Silviculture: February 2018

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Silviculture
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Silviculture
Preprint · February 2018
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Deepak Gautam
Beijing Forestry University & Tribhuvan University
32 PUBLICATIONS 82 CITATIONS
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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition and objectives of silviculture:
Silvilculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. In broad sense, silviculture includes both silvics
and its practical application. According to Toumey and Korstian: Silviculture is defined as “the branch of
forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care, and reproduction of stands of Timber”.
According to FRI, Dehra Dun: The art and science of cultivating forest crops. Champion and Seth define
Silviculture as: The term silviculture, in English, commonly refers only to certain aspects of the theory and
practice of raising forest crops.
Silvics: Silvics is the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees and crops with particular
reference to environmental factors as basis for the practice of silviculture. Silviculture can be described to
include all practical and theoretical aspects of silvics. The knowledge gathered in silvics is applied to the
production and care of forest crops.
Thus, the practice of silviculture is applied silvics. The practice of silviculture is concerned with the social as
well as the biological aspects of forestry. The important objective of forestry is to make forests useful to society.
Objective of Silviculture: The objective of study and practice of silviculture is to produce more useful and
valuable forests to meet our requirements in a shorter time. The study of silviculture helps to attain the following
objectives;
1. To produce the species of economic value: The production of timber species of economic value per unit
area is low. If the forests have to produce timber of industrial and economic importance, it is necessary to study
and practice of silviculture so that we can produce only the desired species.
2. To produce more volume per unit area: In the virgin forest the crop is generally either very dense or very
open. Both these extremes are unsuitable for quantitative production. The study and practice of silviculture helps
in raising sufficient trees per unit area right from the beginning to fully utilize the soil and as they grow up
gradually reduce their number so that the requirement of light and food of the remaining tree is met. In this way
silviculture helps to bring the production of more timber per unit area on a sustained basis.
3. To produce high quality timber: In the unmanaged forest because of much competition a large number of
trees become crooked, malformed, diseased and defective. Silviculture techniques help to avoid these problems
and to produce timber of a very high quality. Thus knowledge of silviculture is essential to ensured disease free
timber production.
4. To reduce the rotation period: Rotation is the planed period of time expressed in years between the
regeneration of a crop to its final felling. In unmanaged forests rotation tend to be longer because the growth of
individuals’ tree is retarded. There is intense competition and it takes the trees a longer time to attain an
exploitable size. With the knowledge and practical application of silvilcultural techniques density of the crop
can be properly regulated and consequently the rate of growth increased and rotation reduced.
Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

5. To raise forest in blank areas: In nature a large number of areas potentially suitable for tree growth, remain
blank due to certain adverse factors inhibiting growth of trees. Silvilcultural skills and techniques help in raising
forest in such areas.
6. To create of plantation: Plantations may be created in place of natural forest. This can be brought about
under conditions where the natural forest has failed to regenerate itself or when the existing forest is too slow
growing for exploiting its potential to the optimum extent possible.
7. To introduction of exotics: Knowledge of silviculture is highly beneficial for the successful introduction of
exotic species for industrial environmental or related purpose e.g. Eucalyptus, Populus and Teak etc
8. To increase the employment potential: Increased employment potential is clearly one of the objectives of
modern silvilcultural techniques. In any plantation operation, the labor component accounts for between 60-
70% of the total financial input.
9. To increase the production of fuel and fodder: Silvilcultural techniques help to bring about an increase in
the production of fuel wood and fodder from the forest both of which are very essential for a developing country
like Nepal.
10. To develp forest industries: Silviculture contributes to the development of the industrial potential of a
region as forests provide important raw materials e.g. Resin, pulpwood, industrial wood and minor forest
products for various forest-based industries.
11. Derive environmental benefits: Silviculture helps to raise forests so that human beings may drive
maximum environmental benefits from them such as soil and water conservation, control of air and noise
pollution, wild life conservation, regulation of climatic conditions and regulation of water cycle.
1.2 Some important terms of silviculture

Phenology is the science dealing with the time of appearance of characteristic periodic events such as leaf
shedding, fruit ripening etc in life cycle of organisms. The variation in time of these periodic events may be
correlated with changes in climatic factors but it also depends upon species. For example, heavier rainfall
and higher humidity sometimes quicken fruit ripening in Albizzia procera and Shorea robusta. Also, fruit
ripening in Dalbergia sissoo and Sisso and Mangifera indica does not appear to be affected by changes in
climatic factors.
Weeding: Weeding may be defined as a tending operation done in the seedling stage in a nursery or in a
forest crop that involves the removal or cutting back of all weeds.
Cleaning: It is a tending operation done in a sapling crop involving the removal or topping of inferior
growth including individual of favored species, climbers etc, When they are interfering with the better
grown individuals of the favored species. It merges with thinning as the saplings grow into poles.
Thinning: It is defined as a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving the growth and
form of the trees that remain without permanently breaking the canopy.
Girdling: It is defined as cutting through bark and outer living layers of wood in a continuous incision all
round the bale of a tree.

Silvicultural System: It may be defined as a method of silvicultural procedure worked out in accordance
with accepted sets of silvicultural principles, by which crops constituting forests are harvested, regenerated
and tended. It is a planned silvicultural treatment, which is applied to a forest crop throughout its life to get a
distinctive form. It begins with regeneration felling and includes adopting of some suitable method of
regeneration and tending of the new crop throughout of its life. A silvicultural system is a planned program
of treatments throughout the life of the stand to achieve stand structural objectives based on integrated
resource management goals. A silvicultural system includes harvesting, regeneration and stand-tending
methods or phases. It covers all activities for the entire length of a rotation or cutting cycle.
1.3 Relation of silviculture with forestry and its other branches
Silviculture and Forest Protection

Forest protection is defined as that branch of forestry which is concerned with ‘the activities directed towards the
prevention and control of damage to forests by man, animals, fire, insects, disease or other injurious and destructive
agencies’. So while silviculture is concerned with the raising of forest crop, forest protection is concerned with its
protection against various sources of damage.
Silviculture and Forest Mensuration

Forest mensuration is defined as that branch of forestry which deals with ‘the determination of dimensions, form,
volume, age and increment of logs, single trees, stands or whole woods’. Thus while silviculture deals with raising
of forest crop, Forest Menstruation deals with measurement of diameter and heights of crop so produced,
calculation of its volume, age, etc., to decide the best treatment to be given to the crop while it is being raised.
Silviculture and Forest Utilization

Forest utilization is defined as ‘the branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, conversion, disposal and use of
the forest produce.’ Thus while silviculture is concerned with the cultivation of forest crops, forest utilization is
concerned with the harvesting, conversion and disposal of crops so produced.
Silviculture and Forest Economics

Forest Economics is defined as ’those aspects of forestry that deal with the forest as a productive asset, subject to
economic laws.’ Thus while silviculture is concerned with the cultivation of forest crops, forest economics works out
the cost of production in raising the crops to decide whether raising of the crop is economically profitable or not. It is
also the function of the Forest Economist to compare the cost of production of a particular crop by different methods
and then decide the most profitable method of raising that crop.
Silviculture and Forest Management

Forest Management has been defined as ‘the practical application of the scientific, technical and economic principles
of forestry.’ Thus while silviculture deals with the cultivation of forest crop, forest management manages that crop
according to the dictates of the forest policy. Silviculture deals with the techniques and operations which result in the
development of a forest. Forest management prescribes the time and place where the silvicultural techniques and
operations should be carried out so that the objects of management are fulfilled.
Silviculture and Forestry

Forestry is defined as ‘the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and scientific
management of forests and the utilization their resources.’ From this definition, it is clear that forestry has a very
wide scope and silviculture is only one of its branches. It has the same relation with forestry as agronomy has with
agriculture. While agronomy and silviculture deal with cultivation of crops, agriculture and forestry deal not only
with the cultivation of crops but also with their protection, management, mensuration, marketing, etc. In short,
forestry is an applied science which has many branches, and forestry and its other branches are supported on
silviculture without which there would be neither forestry nor its branches.
UNIT 2: LOCALITY (ENVIRONMENTAL) FACTORS
INTRODUCTION
The trees and other vegetation forming the forest in a place are influenced by the climate, soil, topography and living
beings of that place. In other words, the type of forests occurring naturally in a place is not an accidental aggregation
of various plants but is the result of the complex influence of the climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic factors of
the locality. So, the factors of locality may be defined as the effective climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic
conditions of a site, which influence the vegetation of the locality. These factors are also referred to as environment
which is defined as ‘all biotic and abiotic factors of a site’.
Classification: Factors of locality are classified into following four broad categories:
 Climatic factors
 Topographic factors
 Edaphic factors
 Biotic factors
2.2 Climatic Factors

Climate is defined as the average weather conditions prevalent in any locality. Though it is dependent on various
meteorological and weather conditions, the most important are solar radiation which gives light and heat both,
moisture and wind. Therefore, climatic factors are defined as ‘light, atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity,
wind and other features of climate – regional, local and seasonal – that influence vegetation’. Thus the climatic
factors may be classified as under:
(a) Solar radiation (i) Light (ii) Heat and temperature
(b) Moisture
(c) Wind
Solar radiation: The energy which is responsible for the growth of vegetation and all life depending on it, on the
earth comes directly or indirectly from the sun (solar radiation). Thus, the nature and amount of solar radiation
received on the surface of the earth is a factor of great importance. Solar radiation provides both light as well as Heat
and temperature. Both light and temperature are very important. The short explanation of their importance is given
below:
(i) Light is a very important factor of locality because of its following effects on plants and other vegetation:
 Chlorophyll formation – Light is one of the important and essential factors responsible for chlorophyll
formation in plants. Light of any wavelength or low intensity is sufficient to form chlorophyll. Without light,
plants become pale yellow and have long thin internodes, a condition known as etiolation.

 Functioning of stomata – Light is an important factor influencing the daily opening and closing of stomata
which, in turn, affects respiration and photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis – Light is the most important factor of locality for photosynthesis as it

can not take place in darkness. The light actually used in photosynthesis is a small fraction o the
light that falls on a leaf. It has been estimated that light used in photosynthesis is less than 2 %
of the light energy incident on well-illuminated leaves.
 Growth – Light influences the growth of plants and trees through its effect on
photosynthesis. Best growth takes place in moderate intensity of light provided ample food is
available. Because extremely high intensity of light increases transpiration excessively and in
extremely low intensity of light, the growth is retarded.
 Form and quality of trees – The elongation of the growing axes of trees in the forest occurs mainly
between sunset and sunrise because the low intensities of light and infra-red radiation tend to stimulate
height growth. Height growth is retarded in intense light conditions.
 Species stratification, and size, color and structure of leaves – According to the requirement of light,
there results in the stratification of species in different canopies. Light also affects the size, color and
structure of leaves. The leaves exposed to full light are smaller than those in partial light. The trees growing
in deep shade have foliage of darker color. Many forest trees develop different anatomical structure in their
leaves in shade as compared to those grown in sun.
(B) TEMPERATURE
Factors affecting temperature (landform)

(a) Latitude (b) Altitude (c) Nearness to the sea (d) Direction of wind
(e) Forest (f) Ocean current (g) Rainfall (h) Mountains
Importance of temperature (Air temperature)
(i)The solar radiation directly as well as through its influence on air temperature, provides heat to the plant body and
helps in satisfactory initiation and continuation of various physiological activities, i.e. transpiration, photosynthesis
and respiration.
(ii)Air temperature increases microbiological activity on soil surface resulting in decomposition of organic matter
and release of nutrients to be available to trees.
(iii)Air temperature increases cambial activity in the shoot portion. Through its effect on the vital physiological
activities and cambial activity, air temperature affects growth of trees.
(iv)Temperature is essential for germination of seeds.
Soil temperature – Soil temperature influences trees in the following ways:

 Soil temperature has a profound influence on absorption of soil moisture which increases markedly with the
rise in temperature up to a certain limit.
 It also affects cambial activity which starts earlier in warmer soils than in colder soils. Thus growth starts
earlier in warmer soils than in colder soils.
 Excessively low temperature results in frost and snow which cause injury to trees and forest vegetation.
(C) MOISTURE
Moisture is one of the most important factors influencing vegetation, because water is essential for various
physiological activities of plants as well as for soil formation processes.
Importance of moisture in physiological activities

 Water forms about 90 to 95 % constituent part of the cell wall and 80 % part of the protoplasm which is the
physical basis of of all life.
 Water occurs in all call vacuoles as cell sap and on it depends the turgidity of the cells, which in turn,
governs the growth of plants.
 It is the only medium for absorption of soil minerals and gases in the plants.
 It is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis.
 It is required for translocation of manufactured food as well as for all chemical reactions taking place in
plant body.
 It is essential for respiration which can not take place in its absence.
 It is also necessary for transpiration which prevents excessive heating in the plant.
 It is responsible for various movements of plants.
 It is essential for germination and viability of seeds.
(D) WIND: Wind has a great influence not only on the form of trees but also on their distribution.
It has favorable as well as harmful effects.
Favorable effects
a. Wind brings fresh supplies of carbon dioxide to the foliage of trees and thus helps in
photosynthesis.
b. Wind helps in pollination of anemophilous flowers.
c. Wind helps in the dispersal of seed of many forest trees, i.e., Holoptelia, Bombax, Toona,
etc.
Harmful effects
(a) Direct harmful effects

1. Because of the pressure of the wind, the tree in the open in the plains and on the
ridges on the hills are short stature and have pronounced taper in their boles.
2. Trees often get bent if wind blows only in one direction.
3. Trees are often uprooted or their stem or branches get damaged.
4. The branches on the windward side get, often, killed and they remain only on the
leeward side. This adversely affects the growth on one side.
5. The bole of the tree, often, becomes elliptic, instead of being circular with larger
diameter in the direction of the prevailing wind.
6. As a result of strong winds, timber often gets ruptured.

(b) Indirect harmful effects
1. Wind fans up forest fire thereby increasing fire damage.
2. Wind affects the trees through its influence on humidity and dry winds increase
transpiration.
3. Winds also increase evaporation from the soil.
4. In dry areas, wind causes wind erosion. It removes the top fertile soil or deposits sand
on fertile fields, thereby deteriorating the soil in both cases.
2.3 Topographic Factors
Topography is the description of the physical features of a place. It describes configuration of the ground, its altitude,
slope, aspects, etc. These physical features affect the local climate, soil formation processes, soil moisture, soil
nutrients etc., and since all these have a profound influence on vegetation, topography affects the vegetation
indirectly. So, topographic factors may be defined as factors ‘pertaining to the configuration of land surface, altitude,
slope, aspect and exposure’.
Topographic factors may be classified into:

a) Configuration of land surface
b) Altitude
c) Slope
d) Aspect and exposure
Configuration of land surface - Configuration of land surface influences vegetation through its effect on
temperature, wind movement, etc. In a hill and valley country, valleys are generally shaded. Due to proximity of
high hills on either side, sunlight reaches the valley late in the morning and disappears early in the afternoon. The
shade of the neighboring hills, therefore, makes the valleys colder in winter. During the summer, though the shade
prevents rise in temperature early in the morning, yet the heat radiated by the neighboring hills makes valleys
extremely hot after sometime and this continues to be so till late at night. Thus, the valleys, due to proximity of hills,
have a far greater variation in diurnal and seasonal temperatures than the places on the hills. Proximity of hills also
results in collection of cold air in the land-locked valleys and therefore pool frost affects the vegetation of the
valleys. Configuration of land surface also affects wind movements. Therefore, hills which experience greater
humidity and reduced temperature variation have a climate very different from a plain area with the same mean
actual temperature.
Altitude – Altitude affects solar radiation, temperature, rainfall, which, in turn, have a great effect on vegetation.
The air at higher altitude is clearer and rarer. So, the solar radiation has to pass through lesser turbid atmosphere at
higher altitude than the places with low altitude. Consequently, solar radiation increases with increasing altitude. As
the air gets rarer at higher altitude, it is increasingly incapable of absorbing and retaining heat. Consequently, there is
fall in temperature with increase in altitude. Generally up to 1500 m, there is a fall of 10 C in the mean temperature

with a rise of 270 m in the hills but after 1500 m, fall in temperature is more rapid. Rainfall increases with increase
in altitude up to about 1220 m height above mean sea level after which it begins to decrease.
Slope – Slope affects run-off and drainage and thus has a profound influence on the moisture regime of the soil. As a
general rule, the steeper the slope, the greater the run-off and better the drainage. Slope also affects erosion as well
as depth of soil.
Aspect and exposure - Aspect is defined as ‘the direction towards which a slope faces’. Exposure, on the other
hand, is defined as ‘the relation of a site to weather conditions, especially sun and wind’. Thus both of them have
the same effect. In Nepal, all southerly aspects are comparatively warmer than the northern slopes. The intensity of
light on southern aspects is about 1.6 to 2.3 times higher than that on the northern aspect. So there results in different
vegetations on them.
2.4 Edaphic Factors
Edaphic factors are defined as ‘ecological influences characteristics of the soil brought about by its physical and
chemical characteristics’. Thus, edaphic factors are factors which relate to the soil in which the trees grow and
which, therefore, forms environment of roots.
Definition of Soil
Soil: It is defined as ‘the uppermost weathered layer of the earth’s crust’ and has the following two sub-divisions.
Forest soil : ‘A portion of earth' surface which serves as a medium for the sustenance of forest vegetation; it consists
of minerals and organic matter, permeated by varying amount of water and air and inhabited by organisms; it
exhibits peculiar characteristics impressed by the physical and chemical action of the roots and forest debris’ - Wilde
Soil formation: The factors responsible for soil formation and development are:
• Climate
• Biological agencies including vegetation and animals
• Parent rock
• Topography
• Time
The first two of these above factors are referred to as active factors because it is through their action that soil
formation takes place. As the last three do not take any active part in soil formation, they are referred to as passive
factors. Actually, it is only when the active factors, having modified by topography, act on the parent material for
considerable length of time that the soil is formed. The active factors result in the formation of soil through their
effect on a geological process known as ‘weathering’ which is of two kinds:
– Physical weathering
– Chemical weathering
(a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Physical properties of soil have a profound influence on tree growth because of their effect on the supply of
moisture, nutrients and air. They relate to its texture, structure, porosity, etc.

