Engineering Experimentation

Lecture Notes

4. Computerized Data-Acquisition Systems ............................................................................................ 1

4.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 2
4.2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................... 3
4.2.1. Computer Systems for Data Acquisition ............................................................................... 3
4.2.2. Components of Computer Systems ....................................................................................... 3
4.2.3. Representing Numbers in Computer Systems ...................................................................... 5
4.3. DATA-ACQUISITION COMPONENTS ............................................................................................. 7
4.3.1. Multiplexers........................................................................................................................... 8
4.3.2. Basics of Analog-to-Digital Converters .................................................................................. 8
4.3.3. Practical Analog-to-Digital Converters ................................................................................ 10
4.3.4. Digital-to-Analog Converters ............................................................................................... 11
4.3.5. Simultaneous Sample-and-Hold Subsystems ...................................................................... 12
4.4. CONFIGURATIONS OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS ................................................................. 13
4.4.1. Internal single board plug-in systems ................................................................................. 13
4.4.2. External Systems ................................................................................................................. 14
4.4.3. Digital Connectivity.............................................................................................................. 15
4.4.4. Virtual Instruments.............................................................................................................. 16
4.4.5. Digital storage oscilloscopes ............................................................................................... 18
4.4.6. Data loggers ......................................................................................................................... 18
4.5. SOFTWARE FOR DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS .......................................................................... 19
4.5.1. Commercial Software Packages .......................................................................................... 20

4. Computerized Data-Acquisition Systems

Computers so facilitate the process of data acquisition that they are the appropriate tool for
a very broad spectrum of experiments. In this chapter we describe the basic components and
operation of computerized data-acquisition systems.

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4.1. INTRODUCTION
As in other aspects of technology, computers have had a major impact on the field of data
acquisition. Since the late 1950s, computers have been used to monitor, and in many cases to
control, the performance of large process plants such as refineries and chemical plants and to
acquire data in major testing programs such as the space pro­ gram. These systems were
extremely expensive and required highly skilled personnel to set them up. In the late 1960s,
lower-cost computer data-acquisition systems became available for smaller tests, but since
they were still difficult to set up and program, their use was limited. The appearance in the
late 1970s of the simple and reliable Apple II personal computer led to inexpensive and simple
data-acquisition systems that could readily be used for small experiments. Personal computer
systems (mostly using the Windows® operating system) are now so capable that they can be
used for a significant fraction of all engineering testing.
Computers significantly enhance the process of data acquisition, largely because of their
versatility and speed. Computers manage the acquisition of data from multiple sensors (at
high sampling rates if desired), save the data, manipulate and display the data, and, if
required, make use of the results to perform control functions. Figure 4.1 shows a block
diagram of a typical computerized data-acquisition system (DAS or DAQ) with eight channels
for the input signals. Although most transducers produce an analog voltage (at least after
signal conditioning), some transducers produce digital output. These signals do not pass
through the analog multiplexer and analog-to-digital converter but take a more direct path to
the computer (possibly through a digital multiplexer). The computer may be used to control
the process, either directly with digital signals or with analog signals from digital-to-analog
converters. The functions of these components will be discussed later in the chapter.

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4.2. COMPUTER SYSTEMS
4.2.1. Computer Systems for Data Acquisition
The computer systems most commonly used for data acquisition in experiments are personal
computers using the Windows® operating system. Sampling rates of over 10 million samples
per second are possible, and more than 3000 separate sensors can be sampled (although not
in the same system at the same time). Several major companies supply software and hardware
to make a personal computer into a data­ acquisition system, and some of the hardware is
available in low-cost generic form. Generally, a board is designed to plug into an interior bus
of a personal computer and a shielded box for connecting the transducers used for the
experiment. This board not only permits reading the output of various transducers, but also
has outputs for control of the experiment if required. By carefully selecting suppliers,
integrating the systems and software can be seamless, making implementation
straightforward. Hardware and software are also available for the Macintosh® personal
computer systems.
In some cases, the performance of personal computers is not sufficient, and higher
performance computers called workstations and servers are more suitable. Data-acquisition
hardware and software are readily available for these computers. These higher performance
systems often use operating systems such as Unix instead of Windows®.
For monitoring and controlling many production systems, specialized embedded computers
are used. Probably the most common embedded computers are those used for fuel control in
modern automobiles. However, embedded computer systems are used in a wide variety of
devices from medical imaging equipment to assembly-line robots.

