GEE2 – LIVING IN THE IT ERA

MODULE 1 – COMPUTER HARDWARE

I. Fundamentals of ICT

Computer: is an electronic device that operates

(works) under the control of programs stored in
its memory unit.

A computer is an electronic machine that processes

raw data to give information as output.

An electronic device that accepts data as input, and

transforms it under the influence of a set of special
instructions called Programs, to produce the
desired output (referred to as Information).

Fundamental Parts of a Computer

Computers are made up of a processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices.

Each computer receives input from a variety of devices, processes that data with
the CPU and memory, and sends results to some form of output.

Input Device is any unit used to enter or send data, instructions or commands, or
programs from a user or another computer system on the internet.

 Video Clip: YouTube: “CPU, memory, input & output” -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MMzdKTtUIFM&feature=youtu.be

Computers contain both hardware components and software applications.

a. Computer Hardware:

Computer hardware refers to the physical

parts of a computer and related devices. Internal
hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives,
and RAM. External hardware devices include
monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners.

The internal hardware parts of a computer are

often referred to as components, while external
hardware devices are usually called peripherals.
Together, they all fall under the category of computer
hardware.
The following are some of the most common and important input devices of a computer.
● The keyboard – is the most common input device
that is used to enter data for computer processing. It
accepts letters, numbers, and commands from the
user.

● Mouse – lets one select option from on-screen menus. It is used by moving it on a flat
surface, pressing its two buttons, and scrolling the
wheel that is located between the buttons.

o Trackball – it has a ball that can rotate using a finger or the palm to move the
pointer.

o Touchpad – also called a trackpad. It is a touch-sensitive pad that lets the user move
the pointer by touching and dragging his or her finger on the
pad.

● Microphone – allows a user to speak into the computer to input data and instructions.

o Headset – a combination of microphones and earphones.

● Light pen - is a pointing device, similar to that of a pen.

● Touch screen - is an electronic visual display that the user can control through simple
or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special
stylus/pen and-or one or more fingers.

● Digitizer - an input device that converts the analog signal from the television camera
into strings of binary digits that can be stored on a computer.

● Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR) - is a character-recognition technology used mainly

by the banking industry to streamline the processing and
clearance of cheques and other documents.

● Optical Character Reader (OCR) - used to read a printed text and preparation of
electricity bills, insurance premium, telephone bills.

● Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)-the process of capturing human-marked data from

document forms such as surveys and tests.

● Smart Card Readers (SCR) –a special type of card like device which contains an
integrated circuit chip embedded in it. A card with which we can exchange the data,
store it, and manipulate data.
● Bar Code Readers - used for reading bar coded data Bar Code and Reader scans a bar
code image by converting it into an alphanumeric value.

● Scanner – converts printed materials into a form the computer can use.

o Flatbed scanner – scanners that look like a miniature printer with a flip-up cover
protecting the glass platen. They are often built into multi-
function printers.

o Hand-held or portable scanners – portable scanners can be small enough to fit

inside one’s pocket.

● Digital camera – allows one to take pictures then transfer the photographed images to
the computer or printer instead of storing the images on the
traditional film.

o PC video camera – is a digital video camera that enables users to create a movie to
take still photographs electronically.

Output Device is any hardware component or unit used to display the result of the
computer and transmits information to one or more people.

The following are some of the most common and important output devices of a computer.

● Printer – an output device used to produce text and graphics on a medium such as
paper.
 o Impact printer – makes contact with the paper by pressing an inked ribbon against
the paper using a hammer or pins. Example: dot-matrix
o Non-impact printer – does not use a striking device to produce characters on the
paper, and because of this, the printer produces less noise. Example: laser printers
and inkjet printers

IMPACT PRINTERS

● Monitor – used to display text, graphics, and videos on a screen and view information
displayed by a program. It forms images in the form of tiny dots, known as pixels.

o Cathode Ray tube (CRT) – is a vacuum tube containing an electron gun at one end
and a fluorescent screen at another end.

o Liquid crystal display (LCD) – is a flat-panel display that

consists of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged
schematically between a couple of transparent electrodes and
two polarizing filters.

o Light-emitting diode (LED) – is a flat-panel display that uses light-emitting diodes

for backlighting. LED monitors are considered environment-
friendly and use lesser power than LCD and CRT.
● Speaker – allows one to hear music, voice, and other sounds. The signal the sound that
comes from a computer speaker is created by the computer’s sound card.

● Projector - is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and
reproduce them on a large, flat (usually lightly colored) surface.

The process-and-control part of a computer is commonly

known as the central processing unit or CPU. Some of the most popular CPUs are
manufactured by corporations such as Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices). A CPU
has at least a single core, although nowadays CPUs with multi-cores are common. A core is
the basic computing unit of a CPU. A CPU is also referred to as a processor. A common
measure of CPU performance is CPU frequency (also known as clock rate) expressed in
terms of Hertz or Hz. Common expressions of CPU frequency are in megahertz (MHz) which
is a million Hz or gigahertz (GHz) which is a billion Hz.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) - is a piece of

hardware that carries out the instructions of a computer
program. It performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and
input/output operations of a computer system.