Soil texture: Soil texture is defined as ‘the relative proportion of the various size groups of individual soil particles’.
The individual size groups are referred to as soil separates.
Various soil groups:

Clay – particles smaller than 0.002 mm.
Silt – particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm.
Fine sand – particles between 0.02 mm and 0.2 mm.
Coarse sand – particles between 0.2 mm and 2.0 mm.
Gravel – particles over 2.0 mm.
Depending upon the proportion of soil separates, soils are classified into different soil classes as below:
Coarse-textured soils – sand and sandy loams;
Medium-textured soils – loams and silt loams; and
Fine- textured soils – clays and clayey loams.
Coarse-textured soil is also called light soil. Similarly, the fine-textured soil is called heavy soil.
Importance of soil texture

Moisture relations – Coarse textured soils are easily drained and apt to dry while, on the other hand, fine-textured
soils are poorly drained and hold much water on the large surface area.
Nutrient supplies – The percentage of finer particles governs nutrient status of the soil. The fine-textured soils are
high in nutrient status; sandy soils, on the other hand, are low in fertility.
Aeration – Texture of the soil regulates pore space and consequently the aeration of the soil. Coarse-textured soils
are better aerated than clayey soils.
Root development – Texture of the soil affects root development.
(ii) Soil structure
Soil structure is defined as ‘the arrangement of individual soil particles into aggregates of definite size and shape’.
Various soil structures:
• Single-grained
• Plate-like
• Prism-like
• Block-like
• Sphere-like
- Granular
- Crumby
Importance of soil structure

• It affects soil moisture and soil air relations.
• It is an indication of nutrient status and activity of micro-organisms in the soil.
• It affects soil erosion.
- Crumby structure is least liable to erosion.
- Single-grained is most liable to erosion.

(iii) Soil porosity
Soil porosity is defined as ‘the extent to which the gross volume of the soil is unoccupied by solid particles’. The
space unoccupied by solid particles is also known as pore space.
Soil porosity is of two kinds:

Capillary porosity – It is the portion in a soil which is not filled by water when the soil is wet but well drained.
Non-capillary porosity – It is the air space in a soil at field moisture capacity.
Importance of soil porosity

• It determines the moisture and air relations of the soil.
• It affects the internal drainage and diffusion of soil air.
(b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

The soil – It is said to be the chemical laboratory of nature in which various chemical decomposition and
synthesis reactions keep on taking place in a hidden manner resulting in varying chemical properties of
different soils.
Important chemical properties of soil:
1.Cation Exchange Capacity
• Clay and humus form the inorganic and organic colloidal fraction of the soil. It has the negative charges.
• As the surface of clay and humus particles have negative charge, it has the capacity to absorb cations
(positively charged ions) from the soil solution.
• The cations absorbed are Ca, Mg, K, Na and H and the cations exchange takes place when any
cation is added.
• The exchange of cations in the soil takes place in equivalent quantities between cations in the soil
solution and those on the surface of clay and humus particles
• It is the process by which a colloidal fraction of the soil absorbs certain cations from the soil
solution and gives up other cations held by it in equivalent quantities.
• The cations released in equivalent quantities go into the solution and become available for
absorption for plants.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

• It is defined as the total capacity of the soil for holding cations.
• It is usually expressed in terms of milli-equivalent per 100 gms of oven dry soil.
• An equivalent is that quantity which is chemically equal to one gramme of hydrogen.
• The number of hydrogen in an equivalent is equal to 6.02 x 10 23.
• A milli-equivalent CEC of a small quantity of soil means that the soil contains 6.02 x 10 20
negatively charged absorption sites.

Importance of knowledge of CEC
• Cation exchange material is a sort of store house in which mineral nutrients are stored.
• CEC determines the rate at which fertilizers may be usefully applied to nursery and plantation
soils.
• The strongly absorbed cations favor flocculation and thus improve soil structure.
• So, it helps in proper and complete soil utilization.
• It also helps in the choice of species for successful plantation.
2. Soil Acidity
• Acidity of the soil is due to an excess of hydrogen ions over hydroxyl ions.
• These concentrations of ions are indicated by pH.
Importance
• PHalue indicates what species would be successful in a particular soil having a particular pH
value, i.e. Shorea robusta grows best in soils with pH 4.5 to 5.5 and poor quality Sal may
grow in soils with pH up to 7.
- Tectona grandis occurs best in soils with pH 6.5 to 7.6.
- In barren saline and alkali soils:
Eucalyptus hybrid and Acacia arabica – up to pH 9.0
Azadirachta indica, Terminalia arjuna – up to pH 9.8
• pH value affects the availability of nutrients.

 Increase in pH results in increased availability of Ca, Mg, Mo and K and decreased supply of Fe and
Mn.
 Nitrogen is best available when pH is between 6 and 8.
• pH value determines the degree of maturity of soil and the stage of development in plant succession. For
example, in humid areas, soil acidity is associated with maturity of soil and climax vegetation, whereas
basic soils are indicative of immaturity. But in dry regions, increase in alkalinity is associated with maturity
of soil.
2.5 Biotic Factors

The vegetation of a place is the result of not only the climate, soil and topography of the place but also the
community life of living organisms. Biotic factors are defined as ‘the influence of living organisms’. Influence of
biotic factors can be described under the following headings:
o Influence of plants
o Influence of insects
o Influence of wild animals
o Influence of man and his animals
Influence of plants

Besides the healthy competition between trees species there are always some undesirable species affecting the
growth of trees of the favored species. The undesirable species may be weeds or other harmful plants. The following
are some of the undesirable harmful plants found in the forest:
Parasites – Parasite is defined as ‘an organism that draws a part or whole of its nourishment from another living
organism’. They grow on some living plant called host and penetrate their sucking roots, called haustoria, into the
host plant. The parasites draw either their whole nourishment from host or only a part of it and on this basis, they are
classified into total parasites or partial parasites. Among the total parasites, Cuscuta reflexa and Cassytha filiformis
are common in forest areas. Among the partial parasites, Viscum, Loranthus, and Arceuthobium are the commonest.
There is, however, one useful and valuable parasite tree species, Santalum album. Sandal wood is a root parasite as
contrasted with the above mentioned stem parasites.
Epiphytes – Epiphyte is ‘a plant growing on, but not nourished by another plant’. Epiphytes do not draw food from
the plant on which they occur. They only take the help of other plant in getting access to light. Epiphytes commonly
found in forests are Ficus bengalensis, F. religiosa, orchids, etc. The first two sometimes attain such huge sizes that
the trees, on which they grow, are completely covered and ultimately killed.
Climbers – Climber is ‘ a herbaceous or woody plant that climbs up trees or other support by twining round them or
by holding on to them by tendrils, hooks, aerial roots or other attachments’. Climbers depend upon other plants for
physical support as they cannot remain erect by themselves. They are very harmful to forest trees. Some of the
common climbers are found in the forests are Dioscorea, Mucuna, Ipomaea, Bauhinia vahlii, etc.
Abnoxious weeds – One of the most important abnoxious weeds is Lantana camara which covers large areas of
forests. It colonizes new areas by seed dispersal by birds and once it reaches in an area, it spreads fast. It coppices so
well that efforts to eradicate it, have completely failed. It has become a serious obstacle in the natural regeneration of
important species including Sal. Other troublesome weeds are Eupatorium antidysentric and E. adenophorum. Like
Lantana, these also adversely affect regeneration and growth of many economically important tree species including
Sal.
Fungi - A large number of fungi attack forest trees and their attack, besides reducing quality of timber of trees
attacked, sometimes, change the form and structure of forest communities. They cause damping off in seedlings,
wood rot and root rot in poles and trees, thereby killing them or at least making the timber altogether useless.
Influence of insects – Insects is an integral part of the environment of forests. While some of them are very useful,
others are definitely harmful. One of the most important of such harmful insects is Hoplocerambix spinicornis,
popularly known as Sal borer. It makes tunnels in the timber of the trees and in case of heavy attack, it kills the trees.
Hapalia mechaeralis and Hyblaea puera are important defoliator and skeletonizer of teak. Some other harmful
insects are Hypsipyla robusta, Hylobius angustus, Cosmotriche laeta, etc.
Influence of wild animals – Like insects, animals are also an integral part of environment of forests. The animals
help in dispersal of seed. They, however, often cause considerable damage to forest crops and make regeneration of
certain species practically impossible. For example, excessive increase in the population of cheetals, sambhars and
nilgai, has a great adverse effect on Sal regeneration. Porcupines destroy innumerable seedlings of bamboo, khair,
and simal every year so much so that, unless the damage is kept under control, they make regeneration of these
species absolutely impossible. Monkeys and langurs cause enormous damage to fruits and seeds. They pull out chir

seedlings not only in [plantations but also in natural regeneration areas with the result that regeneration operation,
often, fail completely on this account. Pigs do considerable damage to Sal, Teak and other species. They are so fond
of bamboo rhizomes that they, sometimes, dig up whole plants planted in plantations. Bisons and elephants also do
enormous damage to forest crops. Bisons repeatedly browse seedlings and saplings of Dalbergia latifolia,
Pterocarpus marsupium etc. Elephants feed on Ficus spp., bamboos, etc. In the temperate coniferous forests, bark of
deodar, spruce and blue pine is stripped off by black beers to lick the rising sap and cambium layer beneath the bark.
In this way, a number of trees of these species are annually damaged by them.
Influence of man and his animals

 Deforestation and denudation
 Forest degradation
 Fire
 Lopping
 Removal of dry leaves
 Collection of flowers and fruits
 Grazing etc.
UNIT 3: CONCEPT OF PLANT SUCCESSION
There is a gradual replacement of one plant community by another because of the interaction of vegetation and the
locality factors and consequent improvement in the conditions of both. This is called plant succession, which is
defined as the gradual replacement of one community by another in the development of vegetation towards a climax
which is the culmination stage in plant succession for a given environment. The plant communities involved in the
succession before the climax is reached are called ‘seres’.
How does it take place?

There occurs interaction between locality factors and vegetation. As a result of this interaction, both the locality
factors and the vegetation are affected. In other words, a set of factors of locality allow the growth and development
of a plant community whose continued presence in the site changes the factors of locality so much that the
conditions become unsuitable for the original plant community and the site is gradually replaced by the members of
other plant community. For example, take the case of a new sandy soil along the bank of a river. After decreasing of
the flood water, the bare sandy soil is gradually colonized by some grass. As the grass covers most of the area, it
gradually obstructs the flow of flood water and arrests silt in the area. The decay of leaves of grass improves the soil
conditions to some extent. The soil, which was originally absolutely sandy and, therefore, unretentive of moisture,
becomes slightly retentive due to annual addition of silt and organic matter. Its fertility also improves. These slightly
improved conditions make it suitable for the colonization by a few hardy tree species, because the conditions are still
very difficult due to complete overhead sun, wider diurnal range of temperature, strong winds, poor retentivity of
moisture and low fertility of the soil. The species which can grow in such difficult conditions are called pioneers.
They come one by one in the area and gradually take the shape of a forest community. The presence of this plant
community makes further changes in the locality factors. By the annual addition of organic matter and arrest of more
and more silt, the moisture retentivity and the fertility of the soil improve. These changed conditions make the place
suitable for some other less hardy species which come gradually and, in course of time, replace the original plant
community. The new plant community further in course of time, improves the soil and the climatic factors and thus

makes the place suitable for some other exacting species which comes in gradually and replaces the previous plant
community. Thus there is a gradual replacement of one plant community by another because of the interaction of
vegetation and the locality factors and consequent improvement in the conditions of both.
Evolution of the concept of plant succession

The concept of plant succession has been developed during the last century by various authors. It was Thoreau who,
first, used the term ‘forest succession’. It was, however, Clements who developed the idea and elaborated the theory
of plant succession in 1916. So, it is the Clements’ theory of plant succession that is widely accepted.
Basic features of the concept of plant succession

• There is a continual change in the vegetation as result of interaction of plant community and the habitat
factors;
• The succession is progressive and the end product is the climax; and
• The succession is the progressive development of vegetation on the same site in course of time.
Kinds of succession
(a) On the basis of moisture conditions of the place, succession is classified into:
1. Xerarch succession – It is defined as ‘the succession initiated in extremely dry situation such as
bare rock, wind blown sand, rocky slopes, etc.
2. Hydrarch succession – It is defined as ‘the succession beginning in water, or very wet land as in
ponds, lakes, marshes, etc.
(b) On the basis of presence or absence of vegetation in the place, succession is classified into:
1. Primary succession – It is defined as ‘the succession which takes place on sites which have
previously not borne vegetation’. Primary succession is, sometimes, termed as autogenic succession
because it takes place as a result of autogenic factors which are defined as the ‘dominating factors of
change which are only due to the individuals in a plant community’. In other words, autogenic
succession is that in which vegetation affects the ecosystem to bring about consequential change in
itself.
2. Secondary succession - It is defined as the succession which takes place on site ‘after the
destruction of the whole or part of the original vegetation’. This succession is, sometimes, termed as
allogenic succession as it takes place due to allogenic factors, such as clearing, burning, grazing,
storm, erosion, deposition, landslide, etc.
Primary Succession
As already defined in the above section (Kinds of succession), primary succession is the succession that
takes place on sites which have previously not borne vegetation. The soils on such sites could be new
alluvial deposits, new coastal sands, new estuarine deposits, sand dunes, land slips and screes. All these sites
have complete overhead sun, wider diurnal range of temperature, strong winds, poor retentivity of moisture
and low fertility of the soil. Under such adverse climatic and soil conditions, only a few hardy tree species
can grow. Their seeds are migrated either by wind or water or both. They come one by one in the area and
gradually build up a canopy. They also start building up the true soil by adding humus through their leaf fall,
improving nitrogen status by the fixation of nitrogen by root nodules, arresting silt and stabilizing the soil.

These changed conditions make the place suitable for some other less hardy species which come gradually
and, in course of time, replace the original plant community. The new plant community further in course of
time, improves the soil and the climatic factors and thus makes the place suitable for some other exacting
species which comes in gradually and replaces the previous plant community. Thus there is a gradual
replacement of one plant community by another due to the interaction of vegetation and the locality factors,
and this goes on for a long time till a climax vegetation is reached.
The following are some typical examples of primary Succession:

(i) Riverain succession in the Terai
The various stages of this succession leading to the establishment of a Sal forest are given below:
1. Saccharum spontaneum, Tamarix dioica
2. Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo
3. Acacia catechu, Holoptelia, Adina cordifolia, Albizzia procera
4. Holoptelia, Adina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Bombax ceiba,
Terminalia belerica.
5. Adina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalias, Shorea robusta.
6. Shorea robusta, Lagerstroemia, Terminalias, Adina cordifolia.
(ii) Coniferous Succession

1. Shrub associations
2. Pinus wallichiana
3. Mixed forest of deodar, spruce and blue pine.
4. Mixed forest of spruce, fir and deodar.
Secondary Succession
In nature, primary succession does not proceed as smoothly as described. Several unfavorable factors may delay or
interrupt the progress of succession towards the climax. These factors may be natural (i.e. deterioration of climate,
sinking of water table, storms, soil erosion, land slide, snow or drought) or biotic (i.e. clearing for agriculture,
reckless and indiscriminate cutting and lopping, burning and grazing). On account of these factors, the primary
succession may be held up at any stage, or there may be some retrogression or regression which is defined as the
‘reversion to some earlier stage of succession consequent on the introduction of an adverse factor’.
When the causes of retrogression are removed or when the area from where vegetation has been completely
destroyed is left to itself, the nature starts its work again, i.e., the vegetation starts progress. This progress, which is
called secondary succession, does not follow the same course as the primary Succession. In other words, an entirely
different series of successional stages of plant communities, which are normally not seen in primary succession,
appear in the secondary succession.
Causes of succession
(i) Initial causes – These are the causes which provide the basis for succession to take place. Thus, in
case of primary succession they are responsible for creation of a new soil, while in case of secondary
succession, they are responsible for making the soil bare.

