Forestry 2A

21/09/2019 Forestry 2A
FOREST MANAGEMENT
Forest Management is the practical application of scientific, technical and economic principles of forestry.
Scope of Forest Management
Control of composition and structure of growing stock — achieved by choice of species and suitable regeneration options
Harvesting and marketing of produce — Covers the aspects of transportation, communication, logging plan, marketing data, sale and revenue of
produce
Administration of forest property and personnel — deals with forest organisation, management of personnel, labour management and welfare and
financial control
Management of Private forest
Emphasis on immediate returns and maximising gain per unit area

Emphasis on tangible products like timber, instead of ecological benefits (climate moderations, soil erosion, pollution mitigation)
Objectives of Forest Management
Maintain economic productivity and take advantage of present economic opportunities;

Satisfy the values of indigenous peoples and local communities;
Broaden the implementation of sustainable forestry by ensuring long-term harvest levels based on the use of the best scientific information
available.
Ensure long-term forest productivity and conservation of forest resources through prompt reforestation, soil conservation, afforestation, and other
measures
Protect water quality in streams, lakes, and other water bodies
Manage the quality and distribution of wildlife habitats and contribute to the conservation of biological diversity by developing and
implementing stand- and landscape-level measures that promote habitat diversity
Manage the visual impact of harvesting and other forest operations.
Promote the efficient use of forest resources.
Broaden the practice of sustainable forestry through procurement programs.
Improve forestry research, science, and technology, upon which sound forest management decisions are based.
Improve the practice of sustainable forest management by resource professionals, logging professionals, and contractors through appropriate
training and education programs.
Commitment to comply with applicable federal, provincial, state, or local laws and regulations.
Encouraging the public and forestry community to participate in the commitment to sustainable forestry and publicly report progress.
Promote continual improvement in the practice of sustainable forestry and monitor, measure, and report performance in achieving the
commitment to sustainable forestry.
Principles
Sustainable Forestry: Meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs by practising
a land stewardship ethic
Integrates reforestation and the managing, growing, nurturing, and harvesting of trees for useful products with the conservation of soil, air and
water quality, biological diversity, wildlife and aquatic habitat, recreation, and aesthetics
Responsible Practices: scientifically credible and economically, environmentally and socially responsible.
Reforestation and Productive Capacity: To provide for regeneration after harvest and maintain the productive capacity of the forestland base.
Forest Health and Productivity: Protect forests from economically or environmentally undesirable wildfire, pests, diseases, and other damaging
agents
Long-term Forest and Soil Productivity
Protection of Water Resources and riparian zones.
Protection of Special Sites and Biological Diversity
Legal Compliance with environmental laws, statutes, and regulations.
ROTATION
Planned number of years between the formation or regeneration of a crop and its final felling.
It is the age of the plant beyond which deterioration of quality occurs.
Felling before rotation is not advisable because of its poor sale value.
Rotation is mainly applicable to regular forest. In selection forest, size is the criteria to fix rotation instead of age (rotation is replaced by
exploitable age — all trees that reached exploitable diameter are considered for harvesting)
Rate of growth varies with site, but rotation is common for all sites
Involves sacrifice of immature trees at the time of harvest at rotation age.
Accidents like fire, disease, etc. necessitate felling earlier than rotation
Length of rotation depends on
Rate of growth of species — fast growing species have short rotation period — depends on silvicultural characteristics, genetic make up
Soil — Fertile soil produces better crop in shorter period
Economic considerations — Money value and wood prices
Management Objectives
Social Conditions like market price, personal needs and other factors
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How to reduce period of rotation?
Grow in areas of suitable soil so that the tree grows faster

Adequate protection against climate extremes like heat waves and frost
Weeding and climber cutting to reduce competition for main crop
Scientific management of soil moisture and nutrients, including fertiliser additions
Manipulate microclimate for the best growth conditions (for e.g. provide shade if needed)
Pesticides to reduce damage caused by insects, fungi and pests
Regeneration from coppice or seedlings, as appropriate for shorter period of maturation
Changing economical needs — for e.g. pulp wood instead of timber
Types of Rotation
Rotation which coincides with natural lease of life of a species on a given site.
Lets the trees thrive till they die
Applicable to protection and amenity forest, park lands and road side avenues.
No relevance to economic forestry
Physical rotation is also interpreted as the age till which trees remain sound or produce viable seeds in high
forests or generate coppice shoots in coppice forests
Physical Rotation
Relative Importance
Longest rotation period which allows carbon sequestration for a longer period.
Important for ecological objectives and Green India Mission.
Trees are past the age of optimum economic value, so they represent a loss on economic terms.
Species are so chosen which do not have much economic importance.
Rotation through which a species is retained until satisfactory vigour of growth and reproduction on a given site.
Not lower than when trees start producing fertile seeds and not higher than when their reproductive capacity
Silvicultural Rotation
stops
Applicable to aesthetic and recreational forestry
Rotation in which a species yield the maximum material of a desired size for economic conversion or for special
use.
Produce maximum material of the desired dimension
Applicable to industrial forestry
Technical Rotation No reliable fixed point for fixing the rotation
Relative Importance
Can be modified as per needs of industry. Important for economic objectives
Rotation that yields the maximum annual growth of material

Rotation of maximum
Age that which MAI culminates
volume production
Adopted when production of woody material is the main objective of management
Rotation of highest Yields highest average annual revenue, irrespective of value of forest
income Calculated without interest and irrespective of time.
Financial/Economic Yields the highest net return on the invested capital

rotation Gives the highest discounted benefit
Control on services: Physical and Silvicultural Rotation

Control on Output: Technical Rotation, Rotation of maximum volume production
Control of Return: Rotation of highest return, Financial/economic rotation
High Density Short Rotation Forestry
Silvicultural practice under which high-density, sustainable plantations of fast-growing tree species produce woody biomass on agricultural land or on
fertile but degraded forest land. Trees are grown either as single stems or as coppice systems, with a rotation period of less than 30 years
Irrigation and fertilization are often used, but only in an ecologically and economically sound way
Plantations are weeded and competing tree species are removed
Species, provenances and clones with high water-use efficiency or high resistance to frost, insects, fungi and bacteria are planted

Plantations are harvested when the yearly growth rate no longer exceeds the mean annual increment
Excludes as many of the limiting factors as possible like creating optimal water and nutrient conditions, competition from herbaceous plants and
other tree species
Advantages Disadvantages
Optimizes the use of natural resources, environmentally and

economically, through the application of biological, physical,
theoretical and practical knowledge
Produces large amounts of biomass for energy and paper through
the use of fast-growing tree species
Excessive use of fertilisers may lead to soil degradation
Full growth potential of a tree species is realized by creating
Fertile agricultural land cannot be diverted for Short Rotation
optimal water and nutrient conditions
Forestry
Wood from short-rotation forestry may replace wood from tropical
May deplete nutrients and moisture, leading to land degradation,
forests and from protected forest areas and thus help conserve
if the management is not scientific.
valuable natural forests for future generations.
Requires high capital cost
Establishment of vegetation filters, in which nitrogen and
phosphorus in waste water and sewage are used for irrigation and
fertilization in short-rotation forestry can help prevent
Eutrophication
Help in sustainable rural development
Rotation of Important Species
Ideal soil — Tropical flat terrain that drains naturally, rich in calcium
Requires good amount of sunlight and space
During first 3 years, the tree should be grown without any other plant species for sufficient
lighting (light demander)
Weeding done on weekly basis
UP, Bihar, Odisha, Harvest rotation in 20 to 80 years, depending on schedule or financial expectations of the
Teak
WB, Peninsular investors
Tectona grandis
India Harvesting period for teak plantations is 40 years on average
In later years, growth of dark heart wood accelerates, resulting in more returns
Laterite and water logged soils are unsuitable
Qualities of teak — Deciduous, hard and strong, contains an oil that acts as a preservative, durable
and takes a high polish, Used for ship building and railway sleepers, Indigenous to India
Deciduous (Indigenous to India)

Sal belt in Terai region.
Moist, deep, sandy-loamy soil with good drainage
Haryana to Assam,
Can persist in moderate shade
Garo Hills,
Sal Excess clay leads to stunted growth
Bangladesh, WB,
Shorea robusta Timber may be felled when 30 years old, but usually the tree matures after 50 years
Andhra Pradesh,
In plantations, rotation is practised at an interval of 80 years
Odisha, MP
First thinning is performed after 5 years, and thereafter trees are thinned every 5 to 10 years
Rotation of 30-40 years are used when coppice regeneration is practised and 80-160 years for
high forest regeneration
Rotation of 5-8 years is most common

Fresh well drained fertile soil
Poorly resistant to termite and fungi (wood is not durable)
Rotation for pulpwood is 6 years, for sawn wood is 10 years
Gamhar India, SE Asia,
2nd rotation is produced by coppicing
Gmelina arborea Philippines, China
For a third harvest a new plantation is generally established
Ample amount of fertiliser must be added during the 2nd rotation
Weeding 3-4 times in the first 2 years
High productivity with short rotation results in soil deterioration
4 years in irrigated lands, 6 years in rain fed areas

Fast growing light demanding species
Casuarina
Very sensitive to excess soil moisture, fire and frost
Best suited to light soils
Bamboo Indigenous to
Dendrocalamus strictus India, common in Light demander
hilly parts of Drought resistant
peninsula Commonly found in hilly, drier areas
Well drained soils and stony soils on hill slopes
Used in paper industry, house construction, agricultural tools, food and fodder, cottage
industries
Average life of a culm is 7 years.
Bamboo trees do not add get any taller or larger in diameter water first year and do not
replace any growth lost from pruning or natural breakage
Across species, age to cut the culms varies from 2 to 7 years
Fast growing plantation — short rotation period

Coppice rotation — 5 to 10 years
Because of short duration rotation, poor productivity due to soil fertility deterioration
Plantations are often coppiced 2 or 3 times on rotation of 8-12 years (mainly used for
Eucalyptus Native to Australia pulpwood or firewood), or allowed to grow to a larger size for sawn timber
Depending on soil and other factors, when growth rate is high, rotation period is small
Generally the 2nd coppice rotation, out yields the seedling rotation
Grown in most countries as a short generation pulp wood feedstock
Intolerant to frost
Rotation is generally at 4 years.

Highly drought resistant
Subabul Requires deep, well drained neutral soil, but can tolerate saline and acidic soil
Leucaena leucocephala Growth is average in sandy, acidic and dry gravel soils
Growth is poor in marshy, infertile lands and at high altitudes
Cannot tolerate water logged conditions
15 to 30 years for production of timber

Grow fast when soil moisture is not a limiting resource
Wattles Best grown in alluvial soils on riverine plains
Acacia Can survive in alkaline and saline soils
Requires considerable moisture in soil
Highly drought resistant
YIELD
Intermediate Yield Yield obtained from time to time from a forest not organised for continuous production.
Final Yield All the material that counts against the prescribed yield and which is derived from the main felling in a regular forest.
Sum of standing volume of a crop plus total volume removed in thinning

Total Yield
Final + Intermittent Yield
Normal Yield Yield obtained from normal forest
Denotes the material that a forest can yield annually or periodically in perpetuity
Regular, continuous supply of the produce to the fullest capacity of forest from a unit area is called sustained yield.
Main aspects are continuity of growth and continuity of yield
Concept of sustained yield
Later generation may derive from the forest at least as much of the benefits as the present generation.
Forest should be exploited in such a way that the annual felling does not exceed the annual growth
Sustained Yield In order to attain a sustained yield, complete succession of equal areas of crops of all ages from one year to age of
maturity should be present inside the forest.
Rotation year crop is felled annually/periodically and planted in the successive year
Principle of maximum sustained yield forms the basic objective of good forest management
Pre-requisite for Sustained Yield
Establish and maintain equal areas of coupes with a series of age gradations, starting from 1 year to age of maturity
Remove the coupe of mature crop annually
Plant the felled coupe every year
Designates raising the productivity of soil and of the crop by silvicultural treatments, judicious tending, enrichment
Progressive Yield of forest by changing crop composition and by replacement of original inferior forest by valuable forest species.
Aims at production of maximum quantity of the kind of produce from the soil in the shortest possible time
Advantages of Sustained Yield Disadvantages of Sustained Yield
Facilitates budgeting and regulates taxation of the Considers timber production as a biological function rather than economical
govt. process function
Local labour is fully employed Production is carried out irrespective of price fluctuations
Staff employed fully and engaged permanently Ignores possibility of changes in use of forest products
Contractors have assured and permanent Ignores relationship between forestry and other sections of national economy
employment Rigid policy not suitable for growing economy
Facilitates continuous supply of raw materials to In real conditions, wide fluctuations in yield is common
industry Difficulty in foreseeing the future trend of timber
Markets can be developed and gain confidence easily Prevents increase of felling during times of price rise
If rotation period has to be changed, entire coupe has to be redefined
Normal Forest
A Forest which has a normal series of age gradation or age classes, a normal increment and consequent normal growing stock.
A forest which, for a given site and given objects of management, is ideally constituted as regards growing stock, age-class distribution and
increment, and from which the annual or periodic removal of produce equal to the increment can be continued indefinitely without endangering
future yields.
It is a conception of forest management based on the concept of sustained yield
Attainment of normal forest is the main objective of all production forestry. But in reality no virgin forest is a normal forest
Normal Series of Age Gradation — Presence of trees of all ages from one year old to rotation age in the forest, in appropriate numbers
Normal Growing Stock — Volume of stands in a forest with normal age gradations or age gradation and normal increment
Normal Increment — Best or maximum increment attainable by a given species and for a given rotation
Kinds of Abnormality in the forest are
Under stocked growing stock

Over stocked growing stock
Normal growing stock with abnormal distribution of age classes
Increment may be sub normal
Normal increment in abnormal forest
How to obtain normal forest under different silvicultural systems?
Total area is divided into coupes which is equal to A/R.

Number of coupes is equal to number of years in rotation.
Clear Felling
Each coupe is harvested and regenerated continuously so that age gradations are established continuously.
This establishes normal age gradation, normal growing stock, normal increment
Total area is divided into number of regeneration blocks

Number of blocks = Rotation/Regeneration period
Shelterwood System
Each regeneration block is harvested and regenerated within the regeneration period
Each block will have single age class instead of age gradation.
Age class distinction is difficult because each unit area has trees of all classes.
Instead of rotation age, exploitable diameter is used. Every year, all trees that attain the exploitable diameter over the
entire forest are felled. But it is difficult to harvest the whole forest each year.
A felling cycle is first fixed. Felling series is divided into a number of sections which is equal to number of years in the
Irregular Forest felling cycle.
Felling is confined to one section each year, in which trees have attained the exploitable diameter. Next year, the
adjacent section is felled.
Annually regular yield is obtained and at the end of the period, normal size gradations are established instead of normal
age classes.
INCREMENT
Increase in girth, diameter, basal area, height, volume, quality, price or value of individual trees during a given period
Increase in growth of a tree or crop with age.
Internal factors: species type

External factors: moisture, light, soil nutrients, pest attacks, fire
Current Annual Increment: increase in growth that takes place in a particular year.
Periodic Annual Increment: average rate of growth up to a given age
Mean Annual Increment: average annual increment up to an age divided by that age.
Increment Percent: average annual growth in volume or basal area over a specified period expressed as a percent of volume or basal area, either at
beginning or halfway through the period.