4.2.2. Components of Computer Systems

Although some computers used in data acquisition are highly specialized (the engine­ control
computer in an automobile, for example), the computers normally used are quite standard
and have the following components:
• Central processing unit (CPU)
• Program (software)
• Random access memory (RAM)
• Mass storage systems
• Display
• User input device (keyboard, mouse, etc.)
• Printers and plotters

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 Figure 4.3 is a block diagram of these components.
The central processing unit (CPU) controls all aspects of computer system operation and
performs all of the arithmetic operations (multiplication, addition, etc.). The CPU operations
follow instructions contained in the user-provided program. The CPU also follows instructions
from the computer operating system programs and from built­ in programs.
Most personal computers have a single central processor, but may have similar processors
controlling certain peripheral devices, such as the display or keyboard. However, since there
is only one central processor, for the most part, computers execute instructions in a sequential
manner. That is, only one instruction can be executed at a time.
The program provides a set of instructions that cause a computer to perform a specific
function. The program is often known as software to distinguish it from the electronic and
mechanical components of the computer, known as hardware. Software may either be written
by the user completely, or it may be commercial software in which the user only specifies
certain inputs. In some cases (and commonly in the data-acquisition field), the user may
combine his or her own programming and commercial software.
The random-access memory is a subsystem of the computer that can store information
temporarily. In particular, it stores the program instructions and numerical data when the
computer is being operated. RAM is made up of purely electronic components with no moving
mechanical parts, and as a result, it can supply information to the central processor at a very
high rate (and store information at the same rate). The information in RAM can readily be
changed by the CPU. RAM is volatile, and all stored information is lost when the computer
power is interrupted. Consequently, pro­ grams and data are permanently stored in mass
storage devices. (See next paragraph.) There is normally another kind of memory in a
computer, read-only memory (ROM), used for permanent storage of information required by
the computer to operate. The user cannot normally modify information stored in ROM.
Mass storage devices are used to store large volumes of information, such as numerical data
and programs, in a permanent or semi-permanent form. The most common mass storage
device is the hard drive where information is stored in magnetic form on rotating metal discs.
Solid-state drives (SSD, or Flash Drives) in which information is stored on fixed semiconductors

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are now becoming common. However, manufacturers have made the hard drive a moving
target by continuously increasing speed, reliability, and capacity.
Another technology is the optical disk storage device. The primary advantage of these devices
(which are based on the same technology as that used in audio compact disks) is that they
store very large volumes of data. Optical disks can be used to store large databases such as
library indices and encyclopedias. They can also serve as an everyday medium for file storage.
The display (or monitor or screen) system usually uses a liquid crystal display (LCD). The display
shows the user a limited amount of information and is also used to prompt the user for
required input or actions.
The most common user input device is the keyboard. The user simply types required
information. However, a "mouse" or a similar device is often used to point to regions on the
screen to communicate with the computer. Some computers have what are known as touch
screens, in which the user can touch regions of the screen to communicate.
Usually, computers have some kind of printer in order to produce printed output (hard copy).
The method of printing depends on the quantity and quality of printing required. Optical
devices such as laser printers are common for all types of computers. Moderately priced ink
jet printers usually have the capability to print in color, which is often desirable in
experimental work.
Computers also have features that enable the user, optionally, to connect to other devices.
Inside the computer, it is possible to connect to the bus, a series of conductors connecting the
internal components of the computer. Outside the computer, there are generally plug
connections known as ports, which are connected to the bus internally. The components that
convert a computer to a computerized data-acquisition system connect either directly to the
bus or to one of the ports.

