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PROBATIONARY OFFICER COMPUTER KNOWLEDGE NOTES..............................................................................

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AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY This lesson introduces key concepts related to how computers work. Computerrelated terms are defined and basic computer functions are explained. In particular, the following topics are addressed. What is a computer? What are the components of a computer? How does a computer work? How does the software work? How does a computer process information? How does the computers memory work? How is data stored? Why is documentation important? What are viruses? WHAT IS A COMPUTER? A computer allows users to store and process information quickly and automatically. A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all sorts of information and then process that information, or data, or carry out actions with the information, such as calculating numbers or organising words. Computer: A machine that can receive and store information and change or process it. Information: Knowledge that is communicated. Data (pl.): The representation of information in a formalised manner suitable for communication, interpretation and processing, generally by a computer system. Note: the term raw data refers to unprocessed information. Computers can be generally classified by size and power, although there can be considerable overlap.
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Following are descriptions of several different types of computers. Mainframe computers are large-sized, powerful multi-user computers that can support concurrent programs. That means, they can perform different actions or processes at the same time. Mainframe computers can be used by as many as hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. Large organisations may use a mainframe computer to execute large-scale processes such as processing the organisations payroll. Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-processing computers. Again, they can perform several actions at the same time and can support from 4 to 200 users simultaneously. In recent years the distinction between mini-computers and small mainframes has become blurred. Often the distinction depends upon how the manufacturer wants to market its machines. Organisations may use a minicomputer for such tasks as managing the information in a small financial system or maintaining a small database of information about registrations or applications Workstations are powerful, single-user computers. They have the capacity to store and process large quantities of data, but they are only used by one person at a time. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a computer network called a local area network, which means that several people, such as staff in an office, can communicate with each other and share electronic files and data. Computer network: A grouping of computers and peripherals connected together by telecommunications
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links to enable a group of users to share and exchange information. Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of computer in use today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. Today, the world of PCs is basically divided between IBM-compatible and Macintoshcompatible machines, named after the two computer manufacturers. Computers may be called desktop computers, which stay on the desk, or laptop computers, which are lightweight and portable. Organisations and individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organisation of spreadsheets and database management. Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago, and today there is little distinction between PCs and workstations. Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of computer in use today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. Today, the world of PCs is basically divided between IBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible machines, named after the two computer manufacturers. Computers may be called desktop computers, which stay on the desk, or laptop computers, which are lightweight and portable. Organisations and individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organisation of spreadsheets and database management.

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Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago, and today there is little distinction between PCs and workstations. WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER? Computers are made up of two parts: the hardware and the software. Hardware: The physical equipment required to create, use, manipulate and store electronic data. Software: The computerised instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute particular functions or tasks. All computers require the following hardware components: central processing unit (CPU) Central processing unit (CPU): The chip or chips at the heart of a computer that enable it to process data. Also known as a processor. memory Memory: An area within a computer system that holds data waiting to be processed. storage device Storage device: The place where a computer puts data. input devices : the devices that allow data and instructions to enter a computer (such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner) Input: Any resource required for the functioning of a process, in the course of which it will be transformed into one or more outputs. output devices: the devices that allow information to be represented (that is, given out) to the user, such as a display screen or printer)

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Output: The product of the transformation of inputs by a process. Printers, scanners and external disk drives that may be connected to the computer are also sometimes called peripheral devices. Peripheral device: Any piece of equipment in a computer system that is not actually inside the computer itself. The central processing unit (CPU) is the heart of the computer. It carries out all of the instructions given in a program, such as a word processing or spreadsheet program. The CPU consists of one or more chips (another name for integrated circuits). Chip: A small piece of semi-conducting material (such as silicon) about 1 centimetre ( inch) square on which an integrated circuit is embedded. An integrated circuit is a number of electronic components joined together to form a path for electricity. Central processing unit chips contain the circuits representing the CPU. A microprocessor is a particular type of chip. The original IBM personal computer used the Intel 8088 microprocessor. Most of todays microcomputers are designed around a microprocessor from one of two product families: x86 or Power. The 80286, 80386, and 80486 models that followed were referred to by the last three digits, 286,386, and 486. For the next generation, however, Intel broke with tradition and introduced the Pentium in 1993. In 1997, it introduced the Pentium II to address multi-media applications, and most recently the Pentium III to address the new opportunities provided by access to large volumes of information on the world wide Web. Other manufacturers of chips (such as Cyrix) produce chips of similar power and capabilities.
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CPUs are not all equal. Some process data faster than others. A computer contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing of all systems operations. The system clock operates at a speed quite different from a clock that keeps track of the time of the day. The system clock determines the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction, and therefore limits the number of instructions the computer can complete within a specific amount of time. The time to complete an instruction execution cycle is measured in megahertz (MHz) or millions of cycles per second. Although some instructions require multiple cycles to complete, the processor speed should be thought of in terms of the number of instructions the processor can execute in one second. Today, microprocessor speeds exceed 300 MHz. If all other specifications are identical, then higher megahertz ratings means faster processing. When determining what type of computer you are using or considering what type of computer to acquire, it is important to know that these terms 286, 386, 486, Pentium refer to the type of processor in the computer. Newer computers will come with Pentium microprocessors (or the equivalent from other manufacturers); older ones with microprocessors from the x86 family. It is important to know the type of processor in your computer. Some newer computer programs will not run on older processors, and some newer processors are too sophisticated for older software. The faster the processor in a computer, the more quickly the computer will perform operations. The most common type of memory that most users are familiar with is main memory
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or RAM (random-access memory). Random access memory (RAM): An area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds a users data, operating system instructions and program instructions. The word main is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as the hard drive or disk drives. Note that the term mass storage refers to various techniques and devices for storing large amounts of data; mass storage is distinct from memory because it retains data even when the computer is turned off. Thus mass storage is sometimes referred to as auxiliary storage. Following are definitions of common storage devices: Storage: The area within a computer system where data can be left on a longer term basis while it is not needed for processing. Diskette. A small, removable, flexible mylar plastic disk covered with a thin layer of a magnetisable substance, onto which digital data can be recorded and stored. Also known as a floppy disk. Hard drive: The storage area within the computer itself, where megabytes of space are available to store bits of information. Also known as a hard disk. Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to read and write data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk. Magnetic tape: A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic oxide; the tape is divided into parallel tracks onto which data may be recorded by selectively magnetising parts of the surface, or spots, in each of the tracks. The data can then be stored and reused

