Doubling time Period that a and 5 years of age per 1,000 live (1766–1834) at which

given population or other births. population increase was bound

quantity takes to increase by its to stop because life-sustaining
present size. Youth dependency ratio The resources, which increase at an
proportion of young peo-ple arithmetic rate, would be
The world’s population is very under age 15 to the work-ing insufficient to support human
unevenly distributed by population aged 16 to 64 in a population, which increases at a
geographic region, by fertility country. geometric rate.∆The higher the
and mortality levels, and by age household income, the greater
structures. Hidden momentum of the demand for children. ∆The
population growth The higher the net price of children,
Rate of population increase The phenomenon whereby the lower the quantity
growth rate of a population, population continues to demanded. ∆The higher the
calculated as the natural increase even after a fall in birth prices of all other goods relative
increase after adjusting for rates because the large existing to children,the greater the
immigration and emigration. youthful population expands quantity of children demanded.
the population’s base of ∆The greater the strength of
Natural increase The differ- potential parents. tastes for goods relative to chil-
ence between the birth rate and
dren, the fewer children
the death rate of a given Population pyramid A graphic
demanded.
population. depiction of the age structure of
Net international migration The the population,with age cohorts Microeconomic theory of fer-
excess of persons migrat-ing plotted on the vertical axis and tility The theory that family
into a country over those who either population shares or formation has costs and bene-
emigrate from that country. numbers of males and females fits that determine the size of
in each cohort on the horizontal families formed.
Crude birth rate The num-ber of axis.
children born alive each year Family-planning programs
per 1,000 population (often Demographic transition The Public programs designed to
shortened to birth rate). phasing-out process of help parents plan and regulate
population growth rates from a their family size.
Death rate The number of virtually stagnant growth stage
deaths each year per 1,000 characterized by high birth rates CONSEQUENCES OF HIGH
population. and death rates through a FERTILITY
rapid-growth stage with high
Total fertility rate (TFR)The birth rates and low death rates  underdevelopment
number of children that would to a stable, low- growth stage in  World Resource
be born to a woman if she were which both birth and death Depletion and
to live to the end of her rates are low. Environmental
childbearing years and bear
Destruction
children in accordance with the Stage 1: both high birth and  Subordination of
prevailing age-specificfertility death rates. Women
rates.
 Population Distribution
Stage 2: high birth rate and
Life expectancy at birth The falling death rates.
number of years a newborn
child would live if subject to the Stage 3: both falling birth and Population-poverty cycle A
mortality risks prevailing for the death rates. theory to explain how poverty
population at the time of the and high population growth
child’s birth. become reinforcing.
Under-5 mortality rate Deaths Malthusian population trap The
Reproductive choice The
among children between birth threshold population level
concept that women should be
anticipated by Thomas Malthus
able to determine on an equal
status with their husbands and benefits of a more reference to the trend that
for themselves how many literateworkforce and citizenry. began in the mid-twentieth
children they want and what century and attributed largely
methods to use to achieve their Educational certification The to human industrial, forestry
desired family size. phenomenon by which and agricultural activities
particular jobs require specified emitting greenhouse gases.
levels of education.
Basic education The attainment Climate change Nontransient
of literacy, arithmetic altering of underlying climate,
competence, and elementary such as increased average
Human capital Productive vocational skills temperature, decreased annual
investments embodied in precipitation or greater average
human persons, including skills, Social costs of education Costs intensity of droughts or storms.
abilities, ideals, health, and borne by both the individual Used in reference to the impact
locations, often resulting from and society from private of the global warming
expenditures on education, on- education decisions, including phenomenon. Note the
the-job training programs, and government education distinction between changes in
medical care. subsidies. weather (which varies within a
Private costs The costs that climate), and change in climate
Discount rate In present value accrue to an individual that alter underlying
calculations, the annual rate at economic unit. probabilities of weather
which future values are
outcomes.
decreased to make them World Health Organization Environmental accounting The
comparable to values in the (WHO) The key United Nations incorporation of environmental
present. agency concerned with global benefits and costs into the
health matters. quantitative analysis of
Conditional cash transfer (CCT)
programs Welfare benefits economic activities.
