Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40328-018-0225-0

ORIGINAL STUDY

On the tectono‑stratigraphic evolution and hydrocarbon

systems of extensional back‑arc basins: inferences from 2D
basin modelling from the Pannonian basin

Attila Bartha1 · Attila Balázs2 · Árpád Szalay3

Received: 22 May 2018 / Accepted: 13 July 2018

© Akadémiai Kiadó 2018

Abstract
Two-dimensional basin modelling was carried out in the Pannonian basin of Central
Europe to investigate the Miocene extension, post-rift evolution, and subsequent basin
inversion and associated sedimentation. A tectono-sedimentary evolutionary model was
constrained by seismic and well data. The simulated basin and petroleum systems model
performed with petroleum systems modelling software package integrates the spatial and
temporal variations of episodes of subsidence and uplift, sedimentation and erosion, and
the dynamics of biogenic and thermogenic gas generation, migration, accumulation and
loss. This high-resolution approach analysed the impact of the shelf-margin slope progra-
dation and sequential sediment loading on mechanical compaction, pore pressure develop-
ment, source rock maturation and hydrocarbon charge. Generation and migration processes
were genetically controlled by the deposition of the SSE-ward prograding Pannonian (s.l.)
shelf-margin slope sediments, and repeated tectonic inversions along the Mid-Hungarian
Fault Zone. We tested different maturation kinetic models and compared the impact of
different generation reaction schemes on charge. Biogenic gas generation was associated
with the deposition of almost the entire sedimentary succession in the studied Jászság and
Békés sub-basins. However, the preservation of the gases was limited in time and space.
Most of the thermogenic gas was generated by the deepwater marls in the Békés sub-basin,
whereas the depocentre of the Jászság sub-basin, mainly filled with Miocene rhyolites or
rhyolitic tuffs connected to the intense volcanic activity, prevented the generation of sig-
nificant amounts of hydrocarbon there.

Keywords Pannonian basin · Basin and petroleum system modelling · Basin inversion ·
Thermogenic gas · Biogenic gas

* Attila Balázs
[email protected]
Attila Bartha
[email protected]
1
Schlumberger, Software Integrated Solutions (SIS), Aachen, Germany
2
Department of Sciences, Università Degli Studi Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
3
Independent Exploration Geologist, Szolnok, Hungary

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1 Introduction

The formation and evolution of sedimentary basins and their complex tectonic settings are
well reflected in their variable subsidence and burial histories (Xie and Heller 2009). The
spatial and temporal variabilities of basement subsidence and uplift rates are driven by the
complex interplay among tectonics, climate, sediment source areas, transport and deposi-
tion (Cloetingh et al. 2013). Differential vertical motions as well as the thermal evolution
of extensional back-arc basins are particularly variable in space and time during their syn-
rift and post-rift evolution (Balázs et al. 2017a).
Starting from the early twentieth century, intense hydrocarbon exploration and academic
research of the Pannonian back-arc basin of Central Europe (Fig. 1a) resulted in the avail-
ability of high-resolution geophysical data such as well logs and reflection seismic data-
sets (e.g., Bérczi and Phillips 1985; Pogácsás et al. 1988; Juhász 1991; Grow et al. 1994;
Vakarcs et al. 1994; Tari et al. 1999; Magyar et al. 2006; Sztanó et al. 2013; Horváth et al.
2015; ter Borgh et al. 2015; Balázs et al. 2017b). Available knowledge on the lithospheric
and stratigraphic architecture of this area provides a key natural laboratory for the devel-
opment and validation of new basin evolutionary models. Furthermore, the Pannonian
basin shows high prospectivity for conventional and unconventional georesources includ-
ing geothermal energy and hydrocarbon accumulations. Lacustrine organic-rich rocks are
significant hydrocarbon sources, and deepwater turbiditic, delta and fluvial sand bodies
are important and proven reservoirs containing hundreds of million barrels of oil and con-
densate as well as gas with biogenic and thermogenic origin (Saftić et al. 2003; Tari and
Horvath 2006; Saša and Radivojević 2017). Understanding the generation and charge of
biogenic gases is especially of increasing importance due to the potential for billions of
cubic meters of accumulations at shallow depth in the Great Hungarian Plain as part of the
Pannonian basin and in similar Neogene sedimentary basins (Mattavelli and Novelli 1988).
In this study, we present a forward numerical model that quantifies the Miocene to Qua-
ternary basin evolution and all the processes associated with source rock formation and
maturation, and generation, migration, accumulation and loss of both biogenic and ther-
mogenic hydrocarbons by means of 2D basin and petroleum systems modelling performed
with the industry-standard P ­ etroMod® (Schlumberger) petroleum systems modelling soft-
ware. Our approach combined a dataset of available geological and geophysical constraints
to model the structural and thermal evolution, and the burial history of the sedimentary
basin from Miocene to recent times. A seismic profile connecting the Jászság and Békés
sub-basins through the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone in the Pannonian basin, Hungary was
interpreted and calibrated to well data to constrain the tectono-stratigraphic framework of
the central part of the basin (Fig. 1b).

2 Geological background

The Pannonian basin of Central Europe is a Neogene continental back-arc basin sur-
rounded by the Alps, Carpathians and Dinarides orogens (Fig. 1a). The 220 to 290 km
of Miocene extension was preceded by an orogenic phase that resulted from the opening
and subsequent closure of the Triassic-Cretaceous Neotethys and Middle Jurassic—Paleo-
gene Alpine Tethys oceans (e.g., Schmid et al. 2008 and references therein). Formation
of the Pannonian basin, coupled with the extrusion of tectonic blocks from the Alpine,

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Fig. 1  a Tectonic map of the Pannonian basin and adjacent areas (modified after Schmid et al. 2008 and
Balázs et al. 2017a) showing the Miocene fault pattern and Miocene-Quaternary sedimentary thickness.
Black rectangle indicates the central Great Hungarian Plain as part of the basin shown in Fig. 1b. TDR
transdanubian range, Vb Vienna Basin, MHFZ Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone, J Jászság Sub-basin, B Békés
Sub-basin. b Location of the study area with Neogene basement isopach (in km, modified after Haas et al.
2010; Balázs et al. 2016). The map indicates the hydrocarbon fields of the Great Hungarian Plain (after Tari
and Horvath 2006; Badics and Vető 2012). MHFZ mid Hungarian fault zone, Já Jászság Sub-basin, Ma
Makó Trough, De Derecske trough, Bé Békés sub-basin

and possibly the Dinaridic collision zones, created substantial amounts of translations and
opposite sense rotations of its two tectonic mega-units, i.e., ALCAPA (Alpine-Carpathian-
Pannonian) and Tisza-Dacia, accompanying their extension (Balla 1986). These units were
juxtaposed along a major suture zone, the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone (Fig. 1a; cf., Csontos
and Nagymarosy 1998). Its structural complexity mirrors the multiphase history of defor-
mations, including subduction and obduction of the Sava back-arc lithosphere in the Cre-
taceous, shortening and mainly right- and left-lateral wrenching in the Paleogene and from
the Miocene, respectively (e.g., Ustaszewski et al. 2008).