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HOW DOES A COMPUTER WORK? A computer functions in the following manner: The computer accepts input. Computer input is whatever is entered or fed into a computer system. Input can be supplied by a person (such as by using a keyboard) or by another computer or device (such as a diskette or CD-ROM). Some examples of input include the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, instructions for completing a process, pictures, and so on. The computer performs useful operations, manipulating the data in many ways. This manipulation is called processing. Examples of processing include performing calculations, sorting lists of words or numbers, modifying documents and pictures according to user instructions, and drawing graphs. A computer processes data in the CPU. Process: A systematic series of actions a computer uses to manipulate data. The computer stores data. A computer must store data so that it is available for processing. Most computers have more than one location for storing data (the hard drive or C:\, and the floppy drive or A:\). The place where the computer stores the data depends on how the data is being used. The computer puts the data in one place while it is waiting to be processed and another place when it is not needed for immediate processing. The storage of data in the computer is called online storage while the storage of data on computer tapes, diskettes or CD-ROMs is called offline storage

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The computer produces output. Computer output is information that has been produced by a computer. Some examples of computer output include reports,documents, music, graphs, and pictures. Output can be in several different formats, such as paper, diskette, or on screen. A computer receives data as input, processes it, stores it and then produces output. HOW DOES THE SOFTWARE WORK? Software is the computerised instructions that operate the computer, execute particular functions or tasks, and manipulate the data. For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed. That is, the instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer can understand. Without a program, a computer is useless. Programming language: An artificial set of rules, vocabulary and syntax used to instruct the computer to execute certain tasks. Computer program: A sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to carry out a process. Over the years, a wide range of programming languages have been developed, including BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C++, JAVA, and so on. Each language has a unique set of words (codes) that it understands and a special syntax for organising program instructions. The language the computer actually understands is called machine language, which comprises numbers only. This language is used by the computer to understand the programming language and translate the terms into executable instructions. Lying between

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programming languages and machine languages are assembly languages. Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as machine languages but they enable a program to use names instead of numbers. Please note: most people who use computers today do not need to worry about programming, machine, or assembly languages. This is because the software being used today is written in a highly user-friendly manner and in a way that does not require knowledge of the computer languages which were used to create and use it. User friendly: Computer software or hardware that is simple to set up, run and use. There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications software. Systems software includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. The most important program that runs on a computer is the operating system. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system in order to run other programs. This includes controlling functions such as the coordination of the hardware and applications software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the input and output devices and managing time sharing for linked or networked computers. In many respects an operating system works like an air traffic controller to coordinate activities within the computer. Examples of operating systems are Windows NT, DOS and OS/2. The Windows family of operating systems includes a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that makes the software user friendly. Operating system: A collection of software that allows a computer to function.

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Applications software includes programs that users access to carry out work. They include applications for the following functions. Word processing is the most common applications software. The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping the entire document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and format documents. Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically create and manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined relationships to each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. Database management applications are computer programs that let people create and manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of related information that can be manipulated and used to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or generate reports. Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable users to create highly stylised images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used to produce various types of charts and graphs. Many software applications include graphics components including: paint programs, desktop publishing applications and so on. Communications applications typically include software to enable people to send faxes and emails and dial into other computers. Software programs are continually being written or upgraded to undertake certain tasks. As a result the software can become obsolete quickly.

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Software can be either proprietary (also called closed) or open. Proprietary software is privately owned and controlled. A proprietary software design or technique is one that is owned by a company, which will usually not divulge specifications that would allow other companies to duplicate the product. Increasingly, proprietary software is seen as a disadvantage in many organisations; users prefer to use open software, which is software designed using specifications that are publicly accessible. The great advantage of open software is that anyone can create add-on products for it because they can understand how it was designed. HOW DOES A COMPUTER PROCESS INFORMATION? When data is input into a computer, the numbers or words we understand are translated into a binary numbers system. Binary is the language of computers. Everything you type, input, output, send, retrieve, draw and so on is, in the end, converted to the computers native language: binary. Binary number system: A numerical system wherein each digit stands for a power of two. The binary system uses only two symbols, 0 and 1, to represent values. In the decimal system, commonly used in most countries, each digit represents a value of 10. For example, the number 103 would break down as follows: 1 x 100 = 100 0 x 10 = 0 3x1=3 103 = 103

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In the binary system, each digit position represents a value of 2. Because computers use the binary system, powers of 2 play an important role. This is why everything in computers seems to come in 8s (2 to the 3rd power), 64s (2 to the 6th power), 128s (2 to the 7th power), and 256s (2 to the 8th power). Therefore, in the binary system, the number 103 would break down as follows: 1 x 64 = 64 1 x 32 = 32 0 x 16 = 0 0x8=0 1x4=4 1x2=2 1x1=1 1100111 = 103 The values in a binary system -- the 0s and 1s -- are called binary digits or bits. Binary digit (bit): A digit within the binary number system. A bit is the smallest unit of information held in a computer. The computers electronic circuits have only two states, on or off, and therefore can only understand 0s and 1s, which may represent such opposites as on or off, yes or no, or up or down. This is why all computers use the binary system. In order to make the bits useful, they are combined into bytes of information. Byte: A combination of bits that represent one character. A byte is usually composed of 8 bits Computer programmers have developed codes for various bytes of information, so that they may be read by different computer programs. For example, one code might define the letter A as 11000001 and the letter B as 11000010.