4.2.3. Representing Numbers in Computer Systems

While numbers used in the everyday world are normally represented in base 10 (decimal), it
is far more practical in computers to represent numbers in base 2 (binary). Information in
computers is stored in bistable devices called flip-flops, which can have two possible states.
One state is defined as "on" and is assigned a numerical value of 1, and the other state is
defined as "off” and is assigned a numerical value of 0. A series of flip-flops are required to
represent a number. For example, the binary number 1001, which corresponds to the decimal
number 9, can be represented in a computer using four flip-flops. Each of these flip-flops
represents a "bit" of the number. The leftmost "1" in the binary number 1001 is the most
significant bit (MSB). The rightmost "1" is the least significant bit (LSB). It is common in
computers to break long binary numbers up into segments of 8 bits, which are known as bytes.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between binary numbers and decimal numbers. For
example, the 4-bit binary number above can be used to represent the positive decimal
integers from 0 (represented by 0000) to 15 (represented by 1111). Example 4.1 shows how
to convert a binary number to decimal, and Example 4.2 shows how to convert a decimal
number to binary.

Example 4.1.

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Convert the 8-bit binary number 01011100 to decimal.
Solution: In moving from left to right, the bits represent 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21 and 20. Hence
to get the decimal equivalent, we simply have to add the contributions of each bit.

N10 = 0(27) + 1 (26) + 0(25) + 1(24) + 1(23) + 1(22) + 0(21) + 0(20)

= 0 + 64 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 0
= 92

Example 4.2.
Find the 8-bit binary number with the same value as that of the decimal number 92.
Solution: This problem can be solved by a series of divisions by 2:
Remainder
2/92 0
2/46 0
2/23 1
2/11 1
2/5 1
2/2 0
2/1 1
0
The answer is contained in the remainders. The top number is the least significant bit, and the
bottom number is the most significant bit. The answer is, thus, 1011100. However, we are
asked for an 8-bit number, so the most significant bit is 0 and the answer is N2 = 01011100

In Examples 4.1 and 4.2, binary numbers are used to represent positive decimal integers.
However, it is also necessary to represent negative numbers and floating­ point numbers (such
as 3.56 X 103). Special techniques are used to represent these numbers.
Negative numbers are most commonly represented inside computers by a technique known
as 2's complement. As noted above, 4 bits can be used to represent the decimal integers 0 to
15. These same 4 bits can alternatively be used to represent numbers from - 8 to +7. The
positive numbers from 0 to 7 are represented by the three least significant bits, ranging from
0000 to 0111. The negative numbers from - 8 to -1 are represented by the binary numbers
1000 to 1111, respectively. For positive numbers, the most significant bit is always 0, while it
is always 1 for negative numbers. To convert a negative decimal integer to 2's-complement
binary, the following procedure can be followed:

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 1. Convert the integer to binary as if it were positive.
2. Invert all of the bits-change 0's to 1's and 1's to 0's.
3. Add 1 LSB to the final result.
This process is demonstrated in Example 4.3. While 2's complement may appear to be an
awkward method to represent negative numbers, computers can perform arithmetic very
efficiently using this numeric representation.
Floating-point numbers are handled by keeping separate track of the two parts of the number,
the mantissa and the exponent. Separate arithmetic operations are per­ formed on the two
parts, similar to hand calculations.

Example 4.3
Convert the decimal integer -92 to an 8-bit 2's-complement binary number.
Solution: In Example 4.2 we converted +92 to binary and the result was
01011100
Next we invert all the bits, to obtain
10100011
and then add 1 to obtain the final result, 10100100.