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Like other Mediterranean retreating subduction systems, the Miocene extension of

the Pannonian basin was coeval with the contraction recorded at the exterior of the Car-
pathians (Roure et al. 1993). The uplift of the Alpine-Himalayan orogen belt gradually
closed the connections between various parts of the larger Tethys Ocean. The area of the
future Pannonian basin evolved as part of the northern branch, the Paratethys, charac-
terized by a semi-enclosed marine to lacustrine basin system (Nagymarosy and Hámor
2012). Onset of extension and syn-rift sedimentation was diachronous in the Pannon-
ian basin (Matenco and Radivojević 2012) as well as in its Great Hungarian Plain part.
In general, older depocentres located in the western parts of the basin appear to be
younger towards the SE Carpathians (Balázs et al. 2016). Lower Miocene syn-rift sedi-
ments were deposited in fluvial, lacustrine, continental and locally marine conditions
(Nagymarosy and Hámor 2012). During the Middle Miocene, fast subsidence associated
with the peak of extension resulted in the deposition of deep basinal sediments in the
depocentres, while deposition along depocentre margins was dominated by near-shore
to shallow-marine conditions (Kovác et al. 2007). Miocene extension of the Pannonian
basin was also associated with successive volcanic events resulting in the deposition of
thousands of meters of rhyolitic ignimbrites and tuff layers, with the largest thickness
along the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone (Pécskay et al. 2006; Lukács et al. 2018).
An unconformity is observed between the Middle and Late Miocene strata, marking
the disruption of connections with the Paratethys Sea. This marks the development of
the large, brackish, isolated paleolake, the Lake Pannon (Magyar et al. 1999). A sedi-
mentary succession up to 7 km thick was deposited during Late Miocene to Quater-
nary times in the Great Hungarian Plain (Fig. 2a). The basin fill recorded an initial fast
transgression followed by shelf-margin slope progradation controlled by the increasing
sediment influx by fluvial systems similar to the present-day Danube and Tisza riv-
ers. The shelf-margin prograded about 500 km between ~ 10.0 and 4.0 Ma from NW
and NE, whereas only minor progradation was recorded from other directions (Uhrin
and Sztanó 2011; Magyar et al. 2013). The maximum water depth of the lake varied
in time and space between an average of a few hundred meters, but locally it exceeded
1 km in the Great Hungarian Plain (Balázs et al. 2017b). This Pannonian (s.l.) sedi-
mentation reflects the deposition of diachronous lithostratigraphic formations (Juhász
1991; Sztanó et al. 2013). These associations are laterally variable from deep hemipe-
lagic deposition (Endrőd formation), turbidites (Szolnok formation), dominantly muddy
shelf-margin slope (Algyő formation) and coarse-grained delta (Újfalu formation) to
alluvial plain (Zagyva formation) sediments (Zagyva formation).
Extension and subsequent thermal subsidence in the Pannonian basin was followed
by an overall basin inversion phase from ~ 8.0 Ma (Uhrin et al. 2009), observed by
accelerated differential vertical movements and fault reactivations (Fodor et al. 2005;
Bada et al. 2007; Dombrádi et al. 2010). Active sinistral faults with ENE-WSW strike
are inferred in the centre of the basin and dextral shear zones with WNW-ESE strike at
its southern margin (Fig. 1a). Several unconformities are present in the basin fill (e.g.,
Vakarcs et al. 1994). These unconformities are interpreted either as being related to the
basin inversion (e.g., Sacchi et al. 1999), formed in response to major lake level falls
(Csató et al. 2015) or crossover zones of different progradational directions (Magyar
and Sztanó 2008). Further mantle dynamics during the classic “post-rift” phase acceler-
ated the differential vertical movements and contributed to the formation of unconform-
ities in the Pannonian basin (Balázs et al. 2017a).

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Fig. 2  a Depth-converted seismic transect over the study area from the Jászság to the Békés sub-basin
showing the main tectonic and stratigraphic features of the area (see also Csizmeg et al. 2011). For time-
to-depth conversion, we used average interval velocities calculated in wells located near the section. Ages
of the prograding shelf edges were derived from Magyar et al. (2013). Note that most of the interpreted
faults were inverted during multiple phases of transpression (cf., Csontos and Nagymarosy 1998). For loca-
tion see Fig. 1b. b 2D basin and petroleum systems model displaying the facies distribution at present day
(model input based on seismic and well data)

3 Data and methods

3.1 Seismic interpretation method

In this work, we used 2D seismic sections with calibrated well and vertical seismic
profile (VSP) data. Well logs were tied to seismic profiles using standard check-shots
where the error-bars were generally below the seismic resolution. In this study, we
only present one interpreted seismic section, but a regional interpretation was recently
performed for the entire Great Hungarian Plain (c.f., Balázs et al. 2016, 2017b). Our
seismic interpretation from the central Great Hungarian Plain as part of the Pannonian
basin is in accordance with previous studies on the pre-Neogene (Haas et al. 2010) and
Neogene (Horváth et al. 2015) basin evolution. Interpretation and mapping of the base
Neogene, base Late Miocene, the Miocene/Pliocene boundary and the main faults are
shown in Fig. 2a. During the subsequent 2D subsidence modelling (Fig. 2b) the Pan-
nonian (s.l.) sedimentary succession is subdivided further into the typical lacustrine
environments of Lake Pannon, with age constraints taken from Magyar et al. (2013).
Lithology data were derived from nearby wells. Decompaction of the sediments was
carried out based on the lithology dependent porosity-depth data available for the
Great Hungarian Plain (Szalay 1982).