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The number 6 might be defined as 11110110 and the number 8 as 11111000. When the person entering data strikes the A key on the keyboard, the computer registers it as 11000001. When he or she enters the B, the computer reads it as 11000010. Similarly, the number 6 is understood by the computer as 11110110 and the number 8 as 1111100. In this way, the computer can store words and numbers as binary digits and then retrieve them and convert them back into words or numbers as required. As discussed earlier, this work of manipulating, storing and processing the data takes place in the Central Processing Unit, the computers main memory. The CPU consists of an arithmetic and logic unit, or ALU, a control unit, and a set of registers. The arithmetic and logic unit is the portion of the CPU where arithmetic and logical operations take place. The control unit is the part of the CPU that supervises the general operations of the computer. The registers are devices that hold data inside the computers memory long enough to execute a particular function, such as indexing, calculating, sorting or otherwise manipulating data. They are the CPUs own internal memory. Data travels from one part of the computer to another through a kind of path known as a bus. Bus: The channel or path that lets the parts of a computer communicate with each other. Similar to a school bus for school children, a computer data bus picks up a load of data from one of the components on the main computer board and then transfers the data to another component on the main computer board. The main circuit board of a microcomputer is also known as the motherboard. The motherboard is the principal board that has connectors
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for attaching devices to the bus. Typically, it contains the CPU, memory and basic controllers for the system. The data bus is really a series of electrical circuits that connect the various electrical elements on the main board. The data are input into the computer and processed in the CPU. They travel along the bus to be stored in the computers memory. The amount of memory available is described in bytes of information, referring to the combination of bits representing characters. The higher the number of bytes the more memory the computer has. Todays computers hold megabytes or even gigabytes of data. A megabyte is a unit of one million bytes; a gigabyte is one billion bytes, and a terabyte is one trillion bytes. If a computer has a memory of 64 megabytes, then it can hold 64 million bytes of information. Data can be stored so that it is readable again only using the software with which it was created, or it can be stored in other formats, so that it may be transferred or used by other software programs. There is a standard character code used to store data so that it may be used by other software programs; this code is called ASCII or American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The ASCII code assigns a specific pattern of bits to each character, as described above. Another code that may be found, especially in IBM-brand mainframe computers, is EBCDIC, or Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. The important point to remember about these codes is that their main value is to store information so that it is readable by other computers. By using ASCII or EBCDIC, it is possible for people to retrieve and use

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someone elses data using a different type of hardware or software. The main disadvantage of using ASCII or EBCDIC is that the formatting or other special qualities of computerised information may be lost. WHAT IS COMPUTER MEMORY? As defined earlier, memory refers to the temporary internal storage areas within a computer. The term memory is usually used as shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory onto a hard drive. The main type of memory and the most familiar to users is random access memory (RAM). RAM is the same as main memory. A computer can both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. Every time a user turns on his or her computer, a set of operating instructions is copied from the hard disk into RAM. These instructions, which help control basic computer functions, remain in RAM until the computer is turned off. Most RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data was in RAM disappears. The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process data. The results of the processing are kept temporarily in RAM until they are needed again or until they are saved onto the hard disk or other storage device. Today the storage capacity of RAM is measured in megabytes (MB). PCs (microcomputers) typically have between 16 and 64 MB of RAM, which means they

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can hold between 16 and 64 million bytes of data (a standard A4 page of text typically holds about 2,000 bytes or characters of text). Other types of memory include ROM (read only memory): unlike RAM, ROM is nonvolatile and only permits the user to read data. Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds instructions for starting up the computer. PROM (programmable read-only memory): a PROM is a memory chip on which you can store a program. Once the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile. EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): an EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable readonly memory): an EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Back up: To copy a computer file or collection of files to a second medium, usually on a diskette or magnetic tape, so that the data are safe in case the original file is damaged or lost. Backups are usually copied to storage devices that can be removed from the computer and kept separately from the original. A tape backup is a copy of the data from a hard disk, stored on magnetic tape and used to recover lost data. A tape backup is relatively inexpensive and can rescue an organisation from the overwhelming task of trying to reconstruct lost data.