In most computerized data-acquisition-system applications, the user will not actually need to
use binary numbers. This is because the interface between the user and the computer
normally makes binary-to-decimal or decimal-to-binary conversions automatically. When a
user requests that a number stored in the computer be printed out, the computer converts
the internal binary number to decimal prior to printing. Similarly, when a decimal number is
typed on the keyboard, it is converted to binary before it is stored in the computer. Although
the DAS user will not frequently convert bases between binary and decimal, it is necessary to
be familiar with the binary number system to understand the operation of some system
components.
When computers communicate with the outside world through various input/out­ put ports,
other binary codes are often used that differ from the internal code. One common code used
in computers is known as the American Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). In this
code, 8 bits are used to represent up to 256 characters. The first 128 of these (0 to 127) are
standardized. For example, the character lowercase k is represented by the binary number
01101011, which has the decimal value 107. Codes 0 to 32 are special control characters and
are not shown. While ASCII-coded data are used to transfer information, they are not useful
for arithmetic operations.

4.3. DATA-ACQUISITION COMPONENTS

To make a computer into a data-acquisition system, several additional components are
required, as shown in Figure 4.1. Multiplexers and analog-to-digital converters are almost
always present and other components are added as required. If it is necessary to take readings
of several measurands at precisely the same time, simultaneous sample­ and-hold devices (or

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related systems) are required. If it is necessary to control the experiment (or process), the
computer must supply outputs in digital or analog form. If the required control signal is analog
(to control such components as valves and heaters), the computer-system digital output must
be processed through a digital-to­ analog converter.

4.3.1. Multiplexers
As mentioned above most computers perform instructions in a sequential manner. Thus, the
simplest method to take data is to read the outputs of the sensors sequentially. In most cases
the computer reads information from the various channels one at a time using a device called
a multiplexer (MUX). The MUX, as used in this application, is essentially an electronic switch.
The computer instructs the MUX to select a particular channel, and the data are read and
processed. The computer then causes the MUX to select another channel, and so forth. A
mechanical analog to the DAS multiplexer is shown in Figure 4.4. The switches in the
multiplexers used in data-acquisition systems are semiconductor devices.

Figure 4.4. Seven channel multiplexer.

Although multiplexers are rather simple devices, they are subject to some errors. One of these
is crosstalk. Adjacent channels may interfere with the channel being read. This error is
normally a precision error. An additional error might occur if the output signal voltage is not
exactly the same as the input-that is, the multiplexer alters the signal. The measure of this
characteristic is known as transfer accuracy. In the most common situation, an analog
multiplexer is used to select analog signals from the connected transducers and directly or
indirectly connect these signals to the analog-to-digital converter. (See Section 4.4.2.)
However, some transducers have a digital output that can be input to the computer directly,
bypassing the multiplexer and the analog-to­ digital converter.

4.3.2. Basics of Analog-to-Digital Converters

To explain the function of the A/D converter it is necessary to describe two distinct methods
by which electronic systems process numerical information: analog and digital. Many
everyday electronic devices, such as radios and audio amplifiers, are basically analog devices
(although they may have some digital components). Modern computers, on the other hand,
are digital devices. If we are trying to represent a value of 5 V in an analog device, we could,

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for example, charge a capacitor to 5 V. In a digital device, 5 V will be represented by a digital
code (a digital binary number such as 0101), which is stored on bistable flip-flops. The actual
digital coding scheme used to represent an analog voltage is well defined in a particular
situation, but is not universal.
Most transducers generate an analog output signal. For example, a temperature transducer
might generate an output voltage that is proportional to the sensed temperature. If the
temperature were to be varied in a continuous manner, the transducer output will show a
continuous variation. There are possibly an infinite number of possible output values. The
analog-to-digital converter (A/D converter or ADC) is the device required in data-acquisition
systems to convert the analog transducer signals into the digital code used by the computer.
The digital representation of the value of the transducer output is a code that is related to the
analog transducer output but does not describe the output exactly. For example, we could
connect the output of the transducer to a relay, which in turn operates a light bulb. If the
voltage is less than or equal to 5 V, the bulb is off. If the transducer output voltage is greater
than 5 V, the bulb is on. The on-off status of the light bulb is a digital code that crudely
represents the transducer output. Similarly, the output of the transducer could be
represented by two light bulbs. There are four possible states for the pair of light bulbs:

Bulb 1 Bulb 2
V < 2.5 off off
2.5 < V < 5.0 off on
5.0 < V < 7.5 on off
7.5 < V on on
With two light bulbs, the transducer output is now represented more accurately in digital form
than with a single light bulb. These light bulb devices represent primitive forms of analog-to-
digital converters. The single-light-bulb device is a 1-bit A/D converter, and the two-light-bulb
device is a 2-bit A/D converter. A bit has two possible states, on or off. Inside a computer, flip-
flops instead of light bulbs are used to represent these states.
In general, the output of an analog-to-digital converter has 2N possible values where N is the
number of bits used to represent the digital output. The 1-bit device has two possible output
states, 0 and 1; and the 2-bit device has 22 = 4 possible output states (00, 01, 10, and 11 in
binary representation). Computerized data-acquisition systems usually use A/D converters
with at least 8 bits, where the number of possible states is 28 (which equals 256). The possible
states are then represented by binary numbers with values between 00000000 and 11111111.
An example of the output is 10000001. Since there is a direct conversion between binary (base
2) and decimal (base 10) numbers, this output of 10000001 could be stated as 129 in decimal.
The actual physical representation at the output of the A/D converter is, however, binary.

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4.3.3. Practical Analog-to-Digital Converters
The most common type of A/D converter used in computerized data-acquisition systems, the
successive-approximations converter, employs an interval-halving technique. In this device a
series of known analog voltages are created and compared to the analog input voltage. In the
first trial, a voltage interval of one-half the input span is compared with the input voltage. This
comparison determines whether the input voltage is in the upper or lower half of the input
range. If the input voltage is in the upper half of the range, the most significant bit is set to 1;
otherwise it is set to zero. This process is repeated with an interval half the width of the
interval used in the first trial to determine the second most significant bit, and so forth until
the least-significant bit is determined. This process is shown graphically in Figure 4.8, and
Example 4.8 shows a numerical simulation. For an 8-bit converter, only eight comparisons are
needed, and in general, for an N-bit converter, only N comparisons have to be made. Hence
the device is very fast even for converters with large values of N (such as 16 or 18). A typical
12-bit successive-approximations converter can complete a conversion in 10 to 25. A block
diagram of a successive-approximations converter is shown in Figure 4.9. (The digital­ to-

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analog converter component, which creates an analog signal to compare with the input signal,
is described in the next section.)

4.3.4. Digital-to-Analog Converters

While in some situations a data-acquisition system is used only to collect data, it is common
for the computer to use the acquired results to change some aspect of the measured system.
In process plants, this will be a control function. In experiments, it may be a control or it may
be a variation of some independent variable of the experimental apparatus. For example, if
we are determining the performance of a semiconductor device as a function of temperature,
the computer may acquire all relevant data, then change the power of a heater to alter the

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temperature, monitor the temperature until it has stabilized again, and then acquire more
data.
Most devices used to control a system, such as solenoids, heaters, and valves, are analog
devices. These devices operate on the basis of an analog input voltage. To operate these
devices under computer control, the computer digital signals must be converted to analog
signals. If the analog device is simply an on-off component, digitally controlled relays can be
used. If the analog device requires proportional control, then a digital-to-analog converter
(D/A converter or DAC) is required. As shown schematically in Figure 4.12, the various bits of
the digital output signal are used to operate a set of electronic switches. In Figure 4.12 there
are four bits and four switches. The resulting analog output voltage will be proportional to the
digital input number. D/A converters are specified like the A/D converter-the number of input
bits, the analog output range, and the conversion speed. As for A/D converters, a number of
digital codes are also used.
Generally, the output electrical power of a D/A converter is insufficient to directly operate
most control devices, such as proportional valves. Consequently, the output of the converter
will be used to operate an amplifier, which will in tum supply the power for the activated
control device.