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3.2 2D petroleum systems modelling approach

In this study, a two-dimensional basin and petroleum systems model was carried out
using the ­PetroMod® petroleum systems modelling software along the seismic transect
crossing the Jászság and northern part of the Békés sub-basin (Figs. 1b, 2) to analyse
the impact of the sequential sedimentation and repeated tectonic inversions on sediment
compaction, pore pressure development, thermal and maturation history, and hydrocar-
bon charge. To model the sequential load related to fast sedimentation, the movements
along the extensional and compressional faults in a proper way, and eliminate the arte-
facts related to backstripping, the standard event-stepping method was combined with
an advanced paleo-stepping workflow. The latter approach can be used in tectonically
complex areas to integrate and combine the results of structural and fault analyses in
classical petroleum systems models (Peters et al. 2012).
The standard petroleum systems modelling methodology follows the event-stepping
approach in which the depositional history of a model is based on its present-day geom-
etry (Fig. 2b). Assuming a geological age for each interpreted horizon, the event-step-
ping method goes back in geological time by removing the layers one by one and restor-
ing the paleosections vertically to the sediment–water interfaces defined by paleowater
depths in each paleosection. In this process, the sediments are decompacted and the
initial depositional thicknesses of each layer are estimated. This simple method of creat-
ing paleogeometries is called backstripping. In this standard modelling approach, the
removed layers were re-deposited with the restored initial (decompacted) thicknesses.
Subsequently the geometry is modelled forward together with mechanical compaction,
pore pressure and temperature calculations (Hantschel and Kauerauf 2009).
In contrast to the simplified vertical backstripping approach described above, the
paleo-stepping method enables the inclusion of more complex geometries and effects of
lateral movements such as compression, folding and inversion in the petroleum systems
model. It uses the paleosections of a structural restoration as input to constrain the for-
ward modelling.
In this study, the backstripped and decompacted paleogeometries considering Athy’s
porosity versus effective stress law were saved as images and used to generate the input
for the paleo-stepping approach to remove artefacts especially present at extensional
and reverse faults. Mechanical compaction curves were generated for all the litholo-
gies based on empirical measurements of porosities from hundreds of wells drilled in
the Pannonian basin (Szalay 1982, 1988). The digitized and updated paleogeometries
with associated geological ages, erosion thicknesses restored and flattened against the
paleowater depths formed the input for the past-to-present forward modelling using the
advanced paleo-stepping approach incorporated in the ­PetroMod® software package
named TecLink. The geologic ages of event- and paleosteps were selected in such a
manner to represent the tectonic phases and the progradation of the shelf-margin slope,
and depict—as closely as possible—the most important moments related to the petro-
leum systems elements and processes. However, the reconstruction was not balanced
and did not account neither for extensions nor for compressions in paleotimes.
All facies boundaries were included in the structural paleomodels to ensure that their
paleopositions could be tracked in time and therefore modelled properly. The horizontal
grid distance was set to 100 m, the vertical cell size ranges from 10 to 100 m, and the
simulation time loops are controlled by the ages of sublayer intervals (Fig. 2b). We used

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high grid and facies resolution because both the generation of biogenic gases and devel-
opment of gas hydrate stability zones were incorporated in this study.
In the migration model, all the faults were considered closed starting from 17.0 to 0 Ma
except those located near the Békés sub-basin, which experienced more continuous vertical
movements during the Miocene-Pliocene. These faults were treated as closed between 17.0
and 5.3 Ma, and partially open from 5.3 Ma onward.
Observed present-day surface heat flow values (Dövényi 1994; Lenkey et al. 2002) and
average annual surface temperature value of 10 °C were used to check the upper and lower
thermal boundary conditions assigned to the numerical model. The present-day surface
heat flow values are higher than the continental average, typical of the Pannonian basin.
In the areas cooled by thicker Pleistocene and Quaternary sediments, the measured surface
heat flow is approximately 80–95 mW/m2 whereas in the areas influenced by the Pliocene
inversion (e.g., in the deep depocenters of the Pannonian basin system), it can have values
up to 100–130 mW/m2 at present day (Dövényi and Horváth 1988; Dövényi 1994; Békési
et al. 2017).
The modified crustal heat flow model of McKenzie (1978) dealing with multiple
stretching factors (introduced by Hellinger and Sclater 1983, and Royden and Keen 1980)
was used to estimate the basal heat flow as the lower boundary condition in the heat flow
model. Present and paleosubsidence curves in each grid point of the model were used
‘inversely’ to determine the stretching factors (Hantschel and Kauerauf 2009). The cor-
responding paleoheat flow maps were subsequently calculated. Besides the inputs derived
from the restored 2D section, the published thermal parameters related to the crustal evolu-
tion of Pannonian basin System were also considered (Tari et al. 1999; Balázs et al. 2017a).
Basal heat flow maps were generated along the 2D section for all the geological ages
assigned to the model as a lower boundary condition (Fig. 3). These maps define the basal
heat flow trend in each grid point with a rift peak at 10.0 Ma, and with decreasing heat
flow values towards present day (Fig. 4b). The basal heat flow trends assigned to each grid
point of the model were in good agreement with lithospheric and tectonic evolution of the
Pannonian basin, as well as with the burial history and sedimentation rates based on gen-
eral geological observations (Horváth and Dövényi 1988; Tari et al. 1999; Balázs et al.
2017a). The radiogenic heat production of the continental basement was also included and

Fig. 3  Variation of the basal heat flow along the 2D section at the geological ages defined in the model.
Note the higher heat flow values above the depocentres

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Fig. 4  Modelled and measured parameters from the control well Jászság-I. a 1D time extraction of paleo
water depth, and b basal heat flow trend at the location of the well, c calculated temperature, d vitrinite
reflectance, e pressure (hydrostatic—blue, pore—black and lithostatic—green) trends in the Jászság-I well.
(Color figure online)

considered in the crustal heat flow model. Based on heat flow calculations an increase in
basal heat flow from 17.0 to 10.0 Ma with a rift peak at 10.0 Ma was presumed in syn-rift
phase, and this was followed by a continuous decrease in values during thermal subsidence
in the post-rift phase up to present day (Fig. 4b). The values of the basal heat flow varied
between 101.5 and 125.2 mW/m2 at 10.0 Ma and between 82.9 and 86.9 mW/m2 at present
day. At basal heat flow definition, the published surface and basal heat flow values, and the
corrected temperature and quality checked vitrinite reflectance values available in wells
were considered. The sediment water interface temperature (SWIT)—as an upper bound-
ary condition—was calculated by an algorithm based on the paleogeographical position of
the basin taking the depositional environment (paleowater depth) of each event defined in
the model into account (Fig. 4a) (Wygrala 1989). The conductive heat transport through
the sedimentary section was controlled by the thermal properties of different lithologies,