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Backing up electronic data is critical to protecting it from loss or damage.For more information on backing up data and protecting information, see Automating Records Services and Emergency Planning for Records and Archives Services. The most popular types of tape drives for microcomputers also use tape cartridges, but there are several tape specifications and cartridge sizes. A tape cartridge is a removable magnetic tape module similar to a sound or video cassette tape. Quarter inch tape, called QIC, is a tape cartridge that contains inch (approximately centimetre) wide tape. Depending on tape length, QIC tape capacities range from 340 MB to 2 gigabytes. Digital audio tape, called DAT, was originally an audio recording format, but is now also used for data storage. The 4mm wide DAT tape format storage capacity ranges from 2 gigabytes to 12 gigabytes. In addition to magnetic storage, there is also optical storage. Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to read and write data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk. With optical storage, data is burned into the storage medium using beams of laser light. The burns form patterns of small pits in the disk surface to represent data. The pits on optical media are permanent, so the data cannot be changed. Optical media are very durable, but they do not provide the flexibility of magnetic media for changing the data once they are stored. There are three types of optical disks. CD-ROMs are the most popular type of optical storage. CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read Only Memory. A computer CD-ROM disk, like its audio
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counterpart, contains data that has been stamped on the disk surface as a series of pits. To read the data on a CD-ROM an optical read head distinguishes the patterns of pits that represent bytes. CD-ROM disks provide tremendous storage capacity. CD-ROMs usually come with data already written onto them. These days most applications software is provided on CD-ROM. It is now possible for computer users to write data to an optical disk. These are known as WORM disks, which stands for Write Once Read Many. A single CD holds up to 680 megabytes, equivalent to over 300,000 pages of text in character format, and these disks are quite durable. These CDs are know as CD re-recordable (CD-R). There are other types of WORM disks, although there is no standard for these. There is a third type of optical disk which can be erased and use to rewrite new information. These are sometimes known as EO (erasable optical) disks and CD-RW (CD rewritable). Magneto-optical disks combine magnetic disk and CDROM technologies. Like magnetic media they can read and written to and like floppy disks they are removable. They can store over 200 MB of data, and speed of access to this data is faster than a floppy but slower than a hard drive. There is no universal standard for these yet. CD-ROMs and magnet-optical disks are very useful for storing images. These take up much more storage space than data in character format, such as in wordprocessed files. THE IMPORTANCE OF DOCUMENTATION The computer hardware, software and peripherals will be accompanied by documentation, which explains how the various systems or programs operate.
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Documentation: Information needed to develop, use or maintain computer hardware and software and to permit access and retrieval of the data. Although documentation usually comes in the form of printed manuals, guide books, it may also come in electronic form, such as in help screens contained within the computer software or documentation in data dictionaries and so on. Often, documentation is created when a specific computer application is used. For example, if a government office creates a data base of employees in order to administer payroll, documentation may be created describing how the database was established, what it is to be used for and what data fields have been created. This documentation can be critical to understanding the database system, particularly if it is being managed in an archival environment long after the creators of the system have left. Documentation should always be retained. Disposing of documentation can cause problems in the future, particularly if you have to reload software from the beginning. Documentation can also contain licences for the legitimate use of the software. Therefore it is critical to protect documentation and ensure it is readily available. PROTECTING AGAINST VIRUSES Virus: A computer program that is planted in one computer and then transferred, hidden in useful information, to one or more other computers with the intention of corrupting or wiping out information in the recipient computer.

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Viruses are extremely common. Many different types of viruses exist, ranging from ones that prevent you from opening up word-processed documents through to ones that destroy the entire contents of a hard drive. Viruses can be caught in several ways, for example by exchanging floppy disks, via electronic mail messages and through downloading documents from the Web. Networks make it much easier for viruses to move around. Once a virus gets into an organisations computer system it can spread very quickly. New viruses appear each week, so it is essential that users have up-todate anti-virus software to combat this problem. If users have software that is unlicenced it could mean that it is pirate or bootleg software. This is software that has been illegally copied. Software of this nature sometimes contains viruses that can be extremely damaging to computers. COMPUTING ENVIRONMENTS This lesson examines three computer environments: mainframe computing, networks (such as Intranets), and the Internet. It introduces key concepts related to how mainframes, networks and the Internet work. Please remember, this lesson is not intended to provide a comprehensive explanation of the technical details of mainframe computing, networks and the Internet. Information is provided in order to introduce you to key concepts and provide an overview of these computing environments. MAINFRAME COMPUTING Mainframe computing developed at a time when computational power was an expensive and scarce resource. In order to use the expensive computer
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technologies efficiently, organisations had to share their resources. Many of computerised applications, such as invoicing, purchasing, payroll, accounting and so on, involved the organisation as a whole. If the original reasons for the mainframe computing model were cost and scarcity of resources, the current reasons for sharing computer power are security: the protection of data from outside or unauthorised access integrity: the guarantee that the data is not corrupted and that repeatability is achievable using the same applications and data system availability: centralised facilities can be operated by teams in shifts 24 hours a day, maximising the investment in IT equipment and allowing large data processing activities to be carried out efficiently data sharing: data input or created in one part of the organisation becomes available to other parts applications: many modern applications, such as personnel management systems, require access to a shared pool of resources. Today, mainframe computing is no longer an expensive resource; sharing is still a cost-effective means of providing computational power. Recent studies have shown that on a per-user basis, mainframe computing provides the least expensive form of computing. A mainframe environment involves not just the hardware. The security, integrity and availability of the mainframe system can only be achieved if the computer centre is staffed by people with the necessary skills, operated according to a set of practices and managed with the discipline (that is, the processes and procedures) that ensures the appropriate levels of security, integrity and availability.
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This is the mainframe environment.In a mainframe environment, many people share access to a mainframe computer. A large central processor is kept in a purpose-built computer centre staffed by personnel responsible for maintaining it. Individuals in the organisation access the mainframe computer through terminals on their desktops in order to share common organisational resources, such as software programs or electronic data. As we use the term today, a mainframe is actually identified more by the environment in which the mainframe is operated. In other words, the physical environment: the controlled temperature and humidity and the physical security of having the mainframe behind locked doors. Mainframe computers are used as tools to support a given business application such as processing applications for licences processing government payroll information processing financial accounts processing environmental resource information. In all of these applications, the common denominator is the work process and the rules for undertaking the process. Everyone is undertaking a part of the whole work process and everyone must complete his or her work in accordance with the procedures required to make sure the job is done satisfactorily and the data are complete and consistent. For example, if ten people are responsible for managing government payroll, each will have a separate responsibility. They will all have access to the same database through the mainframe computer, and each person must complete his or her task adequately before the job can be considered complete.

