CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.0 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

The home is traditionally considered a haven for children. However, this narrative changes
when these children are subjected to domestic violence. Therefore, it becomes a breeding
ground for psychological distress. Domestic violence can be simply described as a pattern of
abusive behaviors, whether physical, emotional, or psychological, inflicted by one family or
household member upon another (Rakovec-Felser Z, 2014).

Domestic violence is a pervasive and complex social issue that has significant repercussions on
various facets of society. In its broader sense, domestic violence also involves violence against
children, parents, or older persons. It can assume multiple firms, including physical, verbal,
emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial abuse, or social abuse (Woodluck,
2017).

Domestic violence in Nigeria, like in many other countries, is a grave social problem. It has
been exacerbated by factors such as poverty, gender inequalities, and cultural norms that
sometimes condone or tolerate abusive behaviors within households. The National
Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) conducted in 2018 states that about 30% of Nigerian
women aged 15-49 have experienced physical violence since the age of 15, with many more
enduring emotional or psychological abuse. A survey conducted by UNICEF in 2015 on
“Violence Against Children in Egypt” posits that, on average, annually, about 6 in 10 children
worldwide (almost a billion) between the ages of 2 and 14 are subjected to physical punishment
by their caregivers (UNICEF, 2015).

Domestic violence is alarmingly prevalent worldwide, affecting individuals from diverse

socioeconomic backgrounds and educational levels. According to the United States Office of
Violence Against Women, 2007 “Anyone can be a victim of domestic violence, regardless of
age, race, gender, sexual orientation, faith, or class.” It is typically manifested as a pattern of
abusive behavior toward an intimate partner in a dating or family relationship, where the abuser
exerts power and control over the victim. This, therefore, underscores the urgency of
understanding the repercussions of domestic violence, especially on the most vulnerable
members of the family unit—children. Children exposed to domestic violence face a unique set

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of challenges as they witness, directly or indirectly, the abuse between their parents or
caregivers.

The American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP) reports that between 10% and 20% of children in
the United States are exposed to intimate partner violence each year (AAP, 2018). This
exposure places children at an increased risk of developing mental health issues as they grapple
with fear, anxiety, and a disrupted sense of security within their own homes.

Yakob, (2018). “Consequences of child maltreatment and witnessing domestic violence and the
role of attachment in young children, University of Twente” have demonstrated a direct
correlation between exposure to domestic violence and adverse mental health outcomes in
children. People who encounter many forms of trauma as children, including domestic abuse,
are more likely to have mental health disorders later in life. Specifically, children exposed to
domestic violence are at an increased risk of developing anxiety, depression, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), and conduct disorders. Understanding the mechanisms through which
domestic violence affects the mental health of children is crucial for developing effective
interventions. Children who see violence may internalize violent habits, which could lead to a
cycle of violence in their relationships later on. Additionally, the chronic stress resulting from
living in an abusive environment can dysregulate the child's neurobiological stress response,
leading to long-term mental health consequences (Maggie et al., 2021).

Incidents of domestic violence are rarely isolated and usually escalate in frequency and
severity. Domestic abuse may culminate in serious physical injury or death (UN, 2020).
Domestic violence against children is now ascendant, but people tend to pay more attention to
domestic violence in marriage, among couples living together or dating, which they do not
understand that the primary reasons why we have domestic abuse in marriage are due to some
unresolved childhood conflict people have especially children who grew in an abusive home,
domestic violence on children is an essential aspect of crime in the society that has to be looked
into carefully. Many children exposed to violence in the home are also victims of physical
abuse. Children who witness domestic violence or are victims of abuse themselves are at
serious risk for long-term physical and health problems. Children who witness violence
between parents may also be abused; it can be challenging to know how to protect your child,
which could lead to mental health problems for the children.

The effects of domestic violence on children have a tremendous impact on the well-being and
developmental growth of children witnessing it (Office of Women’s Health, 2021). Children

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who witness domestic violence in the home often believe that they are to blame, live in a
constant state of fear, and are 15 times more likely to be victims of child abuse, which can
also cause dysfunctions in the physical, behavioral, emotional, and social areas of the life of
the young one. Children are abused in different forms, such as Emotional abuse (includes
undermining a person’s sense of self-worth through constant criticism, belittling one’s
abilities, name–calling others, or verbal abuse); Psychological abuse (involves causing fear by
intimidation and threatening physical); Physical abuse (involves hurting or trying to hurt by
hitting, kicking, burning, grabbing, pinching, shoving, slapping, hair pulling, biting, denying
medical care, forcing alcohol or drug abuse, or using other physical force); Sexual abuse
(involves forcing someone to take part in a sex act when the person does not consent);
Financial and Economic abuse (involves making or attempting to make a person financially
dependent by maintaining total control over financial resources, withholding access to money,
or forbidding attendance at school or employment) {Office of Violence against Women,
2023}.

Major developmental risk factors for children, such as poverty, households headed by women,
and the primary caregiver's low level of education, are frequently present in conjunction with
domestic violence in the home. Children in violent households may be involved in the violence
by feeling the need to call for help or by being identified as a cause of the dispute that led to the
abuse.

Children exposed to domestic violence face multifaceted challenges that can profoundly affect
their mental health and well-being. Witnessing or experiencing violence in the home can lead
to a range of psychological and emotional issues, including but not limited to anxiety,
depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), aggression, poor self-esteem, and difficulties
in forming healthy relationships. These long-lasting effects can impede a child's development
and have far-reaching consequences for their future. Research has consistently demonstrated
that children exposed to domestic violence are at an increased risk of developing a range of
mental health issues. These may include anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and behavioral problems. Additionally, the adverse effects may extend into
adolescence and adulthood, manifesting as difficulties forming healthy relationships, lower
academic achievement, and an increased likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors.

This research is particularly relevant in the context of Nigeria, where cultural norms and
societal structures often contribute to the perpetuation of domestic violence. By shedding light

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on the specific challenges faced by children in Ojo Local Government, the study aims to inform
policy development, community-based interventions, and mental health support services
tailored to the unique needs of this population.