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and the basal heat flow values and the sediment- SWIT, defined as upper and lower thermal
boundary conditions of the model, respectively.
Both thermo- and biogenic hydrocarbon generation were considered and analysed in
this study. A modified four-component standard type II/III kinetic model incorporating sec-
ondary cracking and biogenic reaction, and the pressure/temperature-dependent Langmuir
adsorption scheme was assigned to Middle Miocene and Pannonian source rocks. The ini-
tial ­TOCo and H­ Io values were set to average values of 1.0% and 200 mg HC/g TOC for
thermogenic source rock components, and values of 0.5% and 50 mg HC/g TOC for bio-
genic source rock components (Badics et al. 2011; Csizmeg et al. 2011; Harvey and Huang
1995).
Adsorption has a significant role in predicting the hydrocarbon balance of unconven-
tional plays, but it is also useful in the conventional basin and petroleum systems models
to better control the adsorbed hydrocarbons by kerogen. The Langmuir parameters were
found to be the key to establish reliable predictions of the adsorbed amounts. Ideally, they
should be measured on core or outcrop samples of the source rocks of interest, but in the
absence of such parameters, the global average values published by Kuuskraa et al. (2011)
can be used.
We considered that all the thermogenic source rocks had some biogenic gas potential.
High amount and quality of organic matter were not required because ­TOCo values of 0.5%
and ­HIo values of 50 mg HC/g TOC provided sufficient charge (Harvey and Huang 1995).
In this study, a simple biogenic reaction was used, which took the temperature window
of the biogenic gas generation habitat into account. Temperatures in a range of 40–60 °C
(with a maximum limit of 80 °C), and a maximum generation rate of 4 mg HC/g TOC were
considered. Regarding the potential of methanogenic sources, we took the present-day val-
ues of dissolved gases in the Pannonian formation waters (Vető et al. 2004) as reference,
and adjusted the range of their generation to the present-day methane content of the waters.
Based on the biogenic kinetic scheme assigned to the model the peak biogenic generation
zone fell roughly between 500 and 1000 m depth. With continuous burial, all the potential
source rocks located below 500 m passed through and were affected by biogenic gas gen-
eration when all the conditions for methanogenic gas generation were met.
Published compaction (Szalay 1982, 1988), pore pressure (from drill stem tests) and
equivalent mud weight (Spencer et al. 1994), quality checked and corrected temperature
(Dövényi 1994) and vitrinite reflectance data (Lenkey et al. 2002) available in the Jászság-I
and another two wells (Martfű-5 and Martfű -28) located in the close vicinity of the ana-
lysed 2D transect were used to calibrate the model (Fig. 4). To find the best fit between the
measured and calculated vitrinite reflectance data, several calibration kinetic models were
tested during the evaluation of thermal and maturation histories of the study area (Fig. 4).
The EASY%Ro model of Sweeney and Burnham (1990) considered as the industry stand-
ard, was compared with the models published by Ritter et al. (1996) and the recently pub-
lished Basin%Ro model of Nielsen et al. (2015).

4 Results

4.1 Extension and inversion events of the basin based on seismic interpretation

The Pannonian back-arc system is characterized by individual sub-basins filled with ~ 1.0
to 3.5 km thick Early to Late Miocene diachronous syn-kinematic deposits. It is overlain by

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a 1.5–3.5 km thick post-extensional sedimentary sequence. The analysis of the presented

transect (Fig. 2a) shows the Early to Middle Miocene depocenter of the Jászság sub-basin
in the north, the northern periphery of the Békés sub-basin in the south, and an elevated
basement high in between. As in other sub-basins located along the Mid-Hungarian Fault
Zone, a Paleogene depocentre is buried at ~ 2.0 to 3.0 km in the centre of the section under-
lying the Miocene sedimentary succession.
The interpretation of the seismic transect (Fig. 2a) reveals the multiphase Miocene-
Pliocene tectonic history of the basin system (Fig. 5). Early and Middle Miocene syn-rift
sediments and volcanoclastics irregularly overlie the crystalline basement and Paleogene
deposits. Their thickness reached up to 1 km in the Jászság, and approximately 2 km in the
northernmost part of Békés sub-basins (Fig. 5a), but these values decreased significantly
during the subsequent compaction. The deposition in the Jászság sub-basin was controlled
by high-angle normal faults, whereas near the Békés sub-basin, deposition was controlled
by a low-angle listric normal fault. In the ridge connecting the two depocentres a series of
high-angle faults are interpreted, probably with transcurrent and transtensional kinematics
(Csontos and Nagymarosy 1998). The syn-kinematic deposition of this Early to Middle
Miocene sequence was followed by a first peak of the tectonic inversion at earliest Pan-
nonian times inferred by the large, likely subaerial unconformity, separating the Middle
and Late Miocene sediments, and by the inverted half-graben geometries present in the
Jászság sub-basin. A maximum erosion of 200 m was assigned to this unconformity in
our basin model (Fig. 5b). Subsequent Late Miocene fast subsidence and transgression of
Lake Pannon resulted in the deposition of deepwater marls and turbidites in these sub-
basins (Fig. 5c–e). Paleo-water depth values along the 2D section were the highest after
the culmination of lithospheric thinning and extension, reaching values of ~ 600 m based
on the decompacted heights of the shelf-margin slope clinoforms (cf. Balázs et al. 2017b).
Continuous localised inversion is inferred by the syn-tectonic geometry of the deepwa-
ter Pannonian sediments in the section at offset 20 km starting from ca. 8 Ma (Fig. 5f).
The sedimentation rate gradually outpaced the post-rift subsidence rate, and therefore the
sediments of the prograding Pannonian shelf-margin slope were deposited (Magyar et al.
2013) at paleowater depths of few hundred meters between ~ 7.0 to 5.3 Ma (Fig. 5g–k). An
unconformity surface bounding the latest Miocene and earliest Pliocene sediments implies
another peak of tectonic inversion associated with uplift and base-level fall (see also Mag-
yar and Sztanó 2008; Csató et al. 2015). The Pliocene times are characterised by ongoing
differential vertical movements (Fig. 5 l-n) with higher subsidence rates near the former
deep sub-basins to the north in the Jászság and to the south toward the Békés sub-basin,
associated with strike-slip faults along the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone as well as minor
fault offsets created by differential compaction effects.