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The automation of a given work process, such as processing government payroll information, is often viewed as an information system. Information system: The combination of information, technology, processes and people brought together to support a given business objective. The mainframe is the data and application repository for most organisations. It is also the hub for most online business activities. It is believed that mainframes still house 90 per cent of the data major organisations rely on to conduct their business. Despite claims that mainframe technology is dying out, sales of mainframe hardware and software remain steady. The term mainframe has always had the image of being something large in size. Yet, however big the early room-filling mainframes were, todays modern versions are no bigger than the size of a household refrigerator. The level of mainframe sophistication has grown over the more than thirty years of its evolution; organisations still recognise its advantages in terms of performance, reliability and security. NETWORK COMPUTING A network computing environment is one in which an organisation has linked together personal computers that have been connected into a network. There are a number of types of computer networks. Local area network: A computer network located within a relatively limited area such as a building, agency or university campus. Also known as a LAN. Wide area network (WAN): A computer network that covers a large geographical area. There are an estimated 25 million computers connected to local area networks world wide. The purpose of

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networking personal computers and even mainframes together is to permit employees in the organisation to communicate with one another as well as others outside the organisation, normally through the use of electronic messages access information and services supported on the World Wide Web share documents and data support various work processes in the organisation based on the automation of specific tasks. A network environment can range in sophistication from very simple to very complex. Some networks are used to support simple electronic mail communication. In other networks, employees may be able to share documents with each other and carry out the work of their work groups, project teams, etc. by exchanging electronic documents through e-mail. The most sophisticated organisations may have automated entire work processes. For instance, draft documents such as responses to letters sent to senior officials, are sent through various approval levels (such as action officer to manager to director to senior official) without ever being printed onto paper (except perhaps the final version, which needs to be signed by the senior official). A computer network can be simple and limited to a small number of computers or complex, linking a large number of computers. A computer that is not connected to a network is referred to as a stand-alone computer. When a computer is physically connected to a local area network, using a cable or other communications channel, the computer becomes a workstation on the

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network. Each device on the network including workstations, servers, and printers is referred to as a node. Node: A processing location on a network. A workstation normally has all of the usual resources found in the personal computing environment (hard drive, software, data and printer). However, users of workstations will also have access to network resources, which typically include application software, storage space for data files, and printers other than those on the local workstation. On a network, the network server typically provides the applications software and storage space for data files. Network server: A computer that is connected to the network and that serves or distributes resources to network users. Networks use different kinds of servers to carry out specialised functions. For example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. File server: A computer that serves or distributes application programs and data files to workstations within a computer network. The hard drive of the file server is shared by the workstations on the network. Any user on the network can store files on the server. Other types of servers include a print server to manage one or more printers and a database server to process database queries. Most network users will need to understand file servers because this is where they will store their files on the network. A typical local area network uses a powerful PC as a file server. However, a minicomputer or mainframe computer can also be a file server. File servers fall into three categories; dedicated, nondedicated and application servers.

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A dedicated file server is devoted only to the task of delivering programs and data files to workstations. A dedicated file server does not process data or run programs for the workstations. Instead, programs run using the memory and processor of the workstation. In some cases, a network computer performs a dual role as both file server and workstation. When a nondedicated file server is used, the computer workstation functions like a normal workstation, but other workstations can access programs and data files from the hard disk of the users computer workstation. An application server is a computer that runs applications software and runs the results of processing to workstations as requested. An application server makes it possible to use the processing power of both the server and the workstation. Use of an application server splits processing between the workstation client and the network server. The method is also referred to as client/server architecture. Some networks include a host computer, usually a minicomputer or mainframe attached with terminals. A terminal has a keyboard and screen but does not have a local storage device and does no processing on its own. When a terminal is connected to a host computer, all processing takes place on the host. The software on a local area network typically includes many of the same applications one might use in a personal computing environment, such as word processing, spreadsheet, database management and so on. As the use of networks increase, however, organisations have begun to demand software that facilitate the flow and sharing of documents. This software includes groupware and workflow software.

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Groupware: Applications software that supports collaborative work between a group of users by managing schedules, sharing documents and undertaking intragroup communications. Essentially, groupware manages a pool of documents and allows users to access those documents simultaneously. A key feature of groupware is document version management which maintains all revisions within a document when more than one group member revises a document. Intranet: An internal computer network that belongs toan organisation and is accessible only by that organisations members. THE INTERNET The Internet evolved over the past thirty years from a fledging experiment with four computers into a vast information network that connects millions of microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframe computers. As of 1998, the Internet had more than 100 million users world wide, and that number is growing rapidly. The Internet is decentralised by design and, remarkably, this anarchy by design works well. Internet: A collection of local, regional and national computer networks that are linked together to exchange data and distribute processing tasks. There are a variety of ways to access the Internet, the most common being through an Internet Service Provider (ISP). An ISP is a company that charges an ongoing fee for providing Internet access to businesses, organisations and individuals. The ISP provides the user with the necessary communications software (such as e-mail) and user account. The user supplies a modem that connects the computer to the users phone line. The users computer dials the ISPs
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computer and establishes a connection over the phone line. Once connected the ISP routes data between the users computer and the Internet. Most ISPs offer dialup Internet connections and electronic mail access, along with additional services. Some ISPs offer direct access to the Internet without the use of proprietary software. The Internet connects millions of people through a collection of computer networks. A connection that uses a phone line to establish a temporary connection to the Internet is referred to as a dial-up connection. When the users computer hangs up, the connection is broken. A phone line provides a very narrow pipe for transmitting data. Its typical capacity is only 28.8 thousand bits per second (bps). Using a phone line, the time to transfer the contents of a 680 megabyte CD-ROM would be over 53 hours. More rapid digital data transmission is now available from some telecoms providers in various parts of the world. The World Wide Web was created in 1990 as an easyto-use source of information. World Wide Web: A computer network system that allows users to browse through information available on computers round the world. The World Wide Web opened the Internet to millions of people interested in finding information. There are over one million Web sites around the world and the number is growing very quickly. The World Wide Web consists of documents called Web pages that contain information on a particular topic. A Web page might also contain one or more links that point to other Web pages.

