy of the photon has been transferred, the photon no longer exists. Both particles
move through the attenuating medium giving up their kinetic energies by producing
ionisation and excitation in the atoms of the medium. When the negatron slows down, it
is indistinguishable from the other ordinary electrons in the medium and when it
eventually comes to rest, a nearby atom captures it.

However, when the positron comes to rest a much more dramatic fate awaits it. It
combines with a normal electron and the two particles annihilate each other in a burst of
 68

radiation. This process of annihilation is the reverse of creation; the combined masses of
the positron and the negatron are converted into 1,02 MeV of energy. This energy is
radiated as two photons, each of energy 0,51 Me V, travelling at 180° to each other, i.e. in
opposite directions. These photons are known as secondary annihilation radiation. Pair
production is a process of true absorption because all the energy of the original photon is
transfonned. ·

3.4.1 Effect of photon energy and attenuating medium on Pair production

The mass attenuation coefficient due to pair production (nip) is zero at photon energies
below 1,02 MeV and increase as the energy increases above that value. (See Fig. 4.12<d))

0.1
PPMAC ~ -:tip
(cm2 g-11

0.01

1020 keV
.11.02 MeVl

0.001-+----------~----~---
,o 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Photon energy (keVl

V_ariation in the pair production mass attenuation coeffo.:ient (PPM.AC= nl p) for lead
at different photon energies. Note that on this occasion we have used logarithmic scales on both
axes. The value of it/ p is zero at energies below 1.02 Me V because pair production cannot take
place unless at least 1.02 MeV of energy is available (see Section 17.2.4). :-.,ore that unlike the other
processes of atrcnuation, pair production increases as photon energy increases.

Fig. 4.12<d)

If the photon energy is kept constant and the attenuating medium changed, nip is
proportional to Z2/A. As ZIA is approximately constant for all elements, for a given
photon energy, nip is approximately proportional to Z, i.e.
rrJp oc: Z

3.5 Photonuclear disintegration

Photonuclear disintegration can occur if an incident photcm has energy sufficiently high
for it to cause the nucleus of an atom of the attenuating medium to disintegrate, i.e. to
eject a particle such as a proton or a neutron. (See Fig. 4. l 3(c)) For the elements occurring
in tissue, photonuclear disintegration is most likely to occur at energies in the range 20 to
25 Me V, which is above the maximum energy available in most radiotherapy centres.
Even at these energies the .process is not nom1ally significant and it will not be
considered further.
 69

/'
e---·--- 0-
·-.,,....
INCIDENT x-RAY ·.._,

---
__,
• - =

•
NUCLEAR FRAGM £N l
Photodisintegration is an interaction between high-energy photons and
the nucleus. The photon is absorbed by the 11ucleus. and a nuc:ear fragment is
emitted.

Fig. 4.13<c>

3.6 Relative importance of the attenuation processes in Radiography

We have described five processes of interaction between a beam ofionising radiation and
an attenuating medium: (i) Classical or wunodified scattering; (ii) Photoelectric
absorption; (iii) Compton or modified scattering; (iv) Pair production; and (v)
Photonuclear disintegration. Which of these has the greatest effect on the X-ray and
gamma ray beams us_ed in clinical radiology?

For the radiation energies employed in radiology, we can immediately exclude two of the
above processes. Classical or unmodified scattering can be excluded because its
contribution is so small as to be negligible. Photonuclear disintegration only occurs at
very high energies that is not utilised in Radiology and can therefore also be excluded. It
is important to note that pair production does not take place at all in the diagnostic energy
range. It only contributes at energies above 1,02 MeV as used in radiotherapy for
example.

The relative importance of the photoelectric absorption process, the Compton scatter
process and the pair production process for air (Z ~ 7 ,6) and lead (Z = 82) is indicated in
Figures 4. l 4(a) and 4.1 S(a) respectively. In the graphs, the mass attenuation coefficients
('tip; cr/p; and n/p) for each of the processes taken separately, and the total mass
attenuation coefficient (µ/ p = -r/ p + cr/p + re/ p(e are plotted against photon energy for a
homogeneous bean1 of radiation. Figure 4.16 e) indicates the energy regions in which the
photoelectric, Compton, and pair production processes dominate, as functions of
(effective) atomic numbers.
 70

!!l
C 0.1
-~
.g AIR
Q)
8
C
.S!
~ 0.01
C
~
<O
<fl
<fl
(ti
-~---
p
2
0.001

0.0001 - + - - - --.-...__- --,---"'---"""T""--- - .

0.0, 0.1 1 10 100
Energy (MeV)
Mass attenuation coefficients for air-µ/p is the total mass attenuation
coefficient, tip is the mass attenuation coefficient due to photoelectric absorption, cr/p is the
mass attenuation coefficient due to Compton scattering and rc/p is !he mass attenuation
coefficient due to pair production. Also shown (broken line) is the total mass absorption
coefficient (µ,.Ip).
Fig. 4.14<a>

10

~
bi
jt;

!<I.I
c
(I.) LEAD
:Q 0.1
::c
Q)
0
<.l
C
.g
<tl
:::,
C:
~ O.Ql
co
<fl
tfJ
(ti
~

0.001
<1
p

0.0001
0,01 0.1 10 100
Energy (MeV)

Mass attenuation coefficients for lead-µ/p is the total mass attenuation

coefficient, tip_ is the m::i:s attenuation coefficient due to photoelectric absorption, cr/p is the
mass attenuation coeff1c1ent due to Compton scattering and rr/p is the mass attenuation
coefficient due to pair production. Also shown (broken line) is the total mass absorption
coefficient (µ,.Ip). ·

Fig. 4.ts<a>
 50,000

71
Pair Production
20,000 Dominant

10,000

5,000
s
-
· Compton
i 2,000 Dominant
~ 1,000
i...
(I)
tij
c:: 500
.g
0
a: 200

100

50
Photoelectric
Dominant

20

20 40 60 80 100
Atomic Number (Z)
Fig. 4.16<c>

At low photon energies, the total mass attenuation coefficient (µ/p) is large and is due
almost entirely to the .Photoelectric absorption process. As the photon energy increases,
the mass attenuation coefficient for photoelectric absorption (-r/p) decreases rapidly and
the Compton process becomes predominant. At higher energies still, the mass attenuation
coefficient for pair production (n/p), which is zero below 1,02 MeV, increases; and at
very high energies it supersedes the Compton process as the main contribution to the total
mass attenuation coefficient.

It is also clear that the photoelectric absorption process predominates up to higher

energies in a medium of high atomic number than it does in a medium of low atomic
number. This is because the mass attenuation coefficient for photoelectric absorption
(1:/p) depends on the atomic number ('t/p ex: z3), whereas the mass attenuation coefficient
for the Compton scatter process (a/p) is abnost independe·nt of the atomic number.
Similarly, pair production supersedes the Compton scatter process at lower photon
energies in a medium of high atomic number than it does in a medium of low atomic
number because the mass attenuation coefficient for pair production (1t/p) increases with
the atomic number. In consequence, the range of photon energies through which the
Compton scatter process makes the predominant contribution to the total mass
attenuation coefficient is much smaller in a medium of high atomic number than it is in a
medium of low atomic number.
 72

3.7 Real absorption coefficients

The attenuation coefficients considered above relate to the attenuation of the beam of X-
or gamma rays, i.e. to the removal of energy from the beam. Only a part of this energy is
truly absorbed by the medium; it is this part that produces the effects observed in the
medium, e.g. the chemical, photographic and biological changes. The other part is
scattered out of the berun. The absorption coefficients for each process (ta; <Ya; and 7ta) are
thus the fractions of the energy that is given up as kinetic energy to the electrons and
therefore absorbed in the medium. The scattering coefficients (crs and its) of each process
are the fractions of the energy that are taken away by the scattered photon.

Each attenuation coefficient can be divided into two parts, one relating to the energy that
is truly absorbed and the other to the energy that is not absorbed. For example, for the
Compton process;
alp~ cralp + crsf p
where crafp represents the.real or true mass absorption coefficient and relates to the
energy transferred to the recoil electrons, and
crsfp represents the energy scattered.

For photoelectric absorption we have

't/p = 'ta/p
because there is no scatter radiation in this process, only absorption. Note that when the
photoelectric process occurs in a medium of low atomic number (e.g. soft tissue), the
characteristic X radiation emitted, which represents the energy not absorbed in the
pho~oelectric process, has such low photon energy resulting from the low binding
energies of the electrons in the shells, that it is immediately absorbed by the medium.

For pair production, the scattered component (1ts) makes only a very small contribution
and we have
1t!p = nalp

4. THE TRANSMISSION OF A HETEROGENEOUS BEAM THROUGH A

MEDIUM

When a heterogeneous beam of radiation passes through a uniform medium, the

attenuation does not follow the exponential law as it does for a homogeneous beam. A
range of photon energies is present in a heterogeneous beam and, as the value of the
attenuation coefficient for a medium is not the same for all energies, different parts of the
spectrum of the heterogeneous beam are attenuated by different an1ounts. Consequently
the spectrum of radiation changes as it passes through the medium.

To illustrate this, think of a heterogeneous beam as a combination of many homogeneous

beams. For example, consider a heterogeneous beam as consisting of three superimposed
homogeneous beams; one with high photon energy, one with medium photon energy and
 73

one with low photon energy. Figure 4.1 id> shows such a beam being transmitted through
an attenuating medium.

_____ __,_
Attenuating
High enP.rgy Small reduction
medium
7 in intensity
component .. ~ . ., ,' .... ~
, ,'; .. ·:. ·~: 1 - -- - - --/
-- - - -- ---l
.. ;,_}/;):'1--- - -- -""-
Heterogeneous , Medium energy 7 ·: /· Medium reduction
·. :. ·· · '.<·: in intensity
X-ray beam . component ., .··. 1 -- - -- - ,/
. . ··.· .,··.
I
,t. ··-- .
..
... , .
low enf!rgy ·.·.. <·.:.. .·....
compo11ent .. ,,,,,·.· ·.
large reduction
in intensity

:\ todifi<.:ation of a heterogeneous beam by attenuation.

Fig 4.lid>

We can see that the high-energy component of the beam is attenuated to a lesser degree
than the low energy component. The transmitted beam, although reduced in intensity,
contains a greater proportion of high-energy photons than did the original beam before
attenuation. Most of the low energy photons are absorbed or scattered from the beam.
With sufficient attenuation we can transform a beam that contains a wide range of photon
energies into a beam that is almost homogeneous, containing mainly high-energy
photons.

For the range of energies usually encountered in radiology, where the photoelectric
absorption process and the Compton process predominate, the low energy end of the
spectrum is thus attenuated to a greater extent than is the high-energy end because the
attenuation coefficient(µ) is greater at low energies. Consequently, as a heterogeneous
beam passes farther into a medium, not only is the beam attenuated but also a larger
proportion of high-energy photons remain. The beam therefore becomes more
penetrating (i.e. harder) and has a greater half-value layer.

5. FILTRATION

The effect of attenuation we have described above is tem1ed filtration, and the
attenuators used for the purpose of mo.difying the beam in this way are known as filters.
It is thus possible, for most heterogeneous beams (i.e. all but those containing very-high-
energy photons), to select a medium of such an atomic number that the attenuation
coefficient increases greatly towards the low-energy end of the spectrum of the beam. If
the beam is passed through a filter comprising a layer of such a material, the low-energy
- - - - - - - - · --·----·····

74

photons are thus attenuated to a greater extent than are the high-energy ones;
consequently the low-energy radiation is filtered out of the beam. See Figure 4. t s<f).