In conclusion, the study of the effects of domestic violence on the mental health of children is
imperative for addressing the long-term consequences of this pervasive social issue. By
comprehensively understanding the prevalence, impact, and mechanisms of domestic violence
on children, researchers and practitioners can contribute to the development of targeted
interventions and preventive measures, ultimately aiming to break the cycle of intergenerational
violence and promote the well-being of future generations.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The prevalence of domestic violence worldwide underscores the urgency of understanding its
ramifications, especially concerning the mental health of children. According to a meta-
analysis by Holt et al. (2019), approximately 40% of children globally are exposed to domestic
violence, making this a widespread concern with far-reaching implications. The impacts of
domestic violence on children's mental health manifest in various forms, ranging from
internalizing behaviors such as anxiety and depression to externalizing behaviors such as
aggression and conduct disorders (Evans et al., 2020; Herrenkohl et al., 2019).

Violence comes in different forms. Many people think that domestic violence only refers to a
person physically abusing their romantic partner. While intimate partner violence is common,
domestic violence can take many forms. Domestic violence includes any form of abuse that
takes place within a household. This can include intimate partner violence, as well as situations
where people abuse their children, parents, siblings, other relatives, and even roommates.
Domestic violence can look like digital or online abuse, financial abuse, physical abuse, sexual
abuse, mental abuse, and emotional abuse (Sian Ferguson, 2023).

Talking about the mental health challenges of domestic violence on children, there are several
patterns of how violence could be perpetrated on children. It could be the parenting style or the
way caregivers pay attention to the children as well as the forms of abuse such a child is
exposed to. All these form the basis on which the child behaves mentally and emotionally in
the home, school, community, and every social gathering. Domestic violence can not be
undermined in Ojo Local Government as there is a perceived high level of illiteracy, early
marriage, and child pregnancy, amongst other social vices, which could serve as a trigger and
effect of domestic violence.

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1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following questions serve as a guide to what the research stands for;

i. What are the types of domestic violence experienced by children in Ojo Local
Government, Lagos State?
ii. What factors contribute to domestic violence in Ojo Local Government, Lagos State?
iii. How does exposure to domestic violence impact the mental health of children across
different developmental stages in Ojo Local Government?
iv. How do protective factors reduce the mental health effects of domestic violence on
children in Ojo Local Government, Lagos State?
v. What are the possible solutions to address the specific mental health needs of children
exposed to domestic violence in Ojo Local Government, Lagos State?

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study aims to;

i. Identify the types of domestic violence experienced by children in Ojo Local

Government, Lagos State.
ii. Identify the factors contributing to domestic violence in Ojo Local Government, Lagos
State.
iii. Examine the impact of exposure to domestic violence on the mental health of children
across different developmental stages in Ojo Local Government.
iv. Identify how protective factors reduce the mental health effects of domestic violence on
children in Ojo Local Government, Lagos State.
v. Recommend solutions in addressing the mental health needs of children exposed to
domestic violence in Ojo Local Government, Lagos State.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Domestic violence is a global public health concern, and its impact on the mental health of
children is a critical issue that requires thorough investigation. This study on the effects of
domestic violence on the mental health of children in Ojo Local Government Area, Lagos
State, Nigeria, holds substantial significance for several reasons, such as To fill the gap and

5
provide insights into the local dynamics of domestic violence and its consequences as there is a
paucity of local research on the specific effects of domestic violence on children's mental health
in this area; Contribute to increased awareness in the community about the hidden but profound
impact of domestic violence on children; Inform local, state, and national policymakers, as well
as non-governmental organizations, to develop and implement effective policies, laws, and
support systems for victims of domestic violence and their children; Advocating for stricter
enforcement of existing laws and regulations related to domestic violence; Contribute to the
design of therapeutic interventions and counseling programs that meet the unique needs of
children; Enhance the ability of healthcare providers, including pediatricians, psychologists,
and social workers, to identify, assess, and provide appropriate support and treatment to
children who have been exposed to domestic violence; as well as help scholars and researchers
in fields like psychology, sociology, and public health find valuable information and data to
investigate further the dynamics of domestic violence and its impact on children's mental
health, adding to the body of knowledge in these areas.

In summary, this study on the effects of domestic violence on the mental health of children in
Ojo Local Government Area, Lagos State, Nigeria, is significant in its potential to inform
policies, improve support systems, raise awareness, and ultimately alleviate the suffering of
children exposed to domestic violence. It is a critical step towards building a safer and more
supportive environment for vulnerable children in the local community and beyond.

1.5 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

By defining the scope and delimitations of the study, the research will provide a focused and
clear understanding of the effects of domestic violence on the mental health of children in Ojo
Local Government Area, Lagos State, Nigeria, while acknowledging its limitations and
exclusions.

1.5.1 Scope of the Study

The scope of this research study, titled "Effects of Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of
Children in Ojo Local Government Area, Lagos State, Nigeria," defines the boundaries and
parameters within which the research will be conducted.

This study will be conducted within Ojo Local Government Area in Lagos State, Nigeria. A
diverse population characterizes the Ojo Local Government Area. It will be the primary
geographical area for data collection and analysis focusing on children and adolescents within

6
the age range of 5 to 17 years residing in Ojo Local Government Area who have been exposed
to domestic violence within their households. This age range is selected to cover a significant
period of childhood and adolescence during which mental health issues may manifest.

The study will investigate the impact of various forms of domestic violence, including physical,
emotional, psychological, and verbal abuse, on the mental health of children in the Ojo Local
Government Area, exploring a wide range of mental health aspects, including but not limited to
depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), self-esteem, academic performance,
and interpersonal relationships.

Data will be collected through quantitative and qualitative research methods, including surveys,
interviews, and psychological assessments. This will provide a comprehensive understanding of
the impact of domestic violence on the mental health of children in the study area. The study
will be conducted over a specified period, focusing on the conditions prevailing in Ojo Local
Government Area. Any changes or developments after the study period may not be considered.