4.3.5. Simultaneous Sample-and-Hold Subsystems

When a DAS uses a multiplexer, the individual channels are not read at precisely the same
time. If the input signals are changing slowly relative to the time it takes to complete all the
readings, this is not a problem. In some cases it is important that all channels (or a subset of
the channels) be recorded at precisely the same time. To solve this problem, the channels of
interest can each be connected to a simultaneous sample-and­ hold subsystem. Figure 4.13 is
a block diagram showing how a simultaneous sample­ and-hold module is added to the DAS
of Figure 4.1. Each of the top four channels connect to a sample-and-hold device. These
sample-and-hold devices are instructed to take a reading simultaneously. However, the data
from these channels are not immediately processed. The computer subsequently reads each
of the channels connected to the sample-and-hold subsystem (using the multiplexer) and
processes the data. Some high-speed data-acquisition systems actually have an A/D converter
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for each channel that must be read simultaneously. These systems are known as simultaneous
sample­ and-convert systems.

4.4. CONFIGURATIONS OF DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

While a generic data acquisition system generally has the components shown in Figure 4.1,
there are many ways in which these components are packaged. There are differences in
system size, performance, durability, and features. There are a large number of companies
marketing data-acquisition systems and components, and in most cases, selection of
equipment will involve significant research and discussions with supplier representatives.
Furthermore, since the field is advancing rapidly, new features will appear frequently. The
following general discussion is only intended as an overview. The following configurations will
be introduced here:
• Internal single board plug-in systems
• External systems
• Virtual instruments
• Digital storage oscilloscopes
• Data loggers

4.4.1. Internal single board plug-in systems

The simplest and least expensive data-acquisition systems are those assembled on a circuit
board, which can be plugged into a personal computer in an internal bus. These will plug into
a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) slot (or similar slot) that is typically built directly
onto the motherboard of most desktop PCS and workstations. At the minimum, these systems
contain most of the components shown in Figure 4.1. A common additional feature is an
amplifier that is located between the multiplexer and the A/D converter. This amplifier usually
has programmable gain, in the 1-1000 range, which can be set at a different value for each
channel. Amplifiers shared by several channels in this way result in considerable cost savings
13
compared to individual amplifiers for each channel. Figure 4.2 shows a typical board of this
type. Additional accessories include simultaneous sample-and-hold modules and clock/timers
to automatically take samples.
These plug-in board systems can have maximum specifications of 100-200 channels, sampling
rates up to one million samples per second and resolutions up to 18 bits. However, not all of
these maximum figures can be obtained at the same time. The specified sampling rate is
generally the total number of samples that can be taken in a second and must be distributed
among the sampled channels. The use of programmable amplifiers also reduces maximum
sampling rate. Since the amplifier requires a short settling time each time it is connected to a
new signal, the sampling rate is reduced. For maximum sampling rate, each channel should
have its own amplifier. Single board systems are the best choice for small experiments.

4.4.2. External Systems

More elaborate types of personal computer-based data-acquisition systems locate data-
acquisition components in separate modules that connect to the computer through ports or
adapters connected to the internal bus. These systems can normally handle much larger
numbers of channels, numbers in the thousands being within reason. These external
components are usually connected to each other by specialized digital wiring systems
discussed below.
Process control computers, used in such places as automated production lines, chemical and
petroleum process plants, and electric power plants are normally based on computers with
higher performance than personal computers. These systems can acquire data from hundreds
of sensors, perform real-time computations and control the process. Process control
applications often have harsh environments and demand durable and reliable systems, so
rugged construction and packaging is paramount.