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Link: A reference to another document in an environment like the World Wide Web, that users can go to directly by clicking on the on-screen reference with the computers mouse. Links make it easy to follow a thread of related information, even if the pages are stored on computers located in different countries. Every Web page is stored as an HTML (HyperText Markup Language) document. HyperText Markup Language (HTML): One of the main standards that controls how the World Wide Web works; it is an SGML document type definition that determines how Web pages are formatted and displayed and thus enables information to be exchanged on the World Wide Web. Standardised General Mark-up Language (SGML): A metalanguage that can be applied to documents in order to maintain their structure and context. An HTML document contains special instructions called HTML tags that tell a Web browser how to display the text, graphics, and background of a Web page. Web browsers are used to view Web pages, transfer files between computers, access commercial information services, send e-mail, and interact with other Internet users. Web browser: A software application that enables a user to locate and view pages on a Web site. Also known as a browser. To request a Web page the user either types in the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) address or uses a mouse to click on a Web page link. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web. URLs can point to executable files that can be fetched using FTP (file transfer protocol,
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ftp://) or a Web page that can be retrieved using HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol, http://). After the http://, the next segment of the address is the server name. The server is the computer and software that make the data available. A Web server, for instance, is a computer that uses Web server software to transmit Web pages over the Internet. Most Web servers have domain names prefixed with WWW. By entering the Web server name, one accesses the sites home page. Home page: The main page of a Website. Typically, the home page serves as an index or table of contents to other documents stored at the site (that is, the address). Website: A location on the World Wide Web. A home page is similar to the title page and table of contents in a book. It identifies the site and contains links to other pages at the site. The following is an example of a home page belonging to the ICA, viewed using a particular type of browser software called Microsoft Explorer. The Web browser is the gateway to commercial information services as well as the free sites on the Internet. A commercial information service provides access to computer-based information for a fee. In 1997, approximately 17 million people subscribed to the top four commercial information services: America On-Line, Compuserve, Microsoft Network and Prodigy.

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Figure 1: Sample Home Page

The server sends the data for the Web page over the Internet to the computer. The data includes two things: the information the user wants to view and a set of instructions that tells the browser how to display it. The instructions include specifications for the colour of the background, the size of the text, and the placement of the graphics. Additional instructions tell the browser what to do when the user clicks on a link. The browsers menu and tool bars help users navigate the Web as they follow the links. The Back and Forward buttons trace and retrace the users path
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through the links being followed from one Web page to another. The browser stores and can display a list of the pages being visited during each session. The browser can also store a list of favourite sites, often called bookmarks, to permit the user to jump directly to the site they wish to see instead of having to enter its URL every time. Users can find information on the Web by using a search engine. There are a number of Web sites that provide search facilities, and the Internet Service Provider will linksto these sites. Search engine: A program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of documents where the keywords were found. COMPUTER APPLICATIONS Applications software includes programs that users access to carry out work. This lesson examines two applications that may be of particular use to the student: databases and electronic mail (e-mail). It introduces key concepts related to how databases and e-mail work. Please remember, this lesson is not intended to provide a comprehensive explanation of the technical details of all applications. Other applications would be word processing, spreadsheets and presentations. DATABASES A database is a collection of information stored on one or several computers. Database: A structured assembly of logically related data designed to meet various applications but managed independently of them. More specifically, a database is a self-describing collection of integrated records.A database is self-describing in that it contains, in addition to the users source data, a
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description of its own structure (such as in a data dictionary). It is the data dictionary that make data independence possible (for example, the database management system maps the data fields into records and handles other similar transformation). A database is a collection of information stored on computers. Data field: A space allocated for a particular item of information. In a database, fields are the smallest units of information you can access. A data field contains a single piece of information (first name, family name, ministry, employee number, salary and so on). A collection of data fields comprise a record such as, in this example, an employee record. Database record: A complete set of information in a database; records are composed of fields, each of which contains one item of information. A collection of records (in this case, employee records) comprises a database. Structured databases typically store data that describes a collection of similar entities. Salaries and benefits is an example of an entity; education/training is another entity. A n employee database stores data about the employees in an organisation. A medical database stores data for a collection of patients. An inventory database stores data for a collection of items stocked in a warehouse. Data structure: A scheme for organising related pieces of information. The basic types of structures include: files, lists, arrays, records, trees, tables. Each of these basic structures has many variations and allows different operations to be performed on the data. There are three basic database models. Hierarchical databases exhibit a branching structure, with information arranged
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into sets and sub-sets; getting to a particular piece of data may require going through several vertically ordered files. An example is the process involved in finding a distant cousin on a family tree. Network databases offer many more direct connections between files, but, similar to hierarchies, the links are predefined and are difficult to change or adjust. Object-oriented databases link self contained entities (or objects) together. Objects can be text, a picture, a piece of film or any item that can be individually selected and manipulated. This kind of database is particularly useful for organising large amounts of disparate information, but they are not designed for structured numerical analysis. The limitations found with these types of databases explain why most organisations have turned to relational databases. Relational databases not only accommodate multiple views but allow new links to be forged as needs arise. Relational databases are powerful because they require few assumptions about how data is related or how it will be extracted from the database. As a result, the same database can be viewed in many different ways. Relational database: A database that spreads information across different tables while maintaining links between them. A relational database stores facts in tables called relations. The only requirement is that the information must be capable of being laid out in rows and columns (similar to
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a list of names, addresses and phone numbers). An example from a university might help to illustrate the concept. In a very simplified view of a university database, each facet of the universitys administration would be represented by a table containing information within the remit of a single department. The admissions office, for instance, keeps track of students by ID number, name and major field of study. The personnel office keeps records of the department, rank, names, and social identity numbers of the teaching staff, and so on. The following figure shows examples of relational tables. A relational database stores information across different tables and connects them with links in the computer. Database management software is used to create and manipulate databases. Data access software is usually used to search databases. The data access software understands the structure and details of the database which means the user simply has to enter his or her search specifications, using either a menu, a keyword search engine, a query language or a natural language (among others). Menu: A collection of onscreen choices given to the user to help him or her interact with a computer system. Database menus are similar to those used in most software. They are typically arranged as a hierarchy so that after the user makes a choice at the first level of the menu, a second series of choices appears. Keyword searching permits access to databases through the use of keywords.