1.5.2 Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations are the specific limitations and exclusions imposed on the research, providing a
clear understanding of what will not be addressed in the study.

This study is limited to the Ojo Local Government Area in Lagos State, Nigeria, and the
findings may not be generalized to other regions, as domestic violence dynamics may vary
across different locations and will be limited to children and adolescents between the ages of 5
and 17. The study will not extend to adults or children outside this age range.

The study will focus on the effects of physical, emotional, psychological, and verbal abuse on
children's mental health. Other forms of abuse, such as neglect, sexual abuse, and financial
abuse, fall outside the scope of this research. The study will not extensively explore the
influence of specific cultural or ethnic factors on the effects of domestic violence, as this may
require a separate and more in-depth investigation. The study will capture a snapshot of the
conditions within the Ojo Local Government Area during the research period. It will not
account for long-term or historical trends in domestic violence or mental health issues. The
study will not delve into external factors unrelated to domestic violence, such as economic
conditions, education policies, or healthcare access, which may also influence children's mental
health. These factors are considered beyond the study's scope.

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1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Domestic Violence:

Domestic abuse, also called "domestic violence" or "intimate partner violence," can be defined as a
pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an
intimate partner. Abuse is physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats
of actions that influence another person. This includes any behaviors that frighten, intimidate,
terrorize, manipulate, hurt, humiliate, blame, injure, or wound someone. (United Nations).

Mental Health:

Mental health is a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of
life, realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their community. (World
Health Organization).

Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we
think, feel, and act and helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make
choices. (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration).

Children:

This study defines a child as any individual (male or female) between ages 5 and 17.

The term “children,” as used by law, refers to a minor, also known as a person under the age of
majority. In general, children have fewer rights and obligations than adults. They are
considered incapable of making important decisions.

According to Article 1 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC),
a child is described as everyone under the age of 18 years unless, "under the law applicable to
the child, the majority is attained earlier." A person between the ages of infancy and puberty, or
between those phases of development, is referred to as a child (plural: children). The term
“kid,” as used in law, typically refers to a minor, also known as a person under the age of
majority. In general, children have fewer rights and obligations than adults. They are
considered incapable of making important decisions.

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A person under the age of 18 is considered a child. No matter who they are, where they live,
what language they speak, what religion they practice, what they think, how they look, whether
they are a boy or a girl, if they have a disability, whether they are rich or poor, or who their
parents or families are, or what their parent or families believe or do all children are entitled to
all of these rights. No kids should ever endure unfair treatment (UNICEF).

The Child Rights Act 2003, passed into law in the Federal Capital Territory (Abuja), defines a
child as someone who has not attained the age of eighteen.

Violence

This term refers to highly violent words or actions that are intended to harm people or are
likely to cause damage (Kertesz et al., 2021). Some forms of violence are the result of different
thoughts and beliefs, or an abnormal mental state can cause them. The World Health
Organization (WHO) describes violence as “intentional manifestation, coercion, empowerment
against oneself and others to cause injury, death, shock or being abandoned. Violence can be
categorized into three types according to the method used to express it. The three types are as
follows;

Physical violence: Physical violence refers to injury by an offender in the form of flogging,
kicking, biting, or other means that cause injuries such as fracture, bleeding, bruising, and
complete exposure to toxins. Any controversy must be classified as a non-accident event
deemed physical violence (Mittal, 2020).

Sexual violence: According to Kertesz et al. (2021), sexual violence refers to actions intended
to use the act as a tool to meet the offender’s sexual needs, including forcing for sex,
intimidating, or seducing.

Psychological Violence: This refers to the abuse of the mind, controlling it, causing a person’s
humiliation, and resulting in a feeling of a sense of impairment or degradation of humanity
(Thornton,2014).

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter critically examines previous studies, claims by scholars, and their established
findings on the “Effects of Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of Children in Ojo Local
Government, Lagos State.” It expresses various concepts that aid in the literature review of this
study. The literature review will be analyzed based on the study's objectives to fill the gap in
other research.

2.1.0 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence also affects people of all classes and educational levels (Kertesz et al.,
2021). Mittal (2020) described domestic violence as an assault committed by the male or
relatives of the male against the woman. Domestic violence is described as physical, mental,
sexual dowry violence, marital rape, sexual abuse, etc. Mittal, being an Indian, views and
describes Indian society as a male-dominated society, and women are like slaves to them.
Therefore, male thinks that domestic violence is their right and the fate of the woman.
Domestic Violence means any violence in the home, like somatic abuse, sexual abuse,
comments, scolding, or mental harassment by the man or his relatives. It also includes dowry
demands, sex without a woman's consent, taunting her, abetment to suicide, threats of injuries
or harm, etc. Mittal’s description of the term lacks the view that not just men commit violence,
but also domestic violence is committed by women against men.

Domestic violence extends beyond discrete incidents of physical harm, emphasizing the
insidious nature of controlling behaviors that strip victims of autonomy and agency. The
inclusion of coercive control in the definition reflects a paradigm shift toward recognizing the
broader spectrum of abuse within intimate relationships (Stark, E. 2019).

Domestic Violence usually escalates in frequency and severity over time and has profound
consequences on the lives of individuals, families, and communities.

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2.1.1 TYPES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Actions of domestic violence as perpetrated by abusers vary from physical, sexual, verbal,
emotional, and psychological tactics to threats and intimidation, economic coercion, and
entitlement behaviors. These are further delineated below.

 Physical Abuse

Physical violence remains a central focus of domestic violence research. Traditionally

acknowledged as a hallmark of domestic violence, physical violence remains a pervasive issue.
Landmark works by Johnson and Smith (2017), Johnson and Rodriguez (2018), and Garcia et
al. (2019) have highlighted the significance of recognizing physical violence as one facet
within a broader spectrum of abusive behaviors, challenging simplistic categorizations,
investigating the prevalence, severity, and consequences of physical abuse within intimate
relationships. These works underscore the immediate and long-term physical health
implications for victims and the urgency of effective intervention strategies.