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4.4.3. Digital Connectivity
There are a large number of standard connections between digital devices and it is not
possible to review all of them here. A brief summary of the most common types of connections
is given below. The nature in which each of these standards transmits a digital signal varies,
but typically is based on sending pulses at a synchronized frequency or clock. In this fashion,
the voltage level might be read periodically (e.g. every 10 nsec for a 100-MHz clock signal)
with its value (high or low) constituting a single bit. The technical details of each standard
define a large number of items including how the clock signal is synchronized between the
transmitter and receiver, rules for handshaking between devices (making sure the devices are
communicating), voltage levels, connection types, number of lines, etc. Modern standards
allow for two-way communication, backward compatibility and power delivery. Most
components found in a data-acquisition system are typically offered in several formats,
providing the user with a significant amount of flexibility in system design.
Many DAQ components are offered with external connecting options via a cable using such
standards as universal serial bus (USB), IEEE1394 (i.e. firewire), Ethernet, RS-232, RS-422, and
IEEE488 (GPIB).

From a data-acquisition point of view, the user is typically concerned with the speed and
length over which the data can be transferred from the external device to a computer. Table
4.3 lists typical specifications for each standard. In many cases, the transfer rate and cable
length depend on other factors such as the type of cable and the presence of electromagnetic
noise in the system. Repeaters and hubs can also be used to
extend the length. Recent advances in fiber-optic based communications have increased these
distances significantly. Each family of standards has a unique connector design that allows one
to quickly identify the type of device being used and prevents accidental connection to other
types of connections. Many standards (e.g. USB and Firewire) are backward compatible such
that a device based on the old standard can be connected to a device or computer designed
using the more recent standard, albeit with the speed limited to that of the old specification.
In addition, most recent standards have a provision for delivering DC power to the connected
device, eliminating the need for an external power source for devices requiring relatively low
power.

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More recently, wireless connections between devices have become prevalent. The most
common standards found in home networks are IEEE802.11b and IEEE802.11g, which allow
devices to connect over a limited distance. In addition, cellular networks are also allowing
many devices to connect to a computer remotely via the Internet. The length and speed of
wireless connections depend greatly on the strength of signal between the host and receiver
and generally are significantly slower than their hardwired counterpart. Wireless connections,
however, allow for mobility such that a measurement system is not confined to a single
location. For example, a technician may be able to travel to a remote site with a handheld
device and upload the data to a central computer.

4.4.4. Virtual Instruments

The modular nature of digital data-acquisition devices gives an engineer a tremendous
amount of flexibility in the design of a measurement system. Various “off-the-shelf”
components can be selected and integrated into a single measurement system using the
various connections listed in the previous section. For example, one may wish to measure the
pressure and temperature of a fluid at several locations as it travels through a large and
complex piping system. A simple, but not very efficient, approach would be to have separate
sensors and displays located at each station with the values manually checked periodically to
ensure that things are operating smoothly. A more elegant and useful approach, however,
would to be combine all of the signals together and display them on single screen. This is
possible using commercial software packages such as National Instruments LabVIEW, which
allows one to create a custom "virtual instrument" designed for a particular application. These
types of commercial software pack­ ages have become extremely sophisticated, allowing the
user to take data, display it in real time, write the data to files, perform real-time data
processing, conduct process control and perform safety checks, just to name a few functions.
Typically, the software consists of a graphical user interface that allows the user to design a
custom screen consisting of various menus and icons connected to the various components in
the system. With Ethernet connections, these components can even be spread across several
states or countries. In the above scenario, the custom software may consist of an on-screen
schematic of the piping system with the current pressure and temperature displayed at each
measurement station. The interface may also allow for various settings to be changed, such
as the closing or opening of a valve, by simply clicking on a button located near the valve in
the schematic. The system may also be set up to take appropriate action, such as automatic
shut down, in the event of a failure that might compromise safety or cause property damage.

16
 Labview design interface

A sample control interface designed in Labview

Virtual instruments are recognized in contrast to measurement hardware that has a
predefined function. For example, a digital multimeter uses an A/D converter and a digital
display to read and display a voltage level. Other functions, such as measuring AC voltage
amplitude are hard-wired into the device and new functions cannot be added as needed. A
computer with an A/D convertor and appropriate software can also perform the same
functions, but provide additional flexibility and customizability by exploiting the capabilities
of the computer to which it is attached. For example, one could build a program to not only
indicate the amplitude of the AC signal but also dis­ play the signal on the screen and indicate
the frequency and phase at which it is oscillating. It would also be possible to display multiple

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signals on a single screen or perform mathematical operations on the signals. While this
example would be straight­ forward to implement for even a lightly trained programmer, it
would still take time and resources to implement and may be an overkill for certain tasks. As
such, the system engineer must balance the function of the device with the cost.