The following are the components of the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
a. Control unit - regulates the operation of the entire machine, it fetches and interprets
instructions.

b. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) - performs mathematical and logical operations

c. Memory unit- stores programs, data, calculations, and results.

▪ ROM (Read Only Memory) – permanent memory
▪ RAM (Random Access Memory) – main memory. Stored information exists only as
long as power is applied to the computer.

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into a large number
of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from
zero to memory size minus one.
Types of memory that are commonly found in computers are:
 Registers
 Cache memory
 Primary or main memory (such as RAM, Random Access Memory)
 Secondary memory (such as hard drives)

A register is a temporary storage area built into a CPU. Some registers are used
internally and cannot be accessed outside the processor, while others are user-accessible.
Most modern CPU architectures include both types of registers.
Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that makes retrieving data
from the computer's memory more efficient. It acts as a temporary storage area that the
computer's processor can retrieve data from easily.
Primary memory is the main memory of the computer system. Accessing data from
primary memory is faster because it is an internal memory of the computer. The primary
memory is most volatile which means data in primary memory does not exist if it is not
saved when a power failure occurs.
The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is
non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off or until
this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory.
First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then the CPU can
access it.
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to
the computer are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as
external memory or auxiliary storage.

● Flash disk drive– a small portable storage device also known as pen drives, thumb
drives, or jump drives.

● Hard disk drive - non-volatile magnetic storage devices capable of remembering vast
amounts of data.

● Optical disc - is a computer storage disk that stores data digitally and uses laser beams
(transmitted from a laser head mounted on an optical disk drive) to read and write
data.
o Compact Disc
o Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD)
o Blu-ray Disc
 Capacity in computer memory is measured in bytes. One byte is made of 8 bits. A bit
is the smallest form of digital memory: it is either a zero or a one. Common expressions of
computer memory include kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MG), gigabytes (GB), and terabytes
(TB).

b. Mainstream Classes of Computers

 Desktop Computers
- characterized by the newest, high-performance CPUs
- can be used with the newest I/O devices
- it include personal computers (PCs) and workstations

 A PC can be defined as a small,

relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user. PCs
are based on the microprocessor
technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on
one chip.

 Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),

desktop publishing, software
development, and other such
types of applications that require
a moderate amount of computing
power and relatively high-
 quality graphics capabilities. It generally comes with a large, high-resolution
graphics screen, a large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a
graphical user interface. Most workstations also have mass storage devices
such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.

 Server Computers
- characterized by reliability, scalability, and throughput efficiency
- use previous generation CPUs which are more stable or reliable in their
performance
- it include business-class CPUs and supercomputers

 Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of

supporting hundreds or even
thousands of users
simultaneously. Mainframe
executes many programs
concurrently and supports much
simultaneous executions of
programs.

 Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available.

Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that
require an immense amount of
mathematical calculations
(number crunching). They are
used in weather forecasting,
scientific simulations,
(animated) graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear
energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).

 Embedded Computers.
- Characterized by price, ubiquity, minimal memory, and power consumption with
heat dissipation
- Needs to operate in various conditions
 - It include smartphones, tablets, digital cameras, wearables, microwaves,
automatic doors, Calculator, TV remote, Traffic lights, Digital watches , Mp3
player, video games consoles

An embedded computer, which is an integral component of most embedded systems,

is a combination of hardware and software that is designated to perform a highly
specific function.
An embedded system is a microprocessor-based computer hardware system with
software that is designed to perform a dedicated function, either as an independent
system or as a part of a large system. At the core is an integrated circuit designed to
carry out computation for real-time operations.

To know more about the examples and types of embedded systems, kindly access the link
https://www.itrelease.com/2018/07/examples-and-types-of-embedded-systems/.

Types of embedded system

 Real-time embedded system

Real-time systems are those which give a quick response to critical situations. They
are used in military, medical and industrial applications. Engineers working in these
systems have high demand is current days. To develop the real-time embedded system
we require timing analysis, multitasking design, debugging, cross-platform testing and
architecture design. In these systems, quick response is very important. Better
hardware is also used in these systems to avoid failure in performance. Real-time
systems control the external environment by input & output interfaces and sensors. The
external environment includes human and other animals. Some examples of real-time
embedded systems include:-
• Controlling heat, elevators, lights, and doors in buildings
• Robots
• Traffic control system including railway tracks, airspace, shipping lines, highways
• Radio, satellite and telephone communication
• Patient monitoring system
• Radiation therapy system in the hospital
• Computer games
• Multimedia systems which consist of video, audio, text and graphics interfaces
• Military usage that includes tracking, weapons, and command & control

 Standalone embedded system

This type of embedded system works for itself as a device without needing any
interconnected computer. It can take data in the form of analog or digital signals. This
system first process data and then outputs data by displaying on the screen. It can also
output data to any attached device. Examples of standalone embedded systems
include:-
• Microwave ovens
• Digital cameras
• Mp3 players
• Video game consoles
• Temperature measurement systems
 Networked embedded system

Networked embedded systems are those systems which are connected to the
network to give output to the attached resources. The devices in the networked
embedded system are connected to the network with network interfaces. The network
can be either a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN). The
connection in networked embedded systems can be wireless or wired. This embedded
system is fast and emerging its popularity over days. The embedded web server is that
which is connected to network devices and is controlled by the web browser also.
Example of this is the office security system. In office security system, different sensors
(light sensors, smoke sensors or motion detectors) are networked together through
LAN and controlled over the WAN (internet).