Initial causes of primary succession
Erosion – Wind and water erode the soil and deposit it elsewhere. Thus, new soils are created in the form of alluvial
deposits, coastal sands, estuarine deposits, sand dunes, land slips and scree.
Physiography – The configuration of the land surface is an initial cause to the extent it helps the agents of erosion,
i.e. wind, water and gravity, to create new soils.
Elevation and subsidence – Seismic disturbances result in elevation and subsidence of the soil resulting in the
formation of new soils. Similarly, geological disturbances in the Himalayas result in the formation of new soil for
primary succession.
Initial causes of secondary succession

Climate – Climate is the initial cause when the vegetation is destroyed by the action of drought, wind, snow or
frost.
Physiography – Physiography is the initial cause when configuration of the land surface is responsible for the
destruction of vegetation in combination with some other factors. For instance, land slide may take place on a steep
slope, destroying the forest.
Biotic factor - Biotic factor is the initial cause when a forest is destroyed as result of the activity of man, his
animals, or even wild animals. For instance, a forest may be destroyed by reckless cutting, clearing, burning, heavy
grazing, etc.
(ii)Continuing causes
Migration – Mass movement of plants from one place to another is called migration. It begins when germule (spore,
seed, fruit or plant) leaves the parent area and reaches the final resting place. This depends upon the degree of
mobility of their seeds, nearness of the parent area, topography, etc.
Ecesis or establishment – The whole process whereby a plant establishes itself in a new area from its germination to
reproduction whether sexual or asexual. Establishment of species on a new area can only be accomplished when
seeds germinate and it depends on the condition of seed and site.
Grouping and aggregation – The colonizers invade new areas gradually. The first immigrants after establishment
grow while more migration keeps on taking place. Thus, in course of time, the colonizers make a closed canopy.
Competition – As soon as the crowns of the colonizers start touching each other, competition starts between them
for the limited food and water in the soil and for light. Competition is usually very intense between the individuals
of the same species as their demands are similar. As a result of this competition, the weaklings are left behind in the
struggle for existence.
Reaction – The effect of vegetation on site is called reaction, which can be grouped into two classes:
(i) Effect on climatic factors
- Altering the light conditions

- Decreasing the day air temp. and reducing the diurnal range
- Reducing the wind velocity
- Reducing the danger of radiation frost
- Increasing the relative humidity
(ii) Effect on soil

- Addition of organic matter
- Improving the structure of the soil
- Improving moisture receptivity of the soil
- Improving nutrient status of the soil
- Improvement of the stability of the soil
- Development of maturity of the soil
Concept of climax
If the succession is allowed to progress without disturbance, a stage is reached when no more improvement is
possible in the soil and the vegetation,. At that stage, the vegetation is in equilibrium with the environment, and stays
unchanged indefinitely by reproducing itself. Thus climax is the culmination stage in plant succession for a given
environment. Clements believed that the most dominant community-forming factor was climate and, therefore, he
called it Climatic Climax.
Classification of climax
Climatic climax – It is the climax which owes its distinctive characters to climatic factor in conjunction with only
such biotic influence as plants and animals naturally occurring in the area bring about. Sal is a climatic climax in the
tropical forest found in Nepal.
Edaphic climax - Edaphic climax is defined as ‘a community which differs from the climatic factors of the area
owing to the influence of special soil factors’. In other words, within the general climatic climax, there may be
characteristics vegetation locally due to the influence of soil peculiarities. Terminalia tomentosa forest in the moist
deciduous forest is an example.
Preclimax – Preclimax is ‘the plant community immediately preceding in seral development of the climatic climax
of the region and found under conditions drier than are usual in the climate of the region. For example: Chir pine on
the ridges in sub-tropical broad-leaved forest.
Post climax - Post climax is ‘a plant community more exacting than the climatic climax of a given region and found
under exceptionally favorable site conditions within that region’. It actually occurs on sites very much moisture than
the normal sites in that climatic region. Presence of evergreen and semi-evergreen species in Sal forest is an
example.
Biotic climax or sub climax – A climax which differs from the climatic climax of the area owing to the action of
biotic factors. It is a vegetation whose development towards climatic climax has been arrested at some stage of the
normal climax by the action of certain factors, natural or artificial, other than the climate and which is more or less
stable under the prevailing conditions. Grassy riverain sub climax is an example of this climax. Since this vegetation
is stable under the influence of biotic factors, it is called biotic climax or sub climax.

UNIT 4: FOREST TYPES OF NEPAL ON ECOLOGICAL BASIS
 Refer Forest Management Note of previous year.
 Remember at least five to 10 species of each class.
 Classify on the basis of ecology (climate), legal division and functional division.
UNIT 5: REGENERATION
Introduction:
Regeneration means the renewal of a forest crop by natural or artificial means. Simply, Regeneration means
reproduction.
Methods of regeneration:
 Natural regeneration
 Artificial regeneration
 Natural regeneration supplemented by artificial regeneration.(not in syllabus)
5.1. Natural Regeneration

It is defined as the ‘the renewal of a forest crop by self-sown seed or by coppice or root suckers’. It also refers to the
crop so obtained. The natural regeneration may be obtained from the following two main sources:
(i) From seed; and
(ii) From vegetative parts (by coppice or by root suckers)

5.1.1 Natural regeneration from seed: When regeneration obtained from seed forms a crop, it is called a seedling
crop and when this seedling crop grows into a forest, it is called a high forest. When regeneration obtained by
coppice forms a crop, it is called coppice crop and when it develops into a forest, it is called coppice forest to
differentiate it from the high forest. Root suckers are, however, not used for large scale regeneration operation.
Natural regeneration from seed depends upon:

(a) Seed production;
(b) Seed dispersal;
(c) Germination; and
(d) Establishment
(a) Seed Production

Seed production is the most important prerequisite of natural regeneration from seed. In case of artificial
regeneration also, seeds are equally important for the production of seedlings of required quality and quantity. The
production of adequate quantities of fertile seed by the trees of the area or immediate neighborhood is important for
the establishment of a good forest.
Factors affecting seed production: The production of seed depends upon the following factors:
1. Species
2. Age of tree
3. Size of crown
4. Climate
5. Other external factors
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation.
(b) Seed dispersal – The seed produced by the trees is dispersed by the following agencies:
• By wind: All conifers, Betula, Rhododendron, Populus, Alnus, Salix, most Dipterocarps, Terminalias,
Dalbergia, Acacia catechu, Bombax, Holoptelia, Pterocarpus marsupium, etc.
• By water: Dalbergia, Tectona grandis, Trewia, most mangrove species, etc.
• By gravity: Oaks, Juglans regia, Aesculus, etc.
• By birds: Prunus, Mulberry, Diospyros melanoxylon, etc.
• By animals: Acacia arabica, Prosopis juliflora, Zizyphus, Anthocephalus, etc.
(c) Germination – After dispersal, a lot of seed is destroyed by insects, birds and rodents. The others germinate
provided they are deposited on suitable soil. Germination of seed depends upon:
Internal factors and External factors
Internal factors – The internal factors are the factors pertaining to seed itself.
The following internal factors affect germination:
Permeability to water
Permeability to oxygen
Development of embryo
After-ripening.
Viability
Size of seed

Germinative capacity and germinative energy
 Plant percent
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation
External factors – External factors are the factors of environment which affect germination. These are:
(i) Moisture
• An adequate quantity of moisture is very essential for germination.
• It activates the dormant embryo and by softening the seed coat helps it to come out.
• It is also necessary for dissolving the food material collected in the cotyledons and for translocating
it in solution to the radical and the plumule.
• Diffusion of oxygen for respiration also takes place in aqueous solution.
(ii) Air
• The germinating seeds require oxygen and this is supplied by air.
• Seeds buried in the deeper layers of the soil often remain dormant for want of oxygen.
• Respiration is very rapid in the germinating seed and therefore, a constant supply of oxygen is very
essential.
(iii) Temperature
• Temperature is essential for germination but range of temperature within which seeds of various
species germinate varies with species.
• Within this range, the higher the temperature the better the germination.
(iv) Light
• Most species are indifferent to light conditions for their germination but some species like Cassia
fistula, Albizzia procera, require light.
(v) Seed bed

• It is necessary that the seed should be deposited on proper seed bed for germination.
• The seed will not germinate if it falls on bare rock, boulder deposit, a thick layer of dry leaves or a
dense ground cover.
• Even on a suitable seed bed, the depth of covering has a great influence on natural regeneration.
• Seeds which are covered with soil equal to about half of their diameter germinate best, provided
others factors are favorable.
(d) Seedling establishment: The following factors affect establishment of seedlings:
1. Development of roots
• It is essential that the seedlings may develop a long tap root soon so that it reaches a depth where
there is permanent moisture in the soil.
• The seedling mortality is less in the species in which the development of root is fast.
2. Soil conditions

• As seedlings depend upon the soil for its food, moisture and air, its establishment depends upon
favorable soil conditions.
• The soil should have adequate moisture.
• Excess of moisture or its deficiency are both harmful for plant growth.
• There should be adequate level of nutrients in the soil.
• The presence of a thick layer of un-decomposed organic matter inhibits establishment.
3. Light
• Light is a very important factor in seedling establishment but its requirement varies from species to
species.
• In the same species, the requirement of light increases with age. The younger seedlings require
comparatively lesser light but as they grow in age, they require more light.
4. Other climatic factors

• Extremely high or extremely low temperature is both harmful for seedling establishment.
• For seedling establishment, only adequate rainfall is not essential but its proper seasonal distribution
is also essential.
5. Condition of grasses and other competing weeds

• There is competition between seedlings and grasses and other weeds for moisture, nutrients, light
and growing space.
• Dense grass and other competing weed growth are very harmful for seedling establishment.
6. Grazing, browsing and burning

• Uncontrolled grazing and browsing completely destroy regeneration.
• Similarly, uncontrolled burning is very harmful.
7. Composition of the crop

• The composition of the crop affects soil conditions and therefore affects the establishment.
• A mixed crop is believed to be creating more favorable condition for seedling establishment than
pure crops.
8. Drip
• Drip from the large leaves of species such as Sal, Teak, etc. is very harmful for seedling
establishment as it removes soil from the roots of the tiny seedlings in splash erosion.
• As a result, it exposes the roots and kills the plants.
• The splashed soil also covers the shoot of the tiny seedlings resulting in the death of plants as it
prevents to perform photosynthesis and rots the shoot.
5.1.2 Natural regeneration by vegetative parts (root suckers and coppice)

Root suckers: Shorts arising from the root of the woody plants. Natural regeneration from root suckers is not
being attempted on any large scale anywhere in our country. Sisoo is the chief species used in this method.
The tree produced by this method is libel to wild throw and poor in growth and therefore this method is not
being favored now. Diospyros root suckersare sometimes encouraged because the root suckers produce best
bidi leaves.
Natural regeneration by coppice can be obtained either by:
Seedling coppice is defined as the ‘coppice shoots arising from the base of the seedlings that have been cut
or burnt back’. This method of obtaining natural regeneration is used for cutting back woody shoots and
established reproduction which is not making any progress so that they may produce vigorous shoots and
soon develop into saplings and into poles. It is generally used in case of Sal and Teak.
Stool coppice is the coppice arising from the stool. In this method, regeneration is obtained from the shoots
arising from the adventitious buds of stump of felled tree.
The factors affecting natural regeneration by coppice are:

(a) Species
(b) Age of tree
(c) Season of coppicing
(d) Height of stump and method of cutting it
(e) Rotation
(f) Silvicultural system
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation
5.2 Artificial Regeneration (also called Plantation)

It is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or other artificial methods. It is
carried out for the following objectives:
i. Reforestation - Raising of a forest artificially in an area which had forest vegetation before. In
other words, it may be defined as the ‘restocking of felled or otherwise cleared woodland’ by artificial
means.
ii. Afforestation – Establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area from which forest
vegetation has always or long been absent.
Methods of Artificial Regeneration

On the basis of planting materials, artificial regeneration is divided into following two types:
• Regeneration from seed
• Regeneration from vegetative parts
5.2.1 Regeneration from seed

It is being done either by sowing or planting. So, seeds are directly sown in plantation area or seedlings are planted
to establish plantations.
(a)Planting: Both afforestration and reforrestration can be done in this method.
(b) Sowing: Various showing methods are used to regenerate the plant artificially.
(i)Board cast sowing: The process of scattering of seed over the whole area, either that on which the crop is
to be raised directly or on a nursery bed. This sowing is generally recommended for stocking burnt area,
abandoned cultivation, landslides and grassy blanks.

(ii)Line sowing: The process of showing the seeds in drills or single lines. It may be continuous or
interrupted.
(iii)Strip sowing: The processes of sowing the seed in the narrow strip prepared usually at definite intervals
from one another and are generally 45cm to 90cm or even 120m wide. It may be also different types.
(iv). Patch sowing: It is the sowing of seed in specially prepared patches i.e circular, rectulgular, made at
regular interval. Its important is that the patch may serve as small nurseries inside the plantation. Moulds and
pit showing are done in the place having high rainfall and dry area respectively.
(v)Dibbling: In this method, sowing is done in shallow holes made with suitable instruments at definite
interval and is used for species like Juglans which produce large seeds.
Note: Refer: L.S Khanna’s Principles and practice of silviculture for its explanation and figure.
5.2.2 Regeneration from vegetative parts
 Coppice – To fell trees or cut plants near the ground with a view to producing coppice
shoots (shoots arising from the base of a woody plant that has been cut near the ground).
 Cutting – portion of the stem, branch or root is placed in the soil to develop into
plant. Ex. Stem cutting, branch cutting, root cutting and root-shoot cutting.
 Root sucker – It is that method of vegetative reproduction in which a root of a

plant is partially or wholly cut to produce a shoot called root sucker (A shoot
arising from the root of a woody plant).
 Grafting – scion of one plant is applied to stock (usually rooted) of another plant.
 Layering – inducing development of roots on branches while they are attached to

trees.
 Budding – bud is grafted on the stock in the form of a patch after removing the
bark of the stock in that portion.
 Tissue culture – a technique of growing plant cells, tissues or organs in an

artificially prepared nutrient medium under an aseptic condition in the laboratory.
The concept behind it is that each and every plant cell has potential to grow as a
plant. Because of this ability, any plant cell can be developed into a plant as a
whole. These plant part cells can be grown artificially in the laboratory condition
as a tissue culture.
• Root sucker is a shoot arising from the root of a woody plant when its root is partially or
wholly cut.