As long as the CAI exceeds the MAI, the MAI curve must rise since each added yearly increment improves the average. After the CAI culminates, the
MAI curve begins to flatten, reaching a maximum at the point of intersection of the two curves. Beyond this, the MAI falls but at a slower rate than the
CAI. The point of intersection is fixed as the rotation year.
Volume increment
Effect of thinning on Volume increment
Thinning removes a certain number of trees in a plantation to facilitate the growth by reducing competition between the
trees.
Regular thinning of a fixed grade on the basis of yield table, does not disturb the smooth rise of the volume increment
curve.
Heavy thinning results in downward movement of the CAI and a secondary rise later in time.
Quality increment Increase in value per unit volume of the tree or crop, independent from any increase in price of forest produce.
Price increment Increment in price independent of quality increment, due to fluctuations in market
Determination of Increment in regular forests
Pressler’s Increment Borer Method

Suitable for determining the increment given by a standing tree.
Using increment borer, the number of annual rings in the last one centimetre is determined and then calculated using Pressler’s formula
Repeated direct measurements
Calculation of Yield Table
Applicable to fully stocked, pure, even aged crops which are subjected to normal C grade thinning.
Yield table have both CAI and MAI values from which increment of forest is worked out.
If we know the year of establishment of the plantation/forest, the MAI value can be obtained from the yield table.
Increment = MAI x Area of felling series
Increment from CAI
Area Method: Area of each class, density, site quality, increment per unit area, increment of each class and total increment of the
series can be determined.
Per Tree Method:
By increment percent method: Applicable for both regular and irregular forests. Pressler and Schnider formula are used for
calculation of increment.
Sampling procedure
Determination of Increment in irregular forests
In irregular forests, distinction of age class and gradation is difficult. In a single area, all age classes can be found
Mean Age (A) = {n1 (p-x) + n2 (q-x) +n3 (r-x)} / (n1 + n2 + n3)
Here, n1, n2 and n3 are number of trees in respective diameter classes
p, q, r are true ages of the diameter classes
x is the age corresponding to the diameter over which enumeration is taken
MAI = Ga/A (Ga = actual growing stock)
Biolley’s Method: Calculated MAI based on yield table attributes
MAI = [(V2 - V1) + N - P ] / n
V1 and V2 are initial and final volume of growing stock

N is the material removed during this period
Normal Age Class in Regular Forest
Felling series in simple coppice and clear felling system

Felling series consists of a number of annual coupes
Number of annual coupes is equal to number of years in the rotation. Area of each coupe is A/r
Each Coupe is divided in to a number of cutting sections. Each coupe is felled annually and regenerated in the coming year.
Felling series in regular shelterwood system
Periodic blocks replace the annual coupes. Total area is divided into periodic blocks
Number of periodic blocks is equal to R/regeneration period
Each regeneration block is harvested and regenerated within the regeneration period
Each block will have single age class of trees. In this way, age class distribution and normal forest is established
Felling series in selection forest
Felling is carried out all over the forest and at all times not restricting rotation year alone.
In irregular forest, age gradation or class is not distinguishable by area, because each unit has all age classes.
Exploitable size/diameter is defined for fixing the rotation. Trees above this diameter are felled.
Specific felling cycle is worked out.
Felling series in coppice with standard system
Similar to clear felling, but the retention of standards complicates adoption of felling series in coppice with rotation system
Rotation of standards is a multiple of rotation of the coppice.
GROWING STOCK
Defined as the sum by number/volume of all trees growing in the forest or a specified part of it.
Normal Growing Stock is the total volume of a fully stocked forest with normal distribution of age classes for a given rotation.
Determination of Normal Growing Stock
Based on final MAI NGS calculation from yield table
GS is calculated by adding volume of succession.

Yield table gives data at 5 year intervals. Smooth curves are drawn
to get the GS value for intermittent years.
Yield Tables
"Volume increment of forest / year / area” distribution across different coupes, along with area of each coupe, age and composition of each coupe
Helps to determine which coupes are to be felled for a particular yield
Designed mainly for application to even-aged silvicultural systems. They have limited application to forest stands with more complex structure
and silvicultural practice

YIELD REGULATION
Yield — Volume or number of stems that can be removed annually or periodically, or the area over which felling may pass annually or
periodically.
Yield Capacity — Total quantity of material per annum, of a given species that an area is capable of producing under normal conditions, so long
as the factors of locality remain unchanged
Yield Determination — Calculation of amount of material which may be removed from a forest periodically. Difficult in over mature forest and
irregular forest due to irregular distribution of age classes.
Yield Regulation — determination of the yield and the prescribed means of realising it
Objectives
Cut each crop at apt maturity

Obtain maximum yield of the desired produce
Cut the same amount of yield annually or periodically
Limit the area to be felled so as to carry out the regeneration operations
Functions
Calculation of amount of yield in a forest at different times

Development of felling schedule to cut the wood at apt time
Yield Regulation in regular forests
Clear Felling System: Area Method of Yield Regulation
Simplest method of yield regulation which tells how much area should be harvested
Area to be harvested = Total Area / Rotation
Applied only to even aged forests
Annual Coupes by Gross Area — Equi-extensive coupes
Whole area is divided into number of annual coupes. Number of annual coupes is equal to number of rotation years
These coupes have equal area and are called equiextensive coupes
Each year, one coupe is felled and regenerated in the consequent year
Establishes age gradation in sequence and equal consistent yield will be obtained from second rotation onwards
Does not include yield obtained from cleaning and thinning operations intermittently
Annual Coupes by reduced area — Equi-productive coupes
Reduction factor is applied to the equivalent-extensive area based on site quality and density of crops
Different coupes have different areas, but they yield the same.
In case of denser and better crop, area felled is less.
Simplest method in practice Not suitable for uneven aged crops

Establishment of age gradation is easy Final and Intermediate yield have to be determined separately
Most suited to even-aged crop Volume of thinning is problematic because only area to be felled
Each coupe can be extensively treated is prescribed
Rigid method that assumes increment would be uniform
Equiproductive coupes are only an approximation
Changing rotation would mean redefining coupes
Yield Regulation in regular shelterwood systems
Periodic Block Method of Yield Regulation
Rotation is divided into a number of convenient periods

According to number of periods, total forest is divided into a number of compartments
Periodic Block — Area allotted to various periods — which may be equi-extensive or equi-productive
Method is less rigid than regulation by area. Yield can be regulated by area/volume/both.
Methods of allocation of area to periodic block
Permanent Allotment Methods

Regulation by Area
Rotation is divided into number of periods. Area of each PB = (A x P)/R
PB may be self contained or scattered on the basis of condition and maturity of crop in a compartment.
Hufnal’s Modification: Coupe area is lesser for old age classes and more for less age class of a PB.
Average age = Sum of (Area X Age) for each age class, divided by the sum of Areas.
Annual Yield from PB is calculated using Cotta’s Formula: V/P + I/2. V is the standing volume in PB I and I is the increment in the
PB I.
Regulation by Volume
Hartig Method: Felling series is divided into PBs and volume of PBs is equalised instead of area. Initially, age class allotment is
made to PB. Then, volume of crop is allotted based on PB.
Limitations: Burdensome to apply in practical, depends on yield table, regulation and re-calculation of final yield with every
shifting.
Regulation by Area and Volume method
PB has equal volume and equal area.
First PB is allotted to age classes. Preliminary equalisation is made either for area or volume. Then shifting is made to fix the other so
that both area and volume are equal in all PB.
Combined advantages go both area and volume method.
Limitations: Most rigid, crop response may not be in determined plan, final felling is postponed if there is no regeneration
Revocable allotment method
Rotation is divided into periods, correspondingly felling series is split into PB
Inside the PB, compartments are allotted based on average age classes.
Necessary adjustments are made to equalise the area of various PB.
PB I is allotted for regeneration on the basis of
Block where regeneration felling has not been completed in the previous period.
Compartments damaged severely by insects, pests, fire and other calamities
Compartments of mature crop with/without advanced growth
Single allotment method
In this allotment, area is allotted to the current regeneration block and compartments are allotted in this PB only. The area and period for
the PB is fixed.
Rest of the PBs are not allotted considering natural disturbance and necessary revision at later.
Floating periodic block method
Similar to single allotment method, but size of PB and length of rotation is not fixed in advance.
PB is allotted mainly to woods of over matured or matured crops or areas where regeneration is started.
Advantages: Felling is carried according to silvicultural requirement of crops. No artificial period is fixed for regulation of felling.
Disadvantages: Not applicable for irregular forests, difficult in abnormal forests
Judeich Stand Selection Method
Yield regulation over a long period was not accurate and hence, it was concentrated over a short period of ten years.
Forest is divided into a number of compartments. Divided compartments are inspected and described well.
Based on treatments, rotation and period are prescribed
Compartments are allotted to stands of importance, over matured and mature crops, advance regeneration and other local factors.
Size of coupe is determined by considering area of FS, rotation and period (Area = FS x P/R)
Annual yield is calculated as: Total standing volume in the compartment/Period.
Advantages: Simple and Flexible method, Felling is carried out according to actual condition of crops, applicable to regular crop even with
abnormality
Disadvantage: Crops obtained are mixed in composition. Sustainable yield may not be possible
Yield Regulation based on volume of GS — Von Mantel Formula
Volume of NGS = (I x r)/2

Annual Yield = 2 NGS/r
Volume of NGS is equal to the multiplication of MAI with half rotation.
In a normal forest, total yield at harvest is equal to double the volume of GS at present. This means the existing GS supplies half of the yield and
the remaining half comes from increment.
Advantages
Easy to apply
Only requires GS and rotation
Regulates yield easily
Useful for irregular forest
Gives conservative yield and helps in enrichment of GS
Disadvantages
Does not consider the difference between actual GS and NGS

Inelastic in nature
Requires complete enumeration of GS which is cumbersome and labour intensive process
Does not consider age class distribution and growth rate of crop
Gives final yield alone and not the intermediate yield obtained from thinning
Assumption of equal increment from all age gradation is wrong
Masson’s Ratio
Considers actual growing stock as 100

Y = 2GS/r = 200/r = 2/r %
Gives a general idea for harvesting each year from a forest if no other information is available.
Howard’s Modification
Assumed that girth is directly proportional to tree age.

Used girth at half rotation for his yield determination
Based on his assumption, volume of woods at half rotation is equal to 3/4 of the total GS. So GS = 4V/3
Y = 8V/3r
Simon’s Modification
Applicable to all fractional enumerations of GS down to girth equivalent to 1/n of rotation

n = Rotation/Age of oldest class = r/x
Annual Yield = 2GS/r
V is the volume of GS enumerated, a is the volume of GS not enumerated
Smythie’s Modification
Annual yield = 2v/(r-x)

V is the volume of GS enumerated, r is the rotation, x is the age down to which enumeration is done.
Burma Modification
Annual Yield = 9v/4r

v is the volume of GS measured upto r/3 years and r is the rotation
Yield Determination based on GS and increment
Austrian Method
Y = I + (Va - Vn)/r
Va is actual GS and Vn is the normal GS
If the forest is normal, then normal increment must be removed from the forest.
Advantages
Applicable to both regular and irregular forests
Helps to produce the normal forest from abnormal conditions
Limitations
In irregular forest, this method assumes that GS and increment are constant. But in real, it varies with time.
Yield calculation is not satisfactory
Does not consider age class distribution
Heyer’s Modification
Yield from actual MAI instead of normal MAI

Equalisation period should be less than half rotation
Ya = Ia + (Va-Vn)/x
x is the period during which the excess or deficit of GS is to be adjusted.
Advantages
Elastic in application
Ideal of NGS is kept clearly before the working plan officer
Applicable for both regular and irregular forest
Useful for checking other methods

Limitations
Most artificial and unrealistic methods
Ignores area and age class distribution
Determination of actual MAI in irregular forest is difficult
Hundeshagan Method
Assumption that actual annual yield bears the same proportion to the actual GS as like normal yield to normal GS
Yr/Gr = Yn/Gn
Yn and Gn is obtained from the Yield table. Yn/Gn is called the utilisation factor.
Advantage
No need for calculation of real present increment
It is useful where yield is calculated for periodically
It is used as check on other methods
Limitations
Assumption is flawed: Increment varies depending on age class distribution, tree vigour and other factors
Does not consider age class distribution and surplus of GS in compartment
Yield table is needed for application of this method in regular forest.
Karl’s Method
Assessed the annual yield from CAI and surplus or deficit of the GS.
Equalisation period instead of rotation in yield assessment.
Y = CAI +/- (Ga-Gn)/a
a is the period over which surplus or deficit is managed, n is the time elapsed between successive measurements.
Not possible for irregular forest and species which do not possess annual rings
Breymen’s method
Actual yield bears the same proportion to the normal yield as the average age bears to the normal age of the crop.
Y/Yn = A/An
Actual Yield, Y = (A x Yn)/An
A = average age of felling series, An = normal age of felling series, Yn = Normal Yield
Limitations
Little practical values
Gives same yield even if old age classes are missing or lesser in area.
Data required is difficult to collect in irregular forest
Surplus or deficit of GS is maintained throughout the rotation.
Hufunagl method
Suitable for regular and semi regular forests. Needs differentiation of crops of half rotation and above.
Y = [ V + (a x I x r/4)] / r/2
Y = [ V + (V x I x r/4)] / r/2 — Suitable for irregular forests
Yield Determination based on Diameter Class
French Method
Divides the whole forest into 3 zones: young, medium and old classes
In a normal forest, volume of these age classes is in ratio 1:3:5 (Vo:Vm:Vy = 5:3:1)
Annual Yield Ya = [ Vo / r/3 ] + (Vo x t1) / 2
Vo is the volume of old age class, t1 is the increment per unit per annum of old age class, r = rotation
Modifications to French Method
Vo + Vm is more than normal: Old age classes are more than the normal and hence excess along with the calculated normal yield is removed in
1/3 of the rotation
Vo + Vm is less than normal: Depicts that the GS inside the forest is less than the normal.
Vo:Vm is 5:3 — Very old and defective trees alone need to be removed to build up the GS to normal condition
Vo:Vm is different from 5:3 — Only dead and defective trees have to be removed from the old age class and nothing is removed from
medium age class
Vo + Vm is normal
Vo:Vm > 5:3 — Few of the young age classes can be shifted to medium age classes so as to bring the volume ratio to normal
Vo:Vm < 5:3 — Volume of old age class is less and hence few of the older trees in medium class can be shifted to old age class to bring the
volume ratio to normal
Melard’s Method
Modification of French method that considers intermediate yield

Yi = 1/n x (Vm x t2)
Advantages
Elastic and accurate method
Yield is according to condition of crop

Leads to establishment of normal forest
Disadvantages
Measurement to be carried out up to 1/3 rotation. It is a cumbersome procedure which is very difficult in short rotation plantations
Diameter corresponding to 1/3 rotation may not fall in standard diameter classes and sometimes it maybe in decimal fractions.
Diameter limit may change with site quality and changes with rotation
Diameter is not exactly proportional to age in all occasions
Smythie’s Modification
Chaturvedi’s Modification
Yield Regulation in Irregular Forest
Yield Based on GS Alone
Van Mantel’s Formula

French Method
Yield Based on increment alone
Increment Method
Based on the assumption that yield is correlated with increment directly.

Annual Yield Y = (V + a + Vn)/n
V is the present volume, Vn is the volume n years ago, a is the volume removed during the previous n years.
Applicable to smaller area of irregular forest
Biolley’s Method
Annual Increment: Z/n = [V2 + N - (V1+P)] / n

N is the volume of wood removed during the period
P is the volume of new recruits
Swiss method
Yield Based on increment and GS
Brandis Diameter Class Method
Designed by Brandis for teak forest felling in India

Exploitable girth (6 ft) is fixed for limiting felling.
Systematic strip enumerations were carried out in girth down to a minimum 18’’ girth
Stump Analysis is carried out to find out about the rate of girth increment and period of passing from one diameter class to the next.
From this rotation is worked out for exploitable diameter.
Felling cycle is fixed, which is a sub multiple of rotation.
Annual Yield = average number of trees reaching exploitable diameter annually + fraction of surplus number of above the exploitable diameter if
any present

Data required
Exploitable diameter and corresponding rotation

Number of trees in each diameter class
Transition period
Percentage of trees in each class likely to survive upto Class I
Annual recruitment to Class I
Working Stock
Surplus of Class I trees
Period during which surplus of Class I stock is to be removed.
Advantages
Marking officer can determine the limit according to the silvicultural requirements of the crop
Suitable for tropical forest where one or two species are saleable
Suitable for forest where selection felling is applicable
Illiterate labour can be employed
If volume table is available, it is possible to convert number of trees to volume
Disadvantages
It is an expensive operation
Requires revision upon the end of each felling cycle
Survival coefficient calculation is a mere guess
Satisfactory NR of desired species species is difficult in mixed forests because unsaleable species are left without felling inside the forest
Lacks elasticity, more complex and liable to error
Hufnagl Diameter Class Method
Yield regulation in selection forests based on diameter class approach

Proposed that all trees above a exploitable diameter be removed during a period.
More realistic method of removal of woods. When woods of exploitable diameter are removed over a period, next below diameter class attains
exploitable diameter for next harvesting
Suitable for irregular virgin forests and selection forests
Smithy’s Safeguarding Formula
Ensure sustained as well as increased yield in every felling cycle

Developed for Sal Forest under selection system in UP
Middle and Younger diameter classes need to be well represented
STAND STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS
Stand Structure
Stand structure refers to any physical aspect of the forest, including live trees, standing dead trees, fallen dead trees, other associated non-arboreal
vegetation
Different attributes to describe and characterize each of these structures.
Live trees may be characterized based on size (quadratic mean diameter, height, volume), density (trees per acre, basal area, stand density index),
stocking (relative density), composition (species), or crown morphology (live crown ratio, crown width).
Stand Initiation
New individuals and species continue to appear for several years following a disturbance
Stands are young and can be quite dense.
A stand initiating disturbance marks the beginning of this stage, while canopy closure marks the end
Processes
Establishment of new cohort

