Ch-2: Entropy

Book:
▪ Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach by Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A.
Boles, 8th Ed. (Ch. 7)
▪ Applied Thermodynamics by TD Eastop and A McConkey, 5th Ed.
▪ Fundamentals of Thermodynamics by Borgnakke and Sontag, 8th Ed. (Ch. 6)

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 Entropy

▪First law of Thermodynamics deals with the property Energy and the conservation of it
▪The Second Law lead to the definition of a new property called Entropy

▪Entropy: tedious to define it

o Difficult to give a physical description of it without considering the microscopic state of the
system
o It is best understood and appreciated by studying its uses in commonly encountered
engineering processes

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 Entropy

THE INEQUALITY OF CLAUSIUS

→ A consequence of the Second Law of Thermodynamics

▪ Cyclic Integral of the heat transfer, ∫δQ, is greater than Zero

▪ For a Reversible Cycle:

If ∫δQ → Cyclic Integral of δQ, approaches zero (by making TH approach TL) and the cycle remains
reversible, the cyclic integral of δQ / T remains zero

⇒ for all Reversible Heat Engine Cycles

And

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 Entropy

THE INEQUALITY OF CLAUSIUS

▪ For an Irreversible Cyclic Heat Engine operating between the same TH and TL as the reversible engine
⇒

⇒
⇒

⇒ Because

In the limit, as the work output goes to zero

⇒ for all Irreversible Heat Engine Cycles

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THE INEQUALITY OF CLAUSIUS

▪ For All Cycles we can write: This is Clausius Inequality

→ This inequality is valid for all Thermodynamic Cycles, Reversible or Irreversible, including the
Refrigeration Cycles

▪ Consider a simple steam power plant that

demonstrates the inequality of Clausius

→ Heat is transferred in two places, the boiler and

the condenser

⇒
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THE INEQUALITY OF CLAUSIUS

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ENTROPY—A PROPERTY OF A SYSTEM

▪ Clausius discovered this new property in 1865, Entropy, may be defined as a property of a substance in
accordance with the relation

→ It is an Extensive Property, and entropy per unit mass is designated s

▪ Change in the entropy of a system as it undergoes a change of state may be found by integrating:

→ Engineers are usually concerned with the changes in entropy

→ Entropy of a substance can be assigned a zero value at some arbitrarily
selected reference state, and the entropy values at other states can be
determined from Eq. by choosing state 1 to be the reference state (S = 0)
and state 2 to be the state at which entropy is to be determined

▪ Entropy is a property → change in the entropy of a substance in going from

one state to another is the same for all processes, both reversible and
irreversible, between these two states
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THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

⇒ ⇒

→ Equality holds for an Internally Reversible Process

⇒ → Inequality for an Irreversible Process
⇒ Entropy change of a closed system during an Irreversible Process
is greater than the integral of dQ/T evaluated for that process
→ Entropy Change of the system

→ Entropy Transfer with heat

→ Entropy Change of a closed system during an Irreversible Process is always greater than the Entropy
Transfer
⇒ Some Entropy is Generated or Created during an Irreversible Process, and this generation is due
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entirely to the presence of irreversibilities
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THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

→ Entropy Generation Sgen is always a Positive quantity or Zero

▪ For an Isolated System (or simply an Adiabatic Closed System), the Heat Transfer is zero

→ Entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases or, in the case of a reversible
process, remains constant
→ In other words, Entropy never decreases → known as the Increase Of Entropy Principle

▪ In the absence of any heat transfer, Entropy Change is due to irreversibilities only → their effect is always
to increase entropy
▪ Entropy is an Extensive Property, and thus the total entropy of a system is equal to the sum of the
entropies of the parts of the system

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THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

The increase of
The entropy change of an isolated system is
the sum of the entropy changes of its entropy principle A system and its surroundings
components, and is never less than zero form an isolated system

▪ Since no actual process is Truly Reversible → some entropy is generated during a process, and therefore
the Entropy of the Universe (considered to be an Isolated System), is continuously increasing
→ Which is a major concern not only to engineers but also to philosophers, theologians, economists, and
environmentalists
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→ since Entropy is viewed as a measure of the disorder (or “mixed-up-ness”) in the universe
 Entropy

Some Remarks about Entropy

1. Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in any direction

→ A process must proceed in the direction that complies with the
increase of entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥ 0

2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there is no such thing as the

conservation of Entropy principle
→ Entropy is conserved during the idealized reversible processes only
and increases during all actual processes

3. The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence

of irreversibilities
The entropy change of a system → Entropy Generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the
can be negative, but the entropy irreversibilities during a process
generation cannot → also used to establish criteria for the performance of Engineering
Devices

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 Entropy

Problem
A heat source at 800 K loses 2000 kJ of heat to a sink at (a) 500 K
and (b) 750 K. Determine which heat transfer process is more
irreversible.

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ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES

▪ Entropy is a Property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed once the state of the system is fixed
▪ Entropy Change of a substance can be expressed in terms of other properties, but in general, these relations
are too complicated and are not practical to use for hand calculations

▪ using a Suitable Reference State, the entropies of substances are

evaluated from Measurable Property Data and the results are tabulated
in the same manner as the other properties such as v, u, and h

→ Thermodynamic Properties of a substance are often shown

on a Temperature–Entropy Diagram

AND

→ on an Enthalpy–Entropy Diagram, which is also called a

Mollier Diagram, after Richard Mollier (1863–1935) of Germany

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ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES

▪ These Diagrams present thermodynamic data and enable us to visualize the changes of state that occur in
various processes
▪ Constant-pressure Lines almost coincide with the Saturated Liquid Line in the Compressed Liquid Region

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Problem
A rigid tank contains 5 kg of Refrigerant-134a initially at 20°C and 140 kPa. The refrigerant is now
cooled while being stirred until its pressure drops to 100 kPa. Determine the entropy change of the
refrigerant during this process.

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 Entropy

Problem
A rigid tank contains 5 kg of Refrigerant-134a initially at 20°C and 140 kPa. The refrigerant is
now cooled while being stirred until its pressure drops to 100 kPa. Determine the entropy
change of the refrigerant during this process.

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 Entropy
Problem
Calculate the entropy change of the universe as a result of the following processes:
(a) A copper block of 600 g mass and with Cp of 150 J/K at 100°C is placed in a lake at 8°C.
(b) The same block, at 8°C, is dropped from a height of 100 m into the lake.
(c) Two such blocks, at 100 and 0°C, are joined together.

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 Entropy
Problem
Calculate the entropy change of the universe as a result of the following processes:
(a) A copper block of 600 g mass and with Cp of 150 J/K at 100°C is placed in a lake at 8°C.
(b) The same block, at 8°C, is dropped from a height of 100 m into the lake.
(c) Two such blocks, at 100 and 0°C, are joined together.

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ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
▪ Entropy of a Fixed Mass can be changed by: (1) Heat Transfer and (2) Irreversibilities
▪ A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an Isentropic Process

→ Many engineering devices such as pumps,

turbines, nozzles, and diffusers are Adiabatic
in their operation, and perform best when the
Irreversibilities, such as the friction
associated with the process, are minimized

→ a Reversible Adiabatic Process is necessarily

ISENTROPIC (s2 = s1)

During an internally reversible, The isentropic process appears as a

adiabatic (isentropic) process, the vertical line segment on a T-s diagram
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entropy remains constant
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PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY

▪ In
the Second Law Analysis, it is very helpful to plot the processes on diagrams for which one of the
coordinates is Entropy, such as Ts or hs Diagrms.

→ To perform the integrations, relationship between T and s during a

process is required to be known
→ For Internally Reversible Isothermal Process

T0 = Constant Temperature
ΔS = entropy change of the system during the process
On a T-S diagram → area under the process
curve represents the Heat Transfer for
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internally reversible processes
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PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY

▪ Isentropic Process on a T-s diagram is a vertical line segment
▪ since an Isentropic Process involves no heat transfer, and
therefore the area under the process path must be zero

▪ For Adiabatic Steady-flow Devices, the vertical distance ∆h on

h-s diagram is a measure of work → horizontal distance ∆s is a
measure of irreversibilities
Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram
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 Entropy

WHAT IS ENTROPY?
▪ Entropy can be viewed as a measure of Molecular Disorder, or Molecular Randomness
▪ As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become less
predictable and the entropy increases
▪ Entropy of a substance is lowest in the solid phase and highest in the gas phase
→ Entropy of a system increases whenever the Molecular Randomness or
Uncertainty (i.e., Molecular Probability) of a system increases

▪ Oscillations of molecules in solid phase fade as temperature is decreased and

become motionless at Absolute Zero

→ A Pure Crystalline Substance at Absolute Zero Temperature is in perfect

order, and its Entropy is Zero → (The Third Law of Thermodynamics)

→ since there is no uncertainty about the state of the

molecules at that instant
The level of molecular
disorder (entropy) of a
substance increases as it
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23
 Entropy

WHAT IS ENTROPY?

o no matter how large the kinetic energies of gas molecules are → do not rotate a
paddle wheel inserted into the container and produce work
o because the gas molecules, and the energy they possess, are DISORGANIZED
o Probably the number of molecules trying to rotate the wheel in one direction is
equal to the number of molecules that are trying to rotate it in the opposite
direction

o Energy of molecules in a rotating shaft is completely ORGANIZED

since the molecules of the shaft are rotating in the same direction
together
o Being an organized form of energy, Work is free of Disorder or In the absence of friction,
Randomness and thus free of Entropy raising a weight by a
o There is No Entropy Transfer associated with Energy Transfer as rotating shaft does not
Work create any disorder
o Any process that does not produce a net entropy is reversible → In (entropy), and thus energy
this case by lowering the weight, process can be reversed is not degraded during this
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 Entropy

WHAT IS ENTROPY?
o Paddle-wheel work is converted to the Internal Energy of the gas,
as evidenced by a Rise in Gas Temperature → creating a higher
level of Molecular Disorder in the container
o Process is quite different from raising a weight since the
Organized Paddle-wheel Energy is now converted to a highly
disorganized form of energy → which cannot be converted
back to the paddle wheel as the rotational kinetic energy
The paddle-wheel work done on a gas
o Only a portion of this energy can be converted to work by the increases the level of disorder
use of a heat engine (entropy) of the gas, and thus energy
→ energy is degraded during this process is degraded during this process
→ the ability to do work is reduced
→ Molecular Disorder is produced → an increase in Entropy
Overall:
→ Quantity of energy is always preserved during an actual process (the First Law), but the Quality is bound
to decrease (the Second Law)
→ decrease in Quality is always accompanied by an increase in entropy → Molecular Disorder is produced
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 Entropy

THE T-ds RELATIONS

▪ Differential
form of the Conservation of Energy Equation for a Closed Stationary System (a fixed mass)
containing a simple compressible substance for an internally reversible process
Where and

OR
→ First T ds, or Gibbs Equation

→ using the definition of Enthalpy

→du + Pdv = dh – v dp

⇒ → 2nd Tds Equation

Differential changes in entropy The T ds relations are valid for both

in terms of other properties reversible and irreversible processes
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ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

Liquids and solids can be approximated as incompressible

substances since their specific volumes remain nearly
Since for liquids and solids constant during a process

→ Entropy Change during a process is:

o Entropy Change of a truly incompressible substance depends on temperature only and is

independent of pressure
→ For Isentropic Process of an Incompressible Substance
→ Isentropic Process of an incompressible substance
is also Isothermal
→ This explains why Pumping Liquid does not change
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the temperature
 Entropy

ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES

From the First T ds Relation From the Second T ds Relation

⇒
⇒

Specific Heats of ideal gases, with the exception of MONATOMIC GASES, depend on temperature, and the
integrals in above Eqs. cannot be performed unless the dependence of cv and cp on temperature is known

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ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES

Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

→ Entropy change of an ideal gas on a Unit–mole Basis

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ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES

Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
→ Isentropic Relations for ideal gases are obtained by
setting Eq. to 0
⇒ ⇒

=0 ⇒

⇒
⇒ 𝑇𝑃(1−𝑘)/𝑘 = constant
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 Entropy

Problem

A cryogenic manufacturing facility handles liquid methane at 115 K and 5 MPa at a rate of 0.280 m3/s . A
process requires dropping the pressure of liquid methane to 1 MPa, which is done by throttling the
liquid methane by passing it through a flow resistance such as a valve. A recently hired engineer
proposes to replace the throttling valve by a turbine in order to produce power while dropping the
pressure to 1 MPa.

Using data from Table 7–1,

determine the Maximum Amount
of Power that can be produced by
such a turbine. Also, determine
how much this turbine will save
the facility from electricity usage
costs per year if the turbine
operates continuously (8760 h/yr)
and the facility pays $0.075/kWh
for electricity.

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 Entropy
Problem
A cryogenic manufacturing facility handles liquid methane at 115 K and 5 MPa at a rate of 0.280 m3/s . A process
requires dropping the pressure of liquid methane to 1 MPa, which is done by throttling the liquid methane by passing
it through a flow resistance such as a valve. A recently hired engineer proposes to replace the throttling valve by a
turbine in order to produce power while dropping the pressure to 1 MPa.
Using data from Table 7–1, determine the Maximum Amount of Power that can be produced by such a turbine. Also,
determine how much this turbine will save the facility from electricity usage costs per year if the turbine operates
continuously (8760 h/yr) and the facility pays $0.075/kWh for electricity.

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 Entropy
Problem
A cryogenic manufacturing facility handles liquid methane at 115 K and 5 MPa at a rate of 0.280 m3/s . A process
requires dropping the pressure of liquid methane to 1 MPa, which is done by throttling the liquid methane by passing
it through a flow resistance such as a valve. A recently hired engineer proposes to replace the throttling valve by a
turbine in order to produce power while dropping the pressure to 1 MPa.
Using data from Table 7–1, determine the Maximum Amount of Power that can be produced by such a turbine. Also,
determine how much this turbine will save the facility from electricity usage costs per year if the turbine operates
continuously (8760 h/yr) and the facility pays $0.075/kWh for electricity.

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 Entropy
Problem
A cryogenic manufacturing facility handles liquid methane at 115 K and 5 MPa at a rate of 0.280 m3/s . A process
requires dropping the pressure of liquid methane to 1 MPa, which is done by throttling the liquid methane by passing
it through a flow resistance such as a valve. A recently hired engineer proposes to replace the throttling valve by a
turbine in order to produce power while dropping the pressure to 1 MPa.
Using data from Table 7–1, determine the Maximum Amount of Power that can be produced by such a turbine. Also,
determine how much this turbine will save the facility from electricity usage costs per year if the turbine operates
continuously (8760 h/yr) and the facility pays $0.075/kWh for electricity.

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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
▪ When the temperature change during a process is large and the specific heats of the ideal gas vary
nonlinearly within the temperature range → Assumption of constant specific heats may lead to
considerable errors in entropy-change calculations
▪ Entropy change during a process is then determined by substituting these cv (T) or cp (T) relations into:

▪ Instead of performing these laborious integrals each time we have a new process, it is convenient to
perform these integrals once and tabulate the results → Absolute Zero is chosen as the reference
temperature and define a function so as:
so → function of temperature alone → its value is zero at Absolute Zero temperature

so values are calculated at various temperatures, and the results are tabulated in
the appendix as a function of temperature for air.

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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)

▪ Unlike internal energy and enthalpy, the Entropy of an ideal gas varies with specific volume or pressure
as well as the temperature
▪ Entropy cannot be tabulated as a function of temperature alone
→so values in the tables account for the temperature dependence of entropy
→ variation of entropy with pressure is accounted for by the term “R ln (P2 / P1)”
→ Isentropic Relation is obtained by setting Eq. to 0:

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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Air is compressed from an initial state of 100 kPa and 17 °C to a final state of 600
kPa and 57 °C. Determine the entropy change of air during this compression
process by using:
(a) property values from the air table and
(b) average specific heats.

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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Air is compressed from an initial state of 100 kPa and 17 °C to a final state of 600 kPa and 57 °C. Determine
the entropy change of air during this compression process by using:
(a) property values from the air table and
(b) average specific heats.

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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
→ provides an accurate way of evaluating property changes of ideal gases
during Isentropic Processes since it accounts for the variation of specific
heats with temperature
→ However, it involves tedious iterations when the Volume Ratio is given instead of the Pressure Ratio

inconvenience in optimization studies, which usually require numerous repetitive calculations

To remedy this deficiency → two new dimensionless quantities associated with isentropic processes
are defined as:

⇒ ⇒

⇒
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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
Relative Pressure Pr is a dimensionless quantity that
is a function of temperature only since so depends on
temperature alone

▪ Sometimes specific volume ratios are given instead of pressure ratios:

→ quantity T/Pr is a function of temperature only and is defined as

Relative Specific Volume vr

→ are strictly valid for Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases only

→ account for the variation of specific heats with temperature use of Pr data for calculating the
and therefore give more accurate results final temperature during an
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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Example
Air is compressed in a car engine from 22 oC and 95 kPa in a reversible and adiabatic manner. If
the compression ratio V1 / V2 of this engine is 8, determine the final temperature of the air.

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 Entropy
ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Example
Air is compressed in a car engine from 22 oC and 95 kPa in a reversible and adiabatic manner. If
the compression ratio V1 / V2 of this engine is 8, determine the final temperature of the air.

Based on Constant cp assumption:

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 Entropy
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
▪ Reversible (quasi-equilibrium) Moving Boundary Work associated with CLOSED SYSTEMS:
Quasi-equilibrium Work interactions lead to the
maximum work output for work-producing devices and
the minimum work input for work-consuming devices
▪ Energy balance for a STEADY-FLOW DEVICE undergoing an internally reversible process

∴ ⇒
⇒

When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible

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 Entropy
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK

→ give a negative result when work is done on the system

→ To avoid the negative sign, this can be written for work input to steady-flow devices such as
compressors and pumps as

→ v as a function of P for given process should be known to perform the integration

▪ When the working fluid is incompressible, the specific volume v remains
constant during the process

▪ For the steady flow of a liquid through a device that involves No Work
interactions (such as a nozzle or a pipe section), the work term is zero

⇒ → Bernoulli Equation in Fluid Mechanics

Developed for an internally reversible process → applicable to incompressible fluids that involve No
Irreversibilities such as friction or shock waves
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 Entropy
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK

⇒ Larger the Specific Volume, the larger the reversible work produced or
consumed by the steady-flow device

▪ Every effort should be made to keep the specific volume of a fluid---

→as small as possible during a Compression Process to minimize the work input
→as large as possible during an Expansion Process to maximize the work output

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 Entropy
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
Determine the compressor work input required to compress steam isentropically from 100
kPa to 1 MPa, assuming that the steam exists as:
(a) saturated liquid and
(b) saturated vapor at the inlet state.

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 Entropy
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
Determine the compressor work input required to compress steam isentropically from 100
kPa to 1 MPa, assuming that the steam exists as:
(a) saturated liquid and
(b) saturated vapor at the inlet state.

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 Entropy
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
▪ When the changes in kinetic and potential energies are negligible → compressor work is

→One way of minimizing the compressor work is to approximate an Internally Reversible Process as
much as possible by minimizing the irreversibilities such as friction, turbulence, and nonquasi-
equilibrium compression.
→Second (and more practical) way of reducing the compressor work is to keep the specific
volume of the gas as small as possible during the compression process

⇒ by maintaining the Temperature of the gas as low as

possible during compression since the specific volume
of a gas is proportional to temperature

⇒ reducing the work input to a compressor requires that

the gas be cooled as it is compressed.
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 Entropy
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
▪ Compare work input requirements for 3 kinds of processes: Area to the left of the process
o an Isentropic process (involves no cooling) curve is the integral of vdP
o a Polytropic process (involves some cooling)
o an Isothermal process (involves maximum cooling)

▪ Adiabatic compression (Pv k = constant) requires the maximum

work and the isothermal compression (T = C or Pv = C) requires
the minimum.
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 Entropy
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
Multistage Compression with Intercooling
▪ Often it is not possible to have adequate cooling through the casing
of the
compressor, and it becomes necessary to use other techniques to
achieve effective cooling
▪ One such technique is Multistage Compression With Intercooling, where
the gas is compressed in stages and cooled between each stage by
passing it through a heat exchanger called an Intercooler.

▪ Gas is compressed in the first stage from P1

to an intermediate pressure Px ,
cooled at constant pressure to the initial temperature T1, and
compressed in the second stage to the final pressure P2

▪ Compression processes → modeled as polytropic (Pvn = constant) where the

value of n varies between k and 1.

▪ Colored area on the P-v diagram represents the work saved as a result of
two-stage compression with intercooling.

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 Entropy
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
▪ Totalwork input for a two-stage compressor is the sum of the work inputs
for each stage of compression:

▪ Size of the colored area (the saved work input) varies with the value of the Intermediate Pressure Px , and
it is of practical interest to determine the conditions under which this area is maximized

▪ Px value that minimizes the total work is determined by differentiating this expression with respect to Px
and setting the resulting expression equal to zero
→To minimize compression work during two-stage
compression, the pressure ratio across each stage of the
compressor must be the same
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 Entropy
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
Multistage Compression with Intercooling– contd --

Schematic showing Intercooling between Compressor Stages

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 Entropy
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
Multistage Compression with Intercooling– contd --
▪ Diagram of reciprocating compressor with double-
acting and two-stages.

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 Entropy

Example MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK

Air is compressed steadily by a reversible compressor from an inlet state of 100
kPa and 300 K to an exit pressure of 900 kPa. Determine the compressor work per
unit mass for (a) isentropic compression with k = 1.4, (b) polytropic compression
with n = 1.3, (c) isothermal compression, and (d) ideal two-stage compression with
intercooling with a polytropic exponent of 1.3.

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 Entropy

Example MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK

Air is compressed steadily by a reversible compressor from an inlet state of 100
kPa and 300 K to an exit pressure of 900 kPa. Determine the compressor work per
unit mass for (a) isentropic compression with k = 1.4, (b) polytropic compression
with n = 1.3, (c) isothermal compression, and (d) ideal two-stage compression with
intercooling with a polytropic exponent of 1.3.

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 Entropy
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
▪ Irreversibilities inherently accompany all actual processes and that their effect is always to downgrade the
performance of devices

▪ Isentropicor Adiabatic Efficiency, is a measure of the deviation of

actual processes from the corresponding idealized ones

Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines

⇒ isentropic process
involves no
irreversibilities and serves
as the ideal process for
h2a , h2s: Enthalpy values at the exit state
adiabatic devices.
for actual and isentropic processes

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 Entropy
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
Example
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400 oC and leaves at
50 kPa and 100 oC. If the power output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine:
(a) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and
(b) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine.

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 Entropy
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
Example
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400 oC and leaves
at 50 kPa and 100 oC. If the power output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine:
(a) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and
(b) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine.

Mechanical Dept UoB 59

 Entropy
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
Example
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine steadily at 3 MPa and 400 oC and leaves
at 50 kPa and 100 oC. If the power output of the turbine is 2 MW, determine:
(a) the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and
(b) the mass flow rate of the steam flowing through the turbine.

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 Entropy
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
Isentropic Efficiency of Compressors and Pumps
Compressor:

h2a and h2s : Enthalpy values at the exit state for actual and
isentropic compression processes, respectively
Pump:
When the changes in potential and kinetic energies of a liquid are
negligible, the isentropic efficiency of a Pump is

Mechanical Dept UoB 61

 Entropy
ENTROPY BALANCE
▪ Entropy Change of a system during a process is greater than the entropy transfer by an amount equal to the
entropy generated during the process within the system:

⇒ Entropy change of a system during a process is equal to the net

entropy transfer through the system boundary and the entropy
generated within the system

When the properties of the system are not uniform

V → Volume of the system
𝞀 → Density
Mechanical Dept UoB 62
 Entropy
ENTROPY BALANCE
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout

▪Entropy can be transferred to or from a system by two mechanisms: Heat Transfer and Mass Flow
(in contrast, energy is transferred by work also)
Heat Transfer

▪ Entropy transfer by heat transfer:

▪ When the temperature T is not constant, the entropy transfer during a
process 1-2 can be determined by integration (or by summation if
appropriate)

Qk : Heat Transfer through the boundary at temperature Tk at location k.

Mechanical Dept UoB 63

 Entropy
ENTROPY BALANCE
Work Transfer
Entropy transfer by work:

→ distinctionbetween heat transfer and work is brought out by the

second law:

“An energy interaction that is accompanied by entropy transfer is

Heat Transfer, and an energy interaction that is not accompanied No entropy accompanies
work as it crosses the
by entropy transfer is Work”
system boundary. But
entropy may be Generated
within the system as work
is dissipated into a less
useful form of energy.

Mechanical Dept UoB 64

 Entropy
ENTROPY BALANCE
Mass Flow

▪ Both entropy and energy are carried into or out of a system by streams of
matter, and the rates of entropy and energy transport into or out of a
system are proportional to the Mass Flow Rate

Mass contains entropy as

well as energy, and thus
mass flow into or out of
⇒ system is always
accompanied by energy and
entropy transfer.

Mechanical Dept UoB 65

 Entropy
Entropy Generation, Sgen
▪ Energy change of a system equals the Energy Transfer for any process, but the Entropy Change of a
system equals the Entropy Transfer only for a Reversible Process
▪ Entropy balance for any system undergoing any process:

Where; For a reversible process, the entropy

generation term Sgen drops out from
all of the relations

Mechanical Dept UoB 66

 Entropy
Entropy Generation, Sgen
Closed Systems
▪ Closed system involves no mass flow across its boundaries, and its entropy
change is simply the difference between the initial and final entropies of the
system
▪ Entropy change of a Closed System is due to the Entropy Transfer accompanying
heat transfer and the Entropy Generation within the system boundaries

For an Adiabatic Process (Q = 0),

Closed system and its surroundings can be treated as an Adiabatic System

+ Mechanical Dept UoB 67
 Entropy
Entropy Generation, Sgen
Control Volumes

▪ Entropy
balance relations for control volumes involve one more
mechanism of entropy exchange: mass flow across the boundaries

Rate of Entropy Change within the control volume during a process is

equal to the sum of the rate of entropy transfer through the control
⇒ volume boundary by HEAT TRANSFER, the net rate of entropy transfer
into the control volume by MASS FLOW, and the rate of ENTROPY
GENERATION within the boundaries of the control volume as a result of
irreversibilities.
Mechanical Dept UoB 68
 Entropy
Entropy Generation, Sgen
Control Volumes

▪ Entropy balance relation for a general Steady-flow process:

⇒
▪ For single-stream (one inlet and one exit)

▪ For the case of an adiabatic single-stream device:

→ Specific Entropy of the fluid must increase as it
flows through an adiabatic device since

If flow through the device is reversible and adiabatic = se = si

Mechanical Dept UoB 69
 Entropy

Example Entropy Generation, Sgen

A 50-kg block of iron casting at 500 K is thrown into a large lake that is at a temperature of 285 K. The
iron block eventually reaches thermal equilibrium with the lake water. Assuming an average specific heat
of 0.45 kJ/kg·K for the iron, determine:
(a) the entropy change of the iron block,
(b) the entropy change of the lake water, and
(c) the entropy generated during this process.

Mechanical Dept UoB 70

 Entropy

Example Entropy Generation, Sgen

A 50-kg block of iron casting at 500 K is thrown into a large lake that is at a temperature of 285 K. The
iron block eventually reaches thermal equilibrium with the lake water. Assuming an average specific heat
of 0.45 kJ/kg·K for the iron, determine:
(a) the entropy change of the iron block,
(b) the entropy change of the lake water, and
(c) the entropy generated during this process.

Mechanical Dept UoB 71

 Entropy

Example Entropy Generation, Sgen

A 50-kg block of iron casting at 500 K is thrown into a large lake that is at a temperature of 285 K. The
iron block eventually reaches thermal equilibrium with the lake water. Assuming an average specific heat
of 0.45 kJ/kg·K for the iron, determine:
(a) the entropy change of the iron block,
(b) the entropy change of the lake water, and
(c) the entropy generated during this process.

Mechanical Dept UoB 72

 Entropy

Example Entropy Generation, Sgen

Air in a large building is kept warm by heating it with steam in a heat exchanger. Saturated
water vapor enters this unit at 35 oC at a rate of 10,000 kg/h and leaves as saturated liquid at 32 oC.
Air at 1-atm pressure enters the unit at 20 oC and leaves at 30 oC at about the same pressure.
Determine the rate of entropy generation associated with this process.

Mechanical Dept UoB 73

 Entropy

Example Entropy Generation, Sgen

Air in a large building is kept warm by heating it with steam in a heat exchanger. Saturated
water vapor enters this unit at 35 oC at a rate of 10,000 kg/h and leaves as saturated liquid at 32 oC.
Air at 1-atm pressure enters the unit at 20 oC and leaves at 30 oC at about the same pressure.
Determine the rate of entropy generation associated with this process.

Mechanical Dept UoB 74

 Entropy

Example Entropy Generation, Sgen

Air in a large building is kept warm by heating it with steam in a heat exchanger. Saturated
water vapor enters this unit at 35 oC at a rate of 10,000 kg/h and leaves as saturated liquid at 32 oC.
Air at 1-atm pressure enters the unit at 20 oC and leaves at 30 oC at about the same pressure.
Determine the rate of entropy generation associated with this process.

Mechanical Dept UoB 75

 Entropy

Practice Problems:

Book: Yunus Cengel 8th Ed. Ch. 7

▪Examples: 7.1 to 7.8, 7.10, 7.11 to 7.15, 7.17 to 7.20

▪Problems: 7.20 to 7.24, 7.27, 7.30 to 7.33, 7.36, 7.37, 7.42, 7.50, 7.51, 7.60, 7.62, 7.72,
7.76, 7.77, 7.86, 7.117, 7.119, 7.120, 7.124, 7.135, 7.141, 7.43, 7.150

Mechanical Dept UoB 76