Acquired immunodeficiency
provided conditionally on family syndrome (AIDS) Viral disease
behavior such as children’s transmitted predominantly
regular school attendance and through sexual contact.
health clinic visitation. Human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) The virus that causes the
Educational gender gap Male- acquired immunodeficiency
female differences in school syndrome (AIDS).
access and completion. Environmental capital The
portion of a country’s overall
Private benefits The benefits
capital assets that directly relate
that accrue directly to an Neglected tropical diseases to the environment—for
individual economic unit. For Thirteen treatable diseases, example, forests, soil quality,
example, private benefits of most of them parasitic, that are and ground water.
education are thost that directly prevalent in developing Sustainable development A
accrue to a student and his or countries but receive much less pattern of development that
her family. attention than tuberculosis, permits future generations to
malaria, and AIDS. live at least as well as the
Derived demand Demand for a
good that emerges indirectly current generation, generally
Health system All the activities
from demand for another good requiring at least
whose primary purpose is to
promote, restore, or maintain Minimum environmental
Social benefits of education health.
Benefits of the schooling of protection Sustainable net
individuals, including those that national income (NNI*) An
Global warming Increasing
accrue to others or even to the environmental accounting
average air and ocean
entire society, such as the measure of the total annual
temperatures. Used in
income that can be consumed
without diminishing the overall willing to accept because of a whose enjoyment by one
capital assets of a nation positive-sloping marginal cost person in no way diminishes
(including environmental curve. that of another.
capital). Consumer surplus Excess utility Public bad An entity that
over price derived by imposes costs on groups of
Environmental Kuznets curve A consumers because of a individuals simultaneously.
graph reflecting the concept negative-sloping demand curve. Compare public good.
that pollution and other
environmental degradation first Scarcity rent The premium or Free-rider problem The
rises and then falls with additional rent charged for the situation in which people can
increases in income per capita. use of a resource or good that is secure benefits that someone
There is evidence that this holds in fixed or limited supply else pays for.
for some pollutants, such as
sulfur dioxide and particulate Present value The discounted Clean technologies
matter in the air, but not for value at the present time of a Technologies that by design
others, such as emissions of sum of money to be received in produce less pollution and
greenhouse gases. the future. waste and use resources more
Marginal net benefit The efficiently
Biomass fuels Any combustible benefit derived from the last
organic matter that may be unit of a good minus its cost.
used as fuel, such as firewood,
dung, or agricultural residues. Property rights The Private costs The direct
acknowledged right to use monetary outlays or costs of an
Desertification The andbenefit from a tangible (e.g., individual economic unit.
transformation of a region into land) or intangible (e.g., Pollution tax A tax levied on the
dry, barren land with little or no intellectual) entity that may quantity of pollutants released
capacity to sustain life without include owning, using, deriving into the physical environment
an artificial source of water. income from, selling, and
disposing. Social cost The full cost of an
economic decision, whether
Common property resource A private or public, to society as a
Soil erosion Loss of valuable resource that is collectively or whole absorptive capacity The
topsoils resulting from overuse publicly owned and allocated capacity of an ecosystem to
of farmland, and deforestation under a system of unrestricted assimilate potential pollutants.
and consequent flooding of access, or as self-regulated by
farmland. users Greenhouse gases Gases that
trap heat within the earth’s
Deforestation The clearing of Externality Any benefit or cost atmosphere and can thus
forested land either for borne by an individual contribute to global warming
agricultural purposes or for economic unit that is a direct
logging and for use as firewood. consequence of another’s Biodiversity The variety of life
behavior. forms within an ecosystem.
Total net benefit The sum of Internalization The process
net benefits to all consumers. Global public good A public
whereby external
Marginal cost The addition to good, whose benefits reach
environmental or other costs
total cost incurred by the across national borders and
are borne by the producers or
producer as a result of population groups.
consumers who generate them,
increasing output by one more usually through the imposition
unit. Debt-for-nature swap The
of pollution or consumption exchange of foreign debt held
taxes. by an organization for a larger
Producer surplus Excess of
what a producer of a good quantity of domestic debt that
Public good An entity that
receives and the minimum is used to finance the
provides benefits to all
amount the producer would be preservation of a natural
individuals simultaneously and
resource or environment in the
debtor country