Colonization by new seed
Germination from seed bank
Minimal or no nutrient limitations

Rapid growth
After several years (3 to 50, depending on location and species), new individuals stop appearing and already
established individuals begin to die.
Those that survive grow and begin to manifest differences in height and diameter.
Stands are very dense, and still relatively young
Canopy closure marks the onset of this stage, while density independent mortality, gap formation, and significant
development of new vegetation in the understory signals the end.
Both stand initiation and stem exclusion phases may be described as ‘early successional’ since they occur early in
succession.
Stem Exclusion
Key Processes
Adapted from Franklin et al. (2002)

Canopy closure
Density dependent mortality
Competitive exclusion of understory
Crown differentiation
Lower canopy tree loss
Self pruning
Nutrient limitations develop
Forest floor herbaceous species, shrubs, and advanced regeneration all again appear and survive in the understory,
although growth may be slow
They are able to do so because large dominant trees are dying due to insects, disease, lightning, or other causes,
forming canopy gaps and freeing up site resources.
Density independent mortality, gap formation, and significant development of new vegetation in the understory
indicates the beginning of this stage
Pioneer cohort loss, substantial horizontal and vertical variability, and a high density of large diameter, often
decadent trees roughly correspond to the end.
Understory Re-
initiation
Key Processes
Density INDEPENDENT mortality

Canopy gap initiation
Understory redevelopment
Establishment of shade tolerant species
Maturation of pioneer cohort
Canopy elaboration
Nutrient limitations persist but lessen
Much later in the life of a stand, overstory trees die in a spatially patchy pattern while some of the younger trees in
the understory begin to grow into the overstory
Old growth may be roughly distinguished from understory reinitiation by the loss of the pioneer cohort of trees.
Both old growth and understory reinitiation phases may be described as ‘late successional’ since they occur later in
succession.
Key Structures
Large diameter live trees

Large branches
Rich epiphyte community
Continuous vertical foliar profile
More standing dead trees
Old Growth More large woody debris
More uprooted or snapped trees
Horizontally patchy forest
Large gaps
Densely regenerating old gaps
Key Processes
Canopy gap expansion

Uprooting and snapping of large trees
Live tree decadence (poor form and disease)
Development of large branches
Pioneer cohort loss
Nutrient limitations decline as organic matter accumulates

Stand Dynamics
Stand Dynamics is the study of change in forest stand structure with time, including stand behaviour after disturbance
Cohort: Aggregation of trees starting as a result of a single disturbance
Age Class: Range of tree ages within a stand. Can be Even aged, Double aged or Multiple aged. Annual rings are the best way to assess age
(more reliable than trunk diameter)
Even aged class generally have an even canopy. Canopy strata develop due to differential height growth of species, shade tolerance, rooting
depth, differing asymptotic height potential.
Silvicultural choices may be thought of as determining what kind of stand development process or stage of natural succession is most desirable in
a given situation
Focus on actively encouraging stands to develop toward structures that are in short supply, recognizing that stands will become increasingly more
valuable as they accumulate attributes of the desired structure
Why study forest stand dynamics?
Forests are complex systems that need to be managed to be both resilient and sustainable
Understanding of Forest Development and responses to natural disturbance
Predict productivity and future yield
Predict future structure and composition
Controlling silvicultural costs
Habitat and conservation values
Enhancing landscape scale values
Why is sustained yield from Indian forests low?
Erratic monsoon and over dependence of irrigation

Higher instances of insect and pest attacks, due to tropical climate
Drought, flood, heat waves and other natural calamities
Less usage of nutrient fertilisers and pesticides compared to western countries
Lesser use of technology in forestry operations like tending, cleaning and thinning
Advantages of Rotational Grazing (grazing in parcels of land)
Allows sufficient time for grass to regrow, making it a sustainable practice that prevents over grazing and consequent land degradation
Size of parcel can be easily manipulated to suit needs of species of animal.
Less wastage of forage
Save the best forage for lactating cattle and allow dry animals to forage on lesser quality lands
Hooves of animals can help plant seeds into the ground in the pasture
PLANTATION FORESTRY
Commercial Plantations are a type of managed forest in which the trees are planted as opposed to natural regeneration, of the same age and
generally of the same species intended to maximise the production of wood fibre.
Natural Forests are regenerated naturally, and involve a lesser amount of human interference compared to plantation
Early 1980s onwards, trend has shifted towards multi purpose species
Common Species — Pine, Acacia, Teak, Eucalyptus, Poplar. (Main fast growing and short rotation species)
Why commercial plantations?

Features
Compensate shortfall in supply from natural forests
Uniform aged trees Rehabilitate degraded land
Uniform spacing between trees Develop local economy
Heavy input of fertilisers and pesticides Increase fuelwood supplies
Rely on irrigation Afforestation measures // carbon sequestration
Mostly short rotation Developing tree species for particular purposes
Industry specific Regular supply of produce to down stream industries
Increases production for competitive market
Involves huge capital costs towards irrigation, fertilisers, labour

Even aged trees Increase the Carbon Dioxide levels
Uniform growth leading to uniform timber Lesser biodiversity due to monocultures
Higher productivity Depletion of soil fertility
Regular, industry specific supply of material. Exotic species may become invasive
Adds to export economy of the country Largely funded by capitalists, and may lead to exploitation of local
Generates employment labour. Does not always improve the local economy.
Rights of indigenous people are often violated
Role of Corporate Sector in Plantations
Plantations require high capital input which is provided best by corporate sector
Professional management, judicious use of resources
Industry specific plantations, catering to their own needs
Plantations as a part of CSR
Carbon emission offset
Employment opportunities, which decreases pressure on land
Invest in research for development of genetically improved seeds
Components of Production Forestry
Regular tending practices — weeding, pruning

Production of regular sized timber in a consistent manner
Directed use of fertilisers
Controlling raiding animals and unwanted vegetation
Insect and disease prevention and control
Fire control
Professional management and judicious use of resources
Mostly Monocultures. But 1980s onwards, there has been a shift towards multi use species
Regular monitoring and assessment
Industries dependent on plantations
Furniture
Wood Processing
Impact
Both timber and non-timber products

Supports economic development
Environmental services — linking forestry to economics, climate and water regulation
Captive plantations
Plantations raised in the lands belonging to the Company, Govt. Dept, large land-holding individuals on a revenue sharing basis or on a lease
rental basis.
Can help improve supply of raw materials for industries such as paper and pulp, thereby reducing import dependence
Better use of existing resources, that are lying idle (better economic returns)
Generally short duration rotation species are preferred (instead of long rotation species like Sal and Teak)
Exotics in Plantation

Exotic species?
Higher productivity
Meet increasing demands of timber and other produce, supplement indigenous species
Desirable traits such as frost tolerance
More amenable to forestry operations
Diversity of forest produce
Exotic Species in India — Eucalyptus, Prosopis juliflora, Populus deltoides
Issues
Often introduced without enough background ecological assessments

May become invasive
Loss of diversity in indigenous species
Exploitative nature
Ecological degradation — resource intensive species deplete nutrients and groundwater
SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
Forest technological developments should be appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable
The forest must constantly produce without depreciation
Principles of sustained yield envisage that a forest should be exploited in such a manner that the annual or periodic felling does not exceed the
annual or periodic growth
Concept of Sustainability was placed on international agenda by the Brundtland Report in 1987
1804: German Forester Hartig provided a concept of sustainability in forestry
ITTO: Sustainable management involves managing forests to achieve objectives of management with regard to production of a continuous flow
of desired forest products and services, without undue reduction of its inherent values and future productivity.
UN Commission on Sustainable Development: Management of forest to meet social, economical, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of
present and future generations
Three components of sustainability
Stability
Elements of constancy of capital as well as productivity of the biological production system
Indicates the state of dynamics in an ecosystem
Resilience
Capacity of the biological system to maintain its structures and patterns of behaviour with respect to external disturbances
It indicates the ability to withstand potential disturbing forces
Constant Natural Stock
Natural resources whose decline affects the productive capacity of the system
Soil, vegetation, water, biodiversity
What are the practices under sustainable forestry?
Production of forest produce on a sustained basis

Conservation of forest and natural capital
Meeting local needs aptly
Demarcation and protection of specified areas
Regeneration of wastelands and degraded forests
Sustainable Forestry is a more complex concept that Sustained Yield. Considers both ecological characters of forest and the socio-economic setting.
The main indicators of sustainable forestry are
Productive Capacity
Renewal Capacity
Species and Ecological Diversity
Elements of sustainable forest practices
Legal, Institutional and Policy Framework

Sustained and Optimal production of forest goods and services
Protecting the forest ecosystem
Well being of people
Verifying the effects of sustainable forest management practices
FOREST WORKING PLAN
Working Plan Management

Working plan comprises of a written scheme of management aiming at continuity of policy and action and controlling the treatment of a forest. It
covers the total area of a forest division (basic unit for working plan)
Forest division covers extensive area, which exhibit diverse variability in crop composition, soil conditions and site factors
Working Circle is defined as a forest area (whole or part of a forest plan) organised with a particular objective and subject to one and same
silvicultural system and the same set of working plan prescriptions
Scope of Working Plan
Survey, assessment and revision on basis of past results and present facts.
Analysis of facts with reference to forest policy and objectives
Planning for future action in conformity with the long term objectives.
Provision of control and maintenance of records and collection of new facts by research.
Preparation of Working Plan
Constitution of working plan requires detailed information about the forest division
Objective of forest management, crop composition, condition of crop, site condition, wildlife populations, local people requirements, industry
requirements etc.
Interests of different stake holders are weighed upon
Working rules are prescribed for part of the working plan area that is usually of more or less homogenous nature
Working Circles are determined based on the information — Teak WC, Protection WC, Industrial Timber WC, MFP WC, Grazing WC
People with special expertise in these areas may be consulted before finalising these plans
Based on new findings or in the event of damages, the current working plan is revised
What factors determine the length of working plan period?
Long term policy objectives

Size of produce expected from the forest
Rotation period of main crop
Desire for sustained or intermittent yield from the forest
Regeneration period of the crop
Behaviour of nature such as occurrence of drought, storm and flood, etc.
Conditions of growing stock
Process of revising a working plan
Some inherent factors of the forest
Needs of the local people
Market conditions
Annual Plan of Operation
Work procedures are prescribed for every year, within the overall forest working plan
Because WP can be for long periods like 10-20 years, objectives and management requirements might not be uniform
The variations however, are not drastic because revision, planning and prescription of work for every year is a laborious job. Annual Plans of
Operation do not vary much in case of natural forest management.
Duties of a Working Plan Officer
Collection of field data required for working plan formulation

Supervising the field work, enumeration, stock mapping, regeneration survey etc.
Constitution of working circles and allowing different forest compartments to it.
Calculation and prescription of yield
Defining the objects of management
Prescribing the sequence of planting
Writing up of the working plan
Field Work for Working Plan Formulation
Compartmental Description
In each working plan, detailed compartment history is maintained.
Compartment history describes the area, situation, boundaries, aspect, slope, rock, soil etc.
Stock Mapping
Map showing distribution of different vegetation or showing different forest types that have a bearing on management with information
about their composition, age, class, etc.
Scale is 1:5000 to 1:10000
Crop Composition: Describes the presence of different species in an area along with proportion of each crop in that area.
Forest Types are each given a separate colour
Information on crop density, age class distribution, site quality and regeneration status
Enumeration
Regeneration Survey

Divisional Working Plan
Prepared by Working Plan conservator with inputs from DFO.

Contains information on whether the current prescription is satisfactory or not, results of past management, etc.
Preliminary WP has information on
General description of forest, flora and fauna, geology, rock and soil, climate
General composition of crop, main forest types, possible injuries to crops, fauna
Forest products, utilisation of FP, rights and concessions to local populations
Staff and Labour available in the forest division
Statistics about yield and growth
Importance of WP in forest conservation
As forestry is a long term complex enterprise, it needs a specific written plan for its management
Prescribes the management practices according to site conditions
Gives information about past management and its result. Accordingly, it facilitates future management by providing warnings
Shows information on degraded lands. Helps direct afforestation and reforestation programs
Gives information on regeneration status, which helps determine the area requiring highest protection
Gives information about local people and their demand. Helps enhance local support towards conservation of forests
Information on soil, climate, slope, site quality etc is useful for selection of crops.
Aims at sustained yield, which is the main principle for forestry operations
FOREST SURVEY
Surveying can be defined as delineation of the form, extent, position etc. of a tract of land by using linear or angular measurements (employing
principles of geometry and trigonometry)
Objectives
Map out the forest areas

Demarcate and delineate forest boundaries
Map out fire burnt areas
Prepare plantation, stock and management maps
Detect encroachments on the forest land
Layout felling coupes and felling areas
Prepare treatment maps in areas to be planted and conserved
Prepare alignments of roads and paths
Classification of Surveying
Primary Classification
Plane Surveying: Earth’s surface is assumed as a plane
Geodetic Surveying: Earth’s surface is assumed as an arc.
Secondary Classification
Based on nature of field of survey: Land Survey, Marine Survey, Astronomical Survey
Based on methods used: Transverse Survey, Triangulation Survey
Based on objects of survey: Geological ,Soil, Mineral, Archaeological, Military
Instruments Used: Chain survey, Compass Survey, Plane Table Survey, Photographic Survey, Tachometric Survey
CHAIN SURVEY
Deals with linear measurements. Actual ground is set on a paper by a system of straight lines, called chain lines.
Convenient for surveying small areas and open ground with simple details.
Not suitable for large, uneven or difficult terrain with numerous obstacles and restricted visibility.
Materials: Chain, Offset, Cross Staff, Plump Bob, Ranging Rods, Tape, Pegs, Field Book
Triangulation Chain Survey
Sides of various triangles are measured and no angular measurements are required. Underlying principle is to divide the area into right angled
triangles.
Location and Disposition of the triangles will depend on configuration of the ground and natural obstacles.
Main lines should be as few as possible and should be inter-visible. Each triangle should have one check line. Chain line should be free from
obstacles so that chaining is possible.
Survey Station: Point where main or base or any chain line begins or terminates.
Chaining starts after framework of the survey has been prepared, and the area is divided into suitable triangles.
Chaining starts from base line which is the longest as well as most important line. After that, chaining continues in a clockwise or anti clockwise
direction.