UNIT 6 NURSERY OPERATIONS
Introduction:
Nursery is defined as ‘an area where plants are raised for eventual planting out’. It comprises of nursery beds, paths,
irrigation channels, etc.
6.1 Objectives and importance of nursery
A forest nursery is established and maintained for the following objectives:
• Many species do not seed every year. So their seeds are collected in moderate or good seed years
and sown in nursery annually to raise seedlings for plantation in various years.
• Some species grow very slowly and if the seed of these species is sown directly in the plantation, the
seedlings are most likely to be swamped by weeds and killed. Therefore, slow growing species are
generally raised in nursery and planted out only when the seedlings are not liable to be damaged by
weeds.
• For roadside avenue plantations, tall and sturdy plants are needed. Such plants can be obtained only
from a nursery.
• Plantations of some species when raised by direct sowing are not so successful as when raised by
planting. In such cases, nursery is an essential part of artificial regeneration of those species.
• The best method of introduction of exotics is only by planting and therefore nursery is very essential
for them.
• Planting of nursery grown plants is the surest method of artificially regenerating poor and barren
sites.
• Casualty replacement is done by nursery grown seedlings as sowing done in gaps is liable to failure
due to suppression from weeds.
6.2 Types of nursery

Nurseries are classified either on the basis of irrigational facility or the duration of their use and the basis
of production practices:
1. On the basis of irrigational facility, nurseries are classified into:

(a) Dry nursery – It is a nursery that is maintained without any irrigation or other artificial watering.
Mostly this type of nursery is established in dry, arid and semi arid area. This type of nursery is best
for the species which don’t need large quantity of water. E.g Acacia’s species and Cassia’s species.
(b) Wet nursery – It is nursery that is maintained by irrigation or other artificial watering during the
dry periods. Mostly the species which requires much water are raised in this type of nursery.
2. On the basis of duration of their use, nurseries are classified into:

(a) Temporary Nursery

 It is a nursery that is maintained for supplying nursery stock for a short period of time
after which it is abandoned.
 Normally it is made in the plantation area or as close to it as possible. So it is also referred
to as field nursery.
 As it is intended to meet the requirements of a limited area, it is usually small in extent.
Advantages
• It is usually made in newly cleared sites fairly rich in humus, and
therefore does not require any manuring.
• It enables raising of species in their optimum altitudinal zone in hills.
• It also enables easy, quick and cheap transport of planting stock without
any serious damage or shock.
Disadvantages
 As is made in out-of-way places, proper supervision is not possible.
 In the absence of irrigational facility, the growth of seedlings is, usually, slow and there is
usually heavy mortality in them.
 It is relatively costlier to maintain as compared to a permanent nursery.
(b) Permanent nursery

• It is a nursery that is maintained for supplying nursery stock for a long time on a permanent
basis.
• As is intended to meet the requirements of one or more ranges, it is relatively larger in extent.
• As the duration of service life of permanent nursery is long, seedlings can be raised in it at
reasonable cost.
• It is usually made in a central place near the headquarter of some subordinate staff for proper
supervision.
• It should be on or near some road for quick and easy transport of nursery stock.
• As plants are raised year after year for a long time, it has to be manured regularly, to maintain
its fertility.
• Permanent structures for irrigation facility, shade, storing and necessary housings are
constructed.
1. On the basis of production practices

• Social/ commercial nursery: Establishment of nursery by society for the plantation of community
owned area. The expenses and income from nursery shared by society.
• Private nursery: Establishment of nursery by individual or single family for the plantation of
private owned area and extra seedling can be sold to others. All the responsibility is to be a
particular owner.
• School nursery: Establishment of nursery by school for the plantation on school owned area and
extra seedling can be sold to other for raising fund.
• Women nursery: Establishment of nursery by women group (E.g Aama Samuha) for raising the
fund to strengthening the women’s organization fund.
• Village nursery: Establishment of nursery by the contribution of VDC for the plantation of VDC
owned area and extra seedling can be sold to others.
• Commercial nursery: Establishment of nursery for commercial purposes. It may be established by
single owner or group owner.
• Farmer nursery: Establishment of nursery by farmers for the plantation on the area owned by
them.
6.3 Site Selection for Nursery:
The selection of an appropriate nursery site is the most important decision affecting the efficient
production of good quality plants. The following should be taken into consideration while selecting
the site for nursery.
1. Area:
• Area should be sufficient to fulfill the objectives/ demands.
• 50% land of the total area should be separated for paths, roads, irrigation channels etc.
2. Location
 Nursery should be situated as centrally as possible.
 The permanent nursery should be usually made near the headquarter of some subordinate
for proper supervision.
 It possible, it should be located in the natural physiographic and altitudinal zone of the
species which are to raise in it.
3. Labor availability
 It should be close to the source of supply of labor to do the various works as and when
required. Labour should be available in all seasons.
4. Source of water supply

 The site should be situated near or slightly below the source of adequate water supply.
 Water should be available throughout the year for permanent nursery.
5. Soil
 Soil should be well-drained sandy loam.
 Clayey soils should not be selected as their aeration and drainage is poor and they are liable
to crack during summer.
6. Slope
 In the hills, a gentle slope not exceeding 5 degree should be selected.
 If the slope is steeper, cost of terracing increases. Very steep slopes should be avoided.
7. Aspect
 The southern aspect is preferred at high elevation as it become too cold.
 Northern aspect is chosen at low elevation.
8. The natural blank area should never be chosen.
9. Transportation:

• Transport of the planting stocks from the nursery to planting site should take least time. If
possible motorable road should be constructed.
• Short and all seasons usable road should be made.
10. Others:
• Climatic factors should be taken into consideration.
• Moisture loss is heavy in windy area. So, windy area should be avoided.
• Wind break and shelter belt area should be selected.
• Proper shade should be provided during the extreme sun and cold winter.
• Frost hole area should be avoided, as frost cause injuries to the plants.
6.5 Design and layout of nursery:

(a) Survey and demarcation:
• Land should be surveyed.
• After surveying, permanent boundary should be fixed.
• Fencing should be done.
• On the map layout plan including fence, nursery sheds, water supply, arrangements of nursery beds,
roads, paths, entrance gate etc should be clear.
(b)Clearance of site
• All the vegetation in the area should be felled.
• Big boulders including debries should be cleared.
©Layout and construction of terrace:

• Nursery layout will vary according to site, topography, types of plant raised and facilities provided.
• After demarcation, nursery should be divided into rectangular blocks by permanent paths, about
1.8m wide.
• These blocks are further divided by paths 0.9m wide into smaller blocks.
• These smaller blocks are again subdivided into rectangular nursery beds by paths 0.5m wide.
• In the hills, nursery beds are made after terracing the area. The width of terraces should be sufficient
to accommodate at least one bed including paths on both sides of it. It should thus be at least 2m
wide.
• The beds should be laid out with their lengths east to west so that they can be shaded against frost
and sun without difficulty.
(c) Leveling of terraces:

• This should be done cutting the slopes and refilling the undulating areas.
• Refilling can be done by importing fertile soil from the forest.
• The leveling should be done in such a manner that there is a light inward slope so that maximum
moisture is retained.
• The soil refilling the terrace and leveling should be free from stones, gravel, roots, twins etc.
• Preferably the soil should be sieved before refilling.

(d) Construction.
• After clearing of an area and construction of terraces the outline of beds, buildings, sheds,
storage tank etc. should be set out using pegs and lines and then necessary construction.
6.5 Nursery Construction:
Following provisions are made for the design, layout and construction:
1. Area of nursery
After selection of nursery site, the area should be decided. It depends upon:
 species to be raised,
 age of seedlings or transplants at the time of planting out,
 number of transplanting required,
 area of plantation, and
 Spacing in plantation.
The area calculated on the basis of these considerations should be increased by 50% to allow for
paths, roads, irrigation channels, etc.
2. Fencing
As soon as the area of nursery has been decided and the site has been selected, a rectangular plot of
that area should be demarcated and fenced.
3. Layout
 After demarcation, nursery should be divided into rectangular blocks by permanent paths,
about 1.8m wide.
 These blocks are further divided by paths 0.9m wide into smaller blocks.
 These smaller blocks are again subdivided into rectangular nursery beds by paths 0.5m wide.
 In the hills, nursery beds are made after terracing the area. The width of terraces should be
sufficient to accommodate at least one bed including paths on both sides of it. It should thus be
at least 2m wide.
 The beds should be laid out with their lengths east to west so that they can be shaded against
frost and sun without difficulty.
4. Water supply
 Storage tank should constructed at the highest part of the nursery
 Water can be brought down to the beds by gravity, in channels or pipes or by water cans.
5. Drainage
 Drainage system should be constructed to prevent damage from heavy rain.
6. Preparation of nursery beds

 Size of beds

 1-1.2 m wide. Width of the bed is important for weeding and watering. As a rule, width
of bed should be such that it can be weeded by labor sitting on both sides of it without
resting a hand or foot in it.
 10 m length
 Soil preparation:
• After demarcation of beds, these are dug to a depth of 0.3 m to 0.45 m.
• Take out stones, roots and gravel present there.
• If soil is gravel sieved it.
• Farm yard manure should be mixed with soil.
• Aldex 5% dust should be mixed if there is danger of white ant.
• Charcoal dust and ashes also mixed to correct the acidity and keep away worms.
• Depending upon the places different beds are made.
7. Other facilities
 Area for storing soil and making compost
 Store house for tools, seeds and other materials
 Shade house – for filling pots and other nursery operations.
6.6 Types of nursery beds and their preparation

Nursery bed: “A prepared area in a nursery where seeds are sown or into which transplants or cuttings are put”.
Nursery beds are classified into:
(i)On the basis of the kind of plants growing on them:
Seedling or seed beds: Those nursery beds in which seedlings are raised by sowing seeds, either for transplanting in
other beds or for planting out.
Transplant beds: Those nursery beds in which seedlings raised in seedling beds are transplanted before planting out
in forest.
Stand out beds: For keeping polythene pots where seeds are directly sown or into which transplants or cuttings are
put.
(ii) On the basis of kind of area:

Raised beds: The seed beds which are prepared above the ground or path level is called raised bed.
In moist areas, which are liable to be water logged, raised beds may have to be prepared. Raised beds may have to be
prepared 15 to 20 cm above the ground level. The raised beds are supported either by bamboos, or a line bricks,
stones, etc. This prevents edges of beds from crumbling (break down) in dry season and from eroding during rains or
at the time of irrigation. The species which are commonly raised on beds are Deodar, Fir, Spruc etc.
Sunken beds: The seed beds which are prepared below the level of the ground or path are known as sunken bed.
This type of bed is prepared in dry areas. For this purpose, the beds are made 10 to 15cm below the general ground
level. The species which are commonly raised on beds are Sissoo, mulberry, Bamboos etc.

Level beds: In areas with long dry hot weather but ample rain, beds are kept level with or slightly below the general
ground level. These are called ‘Level beds’. Such beds can be easily irrigated, during dry weather and can be made
raised and well-drained by lowering the paths during the rains. The species which are commonly raised on beds are
Tuni, Siris, Eucalyptus, Gravillia etc.
.
6.7 Methods of seed treatment
Germination is prolonged or delayed in some seeds because of its dormancy. In order to speed up
germination of such seeds; they have to be given treatment which is called as ‘Seed Treatment’. So, seed
treatment is defined as “various treatments applied to seeds prior to sowing in order to increase the rapidity
or completeness of germination”.
The following are various treatments that hasten germination:

1. Weathering – Seeds are exposed to sun, wind and rain to crack its hard coat e.g. teak.
2. Water treatment – Seeds are soaked in water to hasten germination with following
variations of treatments:
• Soaking in cold water for one or two days before sowing – This treatment is applied to most
medium sized dry seeds e.g. chirpine and many leguminosae species.
• Soaking in boiling hot water – The water is heated in a container and when it starts boiling, the
container is removed from fire and the seed is dropped in it and then allowed to cool. This
treatment is used for hard-coated seeds e.g. Albizzia, Quercus and Aesculus. It has the added
advantage of killing insects, if any.
• Alternate wetting and drying – Seeds are alternately wetted for some hours and then dried e.g.
teak.
3. Passage through animal body – Some seeds germinate quickly if they are passed through the digestive
systems of animals or birds e.g. Acacia arabica, Santalum album and Prosopis juliflora.
4. Mechanical treatment – It refers to the mechanical cutting or cracking of the hard impervious coats of
seeds so that moisture may reach inside e.g. teak.
5. Chemical treatment – Seeds are soaked in various chemical solutions to soften the hard coat of seeds.
The solutions reported to have been used successfully in certain cases are lime water, dilute alkali or
acid solutions (5 to 15 % for 1 to 24 hours), concentrated sulphuric acid (about 4 times the volume of
seed for 15 minutes to 2 hours), etc. But the method requires more trials before it can be recommended
for practice in the field.
6. Scorching or fire treatment – The teak seed is sometimes spread on ground on a layer of leaves and
given a light burn as it has been observed that a fire through the teak forests stimulates germination.
7. Stratification – Seeds are spread in layers 1-2 cm deep alternating with layers of sand, peat or charcoal
about 5 to 7 cm deep in boxes or baskets stored in pits dug in the ground. This method can be used in
higher hill forests.

8. Fermentation – In this method, hard-coated seeds are spread on ground covered with grass which is
kept moist. Fermentation is induced by adding liquid waste from cattle shed. The bacterial action is
allowed to continue for about 2 months.
6. 8 Seed Testing
Plantation depends upon the quality of seeds. Therefore, seed testing is essential before use. Seed testing
prevents loss in respect of money and effort resulting from failure due to bad seeds and also helps in finding
out real cause of failure.
Objectives of seed testing:

1 Determination of Genuineness - Identify whether the seed is really of the species which is to be
raised before sowing.
2 Determination of purity - Most of the seeds are genuine. However, there may be adulteration of
some other seeds or foreign matters. Therefore, seeds should be tested for purity.
3 Determination of seed viability - For these following tests is carried out:

• Direct inspection - Representative sample is taken from the seeds to be tested. Each seed is
then cut open and seeds which are hollow, insect eaten or bad are excluded. This is also
known as cutting test.
• Physical test - It is done by winnowing or submerging in water and hollow and infertile
seeds are separated.
• Chemical test - Chemicals are used to determine the viability of seeds. Vital staining test
is done as certain dyes have the ability to stain dead and dying parts of the seeds.
• Germination Test - Seeds are actually induced to germinate and commence growth is
called germination test. Germination tests are usually carried out in nursery beds or wooden
boxes In modern and well equipped laboratories; electrical equipment with automatic
controls specially for regulating temperatures is also used.
• X-ray technique - Seeds are soaked in water for 16 hours and then in a solution of barium
chloride for 1-2 hours. While barium chloride penetrates the dead tissues, it can’t penetrate
the living cells. Seeds are photographed with soft x-ray. An embryo is considered viable if it
is free of impregnation.
6. 9 Seed Certification
All seeds whether they are to be dispatched to outside places or stored in seed stores must have certificates
giving essential particulars. Seed certification is mainly done to improve the quality of seed and to create the
sense of responsibility for the collectors. So, it is a legally sanctioned system designed to control and
maintain high purity of seed and for propagating material of genetically distinct crop varieties. It is the
guarantee of seed quality by an officially recognized organization usually evidenced by a certificate, which
includes:
 Genuineness of species and variety
 Year of collection
 Origin
 Purity
 Soundness
 Germinative capacity
In the Nepalese context, seeds are properly labeled and recorded in the register. Following information are
included in labels:
• Species (Scientific Name with Latin or Nepali Name)
• Date of Collection
• Place of Collection
• Village Development Committee and ward number
• Zone
Additional information useful for the labeling includes the following:

• Altitude
• Aspect
• No. of trees from which the collection was made
• Area from which the seed was collected
• Average size of trees from which the collection was made
• Soil type
• General vegetation type
• Date of planting if from the plantation.
6. 10 Seedling production and management - Nursery operation plan is prepared for the production of nursery
stock and nursery management. Following things should be considered in the plan:
• Type of resources needed
• Infrastructures like wall buildings, water supplies etc
• Tools and equipments
• Expendable materials including seeds
• Labors
• Time.

UNIT 7 PLANTATION METHODS
7.1 Appraisal of planting sites and its protection
7.1.1 The appraisal of planting site is carried-out taking into consideration the following various
factors, such as:
• Climatic conditions in the area
• Topographic factors like altitude, slope, aspect, exposure, etc.
• Local vegetation
• Soil conditions: Soil should be tested by taking up soil samples from
different horizons if indigenous species are not found
locally in the area or if any exotic species are to be
raised.
7.1.2 Works to be done in the plantation area including its protection – Following activities are
carried out:
Time table – There should be a time table for various works to be done in the plantation area. This has to
be prepared by working backwards from the crucial time of sowing and planting.
Boundary demarcation – It is the first work to be done. Area of plantation is selected and then the
boundary of the plantation demarcated.
Marking and Felling – After demarcation of the area, its stock map is prepared. Then the trees standing
in the area are marked and felled.
Soil and planting map – After clearance of the area, it should be surveyed in detail to make a map of the
plantation area. While doing this, a cleared strip of about 3 to 6 meters in width should be left outside
the plantation area to serve as a fire line. After surveying and mapping the outer boundary, the area
should be surveyed in detail to make a soil map showing different types of soil which will help to decide
type of species to be raised.
Inspection paths – After making soil and planting map, the area is divided into blocks based on the area
of plantation. These blocks are separated by roads or paths. A path 1.5 m wide or motor road 3.5 m wide
should also be left on the outer periphery of the plantation inside the fence.
Staking out – Position of lines and pits are clearly marked on ground by fixing wooden or bamboo pegs
for equal distribution of the plants in regular pattern.
Soil preparation – Digging of soil at places where sowing or planting is to be done is carried-out. Main
objectives of doing this are:
 To enable seedling or cutting to develop long tap root easily.
 To enable rain water to penetrate deeper so that moisture is retained in soil for a longer time.
 To improve aeration of soil.
 To dig out roots of weeds so that weed growth is reduced.