Physical abuse involves tactics such as pushing and shoving, restraining, pinching or pulling
hair, slapping, punching, biting, kicking, suffocating, strangling, using a weapon, kidnapping,
physically abusing, or threatening to abuse children. ReachOut Australia (2022) argued that
“when it comes to physical abuse in relationships, it frequently begins subtly, like with a push
or a slap, and then gets worse over time. Physical assault is never acceptable”.

New York State Office of Children and Family Service (2021) succinctly defines physical
abuse as “the intentional use of force that causes pain, suffering, or harm to another person's
body. This involves being hit, burned, injured, bruised, or wrongly restrained physically, but is
not restricted to those things."

Physical abuse can occur to adults of any age and is not just a problem for kids. Tracy (2021)
stated that physical abusers attempt to dominate their victims by using abusive tactics, and this
is true given that most physical abuse induces an inferior notion of the victim. However, the
notion that victims of physical abuse are typically women in her research is subject to being
faulted. This is because it merely considers evidence of reports made by adults while often
neglecting the shy tendency of children to report cases of abuse in the face of constant threats
during the lengthy period of the development cycle that every child experiences.

 Sexual Abuse

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Sexual abuse such as raping or forcing the victim into unwanted sexual practices, Objectifying
or treating the victim like a sexual object, Forcing the victim to have an abortion or sabotaging
birth control methods, engaging in a pattern of extramarital or other sexual relationships,
sexually assaulting the children.

Sexual violence within domestic settings has gained increased attention in recent years. Smith
and Baker (2021) and Chen et al. (2017) investigate the prevalence and consequences of sexual
violence, emphasizing the need for comprehensive support systems for survivors.

Goddard, Harewood, and Brennan (2015) said, “A kid or young person who has experienced
sexual abuse is coerced or tricked into engaging in sexual activity. They could not recognize
the abuse or the wrongness of what was going on. Also, they could be reluctant to tell anyone.
Sexual assault can occur offline or online, and it can happen to anyone. The National Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) argues that “there are two types of sexual
abuse which can be classified as either contact or non-contact, and it can take place both offline
and online.

A typical example is referenced in BBC’s report on the shutdown of Omegle (a web-based

online chat service that allowed users to socialize with others without the need to register),
which states that Omegle has been mentioned in more than 50 cases against pedophiles in
recent years and an organization monitoring the online safety of children had over 68,000
reports of self-generated child-sexual abuse materials coming from the website.

Contact abuse is the term for when an abuser makes physical contact with a child. This
includes having a youngster make unwanted sexual contact with another person, forcing them
to undress, and more. Whether or not a youngster is dressed, it is also forbidden to touch their
body sexually. In addition to direct physical contact, sexual abuse can also take the form of oral
sex, caressing, kissing, and other types of physical contact.

Non-contact abuse is when a kid is harmed without the abuser physically touching the victim.
This can happen offline or online and includes things like exposing or flashing pornography;
subjecting a child to sexual acts; forcing them to masturbate; forcing a child to create, view, or
distribute images or videos depicting child abuse; and compelling a child to engage in sexually
explicit interactions online or over a smartphone.

 Verbal, Emotional, and Psychological abuse

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Verbal, Emotional, and Psychological abuse, which includes using degrading language, insults,
criticism, or name-calling, screaming, harassing, Refusing to talk, engaging in manipulative
behaviors to make the victim believe he or she is “crazy” or imagining things, humiliating the
victim privately or in the presence of other people, slamming the victim for the abusive
behavior, controlling where the victim goes, whom he or she talks to, and what he or she does,
accusing the victim of infidelity to justify the perpetrator’s controlling and abusive behaviors,
denying the abuse and physical attacks.

Emotional abuse includes verbal abuse. It occurs when someone verbally abuses, dominates,
mocks, manipulates, or denigrates another person while also hurting that person's
psychological well-being. Abusing someone verbally is a strategy for maintaining control over
them. Karakurt and Silver (2017) also argued that “Every kind of relationship, including
romantic, parent-child, family, and workplace ones, can experience verbal abuse.”

Literature has increasingly recognized the insidious nature of psychological and emotional
abuse within domestic relationships. Jones and Davis (2016) and Patel et al. (2019) delve into
the complexities of emotional abuse, highlighting its profound impact on mental health and
self-esteem.

Wong and Matthles (2010) argued that “the majority of people believe that if they were
verbally abused, they would be aware of it. After all, verbal abuse frequently entails yelling,
insults, naming names, and humiliating actions. However, people underestimate the extent of
verbal abuse. Some people experience verbal abuse regularly without even being aware of it.”

 Economic Abuse

Another type of abuse is economic abuse; according to Shalini (2019), the government made a
noteworthy move by including economic abuse in the list of abuses covered under the
Domestic Violence Act. Economic abuse is typically defined as a technique to deny the victim
and her children access to financial resources or assets.

Economic abuse, though often overlooked, has emerged as a significant dimension of domestic
violence. Williams and Taylor (2018) explore the intersection of economic control and
domestic violence, revealing the far-reaching consequences on victims' financial independence.

According to the Family Violence Protection Act (2008), economic abuse is behavior that robs
a person of financial or economic autonomy. Without the other person's consent, the behavior
is coercive, dishonest, or unreasonable in regulating their financial independence (or that of

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their child). It should be noted that this term is being examined right now. Julie (2020) said,
“Many times, physical or mental abuse is combined with economic abuse. This can entail
having a debt and liability left behind or losing your job.”

 Bullying

Bullying (including cyberbullying) is unwelcome hostile behavior by a child or group of

children who are not the victim's sibling or romantic partner. It entails persistent physical,
psychological, or social harm and frequently occurs online, in schools, and in other places
where kids congregate.

Bullying is a type of hostile behavior in which one person purposefully and repeatedly causes
harm or discomfort to another. Bullying can occur through verbal abuse, physical aggression,
or more covert tactics. (American Psychological Association, 2020). When the victim's private
property is removed from them or is harmed, such a form of assault on their property
constitutes bullying.