From the base lines, offset measurements are made for all stations — corners of buildings, trees, boundaries, etc. (Offsets are lateral
measurements from the chain line to the survey station.
When all chain lines are completed, it is important that each triangle has one check line.
Recorded in field book — Complete, clear and accurate, reflecting all necessary information.
Information from field notebook is drawn in a drawing sheet at a suitable scale using geometrical principles.
Traverse Chain Survey
Series of straight lines connecting a series of established points along a route of survey
May be closed or open traverse (or partly open/close)
Obstacles in Chaining
Obstacles can be chained across but not seen across.
Obstacles can be seen across but not chained across
Obstacles cannot be seen across or chained across
Obstacles can be seen across but cannot be chained around

COMPASS SURVEYING
Utilises the compass for making measurements

Bearing of a line: angle which it makes with some fixed meridians.
Azimuth: of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and the line measures in a clockwise direction, usually from south
branch of meridian.
Whole circle bearing: defined as angle of which a line makes with a meridian measured from north point in clock wise direction.
True Meridian: Refers to the actual north and south line of the earth.
Magnetic Meridian: Direction indicated by the freely suspended, properly balanced magnetic needles and unaffected by local attractions.
Magnetic Declination: Horizontal angle between the magnetic meridian and the true meridian.
Local attraction: Deviation from the true meridian due to some local means.
Pre Requisites for Compass Surveying
Stations should be inter visible from two adjacent stations

Chaining between them is easy
Survey lines are as far away from the boundaries
Survey lines should be as long as possible and minimum in number.
Procedure
First the compass is centred at initial station and levelled

From this point fore bearing of next station AB and back bearing AX is determined
Line AB is chained and recorded
Prismatic compass is shifted to station B
Fore bearings and Back bearings are recorded.
Chain length of BC is measured.
Repeated till all stations are completed
Sketch of an area is drawn at suitable scale and actual area is calculated using trigonometric principles
CHAIN AND COMPASS SURVEY
Chaining is carried out along the Survey line as in case of the chain survey but the direction of the survey line is fixed by
Measuring the forward and backward magnetic bearings

Measuring the interior angles made at each corner
Measuring the exterior angles made at each corner
Alignment of the survey line is found by fixing the position of each survey station with respect to that of the previous station — called Traversing
Practical Utility of prismatic compass and chain survey in forest
Locating one’s position on a map

Locating the position of an inaccessible or distant object inside the forest
Determining width of a winding stream
Ranging out a straight line between 2 points in a forest
Laying out a coupe inside the forest
Checking of boundaries inside the forests
Applicability of Prismatic compass survey
Area to be surveyed is large and little accuracy is required

Area where chaining is tedious and liable to inaccuracy
Area where triangulation is not possible due to obstacles
Quicker and satisfactory in case of linear surveys like on road, canal, railway track or a stream
Unsuitable for magnetic areas like Iron Posts, pipes, bridges, etc.
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Method of surveying in which the field observation, measurements and plotting proceed simultaneously — graphical method of surveying
Plane table comprises of a drawing board mounted on a tripod stand, an alidade having the plane of line of sight fixed parallel to the straight edge
and a sheet of drawing paper
At each survey station, 3 operations are carried out for temporary adjustments of a plane table — Centering, Leveling and Orientation
Scope
Useful for surveying of broken, uneven and undulating lands

Suitable for filling in details, plotting of contours and irregular objects
Most suitable for preliminary survey where speed of work is considered more important than accuracy
Fairly accurate for preparation of small scale plans with more details
Instruments — Plane Table, Alidade, Trough Compass, U Fork, Plumb Bob, Sprit Level, Drawing sheets
Applicable to the areas where all boundaries are visible from a single point
From this point rays are drawn towards different points and are plotted at specific scale.
Plane table is kept at centre point and levelled using sprit level
All survey stations are marked using individual ranging rods
Thereafter using Alidade, all stations are marked on the drawing sheet
Marked points are connected to the centre point.
Area of the field is worked using geometric principles
Radiation
Method
Intersection
Method Applicable where all survey points are visible from two points
Inaccessible points can also be surveyed easily
Two points (M,N) are selected from which all survey stations are visible. MN is the base line.
Plane table at M and mark the meridian and direction of visible station. Corresponding ground distance is measured and
recorded.
Next point N is seen and its direction and meridian are recorded.
Plane Table at N. Same process is repeated.
Area is worked out using geometric principles (Points having an acute angle less than 30° and obtuse angle more than 120° are
avoided.

Traverse Combination of radiation, intersection and traversing

Method
Reconnaissance visit is made to the area and survey stations are marked in such a way that all consecutive points are visible.
Set the PT at one corner of the plot A and plot the starting station. Draw a magnetic meridian on the sheet. View the adjacent
station B and mark its meridian. The ground distance is measured.
PT is shifted to next station B. PT is levelled and oriented correctly by back seeing the point A.
See the next station C and proceed in a similar way till all the points are completed.
Source of error in plane table
Surface of the board being rough

Fiducial edge of the alidade is not smooth
Inadequate centering, levelling or orientation causes some error
Inaccurate intersection and drawing of rays produces significant error
Inaccurate plotting
Alidade not being properly entered over the station on the map
Error due to expansion or contraction of the drawing paper
Limitations
Unsuitable for large scale and very accurate plane

In a dense forest, utility of plane table is impaired due to restricted visibility
Unsuitable for wet weather and high wind storm conditions
Unsuitable for open traverse along roads and rivers
Advantages
More rapid and applicable to small scales

Little chance of admitting error in measurements at field
Field book is simple and easy
Does not require great skill to prepare a satisfactory map
Plotted work can be readily verified by check observations
Contours and irregular objects can be represented accurately

Particularly useful for magnetic areas
Equipment cost is less
Disadvantages
Difficult to carry on field and in adverse weather conditions

Not suitable for tropical, wet conditions
Difficult to decide the starting point at initial
Occupies more time in floating
Not suitable for very accurate work
Difficult to re-plot the map in to different scale.
Practical application of PTS in forestry
Fixing of observer’s position on the map

To mark or cut a straight line in a forest
Layout a coupe inside the forest
Survey a fire burnt area in a forest
Checking of forest boundary and re-establishing of missing pillars
Use in topographic mapping
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
Used in preparing a contour map

Location of objects is determined, both in plane as well as in elevation
Uses of topographical maps
Gives detailed topographic information of the terrain like relief, slope, etc.
Laying, determination of gradients and alignment of roads
Selection of sites for forest plantation
Facilitates laying out of fire lines and irrigation lines for nurseries
Helps planning of stock mapping and enumeration operations
Facilitates computation of earthwork for cutting and filling
Inter-visibility of two points can be ascertained from a topographical map
Watershed area, capacity of a reservoir and water supply can be estimated.
Used for silvicultural treatment, soil conservation, timber extraction, road alignment etc.
LEVELLING
Measurement of geodetic height using an optical levelling instrument and a level staff
Means by which surveyors can determine the elevation of points.
Instruments: Dumpy Level, Wye Level, Reversible Level
Simple Levelling
Level is an instrument with a telescope that can be levelled with a spirit bubble
Instrument is set up initially in one point (A) from where the reference elevation point is visible. From A the surveyor looks back to a reference
point of known elevation to determine the elevation of the instrument.
Levelling staff is then held on an unknown point and a foresight reading is taken. Elevation of the new point is to be taken from this observation.
Now this point can be used for determining elevations of other points.
Other types of Levelling
Double Levelling: Surveyor takes two foresights and two back sights to reduce the amount of error.
Differential Levelling: Used to determine difference in elevation between 2 points.
Trigonometric Levelling: Observing the vertical angle and slope distance between two points and calculating the elevation using trigonometric
principles

MAPS
Map is a representation of the whole or part of the earth’s surface in miniature
All objects in the map are in the same relative position as on the ground
All angles between the lines drawn on the map are equal to the angles between corresponding lines on the ground
Each map has specific scale
Information on the map is depicted in form of signs and symbols.
Types of Maps — Political, Physical, Topographic, Resource, Climatic, Road, Time Zone
Map reading refers to the process of obtaining information from a map, to get a clear and accurate picture about the ground through interpretation.
Orientation of the map must be known so that actual direction on the ground is predicted while traversing in a ground
Scale of Map — ratio of unit distance on the Map to the corresponding distance on the ground
Must know the symbols that represent different features on the map
Utility of Forest Maps
Help in undertaking a forest survey

Establishes a pattern of ground sampling
Helps the field staff to locate the areas selected for sampling
Acts as a base map for many other map preparations
Helps in laying out annual coupes
Helps in identification of plantations inside the forests
Helps in laying out forest roads
Maps used in forestry — Reference Map, Soil Map, Administrative Map, Enumeration Map, Fire Map, Working Plan Map, Plantation Map, Stock Map,
Forest Type Map
Significance of Maps
Management Maps: Gives information such as working circles, felling series, periodic blocks, compartments, annual coupes, nursery and
plantation areas, roads
Administrative Maps: Range, block, beat boundaries, check posts
Stock Maps: Distribution of forest types, main species, non forest areas, density, site quality, regeneration status
Control Maps: Pictorial representation of progress of various operations prescribed in working plan, record of forest fires, cutting of fire lines and
fire tracks, controlled burning, soil conservation operations
Topographical Maps are used for demarcation of coupes, felling lots, alignment of forest roads
Role of Survey in preparation of maps
Helps determine actual distances between points on the ground in order to draw maps to appropriate scale
Determine elevations of different points, for preparation of topographical maps
Ascertain relative positions of various features such as ponds, roads, rivers etc to be shown on the map as symbols
Map vs Plan
A map is a visual representation of an area - a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects,
regions, and themes.
Plans are a set of two-dimensional diagrams or drawings used to describe a place or object, or to communicate building or fabrication instructions
Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, without regard to context or scale; e.g. Brain mapping, DNA
mapping, and extra-terrestrial mapping.
Plans are often for technical purposes such as architecture, engineering, or planning. Their purpose in these disciplines is to accurately and
unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a site, building, product or component.
Most maps are drawn to a scale, allowing the reader to infer the actual sizes and distances. A larger scale shows more detail, thus requiring a
larger map to show the same area.
Plans are drawn at specific ratio relative to the actual size of the place or object. Various scales may be used for different drawings in a set.
A plan generally works using a smaller scale while a map uses a larger scale as it generally covers larger areas

Contour
Line joining points of equal elevation in the ground. Contour Interval is the vertical distance between consecutive contour lines.
All points in the contour lie in the same elevation

Uniformly spaced lines designate the gentle slope in ground
Straight as well as parallel lines depicts the plain conditions in ground
Wide spaced lines depict nearly flat conditions
Closed circles are hillocks or peaks
U shaped lines represent loop points
One contour does not intersect another contour, except in case of cliffs or vertical rocks
Uses of contour
Gives information about the terrain

Helps in levelling work
Helpful in site selection for tanks and dams
Useful in assessment of drainage in the specific region
Useful in computation of earth works
Choice of irrigation methods in agriculture
FOREST ENGINEERING
Forest Engineering is the application of principles of engineering for management and development of forest lands. It aims to ensure health of
ecosystems like wood lands, watersheds and wet lands while allowing for economic activities like recreation and timber harvesting.
Dead loads: Static forces that are relatively constant for an extended time, usually the weight of materials plus immovable fixtures such as carpet, roof
and etc. Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in a permanent position.
Live loads: Unstable or moving loads (temporary loads) and based on the functionality of the structure. May involve considerations such as impact,
momentum, vibration, and etc
Building Materials
Good building stones should be strong against crushing to bear the load.
Should be durable to withstand different kinds of weather conditions
Hard enough to withstand abrasive action
Stone
Heavy, fine grained and have less porosity
Should be free from loose grains, sand and earthy smell
Lustre and Texture in appearance
Consists of pure Calcium Carbonate used as a cementing material and for white washing
Sources: Kankar, limestone like marble, dolomite, sea shells and corals
Classification of Lime
Lime Fat/Quick Lime: Obtained from sea shells, coral stones, etc. Increase 2-3 times in volume when slacking. Setting takes place
through absorption of Carbon Dioxide and by evaporation of water. It is used in plastering and painting. May crack when
drying
Hydraulic Lime: Obtained from lime stone. Slacks slowly and volume increases slightly. Setting process takes place by
interaction with its constituents from silicates and aluminates of calcium. It is dull in colour and hence, not useful for white
washing. Used for building construction and plastering works.
Bricks
Sand (50-60%), Clay (20-30%), lime, manganese, oxides of Fe, Na and K.
Sand in bricks increases the heat resistance, durability, preserves the shape and prevents shrinkage.
Clay imparts plasticity while moulding.
Fire Bricks: Specialised kind of bricks which can withstand high temperatures. Made up of hydrated silicates of alumina and
contains less quantity of lime, magnesia, potash or soda. Used in interiors of boilers, flues, chimney and furnaces.
Ideal properties
Uniform in size and colour

Fine and compact
Plane rectangular faces and parallel sides
No fissures, air bubbles and pebbles
Should meet the required hardness
Metallic ringing sound can be produced when struck by another brick.
Should not break when they fall from 2m height.
Low porosity and adsorption capacity.

Manufacturing
Selection of brick earth: Should have desired proportion of clay and sand. Should be free from stones, pebbles and straw.
This is mixed with sufficient amount of mortar and other constituents.
Moulded into bricks using wooden or iron or tin mould.
Moist bricks take 24-36 hours for drying
Dried bricks are baked in a kiln and burned to get strong bricks
Brick and Stone Masonry
Brick masonry is cheaper than stone masonry and can be easily constructed
Minimum thickness of wall is 10cm in bricks, 35 cm in stone
Stone masonry requires more skills
Brick masonry requires less mortar whereas stone masonry requires more mortar (which cannot be easily estimated)
Stone masonry is stronger and more durable
Brick masonry has to be plastered or painted when exposed to open atmosphere
Bricks absorb moisture, but stone walls are moisture proof
Brick masonry is more fire resistant
Ornamental and Decorative work is easier in bricks
Better bonds can be established between bricks
Brick absorbs less quantity of heat than stone
Pit Sand: Found in alluvial areas, contains more impurities, mostly used in road works.
River Sand: Pure silica. Rounded grain due to water action and suitable for plasters, mortars and concrete works.
Sea Sand: Mixed with alkaline salts and hence, attracts more moisture.
Properties of Good Sand

Sand Sharp, clean, coarse and gritty in touch
It is composed of desirable minerals mainly silicious nature.
Should have minimum of voids. Sand should have sharp edge which brings adhesion properties and resistant to sliding.
Coarse sand is desirable to get stronger mortar
In case of mortar, fine sands with strong stones gives a better mortar
Free from impurities like clay, pebble, gravel and organic matter
Ideal pore space is 30-40%
Calcareous binding or cementing material used in building construction.

Better than lime in terms of its high strength, quick setting and water tight properties.
Manufacturing of cement
Limestone is crushed and mixed with clay and water in wet grinding mills
Mixed to get Slurry which is sent to feeding tank
Slurry is crushed and heated using coal in a Kiln.
After cooling this, 2-3% Gypsum is added in the ball mill
This mixture is sent to tube mill where final cement production takes place.
Cement
Types of Cement
Portland cement: 65% CaO and 20% SiO2. No expansion or shrinkage when it is mixed with water.
Rapid Hardening cement: Contains 1% CaCl2 in addition to CaO and SiO2. It accelerates the process of setting and hardening.
Low resistance to chemical action and cracking.
High alumina cement: 40% Can and 40% Al2O3. Resistant to sea water, sulphur and oil.
Quick setting cement: Consists of greater amounts of Calcium Chloride. Useful for underwater works but low resistance to
chemical action and weathering.
White cement: Free from iron
Coloured cements: 5-10% pigments
Mixture of lime and cement, with sand and water.

Used in a plastic state state for binding individual bricks, stones, tiles etc. to get a solid mass.
Laid as a layer over which bricks are arranged in specific manner.
Serves as an adhesive or cementing material for binding works
Provides hard, smooth coverings for walls, roofs and floors.
Mortar
Types of Mortar
Mud mortar: Prepared from stiff clays for making bricks. Used for some inferior or cheap building networks
Lime mortar: Prepared from sand and lime which provides bedding layer for brick works.
Cement mortar: Prepared from sand and cement

Concrete Paste of binding material, coarse aggregates and water which harden in to a rock like mass due to chemical action of binding
material and water
Binding material: Lime and cement.
Aggregates: Inert material added to the concrete for increasing the mass and decreasing the cost.
Fine aggregates: Sand or stones which fill the void between coarse aggregates
Coarse aggregate: broken stones, gravel, pebbles and broken bricks.
Reinforced Concrete Cement
Special kind of concrete whereby steel is introduced in the cement concrete as rods or bars
Does not corrode the metal
Economically feasible
Resistant to heat and earthquake to some extent.
Needs low maintenance cost.
Steel component is available everywhere and transport is easy.
Resists both tensile and compressive forces.
Made up of brick clay, stronger than bricks.

Tiles Manufacture is similar to bricks, but shade drying is used.
Types: Pot Tiles, Pan Tiles, Flat Tiles
Plastering is the process by which rough walls or uneven surfaces are provided a hard and smooth surface using a plaster.
Provides better protection, beautification and covers defective works.
Plaster Lime Plaster: Lime and sand in 1:2 ratio. Mainly used as a first coat
Cement Plaster: Cement and sand in ratio 1:2.5, mostly used as a 2nd coat.
Mud Plaster: Mud and lime
While washing: Liquid coat oaf lime and water.