REMOVE RETAIN

PHOTON ENERGY PHOTON ENEl\(:;y

A B
Filtration: A, Desirable; B, Practical.

Fig. 4.18<f)

We saw that filtration hardens the beam, i_e. a beam is more penetrating and therefore has
a greater half-value layer after filtration than before. This is very important in
radiography because very low energy photons are not needed in the beam because in
radiotherapy they do not penetrate to the deeper tissues of the body that are often being
treated, and in diagnostic work they do not reach the X~ray film and therefore do not
contribute to the formation of the radiographic image. Low energy photons are positively
harmful in both branches of radiography as they produce undesirable doses of radiation to
the patient's skin.

For safety reasons, beam filtration is an important feature of equipment design_ Some
degree of filtration is inevitable because an X-ray beam has to pass through parts of the
X-ray tube itself before emerging from the tube p01t, e.g. (i) the target itself; (ii) the glass
envelope; (iii) the insulating oil; and (iv) the tube port. (Fig. 4. l 9(d)) This is called the
inherent filtration of the tube.

To produce a sufficient effect on the beam, extra filtration is employed, known as added
filtration, in the fonn of thin sheets of metal such as aluminium_ The added filters are
attached to the tube casing over the exit port. The filter materials have to be chosen with
care to ensure that the beam is modified in the desired way, and to ensure that the added
filtration is not so thin as to be impractical to manufacture accurately. For X-rays
generated below about 120 kV p, a simple filter usually made of 1 to 2 mm of aluminium
is added, but from 120 kVP to about 2 MV composite filters made of layers of different
elements must be used. The primary element chosen for the first layer of a composite
filter is selected so that the attenuation coefficient increases greatly at the low·photon-
energy end of the spectrum, as the case of a simple filter. The elements usually chosen
are:
 75

Up to 120 kVp aluminium, simple filter

120 kVp to 250 kVp copper primary element
250 kVp to 800 kVp tin in a composite
800 kVp to 2 MV lead filter

One or more layers of elements ofprogressively lower atomic number must follow the
primary element in a composite filter. These secondary layers are necessary because the
lowest photon energies in the beam emerging from an X-ray set are less than the energy
at which the K-absorption limit for the photoelectric process occurs in the primary
element. The latter generates characteristic X-rays at energies near that of the K-
absorption limit that have to be attenuated by the secondary layers. Also, a band of low-
energy radiation "leaks" through the primary layer because of the sharp drop in the
attenuation coefficient at the K-absorption limit, and this has to be attenuated too. (Fig.
4.19(f))

1000

100

10

0 so ~8 100 ISO
keV.

UNFILTERED

lrAD FILTER.

IGO
keV.
. The filtration of a 200-kV•. X:ray b~am by lead. In this, and several following
d1agra~. the upper part shows the variation With photon energy of the linear attenuation
coefficient for the filter metal concerned, whilst the lower part shows the spectra of the filtered
aad unfiltered beams.

Fig. 4,19<f)

·--··· ·--------------------------------------_.'._______
 76

We can see this in Fig. 4. l 9(f) from the curve of the attenuation coefficient against the
photon energy shown in the upper part. The K-absorption "edge" or limit for lead occurs
at 88 keV> so that photons, whose energies lie between about 60 and 88 keV, are much
less attenuated than those between 88 and 110 ke V. The net resu It is that more soft
radiation than is desirable is transmitted and the higher-energy photons are excessively
reduced.

A filter with copper as the primary element is supplemented by aluminium; tin is

supplemented by copper plus aluminium. Note that the element with the highest atomic
number must be on the side of the composite filter that is nearer to the X-ray tube. A
composite filter of tin, copper and aluminium is known as a Thoraeus filter.

6. THE TRANSMISSION OF A BEAM THROUGH BODY TISSUES

6.1 Body tissues

Body tissues can be considered as being of two main types, bone and soft tissue. The
essential difference between the two is that bone contains elements such as calcium (Z =
20) and phosphorus (Z::::: 15) that are of higher atomic number than those in soft tissue
such as hydrogen (Z = I) and carbon (Z == 6). The result is that bone has an effective
atomic number of about 14 and soft tissue has an effective atomic number of about 7.
Consequently, when the photoelectric absorption process predominates (at low energies),
the attenuation in bone is far greater than that in soft tissue because the mass attenuation
coefficient for the photoelectric process ('tip) is approximately proportional to z3. When
the Compton process predominates, this large difference in attenuation between bone and
soft tissue does not occur because the mass attenuation coefficient for the Compton
process (cr/p) is approximately independent of Z. If very high energies are involved and
pair production is therefore significant: the attenuation in bone is again greater than that
in soft tissue because the mass attenuation coefficient for pair production (n/p) is
approximately proportional to Z.

6.2 In diagnostie radiation

In diagnostic radiology, X-ray beams are generated over a wide range of tube voltages,
extending from as low as 20 kV (e.g. for mammography) to as much as 150 kV (e.g. for
high kilovoltage chest radiography). Depending on the type of high-tension generator
used, this range of tube kilovoltage may represent a range of effective photon energies
that extends from about 15 to I 00 ke V.

The image formed is basically a "s~adow picture" produced by the X-rays. The
attenuation of the radiation as it passes through the structure of interest depends on: (i)
the mass attenuatfon coefficient of the structure) (ii) the density of the structure, and (iii)
the thickness of the structure. The contrast in the image consequently depends on the
difference in one or more of these three factors between the structure and the surrounding
tissue.
 77

At photon energies below 25 keV (equivalent to X-rays generated at about 50 kVp) the
photoelectric process predominates in both bone and soft tissue. Consequently bone,
which contains elements of higher atomic number than soft tissue) has a much larger
mass attenuation coefficient and the image of a bony structure produced at these energies
has a high contrast.

If the photon energy is increased) the proportion of Compton interactions increases; the
difference between the mass attenuation coefficients becomes less with the result that the
contrast decreases. There is also an increase in the amount of scattered radiation arriving
at the film or screen that further reduces the contrast. The Compton attenuation depends
on the density of the structure rather than the atomic number. It is widely believed that
Compton scatter is wholly detrimental to the image because of the reduction in contrast
caused by some of the scattered radiation aniving with more or less uniform intensity
over the area of the film or screen. However) when the predominant attenuation process is
the Compton scatter process) the contrast in the image is produced by Compton
interactions. It is the "by-product" of the Compton attenuation process) i.e. the scattered
radiation) which may reduce the contrast) therefore adversely affecting the image.

Note that the patient himself acts as a filter; the radiation emerging from the patient that
reaches the film or screen has a different spectrum from that incident on the patient.

If the anatomical structure to be studied does not differ sufficiently in attenuating

prope1ties from the adjacent tissues to produce adequate contrast, it is sometimes possible
to introduce into the structure a medium which is either more or less opaque to the
radiation than the surrounding tissues. This is called a contrast medium. Contrast media
that are more radio-opaque than soft tissue contain elements with atomic munbers
considerably higher than those in soft tissue: e.g. preparations containing iodine (Z = 53)
and barium (Z = 56). Their mass attenuation coefficients for the photoelectric absorption
process are consequently very high. Contrast media that are less radio-opaque than soft
tissue are gasses, e.g. air or carbon dioxide. Their densities are much lower than that of
soft tissues.

6.3 In radiotherapv

In radiotherapy the difference in the attenuation between bone and soft tissue due to the
photoelectric process results in a larger absorption of energy or absorbed dose in bone
than in soft tissue up to homogeneous photon energies of about 150 keV (which
corresponds to X-rays generated up to about 350 kV p), If bone is traversed by the
radiation when soft tissue is being treated at these energies, the bone will receive an
excessively high absorbed dose. Higher photon energies are therefore employed to treat
tumours underneath or near bone so that absorption in both the bone and soft tissue is
mainly by the Compton process; the mass attenuation coefficients are therefore
approximately the same. Equipment that produces X- or gamma rays of energy 1 MeV or
higher is therefore used for this purpose. At very high energies, pair production would
again result in greater absorption in bone, but this is not usually significant in practise.
 78

When calculating the absorbed dose, the contribution made by scattered radiation arising
from the Compton process must be taken into account. The absorbed dose at a point on
the surface of a patient or at a depth in the patient (the depth dose) has twu main
components, that due to absorption of the primary radiation from the incident beam and
that due to absorption of the scattered radiation passing through the point. The scattered
radiation is of lower energy than the primary radiation. The amount of scattered radiation
increases as the Compton process becomes more predominant and it also increases with
the volume of tissue in-adiated, i.e. with the field size used.

(a) GRAHAM, Donald T - "Principles of Radiological Physics."

(b) HAY, George A & HUGHES, Donald- "First-Year Physics for Radiographers."
(c) BUSHONG, Stewart C - "Radiological Science for Technologists."
(d) BALL, John & MOORE, Adrian D - "Essential Physics for Radiographers."
(e) WOLBARST, Anthony B- "Physics of Radiology."
(f) MEREDITH, W.J. & MASSEY, J.B. - "Fundamental Physics of Radiology."
 79

CHAPTERS

X-RAY AND GAMMA RAY MEASUREMENTS

l. THE BASIS OF THE MEASUREMENTS

The measurement of a quantity of X- or gamma radiation can be based on any effects

produced by the radiation, e.g. photographic effects, chemical effects or ionisation. Some
effects are readily measurable only if large quantities of radiation are involved and some
depend very much on the quality of the radiation producing them. Consequently the use
that can be made of these effects is limited.

The effect that is most suitable for general use over a wide range of qualities is the
ionisation produced in air by the radiation. This measure of quantity is known as
exposm·e. The amount of ionisation produced is related to the energy absorbed by the air
and is measured by collecting the ions formed.

Air is chosen as the material in which measurements are made, for several reasons. Not
only is it readily available everywhere, and inexpensive, but also because its composition
is universally almost constant. However, the main advantage of air as the medium for
measurement lies in the fact that its atomic number is almost identical with that of muscle
tissue. The effective atomic number of air (i.e. the effective atomic number of a mixture
of elements is a kind of average of the atomic numbers of the individual elements) is 7,64
whilst that for muscle is 7,42. For this reason the mass absorption coefficients of air and
muscle are very similar. Thus; for radiation of any energy, the energy absorbed per unit
mass of air will be practically the same as the energy absorbed per unit mass of muscle
tissue. Measurements of ionisation of air, therefore, give direct information aoout
ionisation, and hence energy absorption, in the most important type of body tissue.

2. EXPOSURE

When an X-ray beam passes through air, it produces excitation and ionisation of the air
molecules. The secondary electrons ejected in this first interaction (e.g. during
photoelectric absorption it is called the photoeiectron) can have sufficient energy to
ionise other atoms and so produce niore electrons. This is responsible for the great
majority of ionisations - often refen-ed to as secondary ionisations. The net effect on the
air 1s:
•The formation of electrical charges (i.e. ions) in the air by ionisation.
•The absorption of energy by the air as the electrical charges are slowed down by
collision with the air molecules (thus producing further ionisation).
• The consequent production of heat energy because of the transfer of energy to the
air molecules.
The measure of exposure concerns the first of these effects only and is a measure of the
amount of ionisation that occurs in air.
 80

Air in its normal state is a good electrical insulator because it contains no conduction
electrons. When it is ionised, however, there are many electrons that are released from
the atoms in the air, enabling it to conduct electric current. The m·ore radiation to which
the air is exposed, the better it is able to conduct electric current. By measuring the
electrical conductivity of the air, the quantity of radiation causing the ionisation may be
estimated;

The quantity of X- or gamma radiation measured in tenns of the ionisation produced in

air is known as exposure.