4.2 Subsidence and thermal modelling results

Overpressure development, thermal and maturity histories, timing of hydrocarbon genera-

tion and expulsion, migration pathways, and hydrocarbon accumulations were simulated
and then investigated along the modelled 2D transect.

4.2.1 Pressure development

High overpressure values were developed in the depocenters of the Jászság and the
periphery of the Békés sub-basins (Fig. 6a). The highest excess hydraulic pressure

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Fig. 5  Tectono-sedimentary evolution of the study area showing the subsidence and uplift events, the pro-
gradation of the shelf-margin slope system, and the distribution of facies through geologic time (model
output). For the legend see Fig. 2b

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Fig. 6  2D basin model results. a Simulated present-day overpressure values along the 2D transect. The
model is calibrated to published pore pressure data and equivalent mud-weight trends (Clayton et al. 1990;
Spencer et al. 1994). b Calculated present-day temperatures along the studied 2D profile. The simulated
temperature trends are calibrated to corrected temperature data in Jászság-I, Martfű-5 and Martfű-28 wells.
c Present-day vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) values along the studied 2D profile using the Nielsen et al. (2015)
kinetic model. The calculated %Ro trend shows the best fit with the vitrinite reflectance data in Jászság-I
well and the presumed heat flow history of study area. d Present day transformation ratio (%TR) values
along the studied 2D profile using a modified standard four-component type II/III kinetic reaction scheme

values (~ 15.0 to 18.0 MPa) were reached just after the deposition of thick Plio-
cene–Pleistocene layers. The shaly intercalations in the Pannonian Szolnok and Endrőd
formations acted as barriers to water flow resulting in undercompaction and high pore
pressure development in underlying sediments. The overpressure values are consider-
ably lower (~ 7.0 to 8.0 MPa) in the Jászság sub-basin where the shales are less com-
pacted at shallower depths, enabling more efficient fluid flow between under- and over-
lying sediments. The repeated tectonic inversion events (Fig. 5) had a slight impact on
pore pressure development. In the model, the faults were considered as closed except
those that were affected by the Pliocene inversion at 5.3 Ma. These faults were open
since then, which allowed the partial release of the excess hydraulic pressure and
migration of hydrocarbons into the fractured basement structures and Middle Miocene
and Pannonian traps (three- and four-way closures) located above the elevated base-
ment high.
Overpressures started to develop in both sub-basins at approximately 7.5 Ma, and
increased in the Jászság sub-basin first and then in the Békés sub-basin as the shelf-
margin prograded from NNW to SSE and sequentially filled in the accommodation
space available with clastic sediments. The Pliocene inversion caused a slight interrup-
tion in pressure development at ~ 5.3 Ma, but the subsequent and continuous subsid-
ence resulted in an ongoing pressure increase in the sediments below the shaly layers
of the Pannonian Szolnok and Endrőd formations in the study area up to present day
(Czauner and Mádl-Szőnyi 2013).

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4.2.2 Thermal and maturation history

The heat flow through the sedimentary section was significantly influenced by a large
mass of colder, less compacted sediments of the shelf-margin system prograding from
NNW from ~ 10.0 to 4.0 Ma. Thermal re-equilibration is still an ongoing process and
steady-state conditions have not been reached. The restricted compaction of the sedi-
mentary sequence underlying the tight shaly layers of the Pannonian Szolnok and
Endrőd formations—acting as effective barriers for water flow (Peters and Nelson 2009,
Peters et al. 2017)—also influenced the thermal properties of undercompacted layers,
and thus the paleo- and present-day heat flow and temperature values (Fig. 6b).
With respect to the calibration kinetics the models developed by Ritter et al. (1996)
and Nielsen et al. (2015)—the later one known as Basin%Ro—provided a better fit
between the measured data and calculated trends (Fig. 4d). The EASY%Ro model of
Sweeney and Burnham (1990) tended to overestimate the vitrinite reflectance values in
the oil window; meanwhile, the other two methods showed significant improvements
in the calibration results by following the ‘dogleg’ structure of the maturity trend that
is common in Tertiary depocenters with high sedimentation rates, where higher tem-
perature gradients are evident in paleotemperature profiles (Schenk et al. 2017). Over-
pressures and an associated ‘thermal blanketing effect’ related to enhanced porosity and
lower thermal conductivity of the fluids filling the pore space, which are typical of over-
pressured zones, are the most likely reason for the sudden increase in vitrinite reflec-
tance (Peters and Nelson 2009; Peters et al. 2017).
According to the Nielsen et al. (2015) kinetic model the Middle Miocene source rocks
entered the early oil window (~ 0.55%) at 11.0 to 10.0 Ma, the wet gas window (~ 1.3%) at
5.7 Ma and the dry gas window (~ 2.0%) at 5.2 Ma in the Békés sub-basin. The Pannon-
ian source rock (Endrőd formation) in the same sub-basin entered the generation windows
slightly later, at ~ 5.7 Ma (early oil), 3.9 Ma (wet gas) and 2.1 Ma (dry gas), respectively.
In the Jászság sub-basin the Pannonian source rocks (Endrőd and Szolnok formations)
entered the early oil window approximately 6.8 Ma, and they are still generating oil at
present day (they are in early-main oil window at present day). In agreement with the vit-
rinite reflectance values, the effective source rocks are mainly in the peak oil window in the
Jászság, and in the wet and dry gas zones in the Békés sub-basin at present day (Fig. 6c).
The transformation of the organic matter (%TR—transformation ratio) described by the
generation kinetic reactions assigned to effective source rocks show slightly different val-
ues in the Békés and Jászság sub-basins (Fig. 6d). The Middle Miocene entered the early
oil and dry gas windows at 10.0 to 8.6 Ma (~ 15% TR) and 7.2–6.8 Ma (~ 65% TR); mean-
while the Pannonian Endrőd formation entered the early oil and dry gas windows at 6.0 Ma
(~ 15% TR) and 5.2 Ma (~ 65% TR) in the periphery of Békés sub-basin. In the depocenter
of Jászság sub-basin, the Pannonian source rocks (Endrőd formation) entered the oil win-
dow (~ 15% TR) slightly later, at 6.8 Ma, and the dry gas window at 2.6 Ma.
The thermogenic source rocks are primarily in the early to peak oil zones in the
Jászság sub-basin (Endrőd formation), and in the wet to dry gas zones in the Békés
sub-basin at present day. Although the Jászság sub-basin in the north is shallower than
the Békés sub-basin in the south, the source rocks in the depocenters started to generate
hydrocarbons earlier as the shelf-margin prograded from the NNW to the SSE direction.
This variability in the onset of hydrocarbon generation shows the importance of proper
structural restoration of the paleosections in time and their impact on determining the
timing of hydrocarbon generation.