Fencing – It is done to protect the plantation from different damaging agencies. Following are the commonly
used fences:
a. Cattle proof barbed wire fence – It is composed of 4 or 5 strands of barbed wire with fence posts.
b Game proof fence – It is erected to keep away wild animals and consists of woven wire at the
bottom with 5 or 6 strands of barbed wire on top.
c Special wild boar and porcupine proof fence – Thicker woven wire has been used and buried 30
cm in the ground. There are 5 or 6 strands of barbed wire above the ground and one strand of barbed
wire is also put at the bottom inside the ground.
d. Stone fence – Where stones are available and wooden fence posts are expensive, stone wall fences
are constructed.
e. Social fencing – Local communities protect their plantation area by not allowing their cattle to graze
and protecting the area by guarding themselves on rotational basis or by hiring watchers.
7.2 Plantation Design

Patterns of planting
Following are the patterns of planting
i) Line Planting: In Line planting Plants are planted at some spacing in lines which are also some
distance apart. Thus the planted plants form rectangle.

ii) Square planting: Square planting is the planting in square pattern i.e. with plants occupying he four
corners of each successive square. This is achieved by planting plants in lines at the same spacing as that
of the lines themselves.
iii) Triangular planting: It is the planting in the pattern of equilateral triangles i.e. with plants
occupying the three corners of each adjacent equilateral triangles.

iv) Quincunx Planting: Quincunx is defined as “a group of five points, four of which form the corners
of a square with the fifth as the center.” Thus Quincunx planting is that method of planting in which an
extra plant is placed in the center of each square of four plants.
Method of calculating number of Plants:
1. Line planting – Plants are planted at some spacing in lines which are also at some distance forming a
rectangle.
No. of plants / ha = 100 x 100

Distance of plants in line x Distance between the lines
2. Square planting – Plants are planted in square patterns.
No of plants / ha = 100 x 100

Square of the planting distance
3. Triangular planting – Plants are planted in the pattern of equilateral triangles.
No of plants / ha = 100x 100 x 1.155

Square of planting distance (i.e. side of the triangle)
4. Quincunx planting – An extra plant is planted in the centre of each square of four plants.

No of plants / ha = 2 x 100 x 100
Square of the side of the planting square
7.3 Choice of species – It depends upon:

 Climatic conditions – Only those species which can grow in the regional climate as well as in the
microclimate of the plantation site should be selected.
 Soil condition – Only the species which are suited to soil and moisture conditions should be selected
to avoid failure. Plantation should be decided on the basis of stock map prepared before felling,
examination of soil and study of indicator plants.
Indicator plant (soil indicator) – Any plant which by its presence indicates the
quality of the site. Ex,
Lime rich soil – Cupressus torulosa
Soils with high concentration of soluble salts– Acacia arabica
 Stage of succession – The stage of succession which the soil has reached should also be noted to
decide the species which can grow in it.
 Objects of management – Choice of species is also affected by the object of the plantation.
 Consumer’s requirement – Change in the taste of consumer and market requirements should be
considered while selecting species of plantation.
 Growth rate – The choice of species is also affected by their rate of growth.
A fast growing species – Height increment of 60 cm per annum in the earlier stages of its life and minimum
yield of 10 cu m / ha / yr in a short rotation of 10 – 15 years.
 Availability of suitable exotic – If indigenous species cannot meet the fast growing requirement of
industrial timber, exotic species should be selected based on the suitability of local conditions.
 Ease of establishment – The ease with which a species can be raised also affects the choice of
species.
 Cost – The cost of raising a species also affects the choice.
 Effect on site – If a species affects site, it should not be selected.
7.4 Methods of Site/ground preparation

Site preparation is done to eliminate the existing vegetation on the site in order to reduce competition to the
planted trees and to provide access for planting.
7.4.1 Manual site preparation

 Use of labor to clear site
 Fire is also used for clearing the site. Fire lines are made around the plantation area.
7.4.2 Mechanical site preparation

 It is done for commercial plantation.
 Bulldozers and tractors are used for clearing the site.
7.4.3 Site preparation on difficult sites

On very steep or eroded sites, special methods for land preparation needed.
Methods – terracing, contour bunding, contour trenching and contour furrowing.
7.5Pitting
 It should be done while the ground still has some moisture in it.
 Fairly soon after monsoon is the good time but may be done until Nov-Dec.
 The standard pit is a circular at least 30 cm deep and 30 cm diameter at the bottom.
 After digging the pit, it should be checked whether all the soil has been removed or not
 The dug up soil is heaped up on a side of pit to weather for about a month or two.
 Weathering of soil for one or two months has the following advantages:
1. The crumb structure is improved. The bigger clods are broken into smaller clods due to the
action of weather;
2. The roots of the weeds get dried up; and
3. Injurious insects, etc., are eaten up by birds.
 After weathering, the dug up soil is either filled back in the pits or piled up on the sides in a
particular manner. This depends upon the amount of rainfall in the area. If the rainfall is heavy or
moderate, the dug up soil is filled in the pit to make a raised hip.
7.6 Spacing - It is the distance between the plants put out in a plantation or standing in a crop. It is also
sometimes referred to as escapements. When the distance between plants is small, it is called close spacing
and when the distance is large, it is known as wide spacing.
Advantages of wide spacing

• Saving of seeds and plants
• Cost is less
• Less labor is required
Disadvantages of wide spacing

• Canopy takes long time to close
• Trees tend to become branchy, resulting in knotty timber
• Thinning become difficult
• Results in rapid diameter increment and wider annual rings affecting the strength of wood.
Advantages of close spacing

• Canopy closes soon and it checks growth of grass and weeds.
• Thinning becomes easier.
• Natural pruning makes the bole cleaner.
Disadvantages of close spacing

• Requires large quantity of seeds or large no. of plants
• Cost is more and more labor required.
Factors affecting spacing

The following factors govern the spacing:
• Rate of growth of species – Fast growing species have wider spacing and slow growing species have
closer spacing.
• Habit of branching – Large number of branches arising from the stem, not only reduces the timber volume
but also decreases the value. Therefore, the species which have the habit of producing large number of
branches, should be raised at close spacing so that due to deficient light, natural pruning may make the bole
clean.
• Number of annual rings per centimeter – The wood required in some industries, e.g. paper pulp, match,
etc., should have lesser number of rings per cm. As this requires rapid diameter increment, the plants have to
be raised at wider spacing. To produce denser wood with larger number of rings per cm, close spacing is
adopted.
• Height of planting material – For tall plants, wider spacing is needed.
• Site factor – Close spacing is used in drier areas. Similarly, in places where there is a danger of infestation
of weeds, e.g., Eupatotium, Lantana, etc., closer spacing should be adopted.
• Inter-cultivation – Wide spacing is required for it.
• Market for small sized timbers – Closer spacing can be adopted only when the small-sized material can be
sold and removed.
• Fruit production as objective – Wider spacing should be adopted. Example- Anacardium occidentale,
Choerospondias axillaris.
• Cost – Availability of funds has a great influence on the spacing to be adopted.
Usual spacing of some important species in India

•Teak – 1.8m x 1.8m (in lower quality class areas)
2.6m x 2.6m (in higher quality class areas)
•Sal – usually by line or strip sowings.

In the lines: the seeds are spaced at 8 to 10 cm apart
The lines or strips: spaced 1.8 to 3.6m

• Semal – There is no recognized spacing for semal. It is raised at spacing from about 4.6m x 4.6m to 11m x
11m.
• Eucalyptus – The usual spacing varies from 2.4m x 2.4m to 3.3m x 3.3m.
Nepal
Usually spacing in plantation is 2.5m x2.5m.
7.7 Handling seedlings

7.7.1 Preparing plants for planting-out
Hardening-off
 During plantation, seedlings will be exposed to much more difficult conditions, and if the transition from
nursery to plantation conditions is too abrupt, the seedling may suffer.
 To make this transition favorable, a gradual process known as hardening-off is used in nursery in which
plants are made able to tolerate the difficult conditions.
 This is done by gradually reducing:

• Shade
• Watering
• Use of fertilizers.
Culling (pick/gathering)
 Seedlings are sorted according to their suitability for planting.
 Weak, undersized, and badly formed plants should be culled and thrown away.
 Seedlings suitable for plantation should be:
• Min. 20 - 30 cm in height
- For naked root planting: 20 – 30 cm in height (Very big plants cannot be planted with naked roots)
- For stump planting: Collar diameter 1 – 2 cm
• Have straight, undamaged, un-forked stems
• Healthy, deep green in color
• Free of insects or fungal diseases.
7.7.2 Packing for transport

Plants in poly pots
 Plants in poly pots should be well watered two or three days before they are to be transported to the field
and lightly watered the evening before.
 They should not be watered heavily on the day of transport.
 The container, not the shoots should be used for handlings seedlings.
 They are transported by dokos or wheeled transport with trays.
Stumps
 Stumps are wrapped in wet jute cloth and tied in bundles and kept in cool shady places
Bare root plants
 These are dug up carefully and the soil shaken off their roots and culled and then made up into bundles
with root wrapped in jute cloth.
7.8 Plantation versus direct sowing

There are two methods of artificial regeneration - sowing or planting. The advantages and
disadvantages of both these methods are already described under Artificial Regeneration from Seed in Unit 5
of this note.
The choice between these two methods of artificial regeneration depends upon:
• Species to be raised- Most of the species can be raised by both methods but some by sowing or
planting only.
• Condition of the site- In poorer and difficult sites, infested with grasses sowing is generally not
successful
• Availability of seed- Species which don’t produce large quantities of seed every year have to be
raised by planting.
• Cost- As a general rule, the method of artificial regeneration, which gives greater success at
comparatively lesser cost, is preferred.
7.9 Concept of forest fertilization

• Application of fertilizers in the plantation is known as fertilization which is done for quick and best
return.
• However, fertilizers have not been used in forest plantations so far to any significant extent.
• Fertile forest lands provide an optimum supply of the nutrients essential for the growth of the trees.
• Application of fertilizer is very necessary to raise forest plantation outside forest area on marginal soils.
• In order to apply fertilizers to the best advantage, requirement of each species at different stages of
development and the fertility status of soil in which they are to be raised will have to be determined.
• On the basis of this knowledge, quantity, timing and method of application of fertilizer will have to be
worked out, keeping in view that cost of production of timber does not become much too high.
• Fertility can be maintained by proper application of both organic and inorganic fertilizers.
7.10 Concept of irrigation in plantation

• Watering is very important for increasing the growth of planted seedlings.

• Except for orchards, nurseries and other sites of very intensive tree culture, there is little use of
irrigation in forestry as irrigation water is preferred to agricultural use.
• Also as watering a plantation is both difficult and expensive, it is usually not done.
But following are some exceptions to the general rule:

• Dry tracts where irrigation is easily available –
(1) Irrigation becomes necessary for the establishment of seedlings and success of the plantation
in the dry and arid areas.
(2) So, whenever possible, watering should be provided in such areas.
• Road side avenue plantation - the plants are watered during 1st and 2nd year to accelerate their
growth.
• Casuarina plantations in coastal sands -

(1) Irrigation in Casuarina plantations is carried out during the first year, and sometimes during
the second year.
(2) Irrigation is done to help the seedlings to send their roots through the non-retentive sand to
the water table as early as possible to escape drought mortality.
• Fast growing species, i.e. Populus, Eucalyptus, etc. require more water than Dalbergia, Acacia,
Casuarina, Tectona, etc.
• Very little is known about the comparative response of different tree species to limited
availability of soil water.
• Watering helps in shortening the rotation.
UNIT: 8. SILVICULTURAL TREATMENTS
 Tending operations
Tending is defined ‘as an operation carried out for the benefit of a forest crop, at any stage of its life between
the seedling and the mature stages; it essentially covers operations both on the crop itself and on the
competing vegetation, e.g., weeding, cleaning, thinning, improvement felling, pruning, climber cutting and
girdling of unwanted growth.’
8.1 Release operations (other tending operation):
 Release operation free young stands of desirable trees, not past the sapling stage, from the
competition of undesirable trees that threatened to suppress them.
 It includes weeding, cleaning and liberation cutting

A. Liberation cutting
 Cuttings made to free a young stand, not past the sapling stage, from completion of older,
overtopped individuals.
 To reduce the competition of older, overtopping individuals
B. Weeding
 Simply weeding means: Removal or cutting back of all weeds in the seedling stage.
• Any unwanted plant that interferes or tends to interfere with the growth of the individuals of favored
species is called a weed.
• In other words, weeding may be defined as ‘a tending operation done in the seedling stage in
nursery or in a forest crop that involves the removal or cutting back of all weeds’.
 Objectives:
 To reduce root competition and transpiration water.
 To improve light conditions.
 Three weeding usually done in the first year, two in the second year and one in the third year.
 Methods: Clean weeding, strip weeding, Patch weeding
 Patch weeding in a circle of 60 cm diameter around the plant is common in Nepal
 Use of herbicides / weedicides is uncommon in Nepal
 Plantation failure in Nepal is primarily due to use of poor stock & neglect in weeding.
Season, number and duration of weedings

• As a general rule, weedings must be done before (i) weeds have started suppressing the
seedlings and (ii) the seedlings have stopped growing.
• After the growth period is over, the seedlings require protection against frost and browsing,
afforded by weeds and so weedings should not be done.
• Thus, in practice, weedings are done in plantations during the rains and stopped by the end
of September.
• The number of weedings to be done in a particular year depends upon the intensity of weed
growth and the rate of growth of seedlings of the favored species.
• The duration, i.e., the number of years for which weedings should be done also varies with
species, the rate of growth, intensity of weeds and the local conditions. Generally, weedings
are carried out for 3 years, though fast- growing species may require weedings for one or
two years only.
C. Cleaning
• It is defined as ‘a tending operation done in a sapling crop, involving the removal or topping of
inferior growth including individuals of favored species, climbers, etc., when they are interfering
with the better grown individuals of the favored species’.
• It merges with thinning as saplings grow into poles.
Objects of cleaning

(i) To improve light conditions – Cleanings are carried out primarily to improve light conditions as the
amount of light required by a growing sapling to carry out its vital life processes is far more than that by
a seedling.
(ii) To reduce root competition – Cleanings reduce root competition thereby enabling saplings to
develop faster and faster.
(iii) To reduce transpirational water loss – Removal of excess foliage from each unit area in cleanings
also reduces the transpirational water loss.
Season, frequency and duration of cleanings

• To give maximum benefit, cleanings should be done during the season which is the growth
period of the favored species and in which the undesirable species interfere most with their
growth.
• Therefore, cleanings should be done during the rains but where this is not possible, they may be
done during summers and winters.
• Frequency of cleanings depends upon the density of shrubs and their rate of growth after cutting.
If the shrubs are dense and grow faster, cleanings are done every year; otherwise, they are cone
at an interval of some years.
• Cleanings are normally carried out through out the sapling stage of the favored species in order
to help them to develop into straight and well-grown poles.
• The following operations are usually done in cleaning:
1. Cutting back of shrubs and associated herbs interfering with the growth of saplings of
the desired species;
2. Cutting back of the individuals of inferior species when interfering with the growth of
better species;
3. Cutting back of the malformed or diseased individuals of the desired species;
4. Singling of coppice shoots of the favored species; and
5. Climber cutting.
8.2 Pruning: The presence of the branches makes the wood of the stem knotty and defective and also to
some extent decreases the height increment of the bole. In order to produce knot-free quality timber it is
necessary that branches may be removed from the major portion of the stem. The operation of ‘removal
of live or dead branches or multiple leaders from standing trees for the improvement of the tree or its
timber’ is known as pruning.
Pruning can be classified on the basis of the kind of branches or the agency of removal. Based on the
kind of branches removed, pruning may be classified into:
• Dry pruning - pruning of dead branches.
• Green pruning - pruning of living branches.
According to the agency of pruning, it is classified into:

 Natural pruning or self pruning - the natural death and fall of branches of standing trees from
such causes as deficiency of light, decay, snow and ice.