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Keyword search engine: A program that allows a user to search a database by an index entry that identifies a specific record or document. Keyword search engines are especially popular for searching the many documents stored in a free form database such as the World Wide Web. To use a keyword search engine, the user types in a word and the search engine locates areas in the database where the word or related information can be found. When information in a database needs to be accessed quickly, it is usually stored as a structured database. However, the structure in structured databases can cause a problem for users who might not know the format for the records in a database. One way to help users search structured databases is by providing a query by example user interface based on the use of a query language. Query language: A set of command words that can be used to direct a computer to create databases, locate information, sort records and change the data in those records. One query language is called SQL (structured query language). The use of query language is based on knowledge of the command word and the grammar or syntax that will let one construct valid query sentences. For example, the SQL command word for finding records is SELECT. WHERE is used to specify that only certain rows of the table are displayed. For example, SELECT employee ID no from employee statistics table WHERE position = Manager. In more sophisticated systems, queries can also be formulated in a natural language such as standard English, French, or Japanese. In order to use the natural language, the user is not required to learn a query language. Queries can be straightforward such
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as: What records of World War Two are available in the archival institution? This form of searching is still under development although examples of its use are spreading rapidly. Users can ask questions of the database using a variety of query languages, which formulate questions so that the computer can perform operations and provide results. COMMUNICATING BY COMPUTER Communicating via e-mail is rapidly becoming as important as telephone and fax communication and forms an important component of any office automation system. Electronic mail (e-mail): A way of sending messages between people anywhere within an organisation or in the world using a computer that can communicate with another computer through a computer network. The message or document can be viewed on a computer screen and printed out. E-mail is handled by a variety of software programs such as Microsoft Outlook Express, Eudora, elm, pine and so on. The message originator creates a message file in the e-mail software editor. When complete, the message is posted to a message transport system that assumes the responsibility for delivering that message to its recipient(s) mailbox. To receive and read the message, the recipient runs a software program that retrieves incoming messages, allowing the messages to be filed, listed, forwarded or replied to. Generally a single user-interface program is used to send and receive messages both locally and worldwide. Users do not need to have the same e-mail software
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program as the person they are corresponding with. The e-mail itself may consist of simply a message or may carry with it attachments containing files created in a variety of software applications, for example word processed documents or spreadsheets. Electronic mail is a method for communicating messages electronically using computer networks. The ability to send email depends on having an Internet Service Provider and a modem, or being linked into a larger university, government or company network. Being linked into a larger network requires a user to have a network card in the computer and access to network cabling. There are various networking standards. One of the most common is ethernet. Ethernet: A local area network (LAN) protocol that supports data transfer. Open networks allow users to send e-mail internally, to colleagues in the same organisation, and externally via the Internet. Some organisations have private networks that allow staff to send e-mail all over the world, but not outside the organisation. Network administrators or Internet Service Providers will give users an email address. This is usually in the format [email protected]. The first part of the address before the @ sign is the individual users name or identifier. The second part of the address is split into at least two parts (sometimes more), each part divided by a full stop or period. This part of the address indicates which company or university the user works for, or which ISP they are using, or even which country they are based in.

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For example a user on America-Online would have the address: [email protected]. A user in the British University College London may have the email address: [email protected]. In this address, the user has been given the code zzz999 by the university. The rest of the address shows that ucl is University College London, that it is an academic institution (ac) and that it is based in the UK (uk). There are a number of different types of email addresses, including .com, .org, .co.uk and so on. The following figure is an example of an e-mail message received using Microsoft Outlook Express electronic mail software that includes attachments.

SOME ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Computer keyboard shortcut keys Quick links