Exposm·e: Exposure is the quantity ofX- or gamma radiation measured as the

sum ofthe electric charges on all the ions of one sign produced in air when all the
secondary electrons liberated by the photons in q small mass ofair are
completely stopped in air.

The exposure at a particular point in a beam ofX- or gamma radiation is the ratio Qlm,
where Q is the total electrical charge of one sign (i.e. positive or negative) produced in a
small volume of air of mass m. Thus the S.I. unit of exposure are Coulombs per kilogram
(C.kg- 1) ofair. Differently stated, we can say that 1 C.kg- 1 is the X- or gamma ray
exposure that produces a total positive or negative ion charge of I coulomb per kilogram
of dry air. It is important to remember that exposure can only be defined for air and only
for X- and gamma radiation.
4
An older unit of exposure, the Roentgen (R) is still quite popular. (1 R = 2,58 x 10-
C.kg- 1)

The dosemeters, that employ the air ionisation effect of radiation, use an ionisation
chamber as the detection device. We shall look at two types of ionisation chamber
dosemeters, the "free air" ionisation chamber and the "thimble" chamber. The first is a
laboratory instrument while the second is used as a clinical dosemeter.

2.1 Free air ionisation chamber

This is an instrument for making accurate and absolute measurements of exposure. It

satisfies the conditions in the definition for exposure. It is a cumbersome instrument not
found in hospital depai1ments and is used for calibration purposes in national
standardizing laboratories (CSIR in Pretoria).

We will discuss it first because it demonstrates more clearly than other dosemeters the
principle of how ionisation chamber measurements are made. It consists essentially of a
box of air. A known mass of air is exposed to a beam ofX- or gamma rays and the ions
produced in the air are collected on two electrically charged metal plates. The total
charge collected is measured with an instrument called an electrometer. The amount of
charge (Q) is therefore known, and the mass of air (m) from which it was collected is also
known. Calculating the value of Q/m gives a direct measure of exposure.
 81
1500 volts
...
electrical - - -
supply
Positive plate .

Lead l
diaphragm I 'Active'
I volume
l
A B
I
X-ray I
D C
source I Collecting
I
X-ray I plate
beam I
1•

Air-filled
Guard plate
lead-lined
box

Electrometer

Fig. 19.l The free air ionisation chamber. Oiarges resulting from ionisation of the air in the
volume ABCD are largely confined within the collecting electric field (bounded by dashed lines).
Those charges which stray beyond the collecting field and are therefore 'lost', are replaced by an
equal number of charges straying into the collecting field from outside its boundaries. The sensitive
electromerer is thus able to monitor correctly the total charge originating from ionisation of the air in
ABCD.

Fig. 5.1 (a)

Figure 5.1 <a> shows the basic design of a free air ionisation chamber. Some of the features
in the diagram will be explained further: .
• The lead diaphragm restricts the size and shape of the radiation beam passing
through the chamber. The dimensions ofthe beam must be known so that the
volume ABCD and therefore the mass of air from which ions are collected can be
calculated. (Mass = density of air x volume ABCD).
• The electrically charged plates are sufficiently far apart to allow ions released by
the ionising effect of the radiation to dissipate their kinetic energy by undergoing
collisions with other atoms before they reach the plates. This increases to a
maximum the total charge produced.
• The charged plates have a sufficiently high potential difference applied to them to
ensure that all the ions released in the air are collected before they have a chance
to recombine and form neutral atoms.
• One of the charged plates is constructed with a "guard plate" around it at the
same potential (earth). This prevents any distortion of the electric field at the
edges of the volume ABCD, making it possible to calculate its exact volume.
 82

• The chamber is lead-lined to prevent extraneous radiation from entering and

distorting the measurements being made.
• Some ions formed within the volume ABCD move out of the collecting electric
field and are not measmed. They are replaced by an equal number of ions formed
outside the collecting electric field moving into the measuring field. This balance
is known as electronic equilibrium.
• A sensitive electrometer monitors accurately the total charge originating from
ionisations of the air in the volume ABCD.

Note: The mass of the air irradiated depends on the temperature and the pressure of air
and must therefore be corrected for the effects of these variations. If Po is the
density of air at a standard temperature (To) and pressure (Po), than the mass of
the air mo in the irradiated volume v, can be calculated as mo= pox v. At a new
temperature (T1) and pressure (P1) the density changes so the mass of air, m1,
being irradiated is given by:
To P1
m 1 =m0 x - x -
T1 Po
(We see that if the new temperature is higher than the standard temperature, there
will be a decrease in the density and if the new pressure is higher than the
standard pressme there will be an increase in the density.)

From the above it can be seen that the free air ionisation chamber is suitable for the
absolute measurement of exposme in air. This forms a standard against which other types
of dosemeters can be compared or calibrated. There are many such relative methods by
which absorbed dose may be estimated after the instruments used were calibrated against
a free air ionisation chamber.

2.2 The thimble ionisation chamber

The size and configuration of the free air ionisation chamber make it suitable for the
standardisation of radiation dose measurements but totally unsuitable for routine dose
measurements in a hospital environment - a plate separation of 5 meters would be
required if we needed to measure the dose rate a patient's skin from a 6°Co source!

The thimble chamber encloses a much smaller volume of air than the free air ionisation
chamber in order to reduce the size of the chamber. For this reason air equivalent
materials are employed in the manufacture of the walls of the chamber. These materials
have a similar effective atomic number to air (e.g. graph~te, bakelite, plastic) but are
much more dense. This means that their absorption properties are the same as the same
mass ofair. Thus they allow the chamber to behave as if it contained a much greater
volume of air than is actually present. When exposed to radiation, ions are liberated from
the walls of the chamber as well as from the air inside the chamber so maintaining
electronic equilibrium. Because of the use of air equivalent chamber wall, the size of the
chamber can be dramatically reduced from a cumbersome laboratory instrument to a
small chamber that may be the size of a thimble. A larger chamber can be employed if
greater s·ensitivity is required.
 83

Cap
Earthed connection
to graphite layer

~----i.4-"""--1---- Positive connection

to central electrode
Air
Insulating
seal
Central Graphite
electrode layer

Fig. 19.2 Construction of a thimble chamber.

Fig. 5.2(9)

Figure 5.ia) shows the construction of a typical thimble chamber. The wall or cap is
made of bakelite or plastic, coated on the inside with a layer of graphite. Both of these
combinations are air equivalent. Graphite is included to act as an electrical conductor
forming part of the electric circuit needed to collect the ions liberated by the exposure to
radiation, in other words it acts as one of the electrodes.

The central electrode is a thin rod of aluminium. It fonns t~e other part of the ion
collecting circuit. The central electrode is made positive with respect to the earthed
graphite, so electrons released from the cap and from the air inside the thimble chamber
are collected on the central rod. The rod is held in position by an insulating seal which
closes off the chamber.

The chamber is then connected by an electrically screened cable to an instrument (an

· electrometer) that will measure the charge collected on the central electrode or the
ionising current (i.e. the charge per second). These readings must be corrected for
temperature and pressure.

We see that ionisation chamber instruments may be used in either of two modes of
operation (see Fig. 5.J<b>:
• As a dosemeter, it measures the total exposure over a specific time period. Used
in this way the charge collected on the central electrode is stored on a capacitor.
By measuring the voltage, V, across the capacitor with capacitance C> the amount
of charge collected, Q, can be calculated from t~e following equation: Q = C x V.
This mode is suitable for monitoring radiographic exposures.
• As a doserate meter, it measures the exposure produced per unit time. The charge
collected per unit time by the central electrode is found by measuring the electric
current(= charge/unit time) flowing in the circuit. Again> by measuring the
voltage, V, across a resistor with resistanc~ R in the circuit, the current, /, can be
 84

calculated from the equation: / = V/R. This mode could be used to check
exposure rate during fluoroscopy, where the X-ray exposure is continuous.

BATTERY

l
I.R

+
&ATTEIW
I
8
Fig. 62.-The basic circuits of A, the Exposure meter aod B, the Exposure-rate meter.

Fig. 5.3<b>

Despite the introduction of SI units, it is still .common to see radiation exposure expressed
in roentgens (R) rather than in coulombs per kilogram of air. However, some instruments ·
express their readings in units such as micrograys (µGy) that suggests they are measuring
absorbed dose rather than exposure. To understand this we will now define what is meant
by absorbed dose.

3. ABSORBED DOSE

When matter is irradiated with ionising radiation it is important to know how much
energy is transferred from the radiation to the material exposed. This is particularly so
where the material is living tissue because the effect of radiation on tissue is closely
related to the amount of energy it absorbs. The quantity of energy transferred from the
radiation is known as the absorbed dose.

Absorbed dose: Absorbed dose is the energy imparted by the radiation to the
medium per unit mass ofthe medium.
 85

The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy) that represents one joule of energy
absorbed per kilogram of material. An older unit of absorbed dose called the rad
(radiation absorbed dose) may still be encountered.
1 rad= 10-2 Gy
In diagnostic imaging, the levels of absorbed dose are likely to be expressed in milligray
(mGy) or rnicrogray (µGy).

The value of absorbed dose depends on both the photon energy of the beam and on the
type of absorbing medium. A high-energy beam normally produces less absorbed dose
than a low energy beam of the same intensity because more of its photons are transmitted
without absorption. A material having a high effective atomic number receives a higher
absorbed dose than a material of low atomic number exposed to the same beam because
more absorption interactions take place.

Dose can be expressed either in terms of cumulative value, totalled over a period of time,
quoted in gray, or in terms of doserate, which is the dose absorbed per unit time, quoted
in gray per second (Gy.s- 1). Cumulative dose and doserate are related: if doserate is
constant1 then ·
Cwnulative dose = doserate x time
Where time represent the length of time over which the dose is measured.

There is another method of expressing radiation dose that more closely reflects the effects
ofradiation on living tissues. The measurement, known as equivalent dose, will be
discussed later when we explore the principles ofradiation protection.

3.1 Kerma measurements

Exposure is a measurement that is strictly only obtainable from a free air ionisation
chamber in which true electronic equilibrh.m1 is achieved. Only in these circumstances
can we be sure that we have accounted for and recorded all the energy deposited in the
attenuating medium (in this case air), and can therefore convert exposure into an
absorbed dose measurement. In practical dosemeters, having much smaller dimensions,
we are unable to record all the energy deposited because some of this energy will escape
outside the volume of attenuator we are monitoring. For example, the photoelectrons and
Compton electrons resulting from X-ray interactions with matter may travel some
distance before coming to rest and therefore be out of range of our charge collecting
system. In such cases, the amount of energy we are able to record is less than the total
energy removed from the beam.

The quantity that we actually measure, with our relatively small volume of attenuator, is
known as the kerrna (kinetic energy released per unit mass). Like absorbed dose, it is
measured in joules per kilogram (i.e. in gray) but it represents the energy deposited in a
small volume of attenuator. For diagnostic radiation the values ofkerma and absorbed
dose are practically identical, but when the radiation is of high energy (i.e. mega-
electronvolts) they may differ considerably:
 86

Kenna= absorbed dose (diagnostic energies)

The concept of kerma can be applied to any attenuating medium, but if kenna
measurements are derived from the deposition of energy in air (e.g. in an ionisation
chamber) they are known as air kerma. Dosemeters are normally calibrated to indicate
either exposure, absorbed dose in air, or air kerma. They can therefore only give an
accurate indication of the energy deposited in a medium if it has the same mass
attenuation coefficient as air.