Painting: Coating of impervious layer of paints over the building materials. Paint constituents are Base, Interfiller, Carrier,
Colours Drier, Pigments, etc.
Varnishes: Resins in oil, turpentine or alcohol. 4 kinds - resin varnish, copal varnish, shellac varnish, tar varnish
Wood Oiling: Protective covering on wood.
Selection of site for building construction
Construction site should be nearer to village

Should have easy accessibility
Water supply should be uninterrupted
Nature of underlying rock and soil, elevation of land drainage
Availability of building material and labour
Foundation
Extension of the base of structures like walls and columns that are kept in equilibrium with the earth. It transmits the load of structure to the soil.
Importance
Foundation avoids fracture due to unequal settling of structure and soil

Distributes weight of structure over a larger area
Increases the stability of the structure
Prevents overloading of the substratum
Provides an even and level surface on which structures can be laid
Causes for failure of foundation

How to avoid foundation failure?
Foundation is not specific according to the soil
Stiff mortar to avoid unequal shrinkage
type.
Pace of work should not be too fast.
Shrinkage and compressibility of mortar in
Masonry should be kept damp by sprinkling water at frequent intervals
joints.
Sheet piling is essential to prevent lateral escape — especially in areas with pure
Unequal setting of subsoil
gravel and sand
Horizontal movement of earth
Retaining walls should be provided to prevent sliding of substratum
Withdrawal of moisture from the sub soil
Deep foundation prevents weathering
Lateral escape of sand or soil beneath the
Black soil and clay soils are avoided
foundation
Walls

Vertical extensions of the base or foundation, constructed using brick, stone etc.
Walls should be uniform throughout, and uniform wetting is needed till the mortar sets.
Mud walls, mat walls (split bamboos), CGI sheet walls, wooden walls
Arches
Wedge shaped blocks mutually supporting each other to construct a form curve, which is supported at both ends by abutments and pillars.
Manner of construction: Rough arches, Gauged arches
Shape of arch: Flat arch, Segmental arch, Semi circular arch, Equilateral arch, Elliptical arch
Materials used for construction: Brick arches, Stone arches, Wooden arches
Roof
Roofing materials: Organic, Metals (corrugated iron, tin, zinc, lead), Minerals, Concrete
Types of roof: Thatched roof, Country tiled roof, Mangalore tiled roof, Natural slate roof, Asbestos cement sheet roofing, Singles roofing
Types of Roof
Lean to Roof: Supported on one side, hence it slopes downwards in one way only.
Couple Roof
Collar beam roofs:
Couple close roof:
Double rafter/Purlin roofs: Support the rafters at intervals of 2-2.5m
Triple or framed roof

King post truss
Queen post truss

Important terms used in Construction
Sills: Projection of the wall to throw away the rainwater. May be constructed from brick, tiles, stone, concrete or wood
Lintels: Horizontal structures that span doors, windows, walls for supporting the structure above.
Scaffolding: Temporary framework of bamboo or timber poles, temporarily erected to allow workmen access as the wall rises in height.
Centering: Erection of temporary structures for serving as a support for the arch material during construction.
Door: Frame + Shutter
Windows
Glazing: Glass tiles to doors and windows
Flooring: Earth, Stone, Brick, Concrete, Wooden
Stair
FOREST ROADS
Classification of Forest Roads
Based on function
Main Motorable roads: Mostly metalled. Connects head quarters, division, range office and blocks
Branch Jeepable roads: Feeder roads connecting interior forest with head quarters like division, range, etc.
Bridle Path: Path used by human beings for ladening of animals. Narrow and steep
Inspection Path: Connects the site from which an extensive view of the forest area can be seen. Width of these roads is between 1-1.5m.
Based on period of use
Temporary Roads: Useable only for a few seasons. Transport harvested produce from interior forest to branch keepable roads
Fair Weather Roads: Usable only during the normal weather conditions and not on monsoon time. Fords are constructed where small streams
need to be crossed.
Permanent Roads: Alignment must be done carefully
Reconnaissance of Roads
Avoid high erosion hazard sites, particularly where mass failure is a possibility
Utilize natural terrain features such as stable benches, ridgetops, and low gradient slopes to minimize the area of road disturbance
Include short road segments with steeper gradients to avoid problem areas or to utilize natural terrain features
Avoid midslope locations on long, steep, or unstable slopes
Locate roads on well-drained soils and rock formations which dip into slopes rather than areas characterized by seeps, highly plastic clays,
concave slopes
Utilize natural log landing areas (flatter, benched, well-drained land) to reduce soil disturbance associated with log landings and skid roads.
Avoid undercutting unstable, moist toe slopes when locating roads in or near a valley bottom.
Roll or vary road grades where possible to dissipate flow in road drainage ditches and culverts and to reduce surface erosion
Select drainage crossings to minimize channel disturbance during construction and to minimize approach cuts and fills.
Locate roads far enough above streams to provide an adequate buffer, or provide structure or objects to intercept sediment moving downslope
below the road.
If an unstable area such as a headwall must be crossed, consider end hauling excavated material rather than using sidecast methods.
Avoid deep fills and compact all fills to accepted engineering standards.
Design for close culvert and cross drain spacing to effectively remove water from ditches and provide for adequate energy dissipators below
culvert outlets.
Horizontal drains or interceptor drains may be necessary to drain excess groundwater.

Structure of Roads
Sealing Coat, Outer Coat, Inner Coat, Soeling, Sub Base, Sub grade
Shoulder: Region between edges of road to the side drain. 0.5 to 1m on either side is left for the shoulder. Shoulder should be left clean and free from
vegetation. No excavation is permitted in this area.
Supports the side of the roadway

Prevents metalling of the road from spreading
Provides extra width for crossing
Provides space for diverting traffic during repair
Camber: Transverse raising of the road in the centre above its edge. This facilitates drainage of rainwater. 1/20 camber means centre is raised 1/20th of
the width of the road.
Gradient of Road
Horizontal distance in which the road rises or falls by one unit.
Enhances efficiency of the vehicle by facilitating easy movement

Steep slope causes more wear and tear
Causes wastage of power and decreases fuel efficiency in vehicles, if the gradient is too steep
Enhances soil erosion around the roads.
Types of Gradients
Ruling Gradient: Steepest gradient fixed for a particular stretch of road. It depends upon the terrain conditions
Absolute Maximum Gradient: Steepest permissible gradient for any road. Requires higher expenditure of energy
Minimum Gradient: Minimum possible gradient. Should be 1 in 100 generally
Average Gradient: Ratio of sum of all rises and falls in that road to the total horizontal distance travelled.
Hill Roads
Slope should not exceed 1 in 20. Steep slope leads to heavy erosion
Outward slope is prepared where annual RF is < 50 cm.
Inner gut drains are generally avoided
Road Camber should be high to drain rainwater
Road Alignment
Reconnaissance
Produce a preliminary report

Draw a rough map connecting all reasonable points
Bring a number of trail alignments and deriving final one
Process
Contour map of the area is procured

Area is visited to familiarise oneself with the ground features.
All possible routes are marked on the map and ruling gradient is fixed for successive contours in the map.
If contour maps are not available, more detailed examination is done through Abney level and hand compass.
Among all routes considered, two routes are selected and examined by walk
Road Alignment in Plains Road Alignment in Hills

Main roads are laid out in the central part from which feeder road Road should follow the valley and should be as near as possible to
connect different parts lower boundaries of areas being worked. This facilitates timber
Unnecessary crossing of rivers, streams and drainage channels is transport from harvest areas
avoided Main communication road should follow the ridges
Alignment is laid possible on higher grounds to keep the road dry Work of alignment from higher obligatory point to lower one
Deviation upto 10% is given to connect local villages, railways Unnecessary ascents and descents are avoided
stations Align the roads possibly in sunny and windy side to keep the road
As far as possible, existing roads and paths are used dry.
Private land holdings are generally avoided Slope of the road should be within the ruling gradient and
Avoid construction of very large bridges to reduce the cost exceptions are allowed in reentrants, culvert, bridges and curves
Areas such as heavy rock cuts and landslides are avoided
Hairpin and zigzag bends are avoided as they are difficult to
maintain
Halting places at regular intervals
Preferably aligned on forested slope than barren side.
Long stretch of dead road is avoided, as they are difficult to drain.
Downward gradient is provided from both sides of the valley
while aligning roads across a deep ravine on ruling gradient
Preliminary Survey
Purposed alignment is pegged on the ground with the help of rope and Abney level
Prismatic compass survey is done for the whole length.
Original pegs are removed and numeral pegs are fixed at uniform interval
Cross slope at each peg is determined by Abney level.
Detailed notes on soil, rock, vegetation, geology, drainage etc are taken
Positions of stone revetment are determined.
Road Design
Land Requirement: Consider width of road, shoulder, slope cutting, embankments, drainage, side width and possible widening in future.
Width of Road: Depends on nature and intensity of traffic on the road, availability and cost of land, objectives of the road
Gradient Design: Should be as gentle as possible. Curves are avoided in embankments. In very steep hills, maximum gradient is applied.
Section of cutting: In hills, roads are most stable when entirely cut out of the hill side.
Earthwork for roads: Considers labour availability and cost. Earth obtained from cutting is used for embankment. In heavy clay soils,
embankments are avoided.
Drainage
Removal of excess water in surface and sub surface of the roads.

Excessive moisture blocks vehicle movement. Lack of sub surface drainage causes smoothening effect and decreases strength of roads, which
leads to deterioration.
In absence of drainage, roads also become soft and slippery, and disintegrate under pressure
In plains, surface drainage is provided through camber of the road. Camber drains the surface run off from the road and drains it into a side drain
because of its sloping characteristics.
Metal roads: Voids between stones facilitate draining of water in the sub soil.
Plank Roads: Gap between timber drain water in the sub soil.
Sandy and permeable soils have good drainage.
Clayey soils need deep drains as well as side ditches
Drainage in hill slopes: Difficult due to uneven and steep slopes, heavy surface runoff, vulnerability to landslides, extensive cutting and filling.
Inner Gutter Drainage: Provided in the side towards the hills. Top width of 50cm and depth of 30cm. Gradual slope to enhance safe passage of
water.
Outer Gutter Drainage: Constructed on the sides facing outwards. 20 cm wide at the top and 10 cm deep is enough for this drain. Drainage water
is led away from the road by parapet or earth protection mound.
Catch water drains: Constructed beyond 5-10 m from the edges of the road on the uphill side. It intercepts and drains away the rain water running
down from the hill slopes. Size of the drain depends upon the rainfall and drainage area. Top width of 100-120 cm, bottom width of 50-60 cm,
depth of 60 cm.
Curves
Change the path direction wherever needed. Generally circular, with no transition curves being provided where speed of traffic is high. Very
sharp curves are avoided except hair pins bends.
Curves are used to avoid obstacles
In steep topography, it eases ascent and descent
Types of Curve
Horizontal Curve: Changes the direction of road

Vertical Curve: Used for alignment of roads across depressions and elevations
Compound Curve: Consists of 2 arcs of different ratio, both arcs lying to same side of common tangent

Curve Setting
Radius of curve is fixed first. Depends on type of traffic, speed of traffic, expected life of road and cost of roads.
Curve setting is carried out by theodolite or other angular measuring instruments
Walls
Breast Wall
Constructed on the uphill side of road cutting.

Supports the extra thrust caused by changes in the angle of repose of the soil. Angle of repose changes according to humidity conditions of the
atmosphere.
Similar to retaining wall, but dimensions are smaller.
Retaining wall has a flat face and a slanting face. Breast wall has both faces slanting in the outward direction.
Retaining Wall
Retaining walls are constructed on the down hill side of the slope.
Essential where road embankment is excessive in length and cross section.
Necessary to provide a retaining wall in places like re-entering curves, area requiring cross drain, edge of precipitation sites where there is no
room for embankments
Forces acting on the retaining wall include weight of the wall, vertical forces, weight of the back fill, super imposed load and vertical component
of surcharged back fill pressure.
Wide at bottom to strengthen the wall against slipping. Top width is half of base width
Toe projection is provided to decrease pressure on base.
Long stones as headers are used at regular intervals
The back of the wall is left rough and the back fill is laid as dry layers
Weep holes are provided for drainage of excess moisture
Surcharged Wall
Retaining wall is said to be surcharged wall when filling at the top slope increases heavily.
As pressure on the wall increases, it is necessary to increase the thickness of the surcharged wall to increase stability.
Extra pressure is managed by increasing the height of the surcharged wall
Road Setting
Setting out of roads is the actual laying out of the road on the site or location. All information gathered from planning, surveying, field books are
transferred to the ground.
To set out a gradient, a small peg is driven at a starting point (A) and another peg (B) is at 1m away. Dumpy’s level is used to assess the elevation
of this point. In this manner, the needed assignment is assigned.
For laying out a continuous slope, 2 boning rods are held vertically on A and B and their levels are adjusted till the top of their intermediate pegs
and of the boning rods are in one line.
Cutting: Alignment is marked with a pick-axe after the pegs have been set out at a required gradient. The correct position of cutting edge at peg is
drawn for each cross section of the proposed formation on a sufficiently large scale.
Embankments: Two bamboos are erected at a distance equal to top width. Two pegs are driven at the toes of the banks as measured from the cross
section drawing. A stout string is tied across the poles at exact height of the bank, to the bank and to the pegs such that the string will show the
correct shape of the banks
Efficient drainage facility is provided and monitored continuously. Otherwise road becomes soft and liable to damage.
Maintenance
Surface wear and tear is caused by weather and traffic load. Interior deterioration is caused by long term stagnation of water and also by traffic
pressure. Usage of large diameter wheels helps decreases pressure. Pneumatic tyres, spring and suspension adjustments, reduction of speed on

curves all reduce vehicle load on the road.
Surface maintenance: Road is kept free from loose stones and mud. Drains are regularly cleared. In summer, certain flinty stones which go loose
are removed.
Patching: Repairing of irregular wears of the surface of the road by attending to the bad spots alone. Worn out portion is cut to full depth in shape
of a wedge, road materials are re-laid tightly above the road and consolidated with a heavy iron hammer.
Rut Prevention
When road surface is severely damaged and patch work is not effective, surface of the road is renewed.
BRIDGES
Bridges are cross drainage works used for crossing natural obstacles like rivers, streams and valleys.
Construction materials include bricks, stone, timber, iron, steel etc.
Material used depends on availability, traffic volume, temporary or permanent nature and load of the bridge.
Temporary bridge: Level of water must be shallow in case of temporary bridge. Velocity or flow of water should be slow. Area required for water
way is small
Permanent bridge: Axis of the bridge should follow the general direction of road. The gap is bridged as narrow as possible. Bridge should be
anchored where banks are not erodible. To reduce effects of corrosion, bridge should be away from sharp bends in the river.
Waterways
Area of clear opening under a bridge or culverts through which water is allowed to pass.
It must have the capacity for allowing the passage of the maximum amount of discharge expected in that stream.
Depends upon the catchment area, amount and intensity of rainfall, shape of the catchment, permeability of soil, flood discharge and afflux.
Types of Bridges
Road across the dry river which has very little or no water for most of the year.
The river bed is used as carriage way
Ford
Potholes on the bed are filled up. Banks of the river are cut down to provide gentle slope to the vehicles.
Streams are forded at right angles as far as possible.
Small dam that is constructed for crossing small shallow streams.

Road Dam
Road is at the bed level of water channel on the up stream. Down stream side has a drop wall.
Irish bridge is the paved dip surface of the road having a span of more 7m.
Irish Bridge Formation of the road is dropped to follow the bed of the shallow water course.
Cheaper to construct and no need for high level technical knowledge.
Structures providing dip in the road surface as it passes over the river or stream bed.
Depth of water should not be more than 30cm.
Causeway
Expected traffic should not be heavy
Funds available are minimum
Common in interior forests where plenty of wood is available

Abutments are masonry pillars or timber poles, which are erected in between the ends to hold the road
Simple Wooden Bridge
bearers.
Road bearers are longitudinal beams that carry the load.
System of counter poised beams built from the abutments supporting road bearers in the middle.
Beams are placed one above the other so that one end of each beam is projected beyond the end of lower
beam.
Stability of the bridge depends upon the length of the part of the beam projecting out from the bank, counter
weight, centre of gravity of the counter weight, distance from abutments and size of beams and their
Cantilever Bridge
transverse strength.
Cantilever and road bearers of similar size are used for the construction because each bears the same
strength.
Cantilever arms are connected by transom to provide lateral stability.
Complex structure, high level technical knowledge is needed.
Suspension Bridge
Constructed across large openings which do not permit erection of intermediate piers due to swift water.
Consists of a roadway that is suspended by cables passing over the top of the piers.
Piers are well anchored on either bank deeply.

Small bridges, span less than 4m.

All principles are similar to bridges.
Types of Culverts
Pipe Culvert: Useful when span of culvert is small (0.6 to 1.2m). Cast iron or glazed stoneware pipes are
Culverts used. Concrete layer is added all around he pipe to prevent leakage.
Box Culvert: Useful for 3-4m waterways. Built by square stones set in mortar. Foundations are made for the
abutments. Flow of water is slowed down by laying rough stones.
Arched Culvert: Constructed as cross drainage when span length is greater than 1.6m but less than 6.5m.
Made up of stones, brick with cement or lime mortar.
Timber Pole Culvert: Abutments and roadways are both made up of timber.
Masonry Arched Culvert: Made up of wedge shaped concrete concrete blocks which forms an arch.
Construction
Foundation of abutments, piers, wing walls must be placed on well settled soils, and must be taken to below the scour depth.
Wide bar is provided to the foundations for uniform distribution of load.
Abutments: End support to the super structures like bridges and culverts.
Masonry abutment: Constructed from brick or stone.