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4.2.3 Hydrocarbon charge

The coupled Darcy flow/invasion percolation migration method was selected to analyse
the processes related to charge. In this approach, the model is decomposed in two domains
based on a permeability threshold value (100 mD) defined in the fluid flow simulator. In
areas with low permeability values, the Darcy flow equations are solved; meanwhile, in
areas with high permeabilities, the invasion percolation method is applied (Hantschel and
Kauerauf 2009) (Fig. 7).
Thermogenic hydrocarbon generation started around 10.0 Ma in the studied area. The
onset of expulsion was around 8.6 Ma in the Békés and around 6.3 Ma in the Jászság sub-
basin. About 15–20% of generated hydrocarbons were retained by source rocks as free,
dissolved and adsorbed hydrocarbons. The adsorbed amount controlled by the Langmuir
adsorption model varied approximately by 10.0% along the studied section depending on
temperature and pressure conditions. Some of these hydrocarbons were cracked into lighter
components at higher temperatures according to the secondary cracking schemes assigned
to primary reaction kinetics. Biogenic gas generation in both the Békés and Jászság sub-
basins—started earlier than the thermogenic generation, at approximately 11.6 Ma, as the
first sediment units with some hydrocarbon potential reached the methanogenic generation
zone in the periphery of Békés sub-basin. The first accumulations appeared at approxi-
mately 11.0–10.0 Ma when the deep hemipelagic shales of Endrőd formation became tight
enough to hold a part of biogenic gases. In the Jászság sub-basin, the generation of hydro-
carbons started slightly later, at approximately 10.0–8.6 Ma as the shelf-margin reached the
study area, but the generated gases could be preserved only in the turbidites of the Szolnok
formation when the shaly layers intercalating the sand reservoirs ensured proper sealing at
approximately 6.8 Ma.
Three hydrocarbon generation scenarios—one with thermogenic generation only, one
with biogenic generation only, and one with both—were built to improve understanding of
the migration processes and contribution of both sources to the charge. Additionally, the

Fig. 7  Present-day model results showing the simulated hydrocarbon accumulations considering both ther-
mogenic and biogenic hydrocarbon generation (in red). (Color figure online)

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model including both thermo- and biogenic hydrocarbon generation was simulated with
and without dissolution and diffusion of biogenic and thermogenic methane to analyse the
impact of these processes on charge and hydrocarbon balance. Because the diffusion is part
of the migration process of dissolved gases, it also was considered as a migration mecha-
nism in the model. According to the simulation results, diffusion rates were low, especially
at shallower depths where the temperatures were also lower. In the deeper parts of the
modelled section, the rates were higher, but never exceeded a distance of several hundred
meters (200–300 m). Because the diffusion rates have mostly been lower than the sedimen-
tation rates during the structural evolution of the study area, migration losses by diffusion
probably have never occurred at the surface of the model.
When only thermogenic generation was considered, the accumulations appeared in
the fractured basement, in the three- and four-way closures of Middle Miocene reservoirs
above the elevated basement high located between the two depocentres and in the strati-
graphic traps of Szolnok formation as well. Based on model results, these traps started to
be charged with components of thermogenic hydrocarbons late, just after the Messinian
inversion (~ 5.3 Ma). The main migration pathways—besides the normal faults—were the
top of the basement and Middle Miocene layers once exposed and weathered during the
uplift between 11.6 and 10.0 Ma. In some places, these weathered and fractured carriers
acted as reservoirs along migration pathways.
When both thermogenic and biogenic gas generation were considered, the latter process
charged the structural/stratigraphic traps of Pannonian sandstones (Szolnok formation) and
the sand lenses of Middle Miocene facies in Békés sub-basin first. The biogenic gas gen-
eration zone advanced as the shelf-margin prograded from NNW to SSE, and the newly
deposited sediments entered the methanogenic gas generation zone gradually and sequen-
tially. The thermogenic hydrocarbons migrating from the Middle Miocene source rocks
of the Békés sub-basin charged the three- and four-way closures and stratigraphic traps
located above the basement high already partially filled with biogenic gases generated by
Middle Miocene and Pannonian source rocks. The charge of the potential reservoirs with
biogenic gases started as the first Pannonian sediments went through the depth interval
between the 40 and 60 °C isotherms, whereas the thermogenically sourced charge hap-
pened after the Pliocene inversion occurred (Fig. 8).
Gas hydrates and their impact on the hydrocarbon balance were also investigated.
Because most likely all the conditions of hydrate formation were met when the water
depths reached 600 to 700 m in the Jászság, and almost 1000 m in the Békés sub-basins in
the Pannonian (s.l.), we presumed that, even for a limited time interval, they could act as
a barrier for the gases generated at shallower depths. For this reason, the formation, extent
and amounts of gas hydrates in the available pore spaces of gas hydrate stability zones
(GHSZ) in correlation with methane generation and migration were analyzed through geo-
logic time (Fig. 9). Based on simulation results, the GHSZ was present from 10.0 Ma to
approximately 7.0 Ma and presumably had a role in holding both biogenic and thermo-
genic gases at that time. However, with the continuous burial and decrease in water depths
the stability zones diminished, and the newly deposited layers overlying them became com-
pacted enough to hold the gases released from hydrates.
Considering the final hydrocarbon mass balance, almost twice of the amount of thermo-
genic hydrocarbons was generated than biogenic hydrocarbons (Fig. 10). Analysing the
amounts of expelled hydrocarbons, the balance is the opposite: almost twice the amount bio-
genic hydrocarbons was expelled than thermogenic, partly due to the more restricted fluid
flow in the less permeable thermogenic source rocks at the time of generation, and partly due
to the pressure and temperature dependency of the adsorption model assigned to the source