3 .2 The relationship between the absorbed dose and exposure

Exposure refers to the X-ray beam itself - to be a measure of the amount of radiation at
any particular point. In radiology interest is not centred in the beam of radiation, as such,
but in the amount of energy that it deposits in its passage tluough the material of interest.
Prime interest is in the absorbed dose, and the problem to be solved is how to measure it.

The energy absorbed by a medium traversed by X- or gamma radiation depends on the

value of the real mass absorption coefficient for the medium at the energy of the
radiation. Consequently, when materials with different atomic numbers are exposed to
the same amount of radiation, the amounts of energy absorbed will in general be
different, because the value of the mass attenuation coefficient varies with atomic
number.

The method adopted for absorbed dose determinations is an indirect method of deducing
the absorbed dose in gray (Gy) from the exposure in Coulombs per kilogram of air
(C.kg- 1).

The exposure from a beam of ionising photons, X, was defined as the quantity of X-or
gamma ray energy that causes a total charge Q of either sign to be produced anywhere as
a consequence of irradiating a m.ass, m, of air:
X - charge/mass = Qlm
We use an an-ow rather than an equal sign, as exposure refers to an attribute of the beam
at a point in the beam path, whereas the charge per mass is a measure of what the beam
would do to air at that point.

It is found experimentally that over<!- wide range of X-ray energies, approximately the
same amount of energy, 33,7 eV, is expended, on average, for each pair ofions that is
produced in air. This 33,7 eV per ion pair accounts for all possible ionisations of inner-
and outer-orbital electrons and for the energy that excites but does not ionise molecules.
The energy per ion pair for air is commonly designated W. W happens to have the same
numerical value when expressed in SI units of energy per charge, i.e. W= 33)7 J/C in SI
units and 33,7 eV/ion pair in conventional units. If, for example, an ionisation process
requires 15 eV, the remaining energy of 18,7 e V goes into energy of excitation and into
heat. But the important fact is that ionisation is directly) and quantitatively, linked with
total energy absorption. Measure the former and the latter can be deduced.
 87

Absorbed dose is defined as the ionising energy deposited per 'unit mass, which can be
expressed as
(energy/mass)= (energy/charge)(charge /mass)

If the absorbed dose is being deposited in air, this becomes

DAir (Gy) = W. (Q/m) = 33,7 J/C. X (C/kg)""' 33}7. X (Gy)

From this we see that if the exposure, X, is 1 C/kg of air, we can calculate the absorbed
dose to the air to be 33,7 Gy. There is thus a direct link between an exposure in air and
the absorbed dose in air.

If the exposure is known, then so is the amount of energy per kilogram of air (the
absorbed dose), from the beam. The question to be answered is: "How much energy will
be absorbed per kilogram of any other material subjected to the same exposure?" In each
case the energy absorbed depends on the mass absorption (not attenuation) coefficient of
the medium concerned, so that:
Absorbed energy per kilogram ""' energy in the beam (E) x mass absorption
coefficient (µalp)

Thus
Absorbed energy per kg of medimn E (µ/p)Medium
=
Absorbed energy per kg of air E (µ/p) Air

But, as shown above, the absorbed energy per kilogram of air, DAir""' 33,7. X (Gy), where
Xis the exposure in Coulombs per kilogram of air.

Hence
. 33,7 X (µJp tedium G
Absor be d energy per k go f med mm = --· (µ ) y
/p Air
The absorbed energy per kg of medium, DM~d, can thus be calculated if the exposure, X, is
measured and the mass absorption coefficients for the medium and air are known for the
energy of the beam. It simplifies things to separate the above equation into two terms that
relate, respectively, to the strength of the radiation field and to the energy absorption
process:
DMed ""'XX/Med
Where
/ Med =33, 7 (µ/p )Medium Gy/(C/kg), is called the exposure-to-dose
(µJp)Air
conversion factor or simply thef-factor.
 88

Note: The same type of relationship can be dedved for converting roentgens to rad and in
this case

I,Med == 0 873 (µJp )Medium rad/R, the roentgen-to-rad conversion factor.

' (
µa / P) Air.

Figure 5.4<c) shows the roentgen-to-rad conversion factor (/-factor) as a function of

energy for water, muscle, bone and air.

.
,,,.. -·,.\
4.0 / ·,
/ .
\
\
\ Bone
2.0
\/
\
\
\
\
Muscle\
1.0 ~ater L-., ;,,, _____ _
::. ~.h~ -·~ :-:.::.: .......... ::-.·.-::::::: :::.·.:.
0.8
". Air

0.5 .__..__._...,__.........__._....._....._____,'-----'....J...-'--'--l.~...J-..'--'-----'----1
10 100. ·moo
Photon Energy (ke V)

f-factor (or roentgen-to-rad conversion factor) as a

function of. energy for water, muscle, bone, and air. At any energy,
fmed(hfJ compares the mass energy absorption coefficient, (µ/pJab, of a
medium with that of air, a convenient reference material. The magni-
tude of fm 00 (ht) at low photon energies depends strongly on the rate
{relative to that for air) of photoelectric events occurring in the medium.
At high energies, it is the Compton effect that dominates.

Fig. 5.4fc)

The mass absorption coefficients for most substances are known, so that/ can be readily
calculated. The table below shows some values for three substances of interest in
radiology, namely water, muscle tissue, and bone. From this table it can be seen that the
factor varies not only with the material but also with the radiation energy.
 89

{,It~,;=
20 keV
~~{t,~~':}i>~tva.lueiM:i.ti~
:ttt;
/Wate:if. '-:Mus'c:lc.f {Bone :
0,879 0,917 4,23
40keV 0,879 0,920 4.14
60keV 0,905 0,929 2,91
80 keV 0,932 0,940 1,91
100 keV 0,949 0,949 1,46
150 keV 0,962 0,956 1,05
200 keV 0,973 0,963 0,979
500 keV 0,965 0,957 0,925
1 MeV 0,965 0,957 0,919
2MeV 0,963 0.955 0,929

Table 5.l - The roentgen-to-rad conversion factor (f) for water, muscle, and bone,
for a range of radiation energies

4. HALF VALUE LAYER (THICKNESS)

We saw that we may specify the thickness of attenuator required to halve the intensity of
the beam. This gives us an indication of its ability to penetrate. For example, if one beam
needs a copper sheet 2 mm thick to halve its intensity, while a second beam needs 6 mm.
of copper to reduce its intensity by the same fraction, we would conclude that the second
beam is more penetrating than the first. The thickness of attenuator described above is
known as the half-value thickness or half-value layer of the beam.

We can device a simple practical test to determine the.half-value layer of an X-ray beam.
Figure 5.s< > shows the basic requirements for the test.

TUBE FILTRATION / H.V.L. MATERIAL

/
8
The measurement of the half-value layer.

Fig. s.s<~>
 90

It consists of an X-ray source, an ionisation chamber of a dosemeter, and a selection of

different thicknesses of a suitable medium such as aluminium, to insert in the beam. A
series of identical X-ray exposures is m ade onto the ionisation chamber of the dosemeter.
(The radiation can be passed through an aperture in a lead diaphragm to produce a narrow
beam that is just broad enough to irradiate the whole of the chamber.) The X-ray beam is
made to penetrate through progressively thicker layers of the attenuator (e.g. aluminium).
The attenuator thickness and dosemeter reading are recorded for each exposure and a
graph. is plotted of dosemeter reading a gainst attenuator thickness. The result is the
familiar exponentia.l attenuating curve (Fig.5 .6(a))

Maximum dosemeter
reading { = 24)
25' .
I
i
Dosemeter I f 100
reading I i Relativ e
201 I dose{%)

15,
,2-}
I
~ 50
/ 10
Half m axi mum
dosemeter reading
{=a 24/2 = 12) S

o+-~-.-~.....-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ o

0 2 3 4 5 6
-- -
7 8
1.8
Thickness of attenuator (mm )

HVT =
/
1.8 mm aluminium

A graph of dosemecer readings plotted against attenuator thickness using data obtained
from an experiment to measure the half-value thickness (HVT ) of an X-ray beam. The vertical scale
on the right hand side represents relative dose expressed as a percentage of the maximum reading.
From the graph, the thickness of alum inium which would halve the original dose reading is about
l .8 mm . The HVT of the beam is therefore said to be 1.8 mm Al.

Fig. 5.6ca)

To obtain the half-value layer of the beam, a horizontal line is drawn on the graph from a
point on the dose axis representing exactly half the dose reading obtained when no
attenuator was present. The thickness of attenuator that produces this 50% reduction in
dose can then be read off.

5. OTHER METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Indirect measurements of exposure or exposure rate can be made using instruments that
do not satisfy the conditions set out in the definition of exposure. These instruments must
be calibrated for the quality of radiation to be measured in order to obtain a value for the
exposure. Similar instruments, provided that they have been appropriately calibrated, can
also be used to measure the absorbed dose due to alpha, beta, gamma, and X radiation.
 91

5.1 Photographic film

Photographic film will produce an increase in optical density when it is irradiated. The
response, however, is not proportional to the absorbed dose of the emulsion. A calibration
graph for the particular film at known radiation doses and specific processing conditions
must therefore be produced. This forms the major disadvantage if this is to be used as a
method of dose estimation. ·

Photographic film forms the basis of the film-badge method of pers0IU1el monitoring. The
film-badge consists of a photographic film with two coatings of emulsion enclosed in a
thin light-tight wrapper and mounted in a special holder. (Fig. 5.id))

. 1 5 4 4 5 6 3 2

The film-badge holder and film as used in personnel monitoring. The optically
sealed film has a fast emulsion on the side facing the front of the badge and a slow emulsion
on the other side. If a high exposure to radiation has occurred, the fast emulsion may be
removed thus allowing a dose estimation to be made using the slow emulsion. Various filters
are used to separate the effects of different types and energies of radiations. Key to structure
of the holder: 1---open window; 2-thin plastic filter (0.5 mm): 3--thick plastic filter (2.8 mm);
4--dural {alloy of aluminium) filter (1.0 mm); 5-tin filter (0.7 mm)+ lead filter (0.3 mm);
6-cadmium filter (0.7 mm) + lead filter (0.3 mm); 7 is a strip of lead (0.3 mm) which shields
filters 5 and 6 to prevent radiation entering lhe holder through the side of the badge and thus
affecting the film under these filters. Beta particles are absorbed by filters 3 onwards. Only
high-energy X-rays and y-rays are able to penetrate the tin+ lead filler (5) significantly so that
an estimate may be made of lhe relative amounts of low- and high-energy X· and y-rays by
comparing the photographic densities beneath filters 4 and 5. The cadmium + lead filter (6) is
used to estimate exposure to thermal neutrons (for workers in lhe nuclear industry) because
neutron capture by the cadmium nuclei results in gamma photon emission which creates an
exposure to the film. (This illustration is reproduced by kind permission of the National
Radiological Protection Board, Chilton, Oxon.)

Fig. 5.7<d)

Radiation prodt!ces a latent image on the film and, after development; the photographic
density of the resultant blackening is measured using a densitometer. In order to relate the
density of blackening to the dose received, the type ~f radiation (whether beta or X
 92

radiation) and the energy of the radiation must be known (i.e. the sensitivity of the film
depends on the type and energy of radiation). Often the conditions of irradiation of the
film are not precisely known and so filters are built into the holders so that the type and
energy of the radiation can be deduced from the relative values of the photographic
densities produced under the various filters. The filters commonly include areas of thin
plastics, thicker plastics, Duralumin (an aluminium-copper alloy called Dural), combined
layers of cadmium plus lead, and tin plus lead, and an open window with no filter. Low-
energy X radiation and beta paiticles, for example, will pass through the open window
but will be attenuated by the Dural filter. Higher-energy X radiation will show little
difference in blackening under these two areas but will be attenuated by the tin-lead filter.