Timber bank seat abutment: Horizontal planks of sufficient size are used to distribute the load over the soil.
Timber post abutment: Made from heavy wooden posts of 30 cm diameter.
Piers
Intermediate support provided to the bridge.

Should be constructed so that they cause least obstruction to the flow of water
Piers should be strong enough to bear the load.
Types of Piers
Pile Piers: Single row of 30cm diameter. Strengthened by ledgers and diagonal bracing.
Single Trestle Piers: Formed to frame structures. Used for temporary bridges and not suitable for streams having very strong current
Double Trestle Piers: Provides greater stability and strength. Used in heavy bridges. Requires more time and expertise
Masonry Piers: Made of brick or stone masonry.
Crip Piers: Pier is a framework of logs. Useful for dry ravines and where there is no danger of flood. Also used in temporary arrangements.
REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomena through the analysis of data acquired by a device
without being in physical contact
Advantages of Remote Sensing
Synoptic view of a larger area

Provides 3D view
Can record information which is not visible to human kind
Data recording is unbiased, which is stored permanently
Same data can be used in many applications wherever it is needed
Data processing is faster than the conventional interpretation method
Satellite data are received periodically and helps in monitoring over time scales
Principle of Remote Sensing
Energy pulses are sent from a body in space (Satellite)

When EM energy falls on any surface feature, reflection, absorption or transmission may occur. Ei = Ea + Et + Er
Reflected energy from the object is recorded by a sensor
Information about the object can be obtained through analysis of reflected rays.
Proportions of energy reflected, absorbed and transmitted will vary for different earth features, at different wavelengths.
Sensor
Device that records the EM radiation reflected from the objects.

Detection of EM can be done photographically or electronically
Spatial Resolution: Minimum detectable area on ground by a sensor.
Spectral Resolution: Designates smallest amount of spectral change on the ground by a sensor. Function of the breadth of the wavelength.

Radiometric Resolution: Number of grey values which a sensor can detect between black and white.
Temporal coverage: Period of repetitive coverage
Classification of Sensors
Active Sensor: Has its own energy source for illuminating objects. Can be used both in day and night without interruption. e.g. Radar, Lidar
Passive Sensor: Depends on other sources of energy for illuminating the object.
Aerial Photography
Branch of science which deals with obtaining photographs from air borne platforms, e.g. aircraft, balloon, for studying the earth
Balloons are restricted by wind velocity and direction. Air Crafts are more useful for large scale coverage
For complete coverage, successive photographs are taken with some degree of overlap.
Intervalometer in a camera controls the successive photographs along a flight strip.
Based on scale: Very large scale, Large scale, Medium scale, Small scale, Vertical
Tilt: Vertical, Low Oblique, High Oblique, Horizontal or Terrestrial
Angular Coverage: Narrow angle, Normal angle, Wide angle, Super wide angle
Space Platforms
Geostationary (Earth synchronous) satellites Polar (Sun Synchronous) satellites
36000 km above the equator.

Moves along the equator in E-W direction
Move in a low earth orbit called pole or sun synchronous earth
Orbital speed of the satellite is the same as earth’s rotation speed —
Moves from North Pole to the South Pole
hence looks stationary with respect to earth
Global coverage with high resolution at frequent intervals.
Useful for weather forecasting and communication purposes, as it
provides information about a particular region constantly
Interpretation of Aerial Photographs
Difference between aerial photograph and normal photograph: Features are portrayed in a overhead perspective, Wavelengths outside the visible
spectrum are used, depicts the earth’s surface at unfamiliar scales and resolutions
Aerial photograph or satellite image interpretation depends on: Training and experience of the interpreter, Nature of object being interpreted,
quality of product used for interpretation
Visual Interpretation
Colour: Tone is shade variation from white to black. e.g. Saline and sandy soils are white tone.
Texture: Frequency of change and arrangement of tones in a photograph. It describes the smoothness or coarseness of image features. As the
scale increases, the texture becomes coarser. e.g. Agricultural fields have a smooth textural appearance while trees in forests have a coarse
textural appearance
Shape: General form or outline configuration of the objects. Based on the shape (rectangular, cone, square), the interpreter can identify the object
easily.
Size: Mostly relied on when other attributes don’t give desired conclusions
Pattern: Regular and characteristic arrangement of objects gives definite pattern. e.g. trees in a plantation have a different pattern compared to
trees in a forest
Shadows: Depend on time when the picture was taken and the flight direction.
Location: Geographic position of the object
Association: Occurrence of certain features in relation to others
Digital Interpretation
Digital Image is composed of 2 dimensional array of pixels.

Intensity of each pixel corresponds to the average radiance, measured electronically over the ground area corresponding to each pixel.
Digital numbers are positive integers that result from quantising the original electrical signal from the sensor into positive integer values using
analog to digital signal conversion.
Computer is programmed to insert the data into an equation (or series of equations) and store results of the computation for each pixel. The
results can then be displayed or recorded in pictorial format and further manipulated.
Image rectification and restoration: Processing of raw satellite image data to correct geometric distortions, radiometric calibration and to
eliminate noise
Image enhancement: Effectively display the data for visual interpretation
Image classification: automate identification of features in a scene. Normally involves application of statistical based decision rules
Data Merging and GIS integration: Combine different data for a given geographic area
Biophysical modelling: relates digital data to biophysical features. e.g. estimation of crop yield, pollution concentration, water depth
Applications of Remote Sensing
Topographical Mapping: Refers to mapping of surface configuration of an area. Common overlap between two successive photos helps in
topographical mapping

Geology: Both surface and sub surface mapping for minerals and other geophysical exploration. Geological mapping is done for: resistance to
erosion, boundaries of rock types, topographic expression, faults and their pattern, drainage pattern, vegetation cover
Soil Mapping: Helps in preparing a base map on which ground information can be inserted. Satellite image is more useful in soil mapping as it
gives soil information directly.
Forestry applications: Preparation of base map, identification of tree species, quantitative measurements about density of trees in a given area,
height of trees, crown shapes and volumes
Terrain evaluation: Position in landscape and association with other terrain units, morphology, surface configuration and micro relief, drainage
pattern, texture, drainage, erosional features, land use and cultural features, vegetation
Land Use/Land Cover mapping: Colour photos enhance features identification and give much more information
Agricultural applications: Crop condition assessment, crop type classification and crop yield estimation
Water resources application: Mapping surface water bodies like streams, rivers, lakes, etc. Subsurface or ground water potential
Environment studies/flood damage studies: Water pollution, deforestation and denudation, industrial pollution
APPLICATIONS IN FORESTRY
Forest Cover Mapping
Carried out either by visual interpretation or digital interpretation methods
Visual Interpretation
Satellite map is procured on specific scale.

Required base map depicting state and district boundaries, settlements, drainage etc. is prepared on a tracing sheet.
Base map is overlaid on imagery such that base map and imagery overlap each other completely.
Settlement and agricultural areas are first demarcated. The remaining area represents the actual forest.
Forest vegetation is further classified into dense forest, open forest, mangrove, scrub, non forest etc.
Corrections are made after ground truth verification
Forest cover map is finalised and area is calculated.
Digital Interpretation
Satellite data must have 10% overlap and less than 10% forest cloud cover.
Radiometric and geometric corrections to improve the picture clarity of FCC and to correct image coordinates respectively.
Non forest areas are masked out from the FCC.
NDVI transformation is applied for this masked image. From this, forest cover is classified based on NDVI values for different density category.
All images are mosaic-ed and vegetation maps at different levels (district/state.national) are prepared. Individual forest cover map is extracted by
overlaying corresponding boundary over the map.
Ground truth verification
Post classification correction
Final Map
Forest Cover Mapping in India
FSI monitors and maps forest cover on biennial basis (State of Forest Report)
Assesses forest cover using satellite based remote sensing data.
Mapping of mining zones within forest areas, areas affected by shifting cultivation, forest cover change maps, forest cover within BR, forest
cover affected by natural disaster, trees outside forests
Change in forest cover
Compare the two sets of satellite data, taken for particular area in 2 different time intervals.
Both images should be of same scale and resolution
Change assessment is carried out once in 5 or 10 years
Helpful in locating vulnerable areas where extensive deforestation occurs
Coarse resolution may lead to over estimation of forest areas
Forest Density Determination
Expresses the stocking status of forest.

Density and age are taken as surrogate to structural and compositional changes that occur with the forest succession
NDVI correlates well with different vegetation types but is not suitable for forest density classification.
Density determination is mostly using high resolution satellite imagery of scale less than 1:50000
Methodology
Satellite Imagery
Radiometric and Geometric Correction
Masking non forest area: vegetative cover is isolated from soil, rocks and human settlement. Separated vegetated area is subjected to advanced
vegetation index to get information on vegetation density.
AVI = [IR (255-R) x (IR-R)] ^ 1/3 ————— IR is the infra red band response and R is the red band response
Sub setting of study area
Supervised classification: Supervised classification in GIS environment. Training sets are prepared and spectral signatures for the concerned
training sets are derived. Density classes are assigned to the individual training set by using ML parametric decision rule
Ground Truth Survey: Carried out in a specific transect, which covers all training sets
Post rectification
Forest Density Map: Different density classes are depicted either by gradations of colour or different colour patterns
Inclusion of Digital Elevation Model and aspect data will improve the accuracy of density classification
Detection of density change
Temporal period may be of 2, 5 or 10 years.

Depends upon intensity of management, local factors and natural calamities
Forest Fire Mapping
Needs frequent monitoring for restoring the fire damaged forest region
Fire burnt areas look black due to ash deposition in soil. This reduces reflection pattern drastically
Satellite imagery of monsoon and summer season is compared, for reduction in reflection pattern of the particular forest
Regions having drastic reduction in reflection pattern is demarcated.
Verified on ground on a sample basis and final forest fire map is prepared.
Fire Risk Models
Determination of Risk Factors

Map Layers like forest cover type, forest density, contour map, road network, settlement etc. are extracted from toposheets.
These layers are converted into an index map — fuel type index, slope index, aspect index, distance/accessibility index
DEM used in slope and aspect maps
Weightage is assigned to different factors based on relevance to forest fire
All these weightage is summed up together by using weighted overlay analysis
e.g. Fire Risk Index = 4 (Fuel Index) + 3 (Aspect Index) + 2 (Slope index) + Accessibility Index + Elevation Index
Fire Risk is assigned based on cumulative index value.
Fire Risk map is verified through ground truth verification in selected strips.
Final fire risk map is depicted in gradation of colours
Habitat Evaluation
Habitat = Sum total of environmental conditions of a specific place occupied by a wildlife species or population of such species.
Habitat elements include vegetation, terrain, altitude, soil, weather and other biotic factors.
Habitat assessment should be based on sound ecological principles and reliable techniques considering all relevant criteria
Important for introduction, rehabilitation and ex situ conservation of species and their habitat.
Multi criteria analysis facilitates selection of site, land suitability analysis, resource evaluation, land allocation and making fine management
plans.
According to multi criteria analysis, habitat suitability index (0-100) describes priority of habitat according to needs to species
Initially habitat requirement of the species should be gathered or studied. Grades are assigned to different habitat factors
e.g. Tiger Habitat Analysis at Corbett National Park: Vegetation Type, forest density, slope, human disturbance, prey availability and distance to
water resource were evaluated. Information on human interference and water resource are collected manually. Indirectly suitability of prey
species is also taken into account.
High Habitat Suitability: Deciduous Forest, >60% density, situated away from road and village, close to water source and high prey
densities
Land Use and Land Cover Mapping
Differs in different countries. In India, land use classification is given by National Remote Sensing Agency
First Level: Major land use, National Level
Second Level: Subdivisions of major land use, State and District level
Third Level: Micro level, intensive management for smaller areas
Process
Using multispectral satellite imagery of scale less than 1:50000.

Study area is prepared from toposheets and base maps. Study area is overlaid over the satellite imagery.
Image Interpretation
Ground Truth Verification: Land use in ground is identified in selected strips
Signature development: Based on ground verification, spectral signatures for various land use types are generated.
Maximum likelihood classification by referring to the spectral signatures.
Land Use/Land Cover map: Different levels of detail can be applied. e.g. Agricultural land can be sub divided into crop lands, plantations crops
or fallow
Land Degradation Mapping
Degraded land includes erosion by water and wind, stonied land, saline lands, alkaline lands, marshy lands and others.
Different kinds of degraded lands have different spectral characteristic in different seasons. Hence, multi seasonal satellite imageries need to be
compared. e.g. Saline lands are bright in tone during summer whereas it looks brown in the monsoon.

Summer, Pre-Monsoon and Monsoon imageries are used for mapping
Combination of topographical maps, local knowledge, soil profile and remote sensing is used to create land degradation maps
Topographical maps are needed to differentiate wind and water erosion
Sodic soils are identified by soil analysis, as it has similar reflection patterns as saline soils
Mined out regions can be detected through water spots formed in monsoons
Soil Resource Mapping
Satellite data on required scale and resolution — type and intensity of soil survey
Ancillary Data: topographical maps, village maps, geological maps, climatic data are procured.
Topographical map is used for preparation of base maps, ground truth collection, selection of sample strip and geo-referencing of base maps
Different interpretation units are demarcated.
Ground Truth Survey: Representative areas for all interpretation units are selected for field traversing, ground truth collection and profile studies
Detailed soil investigation is carried out in each image interpretation unit in the sample strips by examining peons, mini-it’s, excavations etc.
Horizon wise soil samples are collected from the peons of representative units and characterised through lab studies.
Soils of the study area are classified.
Soil map of the study area is prepared.
Watershed Management
Watershed is a hydro-geological unit that covers a definite portion of land surface which drains into a definite channel, stream or reservoir. In
simple terms it can be defined as a load area draining to a common outlet.
Watershed Delineation
DEM is used for flow accumulation studies, drainage basin delineation, determination of maximum length of flow, delineation of channel
network, determination of drainage characteristics, watershed boundary
Thus, most quantitative hydrological parameters are interpreted from elevation
Flow direction: Direction with maximum downward slope is selected to be the direction that denotes the flow direction. By applying this
principle to all cells in an image, the flow direction is determined
Catchment Area Determination
Slope for all 8 surrounding cells in DEM is computed and the steepest slope direction is selected to route the flow. As the flow proceeds
downwards, the value of catchment area is incremented by number of cells passed through.
The whole area is demarcated as catchment
Discharge per unit width is directly proportional to the catchment area.
Delineation of drainage network
Drainage network can be delineated automatically from a DEM.