 Artificial pruning - done by forester without waiting for nature to do it in dense natural crop or
where nature can not do it due to artificially large spacing between stems in plantations.
The following measures or methods should be adopted during pruning:

 The branches are cut flush with the stem without leaving splinters of branch-
wood and without damaging the bark.
 All branches are removed up to a height of two meters, or up to a height of two
thirds of the total height of the tree, whichever come the less. So, the height up
to which pruning is done should be as low as possible because use of ladder for
pruning makes the operation costly.
 It should be confined to species which are used in industries in which knot-free
timber is an important requisite.
 It should be started early in the life of the crop so that the branches to be pruned
are thin.
 It should be done on the best stems which are likely to form the final crop.
Bud pruning
 It is rubbing off the lateral buds to prevent the development of branches as a measure to obtain knot-
free timber.
 It is a cheaper method to achieve the object.
 Special rough gloves or rough cloth pieces are used for the operation.
 However, it has not been widely practiced because the branchless poles often get damaged by wind
when they start developing a crown.
Difference between Pruning and Lopping

Pruning means cutting of branches from the main stem or bole of trees for improvement of timber of trees
whereas Lopping means cutting of branches from different parts of a tree to produce new shoots which are
annually or periodically lopped for various purposes, especially for leaf fodder. So pruning is mainly carried
out to produce knot-free timber whereas lopping is carried for obtaining new vegetative growth on trees.
8.3 Thinning: Thinning is defined as ‘a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving the
growth and form of the trees that remain, without permanently breaking the canopy’.
 Object of thinning
1. To concentrate the increment of the stand on a small no. of selected trees.
2. To increase net yield of timber and money from a stand.
3. To remove dead, dying, diseased (3d) (hygienic condition).
4. To obtain earlier returns and to shorten rotation.
5. To obtain timber of the desired quality and mechanical strength.
6. To ensure decomposition of raw humus.
8.3.2 Basis for thinning

 Thinning should be done on the basis of following things:
 Age of the crop
 Height of the crop

 Density of the crop
 Objective of the management
 Relation of Crown length & width with tree height
 Relation between number of trees per unit area and diameter or basal area
 Relation between number of trees per unit area and mean or top heights or even squares of
heights of trees etc.
8.3.3 Types of Thinning

Thinning varies with the nature of the crop, i.e. the methods of thinning used in regular crops are different
from that used in irregular crops.
8.3.3.1 TYPES OF THINNING USED IN REGULAR CROPS

1. Mechanical thinning
2. Ordinary thinning/German thinning/low thinning
3. Crown thinning
4. Free thinning
5. Maximum thinning
6. Advance thinning
MECHANICAL THINNING (Line thinning /Mechanical/Geometric or Stick thinning)

 Thinning done on the basis of predetermined spacing.
 Rows, strips or groups are removed in a minimum spacing gauged by a standard stick.
 Applicable to plantations or natural regeneration area where plants are uniformly spaced and
uniform growth.
 The length of stick depends upon the average diameter of the crop and the species.
 Some empirical formula are:
• For Sal D = 1.5d (Warren‘s formula)
• For Teak D = 1.5 ( d + 4) ( Sageiya’s formula)
• For Sissoo D = 2d (Howard’s formula)
Where, D in ft and d in inches
ORDINARY THINNING (Low/German/thinning from below):

 Trees removed from lower crown class (suppressed, overtopped) to favor the dominant ones.
 Applied for light demanders
 It has not any significant effect on growth of retained trees
Grades of ordinary thinning - The following are the thinning grades which are recognized:
i. Light thinning (A grade): This grade of thinning is limited to the removal of dead, dying, diseased
and suppressed trees.
ii. Moderate Thinning (B grade): This grade of thinning is limited to the removal of dead, dying,
diseased, suppressed, defective dominated, whips and occasional very defective dominant.
iii. Heavy Thinning (C grade): In addition to the removal of all classes of B grade, this grade consists
in the removal of remaining dominated and such of the defective co-dominants as can be removed
without making permanent gaps in the canopy.

iv. Very Heavy Thinning (D grade) – This grade consists in the removal of all tree classes to be
removed in C Grade as well as some of the good dominants subject to the condition of not making any
permanent gap in the canopy.
v. Extremely Heavy Thinning (E grade) – This is about the heaviest thinning that can be done in a crop
without making permanent gaps in the canopy. In this grade, more of the good dominants are removed
as compared to D grade.
CROWN THINNING (French/high thinning or thinning from above)

 Trees are removed from the upper crown class to open canopy and favor the development of the
most promising trees of the same class; the dominated and suppressed stems are retained unless they
are dead, dying or diseased.
 Applied in shade tolerant species
 It has significant effect on growth of retained trees
Grades of crown thinning – The following two grades of crown thinning are recognized:
 Light crown thinning - This grade consists in the removal of dead, dying and diseased trees, with
such of the defective, and after them the better dominants, as are necessary to leave room for further
development of the best available trees, but not Suppressed and Dominated trees.
 Heavy crown thinning – This grade pays even more attention to favoring the selected best stems,
but not Suppressed and Dominated trees.
FREE THINNING
It is defined as a method of thinning in which attention is concentrated on evenly spaced selected stems
(called elites or alpha-stems) which are retained until maturity or till the last thinning or two, thinning being
directed to the removal of other stems hindering their optimum development.
 This is also called Heck’s free thinning and is a modification of crown thinning.
 Future trees are selected from the beginning and thinning being done only in favor of the selected
trees.
 The trees other than future trees are removed or retained depending on whether they affect the
growth of the future trees or not.
 It is also known as ‘Elite thinning’ as elite or alpha stems are selected.
MAXIMUM THINNING
It is developed by Gehrhardt as a modification of Heck’s free thinning.
 It aims to concentrate the entire growth potential of the particular area on the retained stems, from
an early stage, the number of such stems being kept at a minimum so that they are able to fully
utilize the available growing space.
 It is the heaviest form of free thinning as there are no trees left other than elites.
 It may result in the deterioration of site.
ADVANCE THINNING
It is developed by Craib and O’Conner for wattle and pine plantation in South Africa and is also known as
Craib’s thinning.
 A thinning done in a regular crop in anticipation of suppression.

 The main object is that trees should be removed before they actually adversely affect the
better growing individuals.
 Craib, who developed this thinning, also devised a research technique for determining
numerical thinning schedules which could be used in general practice.
 Accordingly, it requires knowledge of the number of trees which should be in a crop of a
particular diameter so that they may grow without competition.
8.3.6 Effects of thinning

There are positive as well as negative effects of thinning. Following are the positive effects of thinning:
• It improves the growth and form of trees that remain after the operation.
• Specifically, it increases height and diameter of the trees. So it affects the quantity and quality of
timber produced.
• Regular thinning brings uniform growth in trees.
Negative effects
• Because of the pressure of the wind, thinning increases tapering in trees. Tapering, in turn, reduces
timber in a tree. But there is possibility of decreasing height and diameter of trees, if thinning is not
carried out in time.
• As it brings rapid diameter increment in trees, there is produced the less dense wood, meaning
having lesser number of annual rings per centimeter. This, in turn, may affect the strength of wood.
• It reduces natural or self pruning. As the presence of branches makes the wood of the stem knotty
and defective, artificial pruning should also be done together with thinning.
• There is possibility of producing diseased trees due to snatching and debarking by the trees felled
while carrying out thinning.
• There are possibilities of soil erosion, soil compacting and root shaking while disposing the felled
trees.
8.4 Improvement Felling/cutting (T.S.I)

• It is done to improve the condition of the forest which is generally degraded due to heavy felling,
grazing and burning in the past.
• So, it is the removal of less valuable trees in a crop in the interest of better growth
of the more valuable individuals.
• It is usually applied to mixed uneven aged forest.
• Operations to be done are:
- Felling of dead, dying and diseased trees.
- Felling of saleable unsound over mature trees which are not likely to survive
up to next felling.
- Felling of unsound or badly shaped mature or immature trees provided their
removal will benefit better trees of the same or more valuable species.
- Cutting back of badly shaped and damaged saplings.
- Thinning of congested groups of poles and trees likely to benefit from the
operation .
- Removal of undesirable under growth or trees of inferior species interfering
favored species.
- Climber cutting.
8.5 Salvage Cuttings and sanitation cutting:
Salvage cutting: It is done for removing trees that have been or are in imminent danger of being killed or
damaged by injurious agencies. It is aimed at capturing the highly perishable values in trees that are
seriously damaged, dying or already dead.
Sanitation Cuttings: It involves the elimination of trees that have been attacked or appear in imminent
danger of attack by dangerous insects and fungi in order to prevent from spreading other trees.
8.6 Effects of prescribed burning (control burning) and fire on regeneration:
 Fire can be used both constructively and destructively in handling the forest.
 The practice of using regulated fires to reduce or eliminate the incorporated.
 Organic matter of the forest floor or low undesirable vegetation is called prescribed or controlled
burning.
Effects of prescribed burning

1. Improvement in soil and undergrowth conditions for inducing natural regeneration
- It results in increase in bacterial activity with the result that nitrate production is
augmented which consumes undecomposed litter and makes potash available.
- It reduces the density of undergrowth and makes conditions suitable for natural
regeneration to come up.
- It reduces the weed growth and provides clean seed bed.
2. Clearance of site for artificial regeneration

- Fire is used in clearing plantation sites of weeds, grasses, shrubs and felling refuse
- It provides clean seed bed and reduces the cost of weeding to be done later
3. Hazard reduction - It eliminates most of the readily inflammable materials and thus
reduces the damage that may occur from an accidental summer fire.
4.Improvement of grazing - Burning at the end of the dormant season accelerates the sprouting of green
grass at the very time when the animals are most likely to be starving.
5. Recreation management - Burning can be employed to maintain a park like
appearance in stands that would otherwise develop under story jungles.
6. Control of pest - It can be used for the control of pest.
8.7 Relationship of silvicultural treatments with bio-diversity conservation

Bio-diversity or biological diversity is the variety of all species on earth. It is the different plants, animals,
and micro-organisms, their genes, and the different ecosystems. It provides many goods and services. The
important services provided by our bio-diversity include recreational, cultural and spiritual nourishment that
maintain our personal and social well-being. But the main threats to our bio-diversity are:
 Unsustainable use of natural resources;
 Uncontrolled fire;
 The spread of invasion;

 Degradation of habitat;
 Climate change; etc.
These above threats can be eliminated / minimized by the correct silvicultural treatments while
conserving the bio-diversity. So, there is a strong relationship between bio-diversity conservation and
silvicultural treatments.
In other words, Forest Management always aims to create a balance between bio-diversity conservation
and livelihoods of forest dependent communities. A forest can contribute to poverty reduction effectively
when forest management activities enhance its productivity. The increase in forest productivity can be
achieved through the different sivicultural treatments. So, it can be said that these treatments help in
conserving bio-diversity. These show the relationship of silvicultural treatments with bio-diversity
conservation.
UNIT 9: AFFORESTATION / REFORESTATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AREAS
9.1 Objectives and importance of afforestation and reforestation
9.1.1 Reforestation - Following are the objects of reforestation:

• To supplement natural regeneration – When the natural regeneration is not coming up well to a
desired level
• To replace natural regeneration – When natural regeneration is slow and uneconomical.
• To restock forests destroyed by fire and other biotic factors – When there are no seed bearers for
natural regeneration.
• To change the composition of the crop – When the proportion of the valuable species is low.
• To introduce exotics - when the indigenous species are slow growing.
9.1.2 Afforestation – It is carried out to achieve the following objects:

• Increase in production of industrial timber as well as timber for urban population
• Increase in the production of fuel wood and small timber for agricultural implements and rural
housing
• Improvement of agro-ecosystem
• Moderation of climate and soil conservation in agricultural land
• Protection of catchments of rivers
• Increasing natural beauty of the landscape
9.2 Locality factors, choice of species and methods of plantation in following areas:
9.2.1 Denuded hill slopes

Afforestation and reforestation in denuded hill slopes is necessary not only for productive and bioaesthetic
reasons but also for conservation of soil and water.
Locality Factors:
 Soil is poor, shallow and stony
 Excessive soil erosion has washed away the top soil
 Excessive run off results in low soil moisture content
 Grazing is very high
Soil Preparation: It is done either by (a) contour trenches or (b) patches or pits
(a) Contour trenches

• It is usually made on slopes up to 20% as the operation becomes costly on steeper
slopes
• They are usually made with the help of any leveling instrument like Abney’s level or
‘A’ frame
• The trenches may be continuous or interrupted. The interrupted trenches are
considered better.
(b)Patches or pits
• It is done where the slope is rocky and contour trenches cannot be made.
• Patches or pits are made for sowing and planting respectively.
Choices of species - Different species are planted under varying conditions.

Moist sub tropical - Pinus roxburghii
Dry sub tropical - Acacia catechu,Prosopis juliflora, Robinia pseudoacacia
Temperate - Pinus wallichiana, Cedrus deodara
Method of raising plants

• Planting of seedlings raised in the nursery is the best method while some plants are raised successfully
by sowing, e.g. Chir, Acacia, Prosopis, etc.
• Weeding may have to be carried out for some years due to slow growth of plants.
9.2.2 Abandoned cultivated lands

Locality factors
• Soil fertility is low due to raising of agricultural crops without manuring and washing
away of the top soil.
• Drainage, aeration and moisture content of the soil are also poor.
• As the land has been under cultivation for a long time, beneficial soil organisms
associated with tree growth disappear.
• Weeds may be very heavy as the area has been without cover for years after
abandonment of cultivation.
Soil Preparation
• It can be easily done by taungya method.
• If it is not possible, soil may be dug into strips. If area is large and plain, tractor ploughing may be done.
• Conditions for improved drainage should be created.

Choices of Species
• Due to poor soil conditions, efforts should be made to select species found in the early
stages of natural succession.
• In plain areas - Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus hybrid, Terminalia tomentosa, Acacia
catechu, Bombax ceiba
• In hills-Pinus roxburghii and P. wallichiana

• Sowing and planting are both suitable
• Weeding and cleaning have to be done for several years.
9.2.3 Grasslands
Locality factors
• Soil fertility, drainage, aeration and moisture content of the soil are poor.
• Dense roots may be formed by some grasses like, Imperata.
• Grasses also increase the incidence of grazing and fire.
Soil preparation
• Soil preparation in strips is the only method and if possible, entire area should be ploughed deep with
the help of tractors and sown in strips.
• When soil preparation is done in strips, they should be wide enough to prevent the grasses of interspaces
overtopping them.
Choices of Species:
• In plains-Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, Bombax ceiba, Eucalptus hybrid
• In hills-Populas ciliata, Grewia oppositifolia, Robinia pseudocacia, Pinus roxburghii
and P.wallichiana.

• For most of the species, sowing is the main mode of propagation
• However, Eucalyptus is raised by planting polythene bag plants, Pinus roxburghii is
raised by sowing as well as by planting polythene bag plants, Populas is raised by
cutting.
9.2.4 Ravine lands

Locality factors
• Ravines continue to cut backwards and destroy even the vegetative cover on lands above them.
• Soil is generally sandy to stiff clay with sufficient lime which develops into kankar pan.
• This prevents the roots of plants to reach permanent soil moisture and also prevents
rain water to infiltrate to deeper layers.
• Excessive evaporation results in concentration of soluble salts on the surface forming
infertile saline alkaline soils.
Soil Preparation

• As the ravines continue to cut backwards, efforts are made to prevent water coming into the ravined
area.
• In order to prevent flow of water towards the head of the ravine and for safe disposal of the water,
contour bunds are constructed at suitable intervals depending upon the slope of the land.
• Staggered trenches are made for afforestation of waste lands near ravines.
• Thus treatment of catchments of ravines forms an integral part of the afforestation of ravines.
Choice of species
 Sandy soil - Acacia catechu, Dalbergia sissoo, Albizzia spp.
 Clayey soil - Acacia Arabica, Terminalia arjuna.

 Most of the tree species are sown in one or two lines on the ridge.
 Species which are best raised by planting are raised either by entire planting or stump planting.
 Weeding and cleaning are done when necessary.
9.2.5 (a) Dry areas without irrigation

If the annual rainfall is less than 900mm in an area, it is known as dry area.
Locality Factors
 The soil varies from place to place with the underlying rock.
 Denudation has deteriorated the site.
 During summer, the temperature is generally high while during winter frosts are common.
 There is a great pressure of humans and animals on the land and this poses a great threat to
afforestation work.
Soil preparation
 Soil preparation is done in such a way so as to conserve maximum moisture and also to facilitate
development of deep root system. Following process is adopted
- The soil is dug as deep as possible
- Interrupted contour trenches are made in sloping areas
- The dug up soil is heaped to form a ridge along the portion of the trench
Choice of Species
Fast growing and frost and drought resistant species are selected like Acacia arabica, A.catechu, A.Senegal,
Eucalyptus, Ziziphus jujuba, Casuarina equisetifolia.