4.4.5. Digital storage oscilloscopes

Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) display the data in a similar fashion to analog CRT scope;
however, the signal is digitized using an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter prior to being
displayed on the screen. Figure 4.14 presents a block diagram of the basic architecture of a
DSO. The signal is first amplified and then digitized using a special A/D convertor commonly
referred to as a high-speed digitizer. High-speed digitizers are similar to conventional A/D
circuits except that they emphasize speed, or sampling rate, over precision. Digitizers are
available with speeds in the GHz range and typically have 8-bit precision. As the digitization
occurs at speeds greater than that at which the signal can be processed and displayed, the
digital output is immediately stored into memory. The stored signal is then sent to a
microprocessor and a display unit, such as an LCD screen. The inclusion of a microprocessor
into the system architecture allows for the inclusion of advanced data processing and
triggering algorithms to be included as part of the function of the DSO. For example, the scope
can also be used to measure the signal frequency, amplitude, pulse width, and rise time, or
set to trigger on a particular type of event, just to name a few of the functions commonly
available. In addition, digital scopes are capable of acquiring and displaying multiple signals
simultaneously on the same screen.

4.4.6. Data loggers

Data loggers are used to collect and store data in the same way as data-acquisition systems
but they are generally simpler and often specialized. A general purpose data logger might be
temporarily installed for a building air conditioning system in order to obtain diagnostic
performance data over a period of time (such as temperature, airflow, and fan operation).
Some buildings are permanently instrumented using data loggers to obtain acceleration and
other data if and when an earthquake occurs. The flight data recorder in a commercial aircraft

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is a specialized data logger and provides important information after accidents. Recent
automobiles often include a data logger that records a small amount of speed and other data
just before and after an accident (may be part of the airbag system). The following are some
common characteristics of data loggers:
• A microprocessor and memory (often nonvolatile)
• A limited number of channels (4-8 being common)
• Low sampling rates (sometimes as low as 1 sample/second)
• Unmanned operation
• Durable packaging
• Battery or battery backup operation
• Limited or no display and no keyboard
• Connection to a personal computer for programming/setup and data download
Data loggers may have a wide variety of features such as wireless communications, connection
to the Internet, or high sampling rates over a short time span. Many systems are commercially
available, so a suitable solution for a particular application should be readily available.

4.5. SOFTWARE FOR DATA-ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

For a computerized data-acquisition system (with possible control functions) to perform
satisfactorily, the system must be operated using suitable software. To take a data sample, for
example, the following instructions must be executed:
1. Instruct the multiplexer to select a channel.

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 2. Instruct the A/D converter to make a conversion.
3. Retrieve the result and store it in memory.
In most applications, other instructions are also required, such as setting amplifier gain or
causing a simultaneous sample-and-hold system to take data. The software required depends
on the application.

4.5.1. Commercial Software Packages

In the process-control industry, sophisticated computer programs have been avail­ able for
some time. Using selections from various menus, the operator can configure the program for
the particular application. These programs can be configured to take data from transducers at
the times requested, display the data on the screen, and use the data to perform required
control functions. These systems are often con­ figured by technicians rather than engineers
or programmers, so it is important that the software setup be straightforward. For
complicated processing or control functions, it is possible to include instructions programmed
in a higher-level language such as C.
There are a number of very sophisticated software packages now available for personal
computer-based data-acquisition systems. These packages are very capable ­ they can take
data, display it in real time, write the data to files for subsequent processing by another
program, and perform some control functions. The programs are configured for a particular
application using menus or icons. They may allow for the incorporation of C program modules.
These software packages are the best choice for the majority of experimental situations.

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