The two emulsions on the film, one fast and the other slow, enable the film-badge to be
used to measure the small doses encountered w1der good working conditions and also to
record an accidental high exposure.

The film-badge dosemeter therefore provides a simple, robust, pennanent record for a
wide range of exposures with an indication of the type and energy of the radiation
involved. The main disadvantages are that no immediate indication of the exposure is
given and the latent image is affected· if the film is heated.

5.2 Therrnoluminescent dosimetry (TLD)

Thermoluminescent doserneters make use of the property of thermoluminescence

possessed by certain crystalline materials such as lithium fluoride. In
thennoluminescence, the crystals store the energy absorbed during their exposure to
radiation and subsequently release it as light when heated. The amount of light emitted is
measured and can be related to the exposure if the crystals ai1d the measuring instrument
are calibrated. '

To measure dose, the powder is usually placed in a small plastic container or formed into
disks. These can be used for extremity monitoring or when the disks are mounted in a
special holder with the appropriate filters, it can be wom in the same way as a film-
badge.

After exposure to the radiation, the powder or disk is removed and heated in an
instrument known as a TLD "reader". (Fig. 5.8(b)) This measures the amount of light
released which is proportional to the radiation dose received by the powder or disk.

Before they are used again for dose monitoring purposes, the TLD's are subjected to an
annealing process to release any residual energy stored from the previous exposure. A
typical annealing process consists of a heating cycle in which the TLD's are raised to a
temperature of 400°C for l hour, followed by 300°C for 3 hours.

TLD's have the following advantages:

• As long as TLD's are annealed before each application, they can be used over and
over again, possibly up to 300 times.
 93

• Lithium fluoride TLD's are particularly suitable for monitoring of tissue dose
because the effective atomic number of LiF (:::::: 8, 1) is close to that of human tissue
(== 7,4).
• Lithium fluoride TLD's suffer negligible fading of stored dose information even
after several weeks because of the relatively high temperature (210°C) at which
peak light emission from LiF occurs. .
• A wide range of doses varying from about 10 µGy to I kGy can be monitored.
• Once loaded into a TLD reader, LiF chips can be read automatically.

I~~
DRAWER OPEN ~ HEAT FILTER

1~
PLANCHET
WITH T/L POWDER
~ilA
HEATER

DRAWER CLOSED
FOR HEATING

HEATER RAISED TO
HEATING POSITION
B
The drawer and heater arrangements in a thermoluminescence dosemeter.

Fig. s.s<b)

Unlike the film-badge that provides a permanent record of exposure, the information
stored in a thermoluminescent powder can be read only once and no permanent record
remains. Because TLD's can be processed automatically, it is a considerable advantage
when large numbers are involved. It is because of these advantages and the unavailability
of film that the SABS has changed from monitoring personnel with film-badges to using
TLD's.
 94

5 .3 · Geiger-Millier counters

The thimble chamber described previously is an example of an ionisation chamber where

the charge collected on the electrodes is proportional to the energy absorbed from the X-
ray beam. The Geiger-Mi.iller counter works on the principle of gas multiplication and
gives the same magnitude of electrical pulse per absorption event whatever the energy of
the absorbed radiation. It detects the arrival of individual photons of ionising radiation or
individual high-energy particles.

The structure of a typical Geiger-Mtiller tube is illustrated in Figure 5. 9<a>. A glass

envelope contains an inert gas (argon) at low pressure, and two electrodes: a positively
charged central electrode and a negatively charged mesh cylinder. Ionisation is caused in
the gas by the entry of a photon or by the entry of particulate radiation if the window is
sufficiently thin to allow particles to enter the envelope. The ions are attracted to the
appropriate electrode and, as they pass through the gas. they will gain sufficient energy to
eject electrons from the gas atoms if the potential difference between the electrodes is
sufficiently great. The electrons so produced continue this process and rapid gas
multiplication takes place especially in the vicinity of the central electrode since the
field strength is great in this region. The effect of gas multiplication is such that well in
excess of 1 million electrons are collected by the central electrode for every single ion
produced in the primary absorption process. These "electron avalanches" form the pulses
that allow the system to count the number of initial ionisation events.

Mica window

',,,/! Cathode

I
Electrical
connections

=:I "( ~ ·
Incident
I \ ~
low-pressure Anode Electrical
radiation gas insulation

The main features of a Geiger-Muller tube. Radiation photons or high energy particles .
enter the tube through its radiolucent mica window. Ions created in the low pressure gas are
accelerated by an electric field set up between anode and cathode. An avalanche effect occurs,
creating a significant pulse of ionisation current even from a single encounter with an ionising
particle or photon (see text for details of operation).

Fig. 5.9~a>
 95

The electrical pulse, caused by the detection of each single photon, is amplified
electronically and then actuates an electronic counting circuit. The rate of production of
pulses is presented as the count rate on a analogue or digital scale. The counter output is
often applied to a loudspeaker circuit, providing a series of audible clicks, each one
triggered by the arrival of a single photon of radiation.

For a short period after the detection of a photon or high-energy particle, while the
ionisation current is being quenched (extinguished) and gas ions in the Geiger-Muller
tube recombine, the tube cannot detect the arrival of further photons. This recovery
period is known as the dead time of the tube and is typically around 100 µs. The dead
time effectively prevents this type of instrument from measuring count rates above
10000 s- 1•

A Geiger-Muller tube generates the same size of electrical pulse whatever the energy of
the photon or paiticle it has detected. They are therefore detectors of ionising radiation,
rather than true dosemeters. They are particularly useful for detecting the presence of
radioactive contamination and are a familiar sight in depaitments of radionuclide imaging
where unsealed sources of radioactivity are available.

5.4 Scintillation detectors

Scintillation is a particular fonn of fluorescence. Stimulation of a fluorescent phosphor

with a single high energy photon ofX- or gamma radiation can lead to the emission of
hundreds of visible light photons. Because all these light photons are emitted
simultaneously, a small flash oflight that may be visible to the naked eye is generated in
the phosphor. Exposure of the phosphor to a stream ofX- or gamma ray photons results
in a series of tiny flashes, each one representing the absorption of a single high-energy
photon. The production of such a series of light flashes is known as scintillation, and a
phosphor used for this purpose is called a scintillation crystal.

Detecting and amplifying such scintillations with a photomultiplier (PM) tube, enables
an electronic counting circuit to be activated that provides either a record of the total
count over a given period of time) or a measure of the count rate. Scintillation counters
incorporate a device known as a pulse height analyser. Its function is to apply some
discrimination to the pulses of electrical output from the PM tube. Only those pulses
whose height (i.e. magnitude) lies within a specified range are counted. This enables, for
example, scintillations due to scattered radiation to be distinguished from those due to
primary radiation.

Like Geiger-Muller counters, scintillation counters are used to monitor levels of

radioactivity rather than to measure exposure or absorbed dose. They do not suffer the
Geiger-Mi.iller counter's limitation on cotmt rate and are therefore able to register much
higher count rates.
 96

5.5 Solid state detectors

Electrons in a semiconductor can readily have their energy raised to that of the
conduction band and so can take part in electrical conduction. The absorption of energy
from an X-ray photon (either by photoelectric absorption or Compton scatter) can raise
an electron to the conduction band energies. This electron causes secondary electrons
from the atoms of the material to be raised to the conduction band, by imparting some of
its energy to them. If a potential difference is placed across the semiconductor, then these
electrons are collected before they have time to recombine. Thus there is a current pulse
whose magnitude is proportional to the number of electrons and hence the absorbed dose
within the semiconductor. This is similar to the current through an irradiated ionisation
chamber and the semiconductor detector can be thought of as a solid state ionisation
chamber. It has the great advantage over the air ionisation chamber that it produces 10
times as many ion pairs for a given dose of radiation and so is much more sensitive to
small doses. This is because only 3 e V is required to produce an ion pair in a
semiconductor compared to the 33,7 eV to produce an ion pair in air. The electrical signal
obtained from the semiconductor device is thus more accurate.

Semiconductor detectors may be calibrated against a thimble chamber, for example, for a
given energy of radiation. They tend to be used for more specialised fo1ms ofradiation
detection, e.g. for monitoring the output of an X-ray tube for quality assurance or for dose
verification in radiotherapy.

5.6 Chemical dosemetcrs

Chemical dosemeters make use of the chemical changes produced by radiation in the
material through which it passes. The most widely used is known as the Fricke dosemeter
in which.a solution of ferrous sulphate is exposed to ionising radiation. The ferrous
sulphate.is oxidized to fen-ic sulphate and the amount of ferric sulphate produced, which
is determined by chemical techniques, gives a measure of the exposure.

(a) BALL, John & MOORE, Adriaan D - "Essential Physics for Radiographers"
(b) MEREDITH, W J & MASSEY, J B - "Fundamental Physics of Radiology"
(c) WOLBARST, Anthony B - "Physics of Radiology"
(d) GRAHAM, Donald T - "Principles of Radiological Physics"
 97

CHAPTER6

RADIOACTIVITY
1. INTRODUCTION

There are natural laws that relate to the proportion of neutrons to protons in the nucleus
of an atom. Certain proportions of neutrons to protons jn an atomic nucleus are unstable,
i.e. it is an unstable isotope of the atom. We say it is radioactive. In these nuclei the
forces disrupting the nucleus are stronger than the forces that hold the nucleus together.
The instability of the nucleus is demonstrated by the fact that it changes its internal
structure spontaneously to a more stable form, usually with the emission of a charged
particle from the nucleus and sometimes with the emission of a gamma-ray photon. Each
time a nucleus changes its structure it is called a radioactive disintegration or a nuclear
transformation. It may result in a change in the atomic number (and therefore element) or
a change in the mass number or a change of both the atomic number and the mass
number. In this process, an atom of another nuclide can-be formed; this is known as the
daughter product of the original or parent nuclide. This process of transformation is
called radioactivity.

Radioactivity: Radioactivity is the property possessed by certain nuclides of

undergoing spontaneous transfo rmation oftheir nuclei accompanied by the
emission ofparticles or radiation.

As radioactivity is a property of the nucleus, it is unaffected ifradioactive atoms enter

into chemical combination or if the atoms are subjected to physical changes such as an
increase in temperature or pressure. It is impossible to dete1mine the exact time when a
pruticular nucleus will transform, but the laws of probability may be used to detennine
the behaviour of a large number of nuclei.

Nuclides (isotopes) that ru·c radioactive are known as radionuclides (radioisotopes).

2. THE DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY

Naturally occurring radioactivity was discovered independently in 1896 by A.H.

Becquerel and by S.P. Thompson. Becquerel knew that fluo rescence was associated with
the X-rays discovered by Rontgen in 1895 and this led him to investigate the various
uranium compounds that fluoresce in sunlight. He discovered that these compounds
emitted penetrating rays even in the dark when they were not fluorescing. Becquerel
developed a photographic plate that had been wrapped in heavy black paper and then left
in the dark for several days beneath a piece of uranilun sulphate. To his surprise, he fow1d
that the mineral had produced an intense image on the plate. Becquerel soon
demonstrated that the radiation was due to the presence of the uranium itself and was
independent of any phosphorescent effects.