• Most of the species can be propagated by direct sowing.
• Due to scarcity of moisture, it is better if plants raised in polythene bags are planted
out.
9.2.5 (b) Dry Areas with irrigation

Locality Factors:
• Soil varies from sandy to clayey.

• Rainfall varies from place to place
• The temperature is higher during summer.
• During the winter temperature falls considerably and severe frost is common.
• There is a heavy pressure of human and animal population.
Soil Preparation:
• For effective irrigation, the area has to be thoroughly leveled and stumps removed.
Choice of species:
It depends upon climatic and soil conditions. The main species planted are:
Tamarix spp, Acacia catechu, Eucalyptus, Bombax cieba, Prosopis juliflora, Morus alba, Syzygium cuminii,
Populus ciliata, Dalbergia sissoo, etc.
Method of raising plants – Trees may be raised in the following manner:

• Sowing – Direct seed sowing is done for Syzygium, Acacia, Prosopis, etc.
• Seedling planting – Seedlings of Eucalyptus are raised in polypots in nursery and
planted during rainy season.
• Stump planting – Stumps of Dalbergia, Morus, Bombax are raised in nursery and
planted during monsoon or winter rain.
9.2.6 Canal Banks

Locality Factors:
• The soil varies from sandy to clayey
• With the proximity of the canal, soil moisture condition is good but at places there is
water-logging due to seepage.
• The pressure of human and animal population is excessive as canals pass through
agricultural land
Choice of species
• The choice of species depends upon the soil and climatic conditions.
• The main species planted are:Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, Acacia Arabica,
Eucalyptus, Populus spp

• The species used for planting are generally planted with ball of earth, or as container
plants.
• Thus, mango, jamun, Eucalyptus is planted as entire plants with ball of earth.
• Sissoo is raised by sowing as well as by planting.
• Khair, babul, siris and Ailanthus are raised by sowing.
9.2.7 Road Side Plantation

Locality Factors
• Climate conditions vary from area to area through which the road passes
• The soil varies from sandy to stiff clay
• The pressure of human population is excessive

Choice of species
• Some suitable species are Azadirachta indica, Albizzia procera, Dalbergia sissoo,
Eucalyptus, Madhuca indica, Magnifera indica, Syzyzium cumini, etc.

• Nursery grown tall plants with ball of earth or raised in containers are planted
• The plants are transplanted 2-3 times in nursery to enable them to develop a bushy root
System.
• After planting watering is done.
• Watering is necessary in the first and second dry seasons.
9.2.8 Farm Forestry

Farm forestry is ‘the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farm and village lands, generally more or
less integrated with other farm operations’. This implies that farm forestry is to be practiced in the following
two categories of lands:
• Individual farmers’ holding where trees can be raised on bunds, round farm house and cattle shed.
• Village land where groves of trees can be raised on waste land, along streams and
village roads, round village schools, wells, ponds etc.
Thus, there is scope for individual enterprise for raising trees as well as collective effort for raising small
forest for the village as a whole. In the first case, the ownership is that of a farmer but in the latter, the
ownership is of the village community but in both cases, the villagers will be the beneficiaries.
Objectives of farm forestry

• To supplement production of leaf fodder, fuel wood and small timber to meet the
increasing requirements of the villagers
• To release cow dung for use as manure
• To create diverse eco-system by having trees interspersed with agriculture.
• To help the development of cottage industries and add to the income of the farmer
from the sale of excess timber.
• To beautify the villages and country side.
Difficulties
Difficulties are mainly due to some objections put forward by farmers against farm-
forestry. The following are some of the objections:
(A) Objections against trees on the bunds

(1) Shading effect – The farmers object to raising of trees on bunds because they think that the
shade of trees would adversely affect agricultural crops. This objection can be removed by selecting trees
with attenuated foliage for farm forestry on field bunds. Besides, if trees whose foliage is used as fodder for
cattle, are planted, annual lopping would leave their crown so small as to have practically no shading effect.
(2) Root competition – Farmers fear that the trees would compete with agricultural crops for
moisture and nutrition. This objection can be met with by selecting trees with long tap root so that they draw
their moisture and nutrition from the deeper layers of the soil. Besides, a trench 0.5 to 1 m deep can be dug

round the trees to eliminate root competition because agricultural crops rarely draw sustenance from below
50 cm of the surface.
(3) Damage by birds – The farmers think that the birds will rest on the trees and damage the
agricultural crops. Though there is some truth in this argument, it is not realized that birds have beneficial
effects as well. Useful birds feed on crops but they destroy pests also. It is, however, necessary to investigate
in detail to find out the harmful birds and the tree species which harbor them so that they may be excluded
from farm forests.
(B) Objections against small forests on village wastelands or commons

(1) Reduction in grazing ground – The farmers feel that the raising of trees on village wastelands
and commons will reduce grazing ground for their cattle. But closure to grazing for raising trees would
rehabilitate them and the villagers would be allowed to cut grasses even when the area is closed. The species
selected for such areas should be light-crowned deep-rooted ones, so that they do not inhibit the growth of
grass, and, as far as possible, be fodder species as well.
(2) Animal damage to crops – The farmers feel that these forests would harbor wild life which will
damage the agricultural crops. This fear is also more imaginary than real because the small forests that
would be created in this way can hardly harbor any wild animals. However, pigs and rabbits may create
some trouble. If a clear-cut policy to keep them out is firmly pursued, there.
The End
Slivicultural Characteristics
TERAI SPECIES MOBILE NUMBER MID HILLS SPECIES MOBILE NUMBER
Castonopsis indica (Dhale katus) 211113111 chilaune…….3
Khair (Acacia catechu) 111113241Sisoo ……………..1 Castonopsis hystrix (Patle katus) 211113111chilaune…….3
Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo) 111213241 Khair ………...…1 C. tribuloides (Musure katus) 211113111chilaune……..3
Saj (Terminalia Tomentosa) 111213241Sal…………..........1 Schima wallichi (chilaune) 221113111katus…………3
Sal (Shorea robusta) 123113241Saj. ……………….2 Michelia champaca (Champ) 213313111katus………....4
Kadam (A. Chinensis) 133313241sal…………………2 Tooni (Cederella toona) 213313211sal …………...4
Satisal (D. latifolia) 221213241 Sissoo Quercus incana (Sano banjh) 111313111 Rani salla…..6
Simal (Bombax ceiba) 131423241 Sal/khair Q. lamellose (Thulo phalant) 111313111 Rani salla…...6
Gamhari (Gmelina arborea) 122113231 Sal/khair Q. Semicarpifolia (Khasru) 111313111P. smithiana…6
Bot Dhainyaro (L.parviflora) 113114251 Sal Badahar ( Artocarpus lakoocha) 113113231 Katahar……..7
Tendu (D. melanoxylon) 111121251 L.parviflora Alnus nepalensis (Utis) 123113231 katus………...7
Barro (T. belerica) 132123211Sal………………...5 Pinus roxburghii (Rani salla) 111134151Oak.
Harro (T. chebula) 122123211Sal ………………..5 FODDER SPECIES MOBILE NUMBER
Haldu (Adina cordifolia) 132313251sal ………………..8 Babul (Acacia nilotica) 131343141 Khair
Sandan (O. dalbergoides) 144313251sal ……………….8 Kutmero(Litsea monopetala) 213313151 Sal………….12
Seto siris (Albizzia procera) 132213251kalo siris………...9 Khanyu (F. semicordata/cunia) 123313251 katus………..12
Kalo siris (A. lebbek) 112113251 Seto siris………..9 Koiralo (Bauhinia variegata) 111313251 Taki………...13
Neem (Azadirachta indica) 131313111 Bakaino………..10 Tanki (Bauhinia purpurea) 211313251 B. verigata...13
Bakaino (Melia azedarch) 111313211 Neem …………..10 Kimbu ( Morus alba) 323313231 Juglans
EXOTIC SPECIES MOBILE NUMBER Daincha (Sesbania grandiflora) 131313251 Sal
P. deltoids (lahare people) 111314231Morus alba Dabdabe ( Garuga pinnata) 133113251 Sal………….14
Populus ciliate (Bangikot) 111443211deodar Dudhilo (Ficus nemoralis) 113113251Katus……….14

Auri (Acacia auriculiformis) 133313141 A. mangium HIGH HILL SPECIES MOBILE NUMBER
Pinus caribea (caribbean pine 131233111Haemathoxylum Pinus wallichiana (gobre salla) 113133111Deodar
Pinus patula (Patula salla) 141334111Acer…………………11 Juglans regia (Okhar) 1134132410ak
G. robusta (Kangiyo) 141344111 oak spp…………..11 Abies pindrow (fir) 313334111 Juglans ……15
Teak (Tectona grandis) 133114211 Khair Taxus baccata (Himalayan yew) 311334111 Tsuga dumosa...15
C. camphora (Kapur) 113213111 C. cassia Picea smithiana (spruce/jhulle salla) 111333111Deodar……..16
Eucalyptus spp.(masala) 111413131 teak Cedrus deodar 114333111 P. wallichina….16
L. leucocephala (Ipil Ipil) 131213131 Casuarina spp. Juniper incana (Dhupi) 211114111fir
Cassia siamea (Kassod) 134314111 Sal (in hetauda) Tsuga dumosa (Thingure salla) 311314111fir
C. equisetifolia (Iron wood) 131333151 leucaena sp. Cupressus torulosa (Agar Dhupi) 211331111 deodar
Betula utilis (Bhojpatra) 111313211 laligurash
Rhododendron arboretum 114114111 Bhojpatra
Bamboo =122313152. (Bamboo are mostly evergreen) Uses: Alu tama (�� ) in Nepalii, construction, weapon, musical instruments, ladders,
soil conservation, pulp and paper etc. Bambusa and dendrocalamus species of bamboos are best for fodder.
Rattan: 231004152. Rattan is a naturally renewable palm that grows in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Australasia, and is used for furniture,
handicrafts, and building material among others. Rattan continues to be an invaluable part of rural people's livelihoods in South and Southeast Asia.
Mobile number password (LFDF CBTSRA)

LIGHT FROST DROUGHT FIRE COPPICE BROWSING T.N. SOIL ROOT As
1.LD 1. FH 1.DH 1.FR 1.Well 1.BH 1.E. 1.Acidic 1. T SO
2. MLD 2.MFH 2.MDH 2.MFR 2. Fair 2MBH 2. D. 2. Basic 2. A CI
AT
3. SB 3.FS 3.DS 3.FS 3.NC 3. BS 3. Neutral ES
4.YSBMH 4.YSBMH 4.YSBMH 4.PW 4. N.P 4.Alluvial
 Prepared by: Deepak Gautam (Faculty,IOF,Pokhar) 5.WROS
UNIT: 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction:
Silviculture is the branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development and reproduction of
forests. Silvics, the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees and crops with particular
references to environment factors as the basis for the practice of silviculture. (Khanna, 1999). Silviculture is
designed to create and maintain the kind of forest that will best fulfill the objectives of the owner and the
governing society. (Smith et al., 2010). Note: Refer L.S. Khanna book for more details.
Objective of silvilculture: The objective of study and practice of silvilculture is to produce more
useful and valuable forests to meet our requirements in a shorter time. According to Knanna,1999.
The major objectives of sliviculture are as follows:
1. Production of species of economic value: The production of timber species of economic value per
unit area is low. If the forests have to produce timber of industrial and economic importance, it is
necessary to study and practice of silvilculture so that we can produce only the desired species.
2. Production of more volume per unit area: In the virgin forest the crop is generally either very
dense or very open. Both these extremes are unsuitable for quantitative production. The study and
practice of silviculture helps in raising sufficient trees per unit area right from the beginning to fully
utilize the soil and as they grow up gradually reduce their number so that the requirement of light and
food of the remaining tree is met. In this way silvilculture helps to bring the production of more timber
per unit area on a sustained basis.

3. Production of high quality timber: In the unmanaged forest because of much competition a large
number of trees become crooked, malformed, diseased and defective. Silvilculture techniques help to
avoid these problems and to produce timber of a very high quality. Thus knowledge of silvilculture is
essential to ensured disease free timber production.
4. Reduction of rotation period: Rotation is the planed period of time expressed in years between the
regeneration of a crop to its final felling. In unmanaged forests rotation tend to be longer because the
growth of individuals’ tree is retarded. There is intense competition and it takes the trees a longer time
to attain an exploitable size. With the knowledge and practical application of silvilcultural techniques
density of the crop can be properly regulated and consequently the rate of growth increased and
rotation reduced.
5. Raising forest in blank areas: In nature a large number of areas potentially suitable for tree
growth, remain blank due to certain adverse factors inhibiting growth of trees. Silvilcultural skills and
techniques help in raising forest in such areas.
6. Creation of plantation: Plantations may be created in place of natural forest. This can be brought
about under conditions where the natural forest has failed to regenerate itself or when the existing
forest is too slow growing for exploiting its potential to the optimum extent possible.
7. Introduction of exotics: Knowledge of silvilculture is highly beneficial for the successful
introduction of exotic species for industrial environmental or related purpose e.g. Eucalyptus, Populus
and Teak etc.
1.1 Tree Improvement (Introduction/ objectives/importance):
 Simply, it is the application of the genetic principle to increase the value of the trees.
 Tree improvement is a silvicultural practice designed to produce more desirable trees or their
products. It is an essential tool of silviculture.
 It is an application of forest genetic principles and practices into a general forest management
operation.
 Tree improvement increases the value of a tree species by
i. Selecting the most desirable tree from natural stands or plantation.
ii. Breeding the selected trees
iii. Testing the resulting progeny (offspring).
Objectives and importance of tree improvement:

 To determine the quantity of yields from the trees.
 To increase the growth rate of the species.
 To develop pests and diseases free species.
 To determine the best species for plantation in a given area.
 To determine the amount and causes of variability within species.
 To enhance the mass production of the individuals for the reforestation purpose.
 To develop and maintain a genetic base population and enough for advanced generation.
 To increases the survival capacity of the species.
 To increase the genotype and phenotype strong of the stands.
 To produce the desirable quality and quantity of the forest products in a sustainable way.
A tree improvement process is divided into four major stages:

i. Selection of desirable species.

ii. Selection of desirable provenances (grow good from seeds or vegetative parts) with a species.
iii. Selection of desirable families and individuals with in a provenances
iv. Controlled breeding include recombination and hybridization
Difficulties in tree improvement program

 Seeds are not always readily available.
 Trees are long lived.
 A lack of knowledge about desired future tree is one of the major problem.
 It is a long term process so it requires good permanent records.
 Tree improvement cannot respond quick change in marked demand etc.
1.2 Silvics and its importance:
 Silvics is the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees and crops with
particular reference to environmental factors, as the basis for the practice of silviculture.
 Thus, Silvics implies the study of the trees and forests as biological units, the laws of their
growth and development and the effect of the environment on them. It explains the natural laws
of their growth and development and their behavior in a given set of environmental conditions.
Though a lot of information on silvics has been collected by experiments, observations and
experience of earlier foresters, a lot more information is yet to be collected to explain the
unsolved complexities in the lives of trees and crops and the natural laws governing their
reproduction, growth and development.
 The knowledge gathered in silvics is applied to the production and care of forest crops. Thus the
practice of sliviculture is applied silvics. It deals with the procedure of obtaining natural
regeneration under the various silvicultural systems, artificial regeneration of various species
and methods of tending young crops, whether natural or artificial, to help them to grow into
forests of quality timber and great economic value (Khanna, 1999).
Importance of silvics/silviculture
 Production of species of economic value
 Production of large volume per unit area
 Production of quality of timber
 Reduction of rotation
 Raising forest in blank areas
 Creation of manmade forest in place of natural
 Introduction of exotics etc.

Note: Refer L.S. Khanna's book for more details. (Page no: 1- 4)
UNIT: 2. TREE IMPROVEMENT

2.1 Provenance test:
 Tree improvement program involves all practices designed to produce genetically superior trees.
The most important step in any tree improvement program is the right choice of the species followed by the selection of
suitable provenance (place of origin). It is necessary to conduct species and provenance tests before making the right
choice of species and provenance for a specific site.
 Provenance tests is the plantation of nursery grown seedlings collected from the different identified seed
stands of certain species of the country which have almost similar type of edapho climatic condition under tree
improvement program to increase the over all production.
 For provenance tests, seeds are collected from genetically superior trees of selected natural forest or artificial
plantation seed stands from different regions of the country and are germinated in the nursery, selected
seedlings are planted in statistical design with not less than 100 seedling in each plot
 One or two extra rows plantation is also done around the trial plots as a wind break and for other protection
point of view.
 Regular systematic recording of different parameters like height, diameter, branching patterns, bole form and
disease pests is done for up to its rotation period or at least half of the rotation period.
 Finally statistical analysis is done and concludes on the basis of the significance results of the particular
provenance.
Important steps in provenance test

1. Survey of species distribution
2. Delineation (demarcation) of provenances (place of origin)
3. Seed collection
4. Plant production
5. Establishment of provenance trials (test).
6. Evaluation of trials
7. Information about best provenances for each site.
Factors governing choice of provenance: (locality factors)

 Climatic factors : (matching between the site of origin and potential site of introduction)
 Edaphic factors: (Properties)
 Topographic factors: (Slope, aspects etc.)