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Fig. 8  Simulated migration pathways, predicted hydrocarbon accumulations and composition, and phase
changes through geologic time considering both biogenic and thermogenic hydrocarbon generation. Note
that the outer circle of the pie chart represents the liquid masses of each component and the inner circle
represents the vapour masses

rocks. Because of inefficient trapping of biogenic gases, the balance of accumulated hydrocar-
bons in reservoirs is in favour of thermogenic ones: more thermogenic than biogenic hydro-
carbons accumulated in the reservoirs as free-phase gas. All in all—due to inefficient seals at
the time of biogenic gas generation—approximately 70% of the biogenic gas was lost from the
system (outflow on the top and/or side of the model) or remained along migration pathways as
residual hydrocarbons (Fig. 10).
The migration model confirmed the accumulations known in the Pannonian turbidite sand-
stones and clay marls and in the Middle Miocene limestone, marl, conglomerate and sand-
stone reservoirs of the known Martfű field located on the transect (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 9  Formation and extent of GHSZ through geologic time

5 Discussion

5.1 Importance of the high‑resolution reconstruction method

The modelled section crossing the Mid-Hungarian Fault Zone shows the spatial and
temporal variability of subsidence and uplift events in the Pannonian basin (Figs. 5, 11).
Due to the tectonic complexities and the gradual and sequential progradation of the
shelf-margin slope from NNW to SSE, the better definition of model geometries has
a significant impact on the evolution of hydrocarbon systems elements and processes
(Fig. 5). The assumption is valid for both thermogenic and biogenic gas generation
because the sequential overburden and load moved the effective source rocks gradually
into the hydrocarbon generation zones as the shelf-margin advanced from NNW to SSE.
The retention of biogenic gases was more efficient as the shelf-margin slope prograded
and made the potential seals tighter. Due to the inefficient sealing at the time of metha-
nogenic gas generation, a significant part of biogenic gases was lost at the top of the
modelled section (Fig. 9). The applied methodology, i.e., the combination of time- and
paleo-stepping methods—besides eliminating the artefacts of standard backstripping
method—could take the slight lateral movements related to extension, transpression and
inversion into consideration as well making the results of the simulation runs geologi-
cally more realistic and consistent.

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Fig. 10  Hydrocarbon balance in the simulated model: composition of generated, expelled, accumulated
hydrocarbons in reservoirs and lost hydrocarbons (at subsurface conditions and in mass%)

5.2 Biogenic gas formation and accumulation

The measured values of dissolved methane are below the methane solubility in formation
waters of the Pannonian basin at present day. Based on our calculations—considering the
results of almost 1000 measurements taken from Pannonian water samples (Vető et al.
2004)—the dissolved methane is between 0.11 and 0.24 kg/m3 on average in the main gen-
eration zone located between 500 and 1000 m of depth. To generate biogenic gas in the
past (i.e., exceed the measured values of dissolved methane at present day) low values of
0.5% and 50 mg HC/g TOC were assigned to potential biogenic source rocks. Based on
these input data, the maximum value of the generated biogenic methane was slightly higher
(approximately 0.8 kg/m3) than the solubility of methane calculated by Duan and Mao
(2006) considering formation waters with 1 mol/kg NaCl content. It proved to be enough
to generate and confirm the occurrence of biogenic accumulations present in the Pannonian
basin.

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Fig. 11  1D burial plots with temperature overlay at three extraction points from our 2D model. For loca-
tions see Fig. 7. Note the spatial and temporal variability in the subsidence and uplift rates and in the
changes of paleowater depths

According to simulation results, the biogenic gas content is approximately 5 to 10% in

the known Martfű accumulation located near the investigated 2D transect. The gas samples
taken from the Pannonian turbidite sandstones and clay marl reservoirs overlying the Mid-
dle Miocene sediments had a δC13 isotope signature of − 58‰, justifying the mixed origin
of the gases trapped in the Pannonian (Clayton et al. 1990). The composition of modelled
gases ­(C1 approximately 75%, C­ 2 to ­C5 components approximately 15%, and C ­ 5+ compo-
nents in few percent only) was very close to the results of geochemical analyses measured

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on gas samples. Inert gases (­CO2 and N ­ 2) were also present in amounts less than 10% in
the samples, but this study did not incorporate the generation of the gases separately from
hydrocarbons.

5.3 Seal capacity

One of the critical factors in the retention of generated gases is the seal capacity. Despite
the layers with some potential starting to generate biogenic gases when they entered the
peak generation zone approximately 8.6 Ma in the NNW part of the section, the overlying
seals were not tight enough to retain a significant part of the gases. A sedimentary column
of at least 900–1000 m was necessary for the development of an efficient seal that could
hold the biogenic gases accumulated in the sand lenses of Szolnok formation. This did not
happen simultaneously because the seal with the ability to trap the gases only developed
gradually as the shelf-margin slope system advanced from NNW to SSW between 7.5 and
5.3 Ma (Fig. 5).

5.4 Heat flow evolution and the thermal effects of volcanics

The applied heat flow model delivered acceptable results that were in good agreement with
the published data (Dövényi and Horváth 1988, Dövényi 1994; Lenkey et al. 2002) and
geological evolution of the area of interest (Lenkey et al. 2002).
The thermal effects of volcanic activity can locally accelerate the maturation of imma-
ture source rocks and thus the hydrocarbon generation. Furthermore, the volcanic activ-
ity can provide fluids and mineral nutrients to the biosystem of depositional environments
resulting in the preservation of abundant amounts of organic matter in source rocks (e.g.,
Jin et al. 1999). Wang et al. (2012) conducted similar petroleum system modelling in the
Bohai Bay basin in Eastern China and concluded that the igneous intrusions enhanced the
hydrocarbon generation within the source rocks locally by up to 100 m from the approxi-
mately 100 m thick sills. According to another similar study on the thermal effects of igne-
ous intrusions on the Eastern Siberian platform, Galushkin (1997) considered the thermal
influence of the sills and dikes to be within 50 to 90% of the sill or dike thickness, but
rarely more than their thickness.
The effusive volcanic deposits that become part of the Jászság sub-basin infill during
the Early and Middle Miocene most probably did not have any thermal impact on source
rocks. Formed in the same geologic time interval as the effective source rocks present in
the adjacent depocenters of Pannonian basin systems, they restricted the accommodation
space available for the formation of deposits rich in organic matter and thus the generation
of significant amounts of hydrocarbon in this sub-basin.