Catchment area can be used to extract the drainage network where grid cells with catchment area greater than a threshold value are selected to be
part of the drainage network
Drainage parameters — Drainage density, stream order, stream length — considered as a measure of dissection by streams in the catchment
Tsunami Risk Monitoring
DEM of higher resolution is needed for Tsunami hazard mapping.e.g. DEM of Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM)
Base map of the area is prepared initially.
The toposheets are used to demarcate different landforms in the coastal land — open coast, coastal estuary, bay lands, low lying uplands, uplands
Within a coastal landform, strip of land covering 2 km distance from the sea along the coastal line is considered for Tsunami hazard study
Flood Risk Mapping
Flood prone map shows the extent of the areas liable to inundation at the time of the flood
Considering elevation, landform and other local factors, the locations of dyke failure are marked.
Assumptions for flood height are based on maximum rainfall possibility in that region
Theoretically, all lands below this height are liable to flood if it is continuously present from the failure point
The sum of these cells determine the flood prone area
Agro Ecological Zoning
Combination of soil, landform, climatic characteristics

An AEZ is a land resource mapping unit, defined in terms of climate, landform, soils, landcover, having a specific range of potentials
Serves as a focus point for improvement of existing land use situation, either through increasing production or by limiting land degradation
Need for AEZ

Disseminate agro technology homogeneously
Assess yield potential for different crops
Predict possible crop combinations in different agro ecological regions
Formulate future plan of action involving crop diversification
Plan agricultural research based on area focus
Determine crop suitability for different agro ecological zones
Optimisation of land use for better income generation and little land degradation
Methodology
Four basic maps used are: soil, physiography, length of growing period, bioclimate. These 4 layers are classified based on the criteria requirement
for AEZ
Then these 4 layers are overlaid and integrated
Field Verification for ground trotting
Final AEZ map
Applications
Land Resource inventory

Inventory of land utilisation types and crop requirements
Land suitability evaluation
Assessment of maximum yield potential
Matching of constraints and requirements
Applications of Remote Sensing in Forestry
Monitoring: Forest Cover Change; Fire burnt areas; Pest, diseases and stress occurrence
Wildlife Management: Habitat assessment, census for big animals, tracking of wild animal
Crop Inventory: Forest type identification, species identification, species differentiation
Watershed Management: Characterisation, Prioritisation, Development and monitoring,
Soil Resource Management: Soil resource inventory, soil related constraints, land evaluation
Water availability: Monitoring surface water bodies, ground water exploration
Land degradation: Extent of wastelands, problem soils, water logging
Damage Assessment: Damage due to cyclones, floods and pest attacks
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
GIS is a computer based information system used for presenting and analysing the geographic features present on earth surface and the events (non-
spatial attributes). It acquires, stores, analyses and displays geographic data in a desirable manner.
Utility
Facilitates planning of project

Makes better decision making
Visual analysis is easily done
Improves organisational integration
Helps the choice of input selection
Components
Hardware: Physical component on which GIS software will run. Includes digitiser, GPS, plotter, computer hardware systems
Software: Provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyse and display geographic information. e.g. ArcGIS. Might be application
specific
Data: Spatial data + other data sources. GIS stores 2 types of data, vector and raster.
Vector: Represents the boundaries or the course of the features as a series of points.
Raster: Represents the features graphically. In a raster display, each pixel can vary in their colour, shape or grey tone
Applications
Cadastral, topographic and thematic mapping

Surveying and cartography
Remote sensing, image processing and photogrammetry
Earth science and geographical applications
Assist decision makers to select alternative resources
Modelling for various applications
Environmental pollution and natural hazard management
Urban area management, transportation, architecture, conservation, landscaping
Management and environmental impact analysis of natural resources
Locate hazardous or toxic factories, wildlife habitat and migrations
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Satellite based navigation system that provides continuous, real time, 3D positioning, navigation and timing world wide.
GPS is used to identify geographical coordinates associated with satellite imagery.
GPS is used for ground trotting of satellite images
Advantages of GPS
Relatively high positioning accuracies, upto mm level

Determination of velocity and time with higher accuracy
Available anywhere on earth
Low cost system
Provides information in all weather conditions
Provides 3 dimensional information
Segments of GPS
Space Segment
24 satellites orbiting the earth at an altitude of 36000 km. High altitude ensures that satellites are stable, precise and predictable, and that their
motion through space is not affected by drag.
Have 4 atomic clocks, which provide most accurate timing system.
6 orbital planes each with 4 satellites
Full operational capability is maintained even if upto 2 satellites are not functioning
Control Segment
Master control segment on earth that control satellite orbits precisely

Discrepancies between predicted orbits and actual orbits are transmitted to satellites for correction
User Segment
Designates various kinds of users who use this system for their benefit.
Working principles
Satellites continuously broadcast satellite position and timing data via radio signals on 2 frequencies
Satellite signal is received by GPS receiver and processed. It computes the distance of the GPS receiver from the satellite (based on time taken by
signal)
Using trigonometric principles, distances and elevations are calculated to give latitude, longitude and elevation
Sources of error
Ionosphere and Troposphere delays as the satellite signal passes

Signal multi path in atmosphere which increases the travel time of the signal
Receiver clock errors
Orbital errors
Number of satellites visible
Satellite geometry error
Applications of GPS
Agricultural applications: In precision or site specific farming for variable application of fertiliser or pesticides, yield maps, aerial spraying, pest
attacks
Land, sea and air navigations: geophysical and resource surveys, navigation and air collision avoidance systems, cargo monitoring, vehicle
tracking, search and rescue, public transport
Mapping and Surveying: Infrastructure mapping, management and planning for future growth, oil and gas explorations
Spacecraft operations
Military operations
Recreational uses
Altimeters
FOREST MENSURATION
Forest Mensuration is the branch of forestry that deals with the determination of dimensions, form, age and increment of single trees, stands or whole
forests, either standing or after felling. Concerns with measurement of area, volume, weight of wood, bark, fruits, etc.
Scope: Sale of forest produce, wildlife management, watershed management, insects and disease incidence, recreational forestry

Objectives
Basis for value estimation for sale of forest produces

Basis of management: Sustainable utilisation of forest produce requires knowledge of quantum of timber standing in forest and its annual
increment
Measurement for research: Measurements of woods are essential to identify the best treatment and method of management
Measurement for planning: Future planning of forest management requires estimating the demand of wood and other products. Mensuration
provides essential basic data.
What determines accuracy of mensuration?
Characteristics of Trees: Swelling near the base, fluting, buttresses and thickness of bark causes variation.
Varying methods and conditions of felling and conversion: Includes skill and care taken during operations
Instruments and conditions in which they are used
Personal bias in measurements
Biological character of forest — includes factors like climate, soil, topography and biotic elements
Need for accuracy: Low cost projects require relatively less accuracy. e.g. Fuel wood estimation. Volume estimation and Regeneration
Assessment require much higher accuracy
Time and funds available
DIAMETER MEASUREMENT
In logs, diameters are measured at thick end, thin end and middle of the logs, and the average value is considered diameter of the log.
For Standing Trees, diameter is measured at breast height
Breast Height: defined as the universally adopted standard height for measuring girth, diameters and basal area of standing tree. 1.37m above ground
level in India, Burma, America, South Africa. 1.3m in Europe, UK etc.
Why BH?
Convenient height for taking measurements and avoids complications

Measurement at base is difficult due to presence of grasses and thorny shrubs
Trees with swelling at base make the measurement more difficult
Uniform point of measurement which standardises the diameter measurement
More useful than measurement at stump height, because stumps are never measured at uniform height.
Standard Rules for BH measurement
BH is marked by using a measurement stick at 1.37m above ground level.

BH is marked by intersecting vertical and horizontal lines of 12cm in white paint.
On sloping ground, BH is marked on the uphill side
In leaning trees, DBH is measured along the tree stem and not vertically.
DBH is measured on the side of lean on flat ground
In case of abnormality at BH, DBH should be shifted up or down slightly.
If tree is worked above the breast height, it is considered as a single tree. If forking is below breast height, each stem is considered an individual
tree.
In case of buttresses, BH is taken at the lowest point above which buttresses is not likely to extend
BH mark should be recorded for each tree.
Mosses, Creepers, Lichens and Loose bark on the tree must be removed before measuring the diameter
Diameter measurements should be recorded in cm and to the nearest multiple of 2mm.
Instruments
Marked in cm and mm, available in 30cm or 60cm standards

Used to measure diameter of stump or end sections of logs and also in stump and stem analysis.
Wooden Scale Diameter should be measured along the line passing through the pith
One diameter along the major axis, and another at right angles to it is measured.
Eye should be just above the mark while reading the measurement (reduce parallax error)
Callipers
Measure diameter of standing trees and logs.
Consist of a graduated rule and 2 arms, one fixed at right angles to the rule, and the other slides parallel to the first arm.
The two arms are separated enough and inserted over the tree stem. When the tree touches the graduated rule, the
movable arm is shifted inwards so that the tree touches the fixed arm and movable arm.
The diameter is read off when the tree and calipers are in perpendicular position.
Calipers should be placed with well open arms and must not be forced on the tree.
Reading is taken before the caliber is removed from the tree.
If the cross-section of the stem is elliptical, two diameters are measured corresponding to major and minor axes
Calipers should be placed at right angles to the axis of the tree. Movable arm should be perpendicular to rule
Scale arm must touch the tree stem.
Advantages of Calliper
Diameter can be read directly in cm and mm
Points of arms touching the tree are always in sight which reduces the error
Can be easily used by unskilled labour
Errors are both positive and negative, which may cancel out to an extent (advantage over tape)
More accurate results than tape
Measurements are quicker than tape in routine frost work.
Disadvantages of Calliper
Movable arm often gets jammed when wet or dirty

Two measurements are needed to get the correct diameter
Big callipers are difficult to carry.
For very large trees, not applicable
Not accurate when not in adjustment.
May give different readings for the same tree, if the arms are not moved properly
Used to measure girth of trees and logs.

Graduated in cm and mm. Ends are plated in metal to prevent tearing off.
Tapes used in tree measurements are 3m or 5m in length.
Graduated to read diameter directly from girth.
Precaution
Tape should not be old to avoid expansion errors

If the end is broken, measurement should be taken from the next centimetre mark
Must be flat against the tree and not in twisted manner.
Should be ensured that no climber has vitiated around the stem.
Tape must be in a plane perpendicular to the tree
Callipers is more accurate but more liable to errors. Tape gives more consistent results, but it takes more time.
Chouce depends on kind and circumstances of work.
Measuring Tape
Advantages
Convenient to carry
Does not require constant adjustment
Requires only one measurement even with irregular trees.
More convenient than Callipers for logs lying on the ground
Errors in tape are always positive and systematic (advantage over Callipers)
Measures the size of a tree better than Callipers — sources of error are less.
Disadvantages
Rough bark of tree exaggerates the diameter or girth while using the tape.
Slower to use particularly in areas with dense shrub growth
As the tape is swung around the tree, it is often not in a plane at right angles to the axis of the tree.
Difference in tension of the tape due to elasticity affects the measurement
Error in basal area counted from taped girth is slightly more than the diameter calculated by Callipers
Relation between diameter and girth
Ratio is 1/π
Actual ratio is less than that. Varies from species to species.
Bark Thickness
Thickness of the bark varies with species to species and tree to tree.
Bark thickness varies with the age of tree and base to top of the tree.
Affects calculation of volume of standing trees.
Thickness of bark is measured by Swedish Bark Gauge. Chisel form of instrument is provided with a curved arm fitted with a graduated moving
tube. This is pushed into the bark. Afterwards, the instrument is removed and thickness of the bark is read off the scale.
HEIGHT MEASUREMENT
Height is required for computing volume table, form factor table and yield table.
Height of trees indirectly gives idea about productive capacity of site or site quality
Tree Height is the straight line distance from tip of leading shoot to the ground level, usually measured on slopes from the uphill side of the tree.
Height of felled tree is measured from top to base in a straight line without any allowance for curvature of the stem.
Bole Height is the distance between ground level and crown point
Crown Point is the position of the first crown forming living or dead branch.
Commercial Bole Height is the height of bole that is usually fit for utilisation as timber
Standard Timber Bole Height is the height of bole from ground level up to point where diameter over bark is 20 cm.
Stump is a stem which is left on the ground after felling. Stump Height is the height of the top of the stump above ground.
Crown Length is the vertical measurement of the crown of a tree from the tip to the point half way between the lowest green branches forming
green crown.
Crown Height is the vertical length from the ground level to the point halfway between the lowest green branch and green branches forming
crown all around.
Crown Width is the maximum spread of the crown along its widest diameter.
Methods of Measurement
Height of tree is assessed by visual judgement.

Initially, few trees are measured using instruments.
Ocular Estimate
Thereafter, the estimator can judge the height of trees exactly by comparison
Not very accurate and results may vary with experience of the forester
Shadow Method
Applicable only on sunny days, not suitable for congested stands where shadow is difficult to obtain.
Pole of known length is fixed on the ground.
Shadow caused by the pole and tree are measured, from which the tree height is calculated.
Non Instrumental
Single Pole Method
Methods
Observer holds a pole vertically at arm’s length in such a way that portion of the pole above the hand is equal in length
to the distance of the pole from the eye.
In this position, the observer moves till the tip of the pole and the tip of the tree are in the line of sight, and the line of
sight of base of tree passes through where the pole is held by the hand.
Height of the tree is then calculated using geometry
Instrumental Geometrical Principles: Using Similar Triangles.

Methods
Trigonometric Principles
Tangent Method - Utilises the tangents of the angles to the top and base of the tree and the distance of the observer
from the tree.
On Level Ground
On Sloping Ground
Sine Method
Instruments Based on Trigonometrical Principles
Brandis Hypsometer
Consists of a hollow metal tube 14 cm long and rectangular cross section.
Wheel enclosed in a circular metal case is attached to it on one side.
Object to be sighted is seen through the hollow tube from the end
Pivoted wheel attached to the wheel should be in zero position when the instrument is horizontal
Outer rim of the wheel is graduated to show degrees that can be read through an opening in the metal case by a
magnifying glass in eye piece.
Observer stands at a convenient place from where the top and base of the tree can be visible. He should press the
spring while seeing the top as well as the base of the tree. Distance from the observe to the tree is calculated and
height of the tree is calculated using tangent formula.
Brandis Table
Instrument is provided with a table called Brandis table which gives the heights of trees directly.
Observer should stand at a place from where top of the trees is visible.
When the top has been sighted for any of the angles of elevation given in the table, the instrument should be
directed towards the base.
After measuring distance between tree and observer, height is obtained from the table for the corresponding
distance and angles of elevation
Adjustment to position to suit angles given in the table is difficult.
Abney’s Level
Used for measuring height and contouring.
Consists of a hollow tube with an eyepiece at one end sighting tube at the other end.
Index arm is attached to the spirit level and the arc is graduated to read whole degrees
Vernier and a magnifying glass are fitted on the index arm.
Observer stands away from the tree at a place from where the top of the tree and the base are visible.
While sighting the top, the screw is rotated to bring the spirit level in a horizontal position.
As the spirit level approaches the horizontal position, the spirit level is continued to be moved slowly to the
position when the bubble image is bisected by the line of horizontal wire on the mirror and in the other half, the
tree top is seen touching the horizontal wire. At this position, the index arm reads the angle of elevation to the
top of the tree.
Similarly, angle of depression to the base can be read.
Height of the tree is calculated based on these values.
Small in size and light weight. Spirit level adjustment is cumbersome.
Topographical Abney’s Level

Protractor is graduated on both sides.
Observer has to stand at one chain distance from the tree and sight the top of the tree.
Reading of the protractor on the side of rise or fall per chain horizontal will give the height of the tree above eye
level. Height of the tree is obtained by adding to it, the observer’s eye height.
Tree height is given readily without reference to mathematical tables.
But the height obtained is of approximate value. It is difficult to use in the forest.
Haga altimeter
Consists of a pointer and a rotatable scale. The top of the case has an eye piece with a pin hole.
Hexagonal bar inside which can be rotated by a turning knob
Bar has a separate scale on each of its face.
Scale and height readings can be done through a narrow longitudinal slit.
Gravity controlled pointer indicates the heights above or below the eye level when the top or base of the tree is
sighted.
Observer should stand at specific distance by holding the instrument in such a way that the eye piece is towards
the observer and the sight vane is towards the tree.
After sighting the top, the trigger is depressed to lock the pointer. This gives the height of the tree above eye
level. Similarly, bottom of the tree is observed and height of the tree below eye level is obtained.
If both top and bottom of the tree are above eye level, then tree height is obtained by deducting the bottom height
from the top height value.
Relaskop
Measurement of basal area of crops, diameters over bark at any distance from the tree.
Rotating drum for slope correction and height measurements that has 4 scales.
Gives directly the height of the tree when a horizontal stick of fixed length is kept at the base of the tree.
Christen Hypsometer
Based on the similar triangles principle
Consists of a scale of 10 inches long.
For measuring tree height, a 10 foot pole is placed upright at the base of the tree.
The forester stands at sufficient distance from the tree, in such a way that the two inside edges of the flanges are
in line with the top and base of the tree.
In this position, graduation on the scale that is in line with the top of pole placed over the tree base indicates tree
height.
Graduation is very crowded in the bottom portion and wider in the top portion. This creates difficulty in reading
the graduation in the lower end. The limitation arises when measuring tall trees. Very small orientation results in
considerable error in height measurement.
Sources of Error
Instrument Error: Result of limitations in the instrument. e.g. Christen Hypsometer keeps swinging due to wind.
Personal Error: Varies from persona to person depending on their knowledge, skill and experience.
Errors due to measurement: Horizontal distance calculation and angle measurements may be difficult due to bushes and
shrubs on the ground level.
Errors due to observation: In dense forest, it is difficult to see the base of a tree. In broadleaved trees, it is difficult to
see the tip of the tree exactly.
Errors due to lean of trees: If the tree is not exactly vertical, trigonometrical principles are not accurate. All
mathematical methods assume the tree bole to be vertical.
VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
Commercial Volume is the volume of stem measured down to a thin end diameter up to which conversion is usually done which excludes
volume of stump.
Standard Stem Timber is the volume exclusive of bark of stem wood timber in round from ground level down to 20 cm diameter over bark.
Standard Stem Small Wood is the volume of stem wood in round between 20 cm diameter over bark and 5cm diameter over bark.
Volume of Felled Trees
Volume of felled trees includes volume of stem wood and branch wood.
May include root volume as well if it is economical.
Tree is cut into logs according to the taper.
The length of the log depends on the taper, utility of the wood and transport facility available.
Volume of Logs
Basal portion resembles a Neloid, Middle portion a Paraboloid and Top portion a Cone
Total volume is the volume of these three solids taken together
Quarter Girth formula: Basal area x length, π is taken as 4, so it may underestimate the volume, but overall it allows for loss in volume due to
bark and during squaring.
Branch Woods
Except thick branches, others are converted to firewood.