After Becquerel's discovery, chemists searched for other radioactive materials. At first,
of the many compounds tested, only those of uranium and thorium showed the prope1iy
 98

of radioactivity. However, in 1898 Madam Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre, reported
the isolation of two new radioactive elements, which they named polonium (which they
named after their native Poland) and radium.

Shortly after the discovery ofradioactivity, Emest Rutherford (1871 - 1937) showed that
the radiation from uranium had two distinct components. He found that one component of
the radiation was readily stopped by a single layer of thin aluminilllll foil. Rutherford
named this easily absorbed component alpha (a) rays. The second, more penetrating
component he called beta (P) rays. Further experiments by the French physicist Paul
Villard showed that the radiation from uranium contained a third component that was
even more penetrating than beta rays. This third type ofradiation is called gamma (y)
radiation.

Over the course of several years, Rutherford gradually explained the nature of alpha rays.
The absorption of alpha rays was proportional to the density of the absorbing medium,
and the rate of absorption increased with distance travelled tlu·ough the absorber. On the
basis of this indirect evidence, Rutherford proposed that alpha rays were particles.
Because they strongly ionised any gas through which they passed, Rutherford suggested
they must possess electric charge. Charged particles should be deflected by a magnetic
field, but such deflection was not observed initially for alpha rays. However, deflection
was observed later. Rutherford explained the initial failure to notice deflection by
suggesting that alpha particles were ve1y massive. Subsequent measw·ements established
that the alpha particles have an elm ratio less than one thousandth that of electrons.

Rutherford and his associate Hans Geiger made accurate measurements of the electric
charge canied by alpha particlest findi ng the charge of the alpha particle to be exactly
twice the charge carried by a hydrogen ion. Using this information and the ratio of elm,
they showed that the mass of alpha particles was the same as that of a helimn atom.
Separate experiments confinned that alpha particles really are doubly charged helium
10ns.

Many prope1ties of beta rays were first observed by Becquerel. Using the experimental
setup illustrated in Figure 6.1 (a), he found that beta rays were deflected by a magnetic
field. Becquerel placed the radioactive material in a small lead container, open at the top.
This container was then placed on top of a photographic plate, which was positioned in a
magnetic fiel d directed parallel to the plane of the plate. The beta rays emitted by the
radioactive source were deflected by the magnetic field in a direction indicating that they
carried a negative electric charge.

It can be shown that a particle of mass m and charge e, moving with speed v
perpendicular to a magnetic field B, travels in a circular path of radius
mv
r=-.
eB
A beta particle initially directed upward from the lead box in Fig. 6.1 (a) would be
deflected by the magnetic field so that it would strike the plate a distance 2r from the
source. With this agreement, Becquerel found that the rays struck the plate over a range
of distances, indicating a wide variation in the speeds of the beta rays. By placing thin
 99

absorbing foils over the plate, he discovered that the most easily deflected rays were also
the most easily absorbed rays.

X X X X X X
· Magnetic field
X X X X X X

Radioactive Photographic
source plate
Experimental
arrangement for showing the deflection
of beta rays by a magnetic field. The
direction of the field is into the plane of
the figure.

Fig. 6.1 <a>

Becquerel also investigated the deflection of beta rays by electrostatic fields. By

comparing the electrostatic deflection with the magnetic deflection, he was able to show
that beta rays had the same ratio of elm as cathode rays (which-are electrons). In a series
of experiments, Becquerel established that beta rays are electrons, with velocities greater
than those of cathode rays. These large velocities indicated that the radiation was not due
to ordinary chemical behaviour.

Gamma rays were found to have no charge or mass. In this respect they are similar to X-
rays. Gamma rays are short-wavelength electromagnetic waves.

These three kinds of radioactive emissions represent behaviour so different from nom1al
chemical behaviour that their origins must also be different. The discovery of the atomic
nucleus, which led to a better understanding of atomic structure, revealed the source of
radioactivity.

3. NATURAL RADIOACTIVE DECAY SERIES

In the years following the discovery of radioactivity, scientists found many radioactive
elements, most of them relatively heavy. Eventually, they realized that these radioactive
elements form decay chains or series. That is, when one nucleus decays into another, the
resulting daughter nucleus is also radioactive and subsequently decays, and so on. The
end product of each decay chain is a stable isotope.

All known naturally occurring radioactive nuclei can be grouped into one of three decay
series, which originate with long-lived heavy elements. Each series is named after the

-------------------------- -
 100

longest·lived member of the series: uranium, thorium, and actinium. A fourth series, the
neptunium series, consists of isotopes that no longer exist naturally in the earth's crust.
We can categorise each radioactive nucleus into one of these four series according to its
mass number A. If n is an integer, then the series are labelled as follows:
• Thorium Series A = 4n
• Neptunium Series A = 4n + I
• Uranium Series A::;: 4n + 2
• Actinium Series A::;: 4n + 3

A radioactive decay that begins with a member of one of these series produces daughter
nuclei that are also members of the same series. Subsequently decay products remain in
the same series because alpha decay involves a mass number change of four, while beta
and gamma decay involve no change in the mass number A (see later).

!;
The radium isotope, 2 Ra, a naturally occurring radionuclide widely used in medicine,
is a member of the uranium series, i.e. the first member of the series is an isotope of
uranium. The series proceeds from uranium through fourteen radionuclides until a stable
isotope oflead is fanned. See Fig. 6.2(a). Radium is the sixth member of the series.

Uranium Series
A» 4n + 2

<
1..: '
136 :______ ..._-#---'---'---+-

§ I . 4ro! 8

=
:? I 414 I
U2 ._____}_l.'.),,._-c#''--1.___._---+--i---!
....:...
CJ

z 128

!lint'
I 24 1---+--,ii~+---+--+---+-----!

Plot of the number of

neutrons N =A - Z versus Z for the
uranium series. Alpha decays proceed ~ w n M M ~ w n ~
·n Iii At Fr Ac f>a Np
toward the lower left; beta decays Hg Pb l'o Rn Ra Th U
proceed toward the lower right. Atomic number, Z

Fig. 6.2<a>

Figure 6.i<a> display the decay series by plotting the number of neutrons N (N = A - Z)
against the number of protons Z for each nucleus in the series. An alpha decay leads to
 101

the lower left of the graph, toward lower N and lower Z numbers. Beta decay leads to the
lower right, towards a lower N number but higher Z number. Starting in the upper right-
hand comer in each case, you can trace out the sequential decays as the process proceeds.
Note that some radioactive nuclei have alternative decay modes, decaying by either alpha
emission or beta emission.

4. NUCLEAR FORCES AND BINDING ENERGY

The forces holding the nucleus together must be extremely strong. This is evident from
the fact that the positively charged protons remain confined to the small volume of the
nucleus. If the nuclear force were weaker, the electrostatic (Coulomb) repulsion of the
positively charged protons would predominate and the m,1cleus would fly apart or, at the
very least, the nucleus would occupy a much larger volume.

Many experiments have shown that the attractive force between nucleons - whether
between protons and protons, neutrons and neutrons, or neutrons and protons - is the
same, once we subtract the effect of the electrostatic Coulomb repulsion between protons.
We call this fundamental attractive force the strong nuclear force. The strong nuclear
force between nucleons in a nucleus is approximately 102 times as strong as the Coulomb
repulsion between protons, and approximately 1039 times as strong as the gravitational
force between nucleons.
V

200
MeV

100

2X 10-15 m

Potential energy for the strong

force acting between two
nucleons. -100

Fig. 6.J<0>

The general form of the strong force between individual nucleons as a function of their
separation is sketched in Fig. 6.3(b). Note that an increasing potential energy means that
the force does negative work when the nucleons separate; this corresponds to an
attractive force. A decreasing potential energy means that the force does positive work
when the nucleons separate; this corresponds to a repulsive force. We see from the plot of
the potential energy (MeV) that the strong force is attractive over a range ofintemucleon
 102

distances fro m:::: 1 x 10- 15 m to::::: 2 x 10- 15 m. In this range of distances, the strong force
is much larger than the electric force, as much as 100 times. The strong force is repulsive
for intemucleon distances less than:::: 1 x 1o-ts m; this means that the nucleons have a
15
hard core that resist interpenetration. For distances larger than:::: 2 x 10- 111, the strong
force decreases abruptly and finally vanishes. Thus, in contrast to the electric force,
which fades only gradually (inverse square relationship) and reaches out to large
distances, the strongforce cuts offsharply and has only a short range. In order to feel the
strong force, the nucleons must be touching or almost touching, that is, the force acts
between nearest neighbours in the nucleus.

[NOTE: Experiments indicated that the size of the nucleus is proportional to the cube root of the mass
munber, i.e. the radius of a nucleus of mass number A is
R = (1,2 x 10- •5 m) x A 113 ]

In a stable nucleus, the repulsive electric (Coulomb) forces among the protons are held in
check by the attractive strong forces. To achieve this balance of forces, the presence of
neutrons is an advantage: a nucleus with more neutrons will have a larger size and,
therefore, a larger average distance between pairs of protons - the neutrons in the n ucleus
dilute the repulsive effect of the Coulomb force. Consequently, all stable nuclei , with the
exception of hydrogen and one isotope of helium, contain at least as many neutrons as
protons; heavy nuclei, such as uranium, contain substantially more neutrons than protons.

It is often useful to draw a graph, plotting the number of neutrons in a nucleus against the
number of protons, as all nuclides may be included in this nuclide chart. See Figure
6.4(c)for a simplified version of such a chart. Note that isotopes (equal atontic numbers)
are given by any vertical line on the figure. An angle of 45 ° to the x-axis represents a
situation where the nucleus contains equal numbers op protons and neutrons (Z = l\0.

It is found on such.a graph that there is a broad band of nuclides with low atomic
numbers at about 45° to the x-axis and these are all stable or weakly radioactive. Thus for
the lighter elements, nuclear stability can be produced with equal numbers of protons and
neutrons. It can be seen that as the atomic number increases, a proportionately larger
number of neutrons is necessa1y to produce nuclear stability. Thus we can say that as the
Coulomb repulsion between the protons increases, more neutrons are required to produce
the short-range forces, thus producing the cohesive forces required for a stable nucleus.
Nuclei which have atomic numbers greater than 83 (bismuth) are so large that it is
impossible to produce a stable nuclear configuration.

Nuclides whose combination of neutrons and protons means that they land outside the
band of stability shown in Fig. 6.4(c) have nuclei possessing higher energies than those
within the band. As a consequence such a nucleus is tmstable and tends, on decay, to
produce a new nucleus of lower energy that is closer to or within the stable band. The
energy difference between the nucleus before and after decay is emitted either as a
charged particle (alpha and beta particles) or as a quantum (or quanta) of electromagnetic
radiation (gamma rays).
 103

140

120

.8E /
,,, .
1\./
/

(3 orE.C.
~ 40

20

0 20 40 60 80 100
Atomic number. Z
. A ~raph of the neutron number (N) plotted against the atomic number (Z)
showing the pos1t1on of the stable nuclides as a shaded band. Note that as the atomic
number increases a ~igh~r propo~ion of neutrons to protons is required to achieve stability.
Also shown are the directions which a nucleus takes for various forms of radioactive decay
(these movements are not to scale}.

Fig. 6.4<c>

Strictly speaking, at distances of nuclear dimensions we must use only quantum

mechanical considerations. In quantum mechanics we do not speak of the force between
two particles, but instead describe the energy of their interaction. We have oversimplified
the picture of the nuclear force in order to gain some understanding of nuclear behaviour.
The forces between nucleons are not easily described and are quite different from the
forces we have studied so far.