 Biological factors : (Neighboring plants)
 Others: Growing seasons, day length and phonology (seasonal activities of plants) etc.
2.2 Sources /causes of Variation:

Variation: By common observation we all know that children only resemble their parents, they are not
identical. These differences shown by the individuals of a species are termed as variation.
 The variation can be successfully utilized for the adaptability of a species to a particular area. E.g cold hardness,
drought resistance etc.
 The variations can help in checking the epidemic caused by insect damage, to check pathogens or a virus attack and in
the selection of suitable genotype for different use of species.
 First thing to do for tree improvement program is to determine the amount, cause and nature of variation that is present
in the species of interest and learn how to use it.
Causes/sources of Variations:
(a)Environment:
• Depending on environment there are xerophytes, hydrophytes species.
• Teaks have also different races suitable for dry areas and wet areas.
• Due change in environment, races and ecotypes are developed to become adaptive to that particular
environment.
(b) Geographic:
• Longitude, latitude and altitude bring changes in species.
• As altitude change species remain same but genotypes charges to adapt.
© Man Made Variation:

• Clear felling in large area causes gene erosion.
• Introduction of new variations to recover the area.
• Variation also created during the process of research and trials.
(d) Genetic:
• The change in gene frequency from one generation to another brings greater variability.
• These variations are caused by
(i)Mating system: Cross-pollination increases heterozygous population

: Self pollination increases homozygous population.
(ii)Mutation: It is sudden change in genotypes

: It helps in maintaining variability in species.
(iii)Gene Flow: Migration of gene from one population to another through crossing is called gene flow.
Gene migration takes place either through seeds or introducing of trails, when the out crossing takes place
with the original population.
(iv) Polyploidy: The condition in which a normally diploid cell or organism acquires one or more
additional sets of chromosomes. Polyploidy is common among plants and has been, in fact, a major source
of speciation in the angiosperms. Note: Normally a hybrid is sterile because it does not have the required
homologous pairs of chromosomes for successful gamete formation during meiosis.
2.3 Seed production area and seed stands
 Those areas where stands are specifically managed for seed production.
 Those areas in which stands are specially planted for seed production or existing stands are specially managed for
seed production.
 The term seed production areas and seed stands are generally referred to as "A plus stand that is generally
upgraded and opened by removal of undesirable tree and then cultured for early and abundant seed production.
 These two terms are often treated in different context. In some countries the term "seed stand" refers to a plantation
forest where as "seed production area" are special natural forests. Here both are managed for seed production.
 In some countries, however seed production area is preferred term for plantation forest which is managed for seed
production.
Development of seed production area (SPA) from existing natural forest:

1. Survey the potential area. (Details of the area)
2. Stand should produce sufficient vigorous seeds. (Stands should be mature but not too old)
3. Large number of stands having good phenotype should be there.
(150-200 stands per ha should be kept after removing other stands)
4. Stand should be free from pests and diseases.( to reduce inferior seeds)
5. Stands should produce sufficient flowers and seeds.
6. Area should be easily accessible. (flat and well drained not too far)
7. Selected stand should not be commercially harvesting. (maintain for many years)
8. Size of the seed production area should be sufficient. (at least 2 ha)
9. Pollen dilution zone should be made (open area of least 200m) etc.
10. Sivicultural management should be carried out time to time ( safe from fire, diseases and unwanted competition)
Development of SPA from plantation forests.

1. Site selection (best site should be selected)
 SPA should represent similar environmental condition where plantation is done.
 Size of the seed production area should be sufficient
 Isolation from pollen contamination.
2. Seed source:
 Provenance should be appropriate
 Seed should be adopted
 In most species stem should be straight and branch quality should be good.
3. Site preparation:
 Plantation area should be free of vegetation cover
 Less chance of weed invasion
 Easy for soil work
4. Spacing:
 Planted seed production area should be established at close spacing.
 For example: initial spacing of 3m x 2 m is appropriate of most tropical eucalyptus. For acacia: 4m x 2m or 3m x 3m is
best.
 Initial high stocking rates allow and early selective thinning so that trees of the best vigor and form can be retained.
5. Fertilization:
 Types of fertilization and rate should be known.
 Complete fertilizer i.e NPK fertilizer is recommended at the rate of 100g per seedling, in a ring radius 30cm around the
stem.
 Fertilizer should be applied one month after plantation.
 Selection of tree for seed production areas: Predominant (tallest) and co-dominant (5/6 of predominant) trees having
following characters should be selected:
1. Fast growing and relatively straight and cylindrical bole.
2. Free from insects, pests and diseases
3. Thin branches with wide branch angle (900 is the best)
4. Good self pruning
5. Good crown development.
6. Phenotipically superior (plus tree)
7. High wood density and long fibers.
8. High yielding and having good health
9. Vigorous flowering and sufficient seed producing.
10. Mature (middle age), not influenced even by strong winds etc.
 Management of seed production areas:
Seed production area should be properly managed and maintained to ensure full potential of seed
production capacity.
1. Removal of the cut materials: after thinning remove all cut materials which reduce potential danger of pests and forest
fire.
2. Weeding: unwanted undergrowth should be controlled by regular hand weeding or by careful application of herbicides.
3. Control of coppice growth: For strong coppicing species like eucalyptus, it is necessary to kill the stumps of cut trees
to discourage growth.
4. Fertilization: Fertilization should be used in conjunction with the opening of the stands by thinning, which increase
tree vigor and helps in development.
5. Stand demarcation: External boundaries of the seed production area should be marked. A permanent sigh should be
constructed or made which helps for easy management.
6. Protection: Adequate fire break (10m wide or more) should be established around the areas. Necessary fencing should
be done if there is chance of damage by domestic animals, wild animals and human activities.
2.4 Plus tree and elite tree selection:

Candidate tree: A tree that has been tentatively selected for inclusion in a breeding program but has not
been compared with surrounding trees.
Plus tree: A phenotypically superior but untested tree.
Elite tree: Selected trees that have proven to be genetically superior through progeny test. "Winner tree".
Where to select plus/elite trees? Selection is carried out in natural stands or preferably in plantation.
Certain considerations of importance in the choice of the site for selection are identified below:
i. From pure species composition
ii. Having good characters
iii. From even aged
iv. Mature stand (near to maximum height)
v. No logging and harvesting areas (if possible)
vi. Having good grading
vii. Based on the variation of the stands
Selection methods

1. Mass selection-trees selected from plantations based on their phenotypes. Used when the heridity of the
tree is unknown.
2. Family selection-entire families are selected based on their average phenotypic performance.
3. Sib selection-individuals selected on the basis of their siblings.
4. Progeny testing-parent trees are selected based on the performance of their progeny.
5. Within family selection-individuals selected on the basis of their deviation from the family mean. Rarely
used.
Selection criteria:
Different species have by nature different architecture. Selection traits may vary between different
species and improvement programmes. However, timber species to be cultivated in plantations
share a number of desired features. The ideal plantation tree has following characteristics:
 Straight, cylindrical, non-forking, non-twisting bole.
 Fast growing having narrow crown
 Thin branches with wide branch angles
 High wood density and long fibres
 Resistance to pest and diseases.
 It should be genetically and phenotypically superior.
 High yielding, high productive and very good in health.
 Should be straight, less branching with handsome crown.
 Should be mature (middle aged), not be stag headed.
 Vigorous flowering and fruiting.
Steps in plus tree selection

1. Mapping of area and stand
 Selected trees will be demarcated on the map.
 The map is covered with plastic sheets with coordinates to facilitate location and demarcation of
selects.
2. Site description.
 In case of homogenous environment this may be carried out as representative for the whole area.
 In case of a heterogeneous area, site evaluation is conducted for each selected tree.
Parameters include topography, soil, aspects, wild exposure and stand (natural or planted)
3. Selection and marking of trees

 Candidate trees are marked and graded. The mark should be distinct and conspicuous.
 The tree is marked with a number, which corresponds to that in the grading sheet and on the
map.
 Yellow, red or white paint should be used for numbers.
4. Grading of the trees

The candidate trees are measured and graded against comparison/check trees
a) Height
b) DBH (Diameter at Breast Height, 1.3m)
c) Crown Diameter  A narrow crown is desired. The diameter of the crown is estimated by
projecting the outermost branches to the ground.

d) Bole form Deviation from the desired ideal straight, cylindrical bole is evaluated. Following
observations are made. 1. Basal sweep 2. Bole swellings 3. Bends and twists
4. Leaning 5. Trunk curves 6. Circularity
e) The branch angle A wide angle is desired
f) Branch diameter. Small branch diameters are desired.
g) Self pruning ability
 A long clear bole is desired. The presence of old branches, epicormic branches are assessed
h) Forking A non-forking clear bole is desired.
i) Tree health: If the tree shows any major signs of the following pests, diseases or attack, it
should be rejected
1. Sign of dead top or thin crowns
2. Nibbles, galls and discoloring of leaves and shoots
3. Major leaf or needle fall not coinciding with natural shedding.
4. Knots or tumors on trunk and branches.
5. Scars, soft (rotten) spots, discoloring bark etc.
6. Any visible fungus attack.
7. Insect borings of wood
8. Any other visible insect or pest attack
j) Wood properties
k) Photos of trees
Some tree grading sheets include photos of the selected trees. It should represent the real scenario
of the stand including all parts as far as possible and one can recognize the tree by seeing the photo.
2.5 Seed orchards: (types establishment and management)
 A plantation established for the production of high quality seeds/vegetative parts from the superior
trees.
 Seed orchard is defined as plantation of genetically superior trees isolated to reduce pollination from
genetically inferior ones and intensively managed to produce frequent abundant and easy harvested
seed. It is established by setting out clones or seedling progeny for plus trees (Knanna, 1993)
 Seed orchard is a special type of plantation consisting of colons or seedlings from selected trees,
which are isolated to reduce pollination from outside sources. The seed orchards could be
categorized into different types depending on the materials used for its establishment.
Types of seed orchards:
1. Clonal seed orchard:
 Seed orchard which has been raised from the vegetative parts of the plus trees.
 Seed orchard raised from selected clones propagated by grafting, budding, air-layering or
rooting of cuttings.
 Orchard established with vegetative parts such as grafts, cuttings or tissue culture raised plants.
Such orchard established with untested clones is known as first generation orchard. Clonal
orchards develop with genetically tested clones (elite clone) is called advanced generation
orchard.
2. Seedling seed orchard:

 Seed orchard which has been raised from the seedlings from seeds of plus trees.
 Seed orchard raised from seedlings produced from selected parent's seeds, which are either open
pollinated (half sib) or controlled pollinated (full sib).
 Orchard established with seedlings progeny followed by removing of inferior families as well as
inferior individuals within family.
3. Extensive seedling seed orchard:

 Stands established from a balanced mixture of seeds from at least 60 good parents and gradually
culled (select desirable parts/plants from a group). The family is not retained (maintained) in the
field (simple level BSO).
Process of seed orchard establishment:

Seedling seed orchard establishment Clonal seed orchard establishment
(process) (process)
1.Selection of plus trees 1.Selection of plus trees
2.Collection of seeds 2. Extraction of vegetative parts from plus
3.Establishement of seedlings from seeds trees.
4. Progeny test and evaluation 3.Establishement of seedlings from vegetative
5. Removal of inferior families and individual parts
within family. 4. Progeny test and evaluation
6. Seedlings seed orchard established 5. Removal of inferior families and individual
7. Seed for plantation. within family.
6. Clonal seed orchard established
7. Seed for plantation.
Establishment of seedling seed orchard:

1. Select accessible areas and size (minimum 2.5 to 5 ha)
2. Area should be flat, well drained and fertile & less affected by animals and climatic hazards.
(Plough the site and level properly (if possible)
3. Removal all weeds and bushes & maintain sanitation for fire hazard
4. Demarcate the boundary and fence the area
5. Square or rectangular block should be made
6. Dig a pit of optimum size (0.45 x 0.45mx0.45m to 0.9m x 0.9mx0.9m)
7. Plant the tested seedlings with good soil and farm yard manure.
8. The space between the plants varies from species to species. Generally (4m x 4m to 8m x 8m for tropical
species)
9. 100- 200m pollen dilution zone should be made.
10. Silvicultural operations should be done time to time. (weeding, thinning, cleaning , pruning etc)
Seed orchard management:

1. Area: Should be accessible, sufficient and watchable.
2. Soil: By protecting the floor of the orchard from water and wind erosion.
3. Fertilization: Supply and maintain sufficient organic fertilizers. If possible grow fast growing leguminous
plants.
4. Irrigation: Supply the sufficient water to the plants. Irrigate orchard at young age to maintain good growth
and vigor.
5. Pest control: Control diseases and pests when they appear by spraying insecticides and fungicides.
6. Weeding: keep the floor of the orchard leveled and clean for easy collection of seeds.
7. Pruning: Dead and diseased branches of the plants should be removed by pruning.
8. Thinning: If the numbers of plants are more than required, than remove unwanted plants. 5D.
9. Fire: firing may be fatal for many plants so the area should be well sanitized. Control firing can be done to
control dry wastes and unwanted bushes.
10. Keep complete weather records.
Q. Introduce Simal with its silvicultural characteristics and uses. (6m)

1. Bombax Ceiba
Introduction
The botanical name of Simal is Bombax ceiba, which lies in Malvaceae family. It is commonly
known as cotton tree. The habitat of Bombax ceiba is fresh alluvial deposits along the bank
of rivers and stream. It is common in dry as well as mixed deciduous dry or moist forest and mixed
evergreen forests found between 200 m to 1400 m elevation.
Major silvicultural characteristics are:
 Light: It is strong light demander.
 Frost: It is frost tender species.
 Drought: It is drought resistance species.
 Fire: Seedlings are burnt back by fire but pole is resistance to the damage of fire.
 Coppice: Coppice well early stage but not later.
 Browsing: Browsing sensitive.
 Tree nature: It is moderate to large size deciduous tree
 Soil pH: It can best grow on deep alluvial soil near river banks.
 Root system: Tap root but produce abundant root suckers. Have large buttress roots.
 Main associates: Shorea robusta, Acacia catechu, Adina cordifolia etc.
Some uses are:

 In Nepal, Bombax is used mainly for match manufacture
 Seeds yield oil used as a substitute for cotton-seed oil in soap making, illuminants, etc.
 The tree is used as an avenue tree for its beautifully hued flowers during splendid looks.
 Leaves are lopped, medium yielding medium quality fodder.
Compiled by Deepak Gautam @2015 and updated @2018
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1.1 Definition and objectives of silviculture:

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

1.2 Some important terms of silviculture

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

1.3 Relation of silviculture with forestry and its other branches

Silviculture and Forest Protection

Silviculture and Forest Mensuration

Silviculture and Forest Utilization

Silviculture and Forest Economics

Silviculture and Forest Management

Silviculture and Forestry

UNIT 2: LOCALITY (ENVIRONMENTAL) FACTORS

2.2 Climatic Factors

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

 Photosynthesis – Light is the most important factor of locality for photosynthesis as it

Factors affecting temperature (landform)

Importance of temperature (Air temperature)

Soil temperature – Soil temperature influences trees in the following ways:

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Importance of moisture in physiological activities

(a) Direct harmful effects

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

2.3 Topographic Factors

Topographic factors may be classified into:

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

2.4 Edaphic Factors

(a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Various soil groups:

Importance of soil texture

Importance of soil structure

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Soil porosity is of two kinds:

Non-capillary porosity – It is the air space in a soil at field moisture capacity.

Importance of soil porosity

(b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Important chemical properties of soil:

1.Cation Exchange Capacity

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

• pH value affects the availability of nutrients.

2.5 Biotic Factors

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Influence of man and his animals

UNIT 3: CONCEPT OF PLANT SUCCESSION

How does it take place?

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

Evolution of the concept of plant succession

Basic features of the concept of plant succession

Compiled by: Deepak Gautam, IOF, TU

The following are some typical examples of primary Succession: