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Multiplexer - A digital logic circuit which is capable of accepting several inputs and another is named in representative design using

using a replacement operator. The


generating a single output is known as multiplexer or MUX. Thus, the multiplexer is statement is R2←R1
a type of data selector which takes many inputs and gives a selected output. In a It indicates a transfer of the content of register R1 into register R2. It labelled a
multiplexer, there are 2n input lines and 1 output line, where n is the number of replacement of the content of R2 by the content of R1. The content of the source
select lines. Therefore, a multiplexer is a combinational circuit which is designed to register R1 does not shift after the transfer.
switch one of the many input lines to a single output line by the use of a control
signal. For this reason, the multiplexer is also referred to as a many to one circuit. Computer registers are high-speed memory storing units. It is an element of the
computer processor. It can carry any type of information including a bit sequence
Demultiplexer - A digital combinational circuit which takes one input signal and or single data. A register should be 32 bits in length for a 32-bit instruction
generates multiple output signals is known as demultiplexer or DEMUX. As it computer. Registers can be numbered relies upon the processor design and
distributes a single input signal over many output lines, hence it is also referred to language rules. The instructions in a computer are saved in memory locations and
as a type of data distributor In a demultiplexer, there is only 1 input line and 2n implemented one after another at a time. The function of the control unit is to
output lines. Where, n denotes the number of select lines. Therefore, it can be fetch the instruction from the memory and implement it. The control does the
noted that a demultiplexer reverses the operation of a multiplexer. similar for all the instructions in the memory in sequential order. A counter is
needed to maintain a path of the next instruction to be implemented and evaluate
Encoder - is a device which converts an original message into a coded its address. The figure shows the registers with their memories. The memory
message. It is a combinational circuit that applies logic on the input signal and addresses are saved in multiple registers. These requirements certainly state the
convert it into a binary code. Encoder takes the input signals and perform use for registers in a computer.
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication or division converting it into
a Binary coded Decimal (BCD). The input is given in multiple lines generally The T flip-flop is also called toggle flip-flop. It is a change of the JK flip-flop. The T
represented as 2n input lines. Here, 2n represents the maximum number of input flip flop is received by relating both inputs of a JK flip-flop. The T flip-flop is received
lines it can encode. Then some logic is applied on them and convert it into a binary by relating the inputs ‘J’ and ‘K’. When T = 0, both AND gates are disabled.
code of n output lines. These output lines act as a source of input lines for Therefore, there is no change in the output. When T= 1, the output toggles.
decoders. The diagram demonstrates the circuit diagram of a T flip-flop.

Decoder - is a device that converts the binary code signals into its original form. It is
a combinational circuit that reverses the encoder operation.
The output of Encoder, that is binary coded Decimal (BCD) is the input for the
decoder. It removes the logic encoded by the encoder and converts it into the
original signal. The input is given in n number of lines. This then decodes it and J-K flip-flop - can be treated as an alteration of the S-R flip-flop. J represents SET,
gives the output in 2n lines. Here, 2n represents the AND logical gate is used by and 'K' represents CLEAR. In the JK flip-flop, the ‘S’ input is known as the ‘J’ input,
decoders. Some of the decoders also use NAND gate. Decoders are complex to and the ‘R’ input is known as the ‘K’ input. The output of the JK flip-flop does not
understand as they have to understand the logic applied by the encoder. modify if both ‘J’ and ‘K’ are ‘0’. If both the inputs are ‘1’, then the output dial to its
free.
The K-map is a systematic way of simplifying Boolean expressions. With the help of
the K-map method, we can find the simplest POS and SOP expression, which is
known as the minimum expression. The K-map provides a cookbook for
simplification. Just like the truth table, a K-map contains all the possible values of
input variables and their corresponding output values. However, in K-map, the
values are stored in cells of the array. In each cell, a binary value of each input
variable is stored. The SR flip flop is a 1-bit memory bistable device having two inputs, i.e., SET and
The K-map method is used for expressions containing 2, 3, 4, and 5 variables. For a RESET. The SET input 'S' set the device or produce the output 1, and the RESET
higher number of variables, there is another method used for simplification called input 'R' reset the device or produce the output 0. The SET and RESET inputs are
the Quine-McClusky method. In K-map, the number of cells is similar to the total labeled as S and R, respectively. The SR flip flop stands for "Set-Reset" flip flop. The
number of variable input combinations. For example, if the number of variables is reset input is used to get back the flip flop to its original state from the current
three, the number of cells is 23=8, and if the number of variables is four, the state with an output 'Q'. This output depends on the set and reset conditions,
number of cells is 24. The K-map takes the SOP and POS forms. The K-map grid is which is either at the logic level "0" or "1". The NAND gate SR flip flop is a basic flip
filled using 0's and 1's. The K-map is solved by making groups. flop which provides feedback from both of its outputs back to its opposing input.
This circuit is used to store the single data bit in the memory circuit.
Instruction codes are bits that instruct the computer to execute a specific
operation. An instruction comprises groups called fields. These fields include: An
instruction comprises groups called fields. These fields include:
The Operation code (Opcode) field determines the process that needs to perform.
The Address field contains the operand's location, i.e., register or memory location.
The Mode field specifies how the operand locates.
The instruction code is also known as an instruction set. It is a collection of binary
codes. It represents the operations that a computer processor can perform. The
structure of an instruction code can vary.
The D flip-flop is a clocked flip-flop with a single digital input 'D'. Each time a D flip-
Instruction code - A program consisting of the memory unit of the computer flop is clocked, its output follows the state of 'D'. The D Flip Flop has only two
includes a series of instructions. The program is implemented on the computer by inputs D and CP. The D inputs go precisely to the S input and its complement is used
going through a cycle for each instruction. In the basic computer, each instruction to the R input. Considering the pulse input is at 0, the outputs of gates 3 and 4 are
cycle includes the following procedures − at the 1 level and the circuit cannot convert state regardless of the value of D. The
It can fetch instruction from memory. D input is sampled when CP = 1. If D is 1, the Q output goes to 1, locating the circuit
It is used to decode the instruction. in the set state. If D is 0, output Q goes to 0, and the circuit switches to a clear
It can read the effective address from memory if the instruction has an indirect state.
address.
It can execute the instruction.
After the following four procedures are done, the control switches back to the first
step and repeats the similar process for the next instruction. Therefore, the cycle
continues until a Halt condition is met. The figure shows the phases contained in
the instruction cycle.

Registers transfer define the storage area that influences the data and instructions.
It can send data and instructions from one register to another register, memory to
register, and memory to memory, the register transfer approach is used. This
register is used in the transmission of data and instructions between memory and
processors to implement the particular tasks. The data transfer from one register to

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