Even without knowing the exact nature of the nuclear force, we can, in part, understand
the way a nucleus is bound together by considering its energy. We use the Einstein mass~
energy relationship: E = mc 2• The masses of the proton (1,007276 u) and the neutron
( 1,008665 u) are well known, as are the nuclear masses of several hundred nuclei.
 104

[NOTE: Nuclear and atomic masses are often measw-ed in tenns of atomic mass units u. The unified
atomic mass unit u, also abbreviated as arnu, is equal to 1/12 the mass of an atom of !C ;
1

27
1 u = I,66054 x 10- kg.]

Through the use of Einstein's energy equation we can show that I u is equivalent to
931,5 MeV. In nuclear physics, masses are frequently given in units of MeV.

Let us compare the mass of an atom, such as the ~ He atom , to that of its constituent parts.
We begin by computing the total mass of the constituent parts of the atom, consisting of
two neutrons, two protons, and two electrons. Rather than add together the masses of the
six particles individually, we will add the mass of two hydrogen atoms (consisting of a
proton and a neutron), 1,007825 u x 2, to the mass of two neutrons. (We can do this
because the energy that binds the electrons to the atom are small, a few electronvolts, in
comparison with the mass of the particle involved.) Using the values, we have

= 2(1,007825u) = 2,0I5 650u

= 2(1 ,008 665 u) = 2,0 17 330 u
= 4,03 2 980 u

The mass of the ~He atom is 4,002603 u, a value that is significantly smaller than the
sum of the masses of the constituent particles. Using the Einstein relation, we may say
that the mass energy of the components is greater than the mass energy of the atom. This
difference in energy is what holds the nucleus together. It is called the binding energy of
the nucleus. The binding energy is the difference in mass energy of the constituent
particles when bound together in the nucleus and when considered as separate, isolated
particles. Therefore it is the energy needed to separate the nucleus into its component
pa.its. For ~He , the mass difference (also called the mass defect) is

f.:.m = (2 mH + 2 mn) - m(i He) = 0,030 377 u

The binding energy is

M = ~mc2 = (0,030 377 u)(931. 5 MeV/u)

6.£ = 28,3 MeV

We cru1 calculate the binding energy of any nucleus whose mass and composition are
known in the same way that we calculated the binding energy of the ~ He atom.

5. TRANSFORMATION PROCESSES

We saw that an unstable nucleus (radionuclide) undergo a spontaneous transformation or

disintegration to a more stable nucleus. Let us now discuss these different transformation
processes.
 105

5.1 Alpha particle emission

In the case of radionuclides that emit alpha particles, a disintegrating nucleus ejects 2
protons plus 2 neutrons as one alpha (a.) particle. The daughter product so formed has an
atomic number that is 2 less than that of the parent nuclide and a mass number that is 4
less.

The radioactive decay process for alpha particles can be represented as follows:

Ax A-4y 4
Z 4' Z-2 + 2 a

where Xis the parent nuclide and Y is the daughter nuclide.

An example of a radionuclide that emits an alpha particle is an isotope of radon, 2 ~~ Rn .

The parent has an atomic number of 86 and a mass number of 222. An alpha particle of
!!
energy 5,48 MeV is emitted by the nucleus to form daughter product 2 Po: which is an
isotope·ofpolonium having an atomic number of 84 and a mass number of 218. The
decay scheme is illustrated in Figure 6.5(d). ·

f!!Rn, half -life 3·825 days

a,5·48 MeV

218p
84 O

An example of a radionuclide which emits an alpha particle. The atomic number

decreases by 2 and the mass number decreases by 4.

Fig. 6.s<d>
By convention, when there is a decrease in the atomic number) the transformation is
represented by a line drawn downwards and to the left from the parent to the daughter
product.
 106

5.2 Beta-particle emission

Beta (P) particles are now known to be electrons with either negative or positive electric
charge. The electron normally encountered, e.g. in the shell of an atom, is known as a
19
negatron and has a negative charge of 1 atomic unit (- 1,6 x 10- Coulomb) and has a
mass of ~ 0 atomic mass unit (u). A positively charged electron, known as a positron,
18
has the same mass as a negatron but has a positive charge of 1 atomic unit. It is only
encountered in the special circumstances of radioactivity and of pair production.

For a beta particle to be ejected from a nucleus undergoing a radioactive transformation,

either a neutron or a proton in the nucleus must tmdergo change that results in the
formation of the beta particle.

For radionuclides that eject a negatron, a neutron changes into a proton plus a negatron,
i.e.

where 0n is a neutron with charge 0,

+P is a proton with charge + 1, and
_e is a negatron with charge - 1.

The positive charge on the nucleus (i.e. the number of protons) increases by 1 atomic unit
because there is one more proton present in the nucleus after the transformation than
before. Consequently the atomic number of the daughter product is 1 greater than that of
the parent. The mass of the nucleus remains approximately the same, because the
negatron has little mass, and the mass number is unchanged because the total number of
protons plus neutrons is unaltered (mproton;:::: mncutron).

For radionuclides that eject a positron, a proton in the nucleus changes into a neutron
plus the positron, i.e.

The positive charge on the nucleus (i.e. the number of protons) decreases by 1 atomic
unit and so the atomic number of the daughter product is 1 less than that of the parent.
The mass of the nucleus remains approximately the same and the mass number is
unchanged because the total number of protons plus neutrons is unaltered.

An example of a radionuclide that emits a negatron (p- particle) is given in Figure 6.6(dl,
~6
which represents the decay scheme of Ca , an isotope of calcium, whi~h decays to
~~Sc, an isotope of scandium.
 107

;~co, half-life 165 days

13-
Mox. energy O· 25 MeV

An example of a radionuclide which emits a ~- particle. The atomic number

increases by 1 and the mass number remains unchanged.

Fig. 6.6<d>

An example of the emission of a positron (~+ particle) is given in Figure 6. id) that
'!
represents the decay of 0, an isotope of oxygen, t~ 1~ N, an isotope of nitrogen.

1
;0. half-life 2 minutes

13+
Max.energy 1·7 MeV

An example of a radionuclide which emits a ~ + particle. The atomic number

decreases by 1 and the mass number remains unchanged.

Fig. 6.7<d>

Note that for a given radionuclide, the beta particles emitted from the individual nuclei do
not all have the same amount of kinetic energy. Their energies are spread over a range of
values up to a definite maximum for the particular radionuclide, i.e. the beta particles
have a continuous spectrum of energy. It is the maximum energy in the spectrum that is
given in the decay schemes. ·
 108

5.3 Gamma-ray emission

In the case of some radionuclides, one or more gamma-ray photons are emitted by the
nuclides following the ejection of a particle because the nucleus still posses an excess of
energy.

An example of a beta-gamma emitter is given in Figure 6.8(d)_ The isotope of gold,

~!
1 Au, decays with the emission of a ~- particle to an isotope of mercury, 1 ~~ Hg. The

nucleus of the 1
:i Hg formed by the ejection of their particle has an excess ofenergy; this
energy is then emitted immediately as one gamma-ray photon of energy 0,41 MeV as the
nucleus falls to its ground state, i.e. its state of lowest energy.

1
i!Au. hol f - life 2 · 7 days

13-
Mox. energy 0·96 MeV

.,.
0·41 MeV

An example of a radionuclide which emits a ~ - particle followed by a y-ray

photon. (Simplified version of the decay scheme for 1-?:Au.) The emission of the 13-
particle results in an increase of 1 in the atomic number and no change in the mass
number. The emission of they-ray photon affects neither the atomic number nor the mass
number.

Fig. 6.s<d)

When the gamma-ray photon (electromagnetic radiation) is emitted, there is no further

change in the atomic number or mass number of the daughter nuclide. The gamma-ray
photons from a given radionuclide are emitted with a definite value or values of energy
characteristic of that radionuclide and not with a continuous spectrum of energy as in the
1
case for beta particles. Some radionuclides, for example ;: Au, emit only one gan1ma-ray
photon in their decay schemes. Others emit more than one gamma~ray photon; for
example, ~~Co, the radioisotope of cobalt used in teletherapy units, emits two gamma-
ray photons in its decay scheme, one of energy 1, 17 Me V and the other of energy 1,33
MeV.
 109

In the case of ~~ Co decaying to ;~ Ni the nucleus remains in an excited state before the
emission of the gamma rays for a very short time. We can say that the gamma photon is
emitted immediately after the emission of the beta particle. However, this is not always
the case, for certain radionuclides the nucleus remains in the excited state for a
measurable time before falling to the ground state with the emission of one or more
ganuna rays. The excited state of the nucleus in this case is known as a metastable state.
The transition from a metastable state to a more stable state is known as an isomeric
transition. Such metastable radionuclides prove to be useful in nuclear medicine because
of the low dose which they deliver to the patient - the patient gets no dose from p-
particles emitted before metastability. Technetium-99m (usually written 9493TCm) is a
radionuclide that is widely used in nuclear medicine. This is fom1ed when an isotope of
!;
molybdenum, Mo , decays with the emission of a p- particle to the metastable state of
9
: 3Tcm. A simplified decay scheme for it is shown in Figure 6.9(c)_ The half-life of
9
;3Tc m is 6 hours and it emits a gamma ray of energy of 140 keV when it decays to ~3Tc .
The half-life of : 3 Tc is so long (2,1 x 105 years) that.it can be considered stable for all
9

practical purposes. The reaction can be written as:

99
43
Tern ~ 99Tc
43
+ 'Y

99-r::
43 ,c (stable)

An example of the decay of technetium from a metastable to a stable state

with the emission of a 140 keV gamma photon.

Fig. 6.9<c>

5.4 The electron-capture process

If a nucleus of low mass number has too few neutrons for stability but has insufficient
excess energy(< 1.02 MeV) to eject a positron, then an alternative way by which the
nucleus may undergo a transformation and lose energy is by electron capture. In this
 110

process the nucleus captures one of the orbiting electrons, the most likely being a capture
of a K-shell electron. The tenns "K capture,, or "L capture" are used to denote the shell
from which the electron was captured. This process also results in a transfomiation of the
nucleus although no particle is ejected from it. Instead, the nucleus captures an electron
from the K-shell of the atom and the electron combines with a proton in the nucleus to
fonn a neutron, i.e.

where .e is the electron that is captured:

+P is the proton, and
0 n is the neutron.

The positive charge on the nucleus (i.e. the number of protons) decreases by 1 atomic
unit and so the atomic number decreases by 1. The mass of the nucleus remains
approximately the same and the mass number is unchanged because the total number of
protons plus neutrons is unaltered. In some cases, the vacancy produced in the K-shell is
filled by the transition of an electro'n from another shell with the emission of a
characteristic X-ray photon.

The electron capture process is illustrated in Figure 6.1 o<ct) which represents the
transfonnation of an isotope of argon, ~~ A , to an isotope of chlorine, ~; Cl .

~JA, half-life 34·5 days

Electrcn capture

37CI
17

An example of a radionuclide which undergoes electron capture. The atomic

number decreases by 1 and the mass number remains unchanged.

Fig. 6.lO<d>
 111

6. BRANCHING DECAY SCHEMES

If the nucleus is very large, it is possible that it may disintegrate in more than one way. In
a sample, fixed proportions of the number of nuclei disintegrating decay by different
processes. Fig. 6.11 (d) illustrates the decay scheme for the naturally occurring radioactive
isotope of potassium, ~~ K . The scheme has two branches: 11 % of the transformations
are by electron capture followed by the emission of a gamma-ray photon to form an
isotope of argon, ~~ A , while the remaining 89% of the transformations are by the
emission of a ~- particle to form an isotope of calcium, ~~ Ca .