Edwards (2022) highlighted the four types of bullying, and they are as follows:

1. Physical bullying: This can be in the form of hitting, kicking, pinching, pushing, or other
forms of assault.

2. Verbal bullying includes antics such as name-calling, insults, remarks that are sexual or
discriminatory, harsh mocking, taunting, mimicry, or verbal threats.

3. Relational bullying focuses on separating a victim from a peer group, frequently by using
intimidation techniques, including rumors, verbal threats, and other forms of provocation.

4. Reactive bullying occurs when a bully targets others in retaliation for being a victim.

2.1.2 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Numerous risk factors and causes have been identified by research as contributing to domestic
violence, but they all share the demand for total control by the abuser. According to several
studies, both environmental and personal factors interact to contribute to domestic violence. In
essence, this means that when abusers mature from children to adults, they learn to manipulate
others through the impact of their family, their environment, and cultural customs. Various
factors are responsible for the causes of domestic violence, such as:

14
 1. Sociological/Behavioural Factors

A few examples of sociological, behavioral, and cultural characteristics are anger

management/aggressiveness, poverty/economic hardship, social class, dominating/controlling
personality, drug addiction, upbringing, and psychological instability (bipolar, depression,
stress, etc.). Domestic violence also results from the neglect of conjugal duties brought on by
extramarital affairs or a lack of trust. Many research works have proven that
sociological/behavioral factors are one of the major causes of domestic violence in society,
such as Anger Management/aggression. Most times, people tend to vent their anger on people,
which could lead to violence, such as physical abuse and emotional/verbal abuse. (Shalini)

 Poverty/ Economic Hardship

Poverty can be defined as the lack of wealth or income such that an individual or a household
does not have the means to subsist or acquire the necessities for a flourishing life. Poverty is
measured as the number of people living on less than $1.90 daily. (World Bank, 2018). The
main reason why an attacker keeps power and influence over a victim of domestic violence is
poverty. Domestic violence victims are more likely to avoid additional abuse if they have the
means to leave a relationship safely, find safe, inexpensive housing, and provide for themselves
and their children. This is supported by research and real-world experience. People with low to
no incomes who are victims of domestic abuse, especially those who have children or are
children, rarely have access to the resources they need to escape from the abuse. (Niess-May,
2019).

 Social Class

Social class can be defined as grouping individuals into hierarchical social categories,
including upper, middle, and lower classes. It can also be called social divisions based on
economic and social status. It is believed that people in the same social class mostly share a
similar level of wealth, educational achievement, type of job, and income.

Domestic violence and social class are interwoven in the sense that it happens to both upper,
middle, and lower classes, but people tend to believe that it mostly happens to those in the
lower classes; the reality of domestic violence is a problem that is across all classes.

Kenzetti (2010) argues that social class plays a vital role in the everyday lives of millions
worldwide. So, it is clear that social class would play a role in domestic violence. Knowing that

15
domestic violence knows no boundaries, it is correct to say that wealth does not protect against
violence.

Dominating/Controlling Personality:

There are many perspectives on the definition of personality. Holzman (2021) defined
personality as the recognizable feeling, thinking, and acting style. In interactions with other
individuals, personality is most obviously portrayed and includes moods, attitudes, and
opinions. It entails behavioral traits that set one person apart, which may be seen in how people
interact with their surroundings and social groups. Personality varies in individual, which
includes:

Type A: Perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed, aggressive, stressed.

Type B: Calm under pressure, even-tempered, adaptable, innovative, patient, and prone to
procrastination

Type C: Struggles to express emotions and is highly diligent and a perfectionist (positive and
negative)

Type D: Appearing gloomy and hopeless, worrying, depressed, irritable, pessimistic, avoiding
social settings, lacking confidence, fear of rejection.

The Myers-Briggs theory is one of several other well-liked personality type hypotheses. Based
on a person's position on four continuums—introversion-extraversion, sensing-intuition,
thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving—the Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator
determines their personality.

Someone with a dominating or controlling personality has a powerful personality and an

impact on those around them, which means they most times influence people around them
either through physical abuse, Emotional and Verbal abuse, Sexual abuse, financial abuse,
Digital abuse, or Stalking. Litner (2019) believes the behavior pattern one spouse uses to
acquire or retain dominance and authority over another partner distinguishes domestic violence
from other types of violence. Abusers frequently use these behavioral strategies to maintain
their spouse in the relationship. Abuse frequently begins gently and gradually, but over time, it
can progress to being constant. These subtle actions that domestic violence can result in
physical, sexual, or psychological.

 Drug Addiction

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Drug addiction, also known as substance use disorder. It is an illness that affects a person's
brain and behavior and causes them to lose control over whether or not they take drugs or
medications, whether they are legal or not. Alcohol, marijuana, and nicotine are examples of
substances that are regarded as drugs. If you are hooked, you might use the drug even when it
is harmful. There is a close relationship between a drug addict and a violent person because
drug addiction changes the molecules in a person's brain, making them more likely to seek out
the drug despite potential adverse effects. This may lead to controlling, violent, or illogical
conduct in a relationship.

There are several traits that addiction and domestic abuse have in common, including:

 a decline in control
 persistence in conduct despite repercussions
 Both addiction and abuse deteriorate gradually over time, and they both require denial
or shame.

Ilgen, Mark, Kleinberg, and Felicia (2011), drug abuse is most strongly linked to violent
conduct. In reality, severe drug abuse—either by the offender, the victim, or both—plays a role
in almost half of all violent crimes and sexual assaults. It might make certain people more
likely to engage in violent behavior.

According to a study, “The Connection Between Drug Abuse and the Mental Health of
Students,” by Team PainAssist, 2023, more than 26% of respondents who admitted to using
cocaine, marijuana, and alcohol over the previous 12 months also admitted to committing a
violent crime during that time. Some people steal money aggressively to buy more drugs, while
others might be involved in the drug trade, which frequently results in violent crimes. Others
experience violence as a chronic side effect of their drug use. For example, methamphetamine
addicts may exhibit aggressive or violent behavior, as well as anxiety, confusion, sleeplessness,
and mood issues. (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2020).

Intimate partners, spouses, parents, stepparents, kids, siblings, other relatives, and pets can all
be injured by physical acts of domestic violence, such as hitting, hair pulling, punching,
slapping, and other physical acts. Domestic violence also includes verbal, emotional, and
physical intimidation. According to research, between 25% and 50% of men who engage in
domestic abuse also have SUDs, while 80% of child abuse instances involve drug and alcohol
usage.

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As such, an inference can be drawn that substance abuse is the most common cause of violence
in the lives of children, teenagers, and adults.

 Child Development

The upbringing, parenting, and nurturing that one receives during growing up. It can be defined
as how a child is raised or the lessons, directives, and teachings that his or her parents instill,
referred to as upbringing. Researchers argued that people who were raised in an abused home
or society have a higher tendency to be violent, which they later portray in their adulthood.

Many kids who are exposed to domestic violence also experience physical abuse. Children who
experience or witness domestic abuse run a severe risk of developing long-term physical and
mental health issues. Children who see their parents fighting may also be more likely to use
violence in their relationships in the future if their child's parent is being abused. (Office of
women's health,2021).

Edleson (2000) argued that children who witness domestic violence often manifest behavioral
and emotional problems, poor academic performance, and delinquency.

 Psychological Instability

A mental disease, often known as a mental illness or psychiatric problem, is a pattern of

behavior or thought that significantly impairs personal functioning or causes great misery. This
is subject to the diagnosis of the mental health expert, clinical psychologist, or psychiatrist, and
the characteristics may be ongoing, relapsing, or only present during specific episodes.

There are different types of psychological instability, which include the following:

i. Anxiety disorder:

This sometimes entails recurrent episodes of acute anxiety, fear, or terror that peak in a matter
of minutes of a panic attack (Bandelow, 2015). The symptoms of anxiety disorder include:

 A feeling of impending peril, terror, or disaster,

 Having a faster heartbeat,
 Breaths quickly (hyperventilation),
 Sweating,
 Trembling,

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  Having difficulty concentrating or thinking about anything but the current
stress; feeling weak or exhausted,
 Having issues falling asleep.
ii. Mood disorder or Depression:

It is a significant shift in mood that interferes with daily activities. Although there are several
subcategories of mood disorders, there are only three primary states: depressed, manic, and
bipolar. A generalized gloomy mood is a feature of major depressive illness. Mania or
hypomania are traits of elevated moods. (Psy.com, 2016)

Although scientists and medical experts do not have a clear answer to this topic, they think
biological and environmental variables are at work. Even though the chances of you
developing mood disorders are still slim overall, they are more likely to occur if your family
has members who have received a diagnosis. The onset of mood disorders is also thought to be
caused by traumatic life events. Your job and academic lives, as well as your relationships,
may be significantly impacted by mood disorders.

 Illiteracy

Illiteracy is the inability to read and write. A person is defined as illiterate if he cannot read
and write a short and straightforward statement daily. (Encyclopedia). The causes of illiteracy
are poverty, isolation, language barrier, etc.

Illiteracy has played an influential role in domestic violence; the lack of being able to read and
write and not having basic knowledge of information about sensitive socio-economic issues has
made many people suffer in society. Domestic violence is a learned behavior; it is believed that
it could be unlearned with proper education.

Deyessa (2018) looked at how illiteracy affects the frequency of domestic violence in rural and
indigenous populations. After her study, she concluded that domestic violence was more
common in rural or indigenous societies and that illiterate women were significantly more
willing to accept the practice. Because an illiterate partner or child who is being abused in a
household lacks the exposure necessary for her to know her rights and freely assert same, and
because the abuser is unaware that the violence is an illegality and a violation of the victim’s
fundamental human rights, domestic violence is more likely to occur when both parties are
illiterate. Illiteracy generates a false sense of solidarity among victims in their homes, where

19
they prefer to suffer in quiet since they have the companionship of other victims instead of
asserting and protecting their rights.

It has been proven that there is a direct relationship between illiteracy and domestic violence.

2. Cultural Factor

Edward B. Tylor defined culture as “The complex whole known as culture is made up of
information, beliefs, the arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other skills and routines that
people develop via participation in society.” Culture varies from one society to another, which
makes us different from one another.

Walker (2000) analyzed studies on the impacts of domestic violence and the reasons why
spouses and children stay in an abusive relationship that was conducted in many cultures but
found it challenging to compare the results due to cultural variations between nations.
Differences in religious convictions, social norms, attitudes toward violence in general,
political structures, norms for men and women to engage with one another, and economic and
educational resources have all been identified. He concluded that such elements had made the
person both susceptible to violence outside of the house and inside. Comparing across cultures
and reporting have been significant issues when studying domestic violence. Defining a
problem has always been one of the first steps in investigating it.

It was crucial to define the actual acts of violence precisely, as well as the people they harmed
and how they affected them, to gather data and evaluate significant studies. (Walker, 2000).

Vandello & Cohen (2003) said, “The honor syndrome is a theory that suggests the victim may
have continued in an abusive relationship. Being morally upright, doing good deeds, and
maintaining a solid moral code after experiencing domestic violence are all characteristics of
the honor syndrome. Additionally, they offered a second definition of honor that focused more
on a person's standing, reputation, and precedence. This study's definition of honor was the
second one. This notion of honor included both males and females. Modesty, shame, and
refraining from actions that would damage the family name were among the honor norms
expected of each family member as a unit.

2.1.3 THE IMPACT OF EXPOSURE TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON THE MENTAL

HEALTH OF CHILDREN ACROSS DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

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Rosalyn Sword (2021) posits that child development can be broken down into five stages: New
Born (0-3 months), Infants (3-12 months), Toddlers (1-3 years), Preschool Age (3-4 years),
School Age (4-5 years). Although agreeable, the development stages did not consider the stage
of adolescence, which is the transition period of all children into full-grown adults. This
research will examine the impacts of the Effects of Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of
Adolescence alongside the five stages mentioned earlier.

1. The Impact of Exposure to Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of Infants and
Toddlers

Domestic violence represents a pervasive societal issue with significant consequences for all
family members, especially vulnerable infants and toddlers. Understanding the intricate ways
in which exposure to domestic violence affects the mental health of the youngest members of a
household is crucial for informing interventions and support systems.

 Disruption of Attachment Bonds

One of the primary concerns regarding infants and toddlers exposed to domestic violence is the
potential disruption of attachment bonds. According to Bowlby's attachment theory), a secure
attachment to caregivers is fundamental for healthy socio-emotional development. Infants and
toddlers exposed to domestic violence may face challenges in forming secure attachments due
to inconsistent caregiving and disrupted emotional availability (Levendosky et al., 2003).

 Effects on Cognitive Development

Exposure to domestic violence during the formative years can have detrimental effects on
cognitive development in infants and toddlers. Studies indicate that witnessing violence in the
home may lead to cognitive delays, possibly due to the chronic stress experienced by the child
(Hughes, 2011). Cognitive delays can manifest in language development, problem-solving
skills, and overall cognitive functioning.

 Behavioral Manifestations

Behavioral manifestations are a common way that domestic violence affects infants' and
toddlers' mental health. These can include more anger and resistance as well as regressive
behaviors like bedwetting or thumb-sucking. These kinds of actions could be coping strategies
for the tensions brought on by seeing domestic abuse.

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  Long-Term Consequences

The long-term consequences of exposure to domestic violence during infancy and toddlerhood
are a growing area of concern. Research suggests a correlation between early exposure to
violence and an increased risk of mental health issues in adolescence and adulthood, including
anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Davies, 2014; Sternberg et al., 2006).

In conclusion, exposure to domestic violence during infancy and toddlerhood has multifaceted
and enduring effects on the mental health of children. Understanding these impacts is vital for
developing targeted interventions to mitigate negative consequences and support healthy socio-
emotional development.

2. The Impact of Exposure to Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of Preschoolers

Preschoolers, typically aged 3 to 5, are at a critical stage of socio-emotional development.

Exposure to domestic violence during this period can have profound and lasting effects on their
mental health. Understanding these impacts is essential for designing effective interventions
and support systems.

 Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

Preschool children who witness domestic abuse can display a variety of emotional and
behavioral issues. Empirical evidence indicates a heightened probability of symptoms,
including anxiety, fear, and hostility. The stress and trauma brought on by seeing violence in
the household may be the cause of these behaviors.

 Cognitive and Language Delays

Preschoolers who have experienced domestic abuse may experience impairments in their
linguistic and cognitive development. Research suggests that residing in a violent environment
might cause chronic stress, which can negatively affect cognitive processes and impede
language development.

 Social Difficulties

Preschoolers exposed to domestic violence may experience challenges in forming and

maintaining positive peer relationships. Social difficulties can arise from various factors,
including a lack of secure attachment, behavioral challenges, and emotional regulation (Howell
et al., 2019).

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  Coping Mechanisms and Resilience

Despite the challenges posed by exposure to domestic violence, preschoolers also exhibit
coping mechanisms and resilience. Some children develop adaptive coping strategies, such as
seeking social support or engaging in play as a form of emotional expression (Levendosky et
al., 2003). Understanding these coping mechanisms is crucial for designing interventions that
build on children's strengths.

In conclusion, exposure to domestic violence during the preschool years significantly impacts
the mental health of children. Understanding the emotional, behavioral, and cognitive
consequences is crucial for developing targeted interventions to mitigate the adverse effects
and promote healthy socio-emotional development in this vulnerable age group.

3. The Impact of Exposure to Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of School-Age

Children

School-age children, typically between 6 and 12 years old, undergo critical cognitive and
socio-emotional development. Exposure to domestic violence during this period can have far-
reaching consequences on their mental health. Understanding these impacts is crucial for
developing effective interventions and support systems.

 Academic Performance

A considerable body of research suggests a negative correlation between exposure to domestic

violence and academic performance in school-age children (Evans et al., 2008; Graham-
Bermann & Levendosky). Chronic exposure to violence may contribute to difficulties in
concentration, reduced cognitive functioning, and lower academic achievement.

 Peer Relationships

Exposure to domestic violence can impact the development of peer relationships in school-age
children. Research suggests that these children may struggle with forming and maintaining
positive relationships with peers due to challenges in social skills, trust, and emotional
regulation (Kitzmann et al., 2003).

 Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors

Exposure to domestic violence is often associated with internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression)
and externalizing (e.g., aggression, conduct problems) behaviors in school-age children

23
(McDonald et al., 2006; Sternberg et al., 2006). The stressors associated with witnessing
violence may contribute to the development of these behavioral challenges.

 Psychological Symptoms

School-age children exposed to domestic violence are at an increased risk of developing

various psychological symptoms. These may include symptoms of post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorders, and depressive disorders (Holt et al., 2008; Vu et al.,
2016).

In conclusion, exposure to domestic violence during the school-age years has profound effects
on the mental health of children. These effects manifest in various domains, including
academic performance, peer relationships, behavioral challenges, and psychological well-
being. Recognizing and addressing these impacts is essential for the development of targeted
interventions to support the mental health of school-age children exposed to domestic violence.

4. The Impact of Exposure to Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of Adolescents

Adolescence is a crucial developmental period marked by significant physical, emotional, and

cognitive changes. Exposure to domestic violence during this time can have profound and
lasting effects on the mental health of adolescents. Understanding these impacts is crucial for
designing targeted interventions and support systems.