 Mobile embedded system

Mobile embedded systems are limited in resources including memory. Examples of

mobile embedded systems include:-
• Personal digital assistants (PDA)
• Cellular phones
• Mp3 players
• Digital cameras

 Small-scale embedded system

Small-scale embedded systems consist of 8-16 bit microcontroller. This system can
perform tasks at a small level. They have on-chip ROM and RAM. Small-scale systems
can be even activated by the battery. The tools used to develop small-scale embedded
systems are an editor, cross assembler, assembler and integrated development
environment (IDE). The purpose of this system is not computation but to control as a
computer embedded inside it. It behaves as a component of a computer and its function
is not to compute. The small-scale system is dedicated to some specific task. To apply
for the job as a small-scale embedded designer you need skills including data
communication, digital electronic design, control engineering, software engineering,
computer architecture, motors & actuators, analog electronic design, sensors &
measurement and IC design & measurement.

 Medium scale embedded system

This embedded system has 16-32 bit microprocessor or microcontroller with
external RAM and ROM They can perform medium to complex level works. The
integration between hardware and software is complex in these embedded systems.
Programming languages used to develop medium scale embedded systems include Java,
C, Visual C++, debugger, C++, RTOS, simulator, source code engineering tool and IDE.
 The designer of the medium scale embedded system should also know how to use
semaphores, queues, mailboxes, pipes, and sockets. Knowing the application
programming interface (API) in the RTOS tool for controlling microcontroller is also
necessary.

 Sophisticated embedded system

The embedded system which can do large-scale works with multiple 32-64 bit chips
is known as sophisticated embedded systems. They can perform distributed work on a
large scale. The complexity of hardware and software is very high in these systems. In
sophisticated embedded systems, hardware and software are assembled together on
large scale and designing of hardware products is also included in these systems.

Examples of embedded system

Some examples of embedded systems are below:-
• ATM
• Digital Cameras
• Microwave ovens
• Factory controllers
• Washing machine
• Calculator
• TV remote
• Traffic lights
• Digital watches
• Mp3 player
• video games consoles
• Printers
• GPS receivers
• Dishwashers
• Thermostats
• Anti-lock banking system
• Medical imaging

c. Trends in Computers

 Bandwidth and Latency

Bandwidth or throughput is simply the amount of information unit that is

processed per unit of time.

Example. The bandwidth of a computer memory refers to the processing or

transferring of bytes of data, as kilobytes or megabytes, which are measured in
megabytes per second.

Latency or response time is simply the time that elapses between that start and
end of a process or task.

Example: in computer memory, latency refers to milliseconds for a hard drive to

access data.

Video clip: YouTube - Internet Latency

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F1a-eMF9xdY

 Transistors technology

Transistor technology refers to the “process” of transistor creation, including

size and performance.

A transistor is the smallest physical component of a CPU that performs

computation, it allows us to store bits of 1 and 0.

Transistor size decreased from 1971 to 2006 from 10 micrometers to 0.09

micrometers, but measurements turned to nanometers after 2006. For
transistor performance, it improves its performance as its size decreases – that
is, smaller transistors can do more work than larger ones for the same or less
power supplied.

Video clip: YouTube - Transistors, How do they work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7ukDKVHnac4

d. How much memory or RAM should the computer have?

 This question depends on what programs you run on the computer and how many
windows and tabs are open at a time. A good idea is to look at the system requirements
of the programs you run on your computer and double that number. However, below is
the general recommendation for the amount of memory we suggest that today's (2019)
computers have.

 Minimum: 4 GB
 Recommended: 8 GB
 Excellent: 16 GB or more.

If any of these symptoms sound familiar to you, you may need to add computer
memory:

- Everyday tasks are plagued by poor or subpar performance

- Programs frequently stop responding
- Typing constantly involves waiting for your computer to catch up
- Clicking or selecting an icon has a delayed response
- Multitasking with more than one app or program is nearly impossible
- Working on spreadsheets slows your system to a crawl
- You get system notifications about low memory
- System updates stall productivity because your computer is slow
- You have display problems, like pulling up a page that either partially loads,
doesn't load at all, or shows a blank space where data should be.
- You try to open apps or documents and the system stops responding

Video clip: YouTube - How Much RAM Do You ACTUALLY Need? (2020),
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OT-qAQLGkGo