Billet is the stack of fuel wood that is laid in form of rectangular parallelepipeds. This cubical volume is taken as fuel wood volume
Loss of weight on drying is 40 to 50% depending on species.
Solid Volume of firewood within this stack depends on form of stacking, form of billets, length and diameter of billets.
Xylometric Method: Graduated vessel using which the volume of wood is calculated by the principle of water displacement.
Specific Gravity method
Conversion Factor: Factor by which stacked volume may be multiplied to derive a solid volume or weight. It varies with region and user groups.
Tree Form: Rate of taper of a log or stem. (Taper is the decrease in diameter of a stem from base to upwards). Rate of taper varies with species, age,
site, crop density and different parts of the same tree.
Methods of studying form

Form Factor: Ratio of the volume of a tree to the volume of a cylinder having the same length and cross section as
the tree. Gives an idea about the laws of growth.
Artificial Form Factor: Basal area is measured at BH and volume refers to the whole tree both above and below
the point of measurement. Computation is easy, hence universally acceptable. Artificial form factor is not so
reliable as the diameter varies at different heights.
Absolute Form Factor: Basal area is calculated at any convenient height, and the volume of tree refers only to
the part above the point of measurement.
Normal Formal Factor: Basal Area is measured at a constant proportion of the total height of the tree. Volume
designates the whole tree above ground level. Cumbersome as it requires height measurement at first, followed
Comparison of standard by diameter at different heights.
form ratios
Kinds of Form Factor
Tree Form Factor

Stem timber Form Factor
Stem Small Wood Form Factor
Form Height: Product of Form Factor and Tree Height = V/S
Form Quotient: Mid Diameter/DBH
Form Class: Defined as one of the intervals in which the range of form quotients of trees is divided for classification
Classification of form on and use.
the basis of from ratios Form Point Ratio: Point in the crown at which wind pressure is estimated to be centred. Form Point Ratio is the
relationship of the height of the form point above ground level to the total height of the tree.
Form of trees is studied by compilation of taper tables. Shows the actual form by diameters at fixed points from
Taper Tables the base to the tip of a tree.
May be diameter taper tables or form class taper tables
Volume of Standing Trees
Ocular Estimate: Estimate of volume of standing trees by experience and knowledge. Varies widely depending on knowledge and experience
Ocular + Measurement: Diameter and height of some trees are measured. From this volume of tree is assessed with consideration of taper. Then
the volume of remaining trees is assessed in comparison. The defects that apply to Ocular estimates hold here as well.
Direct measurement: Diameter is measured at different heights manually. Volume is determined from diameter and height. Not feasible for a
large number of trees as it is a time consuming and tiring procedure
Indirect measurement: use of instruments avoids the climbing of trees for height measurement. e.g. Relaskop, Dendrometer. Using diameter and
height, volume of standing tree is obtained.
VOLUME TABLE

Volume Table is defined as a table showing the average contents of trees, logs or sawn timber for one or more given dimensions, for a given
species.
Used to estimate volume of a given crop
Prepared on the basis of actual measurement of a sufficiently large number of trees
Does not give exact volume of an individual
Variables used for volume table preparation are diameter, height and taper form
Choice of variables depends on intended applications, simplicity, speed and desired accuracy. e.g. For smaller and restricted area diameter alone
is enough.
Information provided in volume tables: Name of species and its distribution, basic data of the locality, number of trees measured for compilation
of the volume table, method of compilation and computation.
Volume Table Classification
Classification on basis of number of variables
Average volumes against individual diameters of trees

1 variable Cannot be used for extensive areas as height varies with different sites though diameter may remain the same.
Suited for local needs, quick and easy to use.
Both diameter and height of trees.

2 variables More accurate than volume table based on diameter alone
Applicable to extensive areas
Diameter, Height and Form factor

3 variables
Accurate, but expensive and cumbersome to prepare, and time consuming in their application
Classification on the basis of scope of application
Based on average volume of trees growing over a large geographical area

General Volume
Based on diameter and height
Tables
Limited direct application, but are used to derive local tables
Regional Volume Derived from measurement of trees growing in a region.

Tables Applicable only to a particular region.
Compiled from measurements of trees growing in restricted localities, or derived from general volume table.
Local Volume
Mostly based on one independent variable
Tables
Mostly used to make estimates of volume of coupe
Classification on basis of kind of outturn
Estimated out turn in form of standard timber

Standard Volume Table
Volume is given in terms of round timber that includes volume of stump
Gives information about round timber volume measured down to a thin end diameter, to which conversion is
Commercial Volume done.
Stump Stump volume is omitted.
Serves as a basis for the preparation of local and temporary tables for individual coupes
Sawn Outturn Table Contents of sawn timber volume are given up to a thin end diameter to which conversion is done.
Assortment Table Volume in round down to various thin end diameters
Sawn Out turn Assortment Similar to assortment tables, but they give sawn out turn in number of standardised species instead of volume in
Table round
Method of preparation of volume table

Graphical Method
Selection of Trees
Trees are selected throughout the entire range and distribution of the species.

Trees of typical height and development are selected. Trees with defects are avoided.
Smaller number of trees suitably selected gives better results than a large improper selection
Number of trees depends on: Grouping adopted, Precision required, Deviation of the individual tree volumes
from the mean in each group
Measurements — standard timber, small wood, commercial timber. Division of section cutting of wood log also
varies with different volume tables.
Curves — Observed information is plotted successively and smooth serves are drawn
Average diameter vs Average volume separately for each height class. Volumes against the middle of each
diameter class are tabulated.
Average heights vs Average diameter separately for each height class. Average height against middle of
diameter class are tabulated
Average volume vs Average height. Volumes against middle of each height class are tabulated
Volume vs middle of diameter classes for each height class.
Verification
Actual volume of trees measured should be checked against the total volume read from the final curve. Difference
should not exceed 1%
Difference between total volume obtained form field data and corresponding volumes read from the curves should
not differ by more than 5%. There should be atleast 20 trees in the class for the check to be reliable
Relative Check: Checks two or more tables which are derived independently from the same data.
Average Deviation Check: Checks the average deviation of individual tree volumes from those read from the
curve.
Limitations
Failure in proper tree selection in proper number

At a time, only 2 variables can be dealt with
Personal bias in drawing the curves
Regression equations are prepared from basic field data.

From this, most accurate one is selected for preparation of volume table.
Regression Equation
V = a + bD + D^2
Value of coefficients vary across species
Preparation of Local Volume Table
Basic data is collected from the field

Diameters and volumes of large number of trees are measured and recorded by diameter classes.
Graphical Method
Average volume for each diameter class is worked out and plotted.
Not usually followed as it requires huge calculations
Derived from regression equation of general volume table

Regression Equation
If general equation is V = a + bDH and H-D relation is H = p + rD, H can be substituted in the general equation
YIELD TABLE
Yield table is a tabular statement which summarises for per unit area, essential data related to development of fully stocked and regularly thinned even
aged crop at periodic intervals covering the greater part of life.
Primary Data: Volume of main crop, thinning yield, final yield and accumulated yield through thinning
Secondary Data: Crop average diameter, height, number of stems per unit area, crop basal area, form factor, CAI and MAI
Based on grades of thinning
Single Yield Table: Only C grade thinning is adopted to regulate the crop
Multiple Yield Table: Data is given for various grades of thinning for the crop
Based on information given
Volume Yield Table: Volume information is given for the crop

Money Yield Table: Income obtained from a crop per unit area on different time is given instead of volume information alone
Preparation of Yield Table
After construction of top height/top age curve by site qualities, sample plots are assigned according to quality classes
Crop age and mean crop basal area is grouped separately and average is computed
Average crop age and average mean basal area curve is drawn. Crop age reading from the curve is compared with actual measurement
Standard deviation and coefficient of variation are calculated and plotted against crop age
Curves are drawn for number of trees per ha, average crop diameter, stem timber and stem small wood

For each quality class, main crop data is grouped by decade or half decades of age classes. Parameters computed: Basal Area/ha, Number of
Trees/ha, Average crop diameter, Average crop height, Stem timber and stem small wood volume per ha, Stem timber and stem small wood
volume form factor
Averages for each age class are plotted against the average crop age. Smooth curves for each site quality are drawn
Basal Area / ha = Number of trees/ha x Average Basal Area
Crop Volume / ha = Basal area/ha x crop height x form factor
Average value against each age decade is read from the curve and tabulated
Data for subsidiary crop is tabulated
Limitations
Applications of yield table
Grouping of sample plot data based on site qualities is
Supportive in determination of site quality and fractional site quality
difficult. Site quality varies with various factors and
Used in estimation of total yield or growing stock
locations
Determination of increment of stand
No consistency trend in curve among different site quality
Determination of rotation
In some site quality, no sample plots are available for certain
Enhances preparation of stock map by site qualities
decades
Acts as a guide to silvicultural thinning
Good deal of sample plot data may get rejected in some cases
FOREST INVENTORY
Reliable, tabulated and satisfactory tree information, related to the required unit, respective units, of assessment in hierarchic order.
Enumeration refers to the counting, singly or together of individuals of one or more species in a forest and their classification by species, size,
condition etc.
Why inventory?
Main objective is to determine the volume of timber growing in the forest with a view to determine the yield.
Inventory is required to assess the value of forest produce for sale.
Inventory is carried out to prepare a management map of the area — helpful in decision making process
Kinds of enumeration
Total or Complete Enumeration

Enumeration of all desired species above the specified diameter limit over the entire area of the forest.
Expensive and time consuming, hence done for comparatively smaller areas having valuable species or for intensively managed forests.
Total enumeration is carried out for statistical studies as a check on partial enumerations
Partial Enumeration
Enumeration of a representative portion of the forest instead of whole forests. (Sample)
Sample is defined as part of the population consisting of one or more sampling units, selected and examined as a representative of the
whole.
What decides kind of enumeration?
Extent of area to be covered

Variation in composition and density of the forest
Intensity of management
Degree of accuracy required
Resources such as funds, labour and time available
SAMPLING
Advantages of Sampling
Reduces the cost needed to gather data about the population

Saves time
Show relatively high accuracy
Knowledge of error in sampling is known
Great scope and application in diverse fields
Types of Sampling
Random Samples are chosen in such a manner that all sampling units have equal chance of being chosen
Unrestricted/Simple random sampling: Sampling units are selected strictly randomly from the whole population.
Gives good results if the forest is uniform
Stratified Random Sampling: Population is first divided into sub populations of different strata, and sampling units
are selected from each according to their proportionate size. Forests generally have heterogenous composition and
hence, this method is suitable for natural forest conditions
Multi Stage Sampling: Sampling units are taken out in two or more stages. Sampling unit size is reduced at
successive stage of sampling. Principle of random sampling remains the same for all stages.
Multiphase sampling: Same sampling units are used for different phases of sampling to collect different information.
e.g. In a bamboo forest, the number of clumps/ha is determined in the first phase and in second phase, number of culms
per clump is determined.
Sampling with varying probability: Chances may vary as the sampling proceeds for each sample being selected. e.g.
Point sampling
List Sampling: Sampling with varying probability. List of sampling units along with their measure of size in any order
Samples are selected according to the subjective judgement of the observer on the basis of certain rules or guidelines
Selective Sampling: Choice of sampling units depends on subjective judgement of the observer. Involves a lot of bias,
but useful for quick and rough estimate.
Non Random Systematic Sampling: Sampling units are selected according to a predetermined pattern, after a random start. Reduces
cost of sampling process.
Sequential Sampling: Number of observations is not determine din advance. Sampling units are taken successively
from a population. Each sample contains all the sampling units of the previous sample. Confidence interval at each
stage will go on decreasing. Sampling is stopped when the desired level of precision is achieved.
Sampling Units
Sampling units having fixed area OR sampling units having points

Smaller size and more sampling units produces higher accuracy and improved efficiency
Larger the independent number of observations means higher the precision
Shape of sampling plots may be square, rectangular, circular or polygon. Square and Rectangular plots are most commonly used. Strips of
different widths from one end to the other are used for sampling
In hilly regions, laying strips for sampling is difficult, so topographical units are suitable. In topographical units, boundaries are topographical
features such as streams, rivers, ridges, rocks etc.
Surround is an area maintained around the sampling plot to ensure that the sampling plot is not affected by any external influence other than the
treatment. It helps to avoid edge effect as well.
Sampling Intensity: Percentage of area of the population to be included in the sample. Depends on the objective of the inventory, type of forest,
kind of sampling to be used, funds available, precision desirable etc.
Errors in forest sampling
Sampling Errors: Arise from the fact that only a fraction of the forest is enumerated and the result is applied to the whole population
Non Sampling Errors: Arise from several causes such as error in location of sampling unit, error in measurement and recording, biases of
the enumerators, instrumental error etc.
Point Sampling
Counting from a random point, the number of trees whose breast height cross section exceeds a certain critical angle, which is multiplied by a constant
factor to give an unbiased estimate of basal area per hectare.
Series of sampling points are selected randomly or systematically distributed over the entire area.
Trees around this point are viewed at breast height through any angle gauge.
Trees forming an angle bigger than the critical angle of the instrument are counted.
Inclusion of trees in a tally for a given angle depends upon the size of trees and their distance from the observer.
Instruments used
Telerelaskop
Spiegel Relaskop
Simple Angle Gauge:
Consists of a stick (1m long) with a peep sight at one end and metal blade 2cm wide fixed at the other end at
right angles to the axis of the stick.
The width of the blade and the length of the stick determine the angle
A tree is viewed through the prism at breast height and simultaneously seeing the trunk of the tree directly over
the prism.
Horizontal Point Full tally and Half tally
Sampling Wedge Prism
Uses
Calculation of basal area per ha

Calculation of number of stumps per ha
Calculation of volume per ha
Errors
Instrumental error and personal bias

Deviation from the prescribed sampling points
Bias due to concealed trees
Error due to incorrect conclusions
Error due to exclusion of border trees
Bias due to imaginary circle exceeding outside the stand

Vertical Point Helpful to define mean stand height.
Sampling All trees appearing more than a critical angle are counted within a full 360° sweep around sample point.
Conimeter principle is involved in this sampling. Critical angle of 45° is fixed for tree tallying

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21/09/2019 Forestry 2A

Scope of Forest Management

Management of Private forest

Emphasis on immediate returns and maximising gain per unit area

Objectives of Forest Management

Maintain economic productivity and take advantage of present economic opportunities;

Length of rotation depends on

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How to reduce period of rotation?

Grow in areas of suitable soil so that the tree grows faster

Can be modiﬁed as per needs of industry. Important for economic objectives

Rotation that yields the maximum annual growth of material

Financial/Economic Yields the highest net return on the invested capital

Control on services: Physical and Silvicultural Rotation

High Density Short Rotation Forestry

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Optimizes the use of natural resources, environmentally and

Rotation of Important Species

Deciduous (Indigenous to India)

Rotation of 5-8 years is most common

4 years in irrigated lands, 6 years in rain fed areas

Fast growing plantation — short rotation period

Rotation is generally at 4 years.

15 to 30 years for production of timber

Sum of standing volume of a crop plus total volume removed in thinning

Normal Yield Yield obtained from normal forest

Concept of sustained yield

Pre-requisite for Sustained Yield

Advantages of Sustained Yield Disadvantages of Sustained Yield

Kinds of Abnormality in the forest are

Under stocked growing stock

How to obtain normal forest under different silvicultural systems?

Total area is divided into coupes which is equal to A/R.

Total area is divided into number of regeneration blocks

Internal factors: species type

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Effect of thinning on Volume increment

Pressler’s Increment Borer Method

Determination of Increment in irregular forests

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Normal Age Class in Regular Forest

Felling series in simple coppice and clear felling system

Determination of Normal Growing Stock

Based on ﬁnal MAI NGS calculation from yield table

GS is calculated by adding volume of succession.

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Cut each crop at apt maturity

Calculation of amount of yield in a forest at different times

Yield Regulation in regular forests

Clear Felling System: Area Method of Yield Regulation

Annual Coupes by Gross Area — Equi-extensive coupes

Annual Coupes by reduced area — Equi-productive coupes

Simplest method in practice Not suitable for uneven aged crops

Yield Regulation in regular shelterwood systems

Periodic Block Method of Yield Regulation

Rotation is divided into a number of convenient periods

Methods of allocation of area to periodic block

Permanent Allotment Methods

Yield Regulation based on volume of GS — Von Mantel Formula

Volume of NGS = (I x r)/2