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Shortcut keys ABCs Basic PC shortcut keys F1 - F12 function keys Top 10 keyboard shortcuts Linux and Unix shortcut keys Apple shortcut keys Microsoft Windows shortcuts Microsoft Excel shortcut keys Microsoft Word shortcut keys Internet Explorer shortcut keys Microsoft FrontPage shortcut keys Microsoft Outlook shortcut keys Mozilla Firefox Keyboard terms How do I create a Windows shortcut key? Shortcut keys ABCs Shortcut keys help provide an easier and usually quicker method of navigating and using computer software programs. Shortcut keys are commonly accessed by using the Alt (on IBM compatible computers), command key (on Apple computers), Ctrl, or Shift in conjunction with a single letter. The de facto standard for listing a shortcut is listing the modifier key, a plus symbol, and the single character. In other words, "ALT+S" is telling you to press the Alt key and while continuing to hold the Alt key, press the S key to perform the shortcut. In addition to the shortcuts listed on this page, users can find the shortcut keys to their most popular program by looking for underlined letters in their menus. For example, in the picture to the right you'll cannotice that the "F" in File has been underlined. This means you can press the Alt key and F to access the File menu. Note: Some programs require the user press and hold ALT to see the underlined characters.
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Finally, as can also be seen some of the common features such as Open (Ctrl+O) and Save (Ctrl+S) have shortcut keys assigned to them. As you begin to memorize shortcut keys, you'll notice that many applications share the same shortcut keys. We have the most commonly shared shortcut keys in the below basic PC shortcut keys section. Tip: Users outside the United States or users using a foreign copy of a Microsoft Windows or Microsoft application may not be able to get all the below shortcut keys to perform the function listed below. Basic PC shortcut keys The below basic shortcut keys are a listing of shortcut keys that will work with almost all IBM compatible computers and software programs. It is highly recommended that all users keep a good reference of the below shortcut keys or try to memorize the below keys. Doing so will dramatically increase your productivity. Shortcut Keys Description Alt + F File menu options in current program. Alt + E Edit options in current program F1 Universal Help in almost every Windows program. Ctrl + A Select all text. Ctrl + F Open find window for current document or window. Ctrl + X Cut selected item. Shift + Del Cut selected item. Ctrl + C Copy selected item. Ctrl + Ins Copy selected item Ctrl + V Paste Shift + Ins Paste Ctrl + P Print the current page or document. Home Goes to beginning of current line. Ctrl + Home Goes to beginning of document.
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End Goes to end of current line. Ctrl + End Goes to end of document. Shift + Home Highlights from current position to beginning of line. Shift + End Highlights from current position to end of line. Ctrl + Left arrow Moves one word to the left at a time. Ctrl + Right arrow Moves one word to the right at a time.

Microsoft Word shortcut keys Below is a listing of all the major shortcut keys in Microsoft Word. See the computer shortcut page if you are looking for other shortcut keys used in other programs. Shortcut Description Ctrl + 0 Adds or removes 6pts of spacing before a paragraph. Ctrl + A Select all contents of the page. Ctrl + B Bold highlighted selection. Ctrl + C Copy selected text. Ctrl + D Open the font preferences window. Ctrl + E Aligns the line or selected text to the center of the screen. Ctrl + F Open find box. Ctrl + I Italic highlighted selection. Ctrl + J Aligns the selected text or line to justify the screen. Ctrl + K Insert link. Ctrl + L Aligns the line or selected text to the left of the screen. Ctrl + M Indent the paragraph. Ctrl + P Open the print window.

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Ctrl + R Aligns the line or selected text to the right of the screen. Ctrl + T Create a hanging indent. Ctrl + U Underline highlighted selection. Ctrl + V Paste. Ctrl + X Cut selected text. Ctrl + Y Redo the last action performed. Ctrl + Z Undo last action. Ctrl + Shift + L Quickly create a bullet point. Ctrl + Shift + F Change the font. Ctrl + Shift + > Increase selected font +1pts up to 12pt and then increases font +2pts. Ctrl + ] Increase selected font +1pts. Ctrl + Shift + < Decrease selected font -1pts if 12pt or lower, if above 12 decreases font by +2pt. Ctrl + [ Decrease selected font -1pts. Ctrl + / + c Insert a cent sign (). Ctrl + ' + <char> Insert a character with an accent (grave) mark, where <char> is the character you want. For example, if you wanted an accented you would use Ctrl + ' + e as your shortcut key. To reverse the accent mark use the opposite accent mark, often on the tilde key. Ctrl + Shift + * View or hide non printing characters. Ctrl + <left arrow> Moves one word to the left. Ctrl + <right arrow> Moves one word to the right. Ctrl + <up arrow> Moves to the beginning of the line or paragraph. Ctrl + <down arrow> Moves to the end of the paragraph. Ctrl + Del Deletes word to right of cursor. Ctrl + Backspace Deletes word to left of cursor.
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Ctrl + End Moves the cursor to the end of the document. Ctrl + Home Moves the cursor to the beginning of the document. Ctrl + Spacebar Reset highlighted text to the default font. Ctrl + 1 Single-space lines. Ctrl + 2 Double-space lines. Ctrl + 5 1.5-line spacing. Ctrl + Alt + 1 Changes text to heading 1. Ctrl + Alt + 2 Changes text to heading 2. Ctrl + Alt + 3 Changes text to heading 3. Alt + Ctrl + F2 Open new document. Ctrl + F1 Open the Task Pane. Ctrl + F2 Display the print preview. Ctrl + Shift + > Increases the highlighted text size by one. Ctrl + Shift + < Decreases the highlighted text size by one. Ctrl + Shift + F6 Opens to another open Microsoft Word document. Ctrl + Shift + F12 Prints the document. F1 Open Help. F4 Repeat the last action performed (Word 2000+) F5 Open the find, replace, and go to window in Microsoft Word. F7 Spellcheck and grammar check selected text or document. F12 Save as. Shift + F3 Change the text in Microsoft Word from uppercase to lowercase or a capital letter at the beginning of every word. Shift + F7 Runs a Thesaurus check on the word highlighted. Shift + F12 Save. Shift + Enter Create a soft break instead of a new paragraph. Shift + Insert Paste. Shift + Alt + D Insert the current date. Shift + Alt + T Insert the current time.
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In addition to the above shortcut keys users can also use their mouse as a method of quickly do something commonly performed. Below some are examples of mouse shortcuts. Mouse shortcuts Description Click, hold, and drag Selects text from where you click and hold to the point you drag and let go. Double-click If double-click a word, selects the complete word. Double-click Double-clicking on the left, center, or right of a blank line will make the alignment of the text left, center, or right aligned. Double-click Double-clicking anywhere after text on a line will set a tab stop. Triple-click Selects the line or paragraph of the text the mouse triple-clicked. Ctrl + Mouse Wheel Zooms in and out of document.

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