~~K. hotf-life 1·3 x 109 years

11% 89 % 13-
electron capture Max. energy I· 3 MeV

y
1·46 MeV

An example of a radi!)nuclide which decays by more than one proce~s. Eleven

per cent of~he tra?sform~tions are by electron capture followed by the emission of a y-ray
photon to 18 A. Etghty-nme per cent of the transformations are by the emission of a ~ -
particle to !JCa.

Fig. 6.11 (d)

7. RADIOACTIVE DECAY

7.1 Activity and exponential decal'

The intensity of the radiation from a radioactive element is independent of temperature,

pressure, and chemical combination. It depends only on the quantity of the element
present. When the amount is increased, the amount of emitted radiation increases
proportionally. The measure of radioactivity is the number of radioactive disintegrations
per second, called the activity, i.e. the rate at which a sample of a radionuclide is
undergoing transformation.

Activity: The activity ofa quantity ofa radionuclide is the number ofnuclear
 112

transformations that occur in that quantity per unit time.

The activity is proportional to the number of nuclei of the parent nuclide present. This is
the same a saying that a constant fraction of the number of nuclei of the parent nuclide
undergo a transformation per unit time.

Each radioactive atom is unstable and has a probability of decaying spontaneously into
another atom with the emission of radiation..It does so independently and without any
influences from its neighbours. However, when more atoms are present, the activity is
propmtionally increased. Mathematically, this means that the rate of decay, or activity A,
is given by
A=-M/=11.N
/j,f
where N is the number ofradioactive atoms,
/::,N is the number of decays in the time t,.t, and
A is a proportionality constant, the decay constant.

The negative sign expresses the fact that the number of radioactive atoms decreases. This
is an exponential equation between the number of unstable atorris and the time. If No
tmstable atoms are present at time zero, then the number remaining at some time t is

In Fig. 6.12<d>, for example, the activity of a quantity of the radioactive isotope of sodium,
~~ Na , is plotted against time. The graph shows that the activity decreases with time and
is reduced by a constant factor of one-half every 15 hours. This type of relationship,
where the activity is reduced by the same factor in successive intervals ohime, is known
as an exponential law and it is represented mathematically by the equation.

A= A0 e-..i,
where A is the activity of the sample after time t,
Ao is the initial activity of the sample, i.e. when t = 0, and
l is the decay constant for the given radionuclide. 0
It can be shown mathematically that the decay constant l is equal to the fraction of the
nuclei of the parent nuclide that undergoes a transformation per unit time.
 <:(
0 113
~

.2:
u0 ~~No, half-life 15 hours
80
.2
:'@ 70
0
60

50 I holf-life

C 40
"'-
0~
IU 0 30
Q. ~
E .£::
0 Q.
25 --l
"'0
0~
>- ...
·"=
-~
-
u ·-
0
<l)
C:
20
12·5
10 ,-
I
_
- -i- -
I
- - ~A3 holf-hves

l
fter

~.::: 0 no---~10~-.1~s-~2fro_----~30~----::41:::o:----4~s=--~so~---6.Lo_
Time in hours I linear graph scale)

· '
The acuv1ty o f ~ sample of 24
11 Na plotted against time, both on linear graph
scales. Note the exponential curve with the activity reducing by a factor of V2 every 15
hours.

Fig. 6.li(d)

7 .2 Half-life and average life

After a sufficient time has elapsed, the activity of the sample will be only one halfof the
initial activity Ao. This time interval is known as the half-life. It is different for each type
of radioactive atom. In each successive half-life, the activity is one half of the activity at
the beginning of that interval.

Half-life: The halflife ofa radionuclide is the lime taken for the activity ofa
sample o.fthat radionuclide to decrease to one-/wlf.

Half-lives can range from a fraction of a second for some radionuclides to over a million
years for others. The half-life is closely related to the decay constant J... When the time
interval is equal to one half-life, ty.,, the activity is A = Y:zA 0• Substituting this into
A= A0 e-J. 1 ,
we get

In{= -0,693 = -JtYi

or
 114

0,693
[Yi =-.,i-
or

Notice that if the decay constant is large, the half-life is correspondingly short. Similarly,
a small decay constant means a long half-life.

It is not possible to say how long the nucleus in one particular atom in a sample of a
radionuclide will exist before it undergoes a radioactive transformation, but it is possible
to calculate the average life expectancy of a nucleus. This is given by the equation:
1 ty.,2
average life= - =- - -
J 0,693
where ,l is the decay constant of the radionuclide.

7.3 The becguerel and the curie

The activity of a sample of a radionuclide was defined as the munber of nuclear

transformations that occur in the sample per unit time. The special unit used for activity is
the Becquerel, abbreviated to Bq.
Becquerel: The Becquerel is that quantity ofa radionuclide in which the
number ofnuclear transformations occurring is one per second

The earlier unit of activity was the curie, abbreviated to Ci. The curie is that quantity ofa
radionuclide in which the number ofnuclear transformations occurring per second is 3, 7
x I 010• The curie was taken originally as the activity of one gram of radium that has
approximately 3,7 x 10 10 nuclear transformations per second. Note that
1 curie= 3,7 x 10 10 becquerel

1: Gamma photon energy Applkation

..: Radionuclide HaJf.Jifc Decay mode, .MeV ·>

Radium 226 1620 y a,y 0, 186 Therapy source (needles)

Americium 24 l 433 y a,y 0,043 to 0,060 Bone densitometrv
Caesium 137 30.] y s-, 'Y 0,662 T eletherapy source
Cobalt 60 5,27 y 13-, y 1,17 & 1,33 Teletherapy source
Iridium 192 74,0 d B-, e.c., 'Y 0,28 to 0,61 Therapy source (wires)
Chromium 51 27,7 d e.c. 0,32 Blood volume estimation
Iodine 131 8,06 d 1r,r 0,28 to 0,64 Thyroid uptake
Xenon 133 5,25 d 13+, y 0,08 Imaging
Gallium 67 3,26 d e.c. 0,09 to 0,3 0 Imaging
Gold 198 2,70 d 1r, 'Y 0,41 Therapy source (grains)
Technetium 99m 6,02 h i.t. 0,141 Imaging

Table 1: Examples of radionuclides and their medical applications

 115

8. ARTIFICIAL OR INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY

In the previous sections) we dealt with naturally occurring radioactive substances such as
radium and uranium. It is also possible to produce very many artificial radionuclides, i.e.
radionuclides that do not occur in nature. There are four commercial sources of artificial
radionuclides.

8.1 Neutron activation of stable nuclides in a nuclear reactor

Neutron activation or neutron capture occurs when stable (non-radioactive) nuclides are
bombarded with neutrons inside a nuclear reactor at an atomic energy establishment
(such as Koeberg). Inside a reactor there is a very high intensity of neutrons; these
interact with nuclei of stable nuclides placed in the reactor. The previously stable nuclei
absorb or capture a neutron, and emit a gamma ray photon. The absorption of a neutron
increases the mass number of the nuclide.

Several different types of nuclear processes can occur during the production of
radionuclides in a reactor. In one of the simpler processes, a neutron enters a stable
nucleus to form an unstable isotope of the same element, e.g.
23 1 24
l1 Na+ On-> II Na+y

The stable isotope of sodium, ~~ Na , becomes a radioactive isotope of the same element)
;~ Na , with the emission of a gamma ray photon that represents the excess of energy in
the interaction. The radioactive nuclide,~~ Na decays with a half-life of 15 hours.

8.2 Bombardment with high energy particles in a particle accelerator

Other artificial radionuclides are formed by the bombardment of stable nuclides witl1"
electrically charged particles such as protons or alpha particles in a particle accelerator.
These accelerators, such as a cyclotron (NAC) or a linear accelerator, function by using
powerful electromagnetic fields to accelerate charged particles in a circular or linear
vacuum tube. Particle energies ofup to 100 MeV are used to bombard stable target
nuclides, converting them to radioactive nuclides.

Various nuclear reactions can occur including the addition of an alpha pruiicle to a stable
nucleus to form an unstable nucleus) e.g.
52Cr+4a ~ s2Fe+4 in
M 2 M 0

The stable isotope of cru·omium, ;! Cr, becomes a radioactive isotope of iron, ;! Fe, with
the emission of 4 neutrons. The radioactive nuclide, ;~ Fe decays with a half-life of 8,3
hours.
 116

8.3 Radionuclide generator

One of the difficulties encountered in medical applications of radionuclides is the

reduction in activity that takes place between the production of the nuclides and its
subsequent use. This is particularly true of the short half-life radionuclides that are used
for diagnostic imaging. The solution to the problem is to create the nuclides with a
radionuclide generator. The principle underlying radionuclide generators is to use a
long half-life parent nuclide whose daughter product is a radionuclide with a short half-
life. The parent radionuclide, prepared by one of the means described above, is shipped to
a site close to or inside the centre where the short half-life daughter nuclide is required.
The radionuclide generator provides a means of chemically separating the daughter
product from its parent so that it is available whenever needed.

The most common example encountered in radiography is the technetium 99m generator.
In this device, the parent radionuclide, molybdenum 99 (ty, = 2,7 days), decays by p-
emission into technetium 99m (ty, = 6 hours) which is eluted or "milked" from the
generator in the form of a bacteriologically sterile solution of sodium pertechnetate.

8.4 Nuclear fission in a nuclear reactor

The spent uranium fuel rods from a nuclear reactor contain all the elements from zinc (Z
= 30) to terbium (Z = 65), but the fuel rods are highly radioactive and the extraction and
purification of individual radionuclides from the rods is difficult. When these problems
can be overcome the products obtained have high specific activity.

8.5 Specific activity

Radionuclides or radioisotopes are rarely available in their pure state. Because the
radioactive isotope of an element are chemically identical to its stable isotopes, it is
difficult, if not impossible, to separate the unstable from the stable forms of the element.
Depending on how it was produced, a radionuclide sample may therefore also contain
stable nuclides of the same element. Indeed, the radioactive component may form only a
small percentage of the sample as a whole. Additionally, both the stable and unstable
isotopes of the element are often combined with other, non~radioactive elements to form
chemical compounds, e.g. technetium 99m is commonly bound to sodimn and oxygen to
fonn the compound sodium pertechnetate. Consequently, a radionuclide sample contains
a greater or smaller amount of non-radioactive carrier material or "baggage" which ads to
its mass without contributing to its activity. Therefore, although the activity of a sample
is used as a measure of the quantity present, it does not say anything about the mass or
volume of the material in which the radioactive transformations are occurring.

To take account of the inactive part of a radionuclide sample, the specific activity of the
sample is quoted, i.e. the relationship between the activity and the mass of the radioactive
material.
Specific activity: Specific activity is the activity per unit mass ofthe radioactive
element or compound.
 117

Its S.I. tmit is the becquerel per kilogram (Bq kg- 1). Because radionuclide preparations
are often in solution) specific activity is more conveniently expressed in terms of the
activity per unit volume, e.g. megabecquerels per millilitre (MBq mi-1). A knowledge of
the specific activity of a preparation enables us to determine what mass (or volume) of
the product needs to be used to obtain a specified activity.

In some cases, it is possible to prepare samples of a radionuclide to which no non~

radioactive materials or carrier has been added. Such a sample is said to be carrier~free.

(a) JONES) Edwin R. & CHILDERS, Richard L - "Contemporary College Physics"

(b) OHANIAN, Hans C- "Principles of Physics')
(c) GRAHAM) Donald T- «Principles of Radiological Physics" .
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