5.5 Hydrocarbon migration

Specific attention was drawn to analyse the migration, timing relationship between charge
and trap formation, and contribution of the two different gas sources—thermogenic and
biogenic—to the charge of potential reservoirs through geological time. Besides the sepa-
rate phase flow of oil, gas and water, the movement of dissolved gases within the water
phase via diffusion was also considered. The main conduits in hydrocarbon migration were

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the unconformity surfaces on the tops of eroded basement and Middle Miocene section, the
turbidites of Szolnok formation, and the reactivated faults during inversion events.
The generation and migration of biogenic gases started approximately 11.6 Ma as the
potential source rocks with the sequential progradation of the shelf-margin slope system
from NNW to SSW entered the methanogenic generation phase with a peak between 40
and 60 °C. Because the seals above the turbidites of Szolnok formation did not reach suffi-
cient effectivity, the gases migrating vertically were lost at the surface of the section. A few
million years later, as the front of the shelf-margin slope system advanced from NNW to
SSW, the deposited sediments above the turbidites of Szolnok formation became gradually
thicker, and the seals overlying the potential reservoirs became tighter and more compact.
In the periphery of the Békés sub-basin, the thermogenic Middle Miocene source rocks
entered the oil window at approximately 9.50 Ma (TR ~ 15 to 20%) and started to expel
hydrocarbons a few hundred thousand years later. After filling the intercalated sandy lenses
of Miocene source rocks in the depocenter, the hydrocarbons migrated vertically along the
partially reactivated open faults during the Pliocene inversion towards higher structural lev-
els at 5.3 Ma. Then, continuing their way along erosional surfaces developed on the top
of the basement and top of Middle Miocene sediments, the hydrocarbons gradually filled
the pinch-out traps, and the three- and four-way closures of Middle Miocene section and
Szolnok formation located above the basement high, mixing with biogenic gases already
present in the traps (Fig. 7). Our numerical model charged the known Martfű gas accumu-
lation located next to the section containing both thermogenic and mixed gases at different
stratigraphic levels (Fig. 8).

5.6 Impact of methane dissolution‑diffusion on the hydrocarbon balance

The formation water flow transports the dissolved gases from one location to another. As
the water mass flows into zones with lower temperature and pressure conditions or its
salinity increases, the gases exsolve and form a free phase. This is a relatively continuous
process throughout the carrier system. After the free phases of hydrocarbons formed, a
separate-phase buoyant flow mechanism is needed to accumulate the hydrocarbons within
the reservoirs (Matthews 1999). Migration by diffusion of light hydrocarbons in a water-
filled pore system is extremely slow. Diffusion moves hydrocarbons from areas of higher
to lower concentrations. It is dominantly a dispersive force and generally is responsible for
the loss and not the accumulation of hydrocarbons (Krooss 1987).
If dissolution/diffusion is considered, a significant part of thermo- and biogenic meth-
ane is dissolved in formation waters. The movement of gases within water can be partially
modelled by diffusion. This option changes the hydrocarbon balance of the model because
a part of the gases that would leave the system is retained by formation waters as dissolved
gases. However, the dissolution could not substitute the movement of dissolved gases
with water flow, which is the main driving force of biogenic gases in the Pannonian basin.
Because the movement of dissolved hydrocarbons in formation water is considered through
diffusion only, the scenario including dissolution/diffusion differs mainly in the retained
hydrocarbons, but not in the free-phase accumulations.

5.7 The effect of gas hydrate generation on petroleum systems

The simulation results confirmed the development of a gas hydrate stability zone between
10.0 and 7.0 Ma. This zone could act as a seal both for thermogenic and biogenic gases

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generated at that time. The hydrates possibly play a temporally role in the retention of the
gases; however, further investigations are needed to better understand their contribution to
gas accumulations with mixed origins present at shallower depths in the Pannonian basin.

6 Conclusions

In this study, a new 2D basin and petroleum systems model was presented that quantifies
both thermogenic and biogenic gas generation in the Pannonian back-arc basin of Central
Europe. It took the spatial and temporal variability of syn- and post-rift subsidence and
uplift rates and the sequential sedimentary infill of the basin into account. The study area
crossing the Békés and Jászság sub-basins and the Mid-Hungarian Fault zone was affected
by Early and Middle Miocene syn-rift extension and transtension. Our model calculated a
basal heat flow increase between 17 and 10 Ma, reaching a maximum value of 125 mW/
m2. Post-rift subsidence and cooling from Late Miocene times was interrupted by local and
short-lived episodes of inversion starting approximately 7 to 8 Ma and culminating in earli-
est Pliocene times.
Loading due to the sequential and rapid sedimentation compacted the underlying older
sediments during the Late Miocene and resulted in the development of high-pressure zones
in these sedimentary layers. This rapid sedimentation therefore resulted in restricted water
flow and undercompaction in these low-permeability rocks.
Biogenic source rock properties were assigned to thermogenic source rocks with a gen-
eration potential close to the present-day conditions. Continuous methanogenic gas genera-
tion was presumed as the sediments entered and passed through the biogenic gas genera-
tion zone with a peak located between 500 and 1000 m depth. This continuous burial was
interrupted by inversion and uplift at 5.3 Ma. Both thermo- and biogenic gases charged the
known and predicted accumulations in the numerical model. The available traps were filled
by the components of biogenic gases first, which were partially displaced by the thermo-
genic gases later as generation and subsequent expulsion started around 9.5–8.6 Ma ago in
the periphery of Békés sub-basin. The predicted compositions and hydrocarbon phases are
in a good agreement with the results of geochemical analysis of the gas samples from the
basin.
The impact of dissolution/diffusion was also investigated in the numerical model. The
dissolution and diffusion processes resulted in higher amounts of retained gas. However,
due to dissolution in the formation water these gas volumes could not contribute signifi-
cantly to the charge of both known and predicted accumulations. Diffusion did not have
a major impact on the final migration model. The movement of gases by diffusion was
restricted to a range of few hundred meters. The hydrocarbon balance showed the predomi-
nance of expelled biogenic gases; however, due to the inefficient sealing, most of them
were lost as they migrated to the surface.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Schlumberger for providing access to ­PetroMod® soft-
ware. Bjorn Wygrala, Oliver Schenk, Duplo Kornpihl, Daniel Palmowski and Thorsten Joppen are warmly
thanked for their insightful comments and constructive remarks. Reviews by an anonymous reviewer and the
Editor, Viktor Wesztergom are also acknowledged.

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Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica

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