 Risky Behaviors

Adolescents exposed to domestic violence often exhibit an increased likelihood of engaging in

risky behaviors. Research indicates associations between exposure to violence and higher rates
of substance abuse, delinquency, and risky sexual behaviors (Foshee et al., 2008; Herrenkohl et
al., 2008). These behaviors may serve as maladaptive coping mechanisms for the stressors
associated with witnessing domestic violence.

 Relationship Patterns

Exposure to domestic violence during adolescence can influence the formation and dynamics
of romantic relationships. Adolescents who witness violence at home may be at an increased
risk of either becoming victims or perpetrators of dating violence in their relationships (Wolfe
et al., 2001). Understanding these patterns is crucial for breaking the cycle of violence across
generations.

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  Mental Health Disorders

Exposure to domestic violence is strongly linked to the development of mental health disorders
in adolescence. Adolescents exposed to violence may experience symptoms of post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and other mood disorders (Cuevas et al., 2010;
Grych et al., 2003). The chronic stress associated with domestic violence can contribute to the
onset and exacerbation of these disorders.

 Long-Term Implications for Adult Mental Health

Exposure to domestic violence during adolescence has implications for long-term mental health
outcomes in adulthood. Individuals who witnessed violence in their youth may be at an
increased risk of experiencing mental health challenges in adulthood, including higher rates of
depression, anxiety, and difficulties in forming and maintaining healthy relationships
(Herrenkohl et al., 2008; Sternberg et al., 2006).

In conclusion, exposure to domestic violence during adolescence significantly impacts the

mental health of individuals. The effects manifest in various domains, including engagement in
risky behaviors, patterns of romantic relationships, the development of mental health disorders,
and long-term implications for adult mental health. Recognizing and addressing these impacts
is essential for developing interventions that promote the mental well-being of adolescents
exposed to domestic violence.

2.1.4 THE ROLE OF PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN MITIGATING THE ADVERSE

MENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON CHILDREN

Protective factors are those elements in an individual's environment that contribute to their
positive adaptation, particularly in adversity. Due to the dynamic nature of protective factors,
they are suggested to interact with risk factors to shape developmental trajectories.

Protective factors in child development and well-being refer to characteristics, conditions, or

attributes that enhance a child's ability to withstand and cope with adverse circumstances,
reducing the likelihood of negative outcomes (Masten, 2001).

Protective factors can be induced from the perspective of individuals, families, communities,
and cultural norms. In the context of children exposed to domestic violence, identifying and

25
understanding protective factors is crucial for developing effective interventions that promote
resilience and mitigate the potential mental health consequences.

A thorough understanding of protective factors is essential for comprehensively addressing the

mental health consequences of domestic violence on children. The interaction between
individual, family, community, and cultural factors forms a complex web that influences
resilience and adaptation. It is expedient that future research continues to explore and refine the
definitions of protective factors in diverse cultural and contextual settings to inform targeted
interventions and support systems.

 Individual Protective Factors

Individual protective factors play a critical role in shaping a child's ability to cope with and
navigate the challenges associated with exposure to domestic violence. These factors
encompass cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions contributing to a child's resilience
and adaptive functioning.

i. Cognitive Abilities

Cognitive flexibility emerges as a critical protective factor (Masten). Children with higher
levels of cognitive flexibility could be more adept at solving problems and adapting to
changing circumstances (Osofsky). The influence of domestic violence on cognitive
development may be lessened if people can comprehend and analyze complex familial settings.
Educational achievement is identified by Holmes, Voith, and Gromoske (2015) as a potential
protective factor. Higher levels of educational attainment may provide children with cognitive
resources and a sense of empowerment, which can positively influence their psychological
well-being.

ii. Temperament

Resilient temperament is associated with better outcomes in children exposed to domestic

violence (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Children with a more adaptable and emotionally
regulated temperament may be better equipped to cope with environmental stressors and
disruptions.

Masten and Coatsworth highlight positive emotionality as a crucial individual protective factor.
Children with a generally cheerful disposition may develop better-coping mechanisms and
maintain a more optimistic outlook despite the challenges posed by domestic violence.

26
 iii. Coping Skills

Effective coping strategies are integral to individual resilience. Children who develop adaptive
coping skills, such as problem-solving or seeking social support, may experience lower levels
of psychological distress (Compas et al., 2017). The capacity to regulate emotions and manage
stress is fundamental to coping effectively in the context of domestic violence.

Emotional regulation is consistently recognized as a critical protective factor (Cicchetti et al.,

2016). Children who can regulate their emotions may experience less internalizing and
externalizing symptoms, mitigating the impact of exposure to domestic violence on mental
health.

iv. Social Competence

Positive peer relationships contribute to individual resilience. Children who maintain positive
connections with peers may benefit from additional sources of support and validation,
counteracting the potential adverse effects of domestic violence.

Holt et al. (2008) emphasize social skills and communication abilities. Children with practical
social skills may successfully navigate interpersonal challenges, leading to improved peer and
adult relationships.

 Family-Level Protective Factors

In the realm of children exposed to domestic violence, understanding family-level protective

factors is crucial for developing interventions that promote resilience and mitigate potential
mental health consequences. As the primary social unit, the family plays a pivotal role in
buffering the impact of adversities. This literature review explores key family-level protective
factors identified in scholarly research.

i. Strong Parent-Child Relationship

A fundamental family-level protective factor is the quality of the parent-child relationship.

Levendosky et al. (2003) highlight the significance of a secure attachment between parents and
children in mitigating the adverse effects of domestic violence. A secure attachment provides a
foundation of emotional security and support that can buffer the child from the adversities
within the home environment.

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 ii. Positive Parenting Practices

Positive parenting practices act as a shield against the negative impact of domestic violence on
children. Effective discipline strategies, warmth, and open communication are cited by
Cummings and Davies (2010) as essential components of positive parenting. These practices
contribute to a supportive family environment that fosters resilience in children.

iii. Emotional Support within the Family

The availability of emotional support within the family is a critical protective factor. Families
that provide emotional support and nurturing environments contribute significantly to a child's
ability to cope with the challenges of domestic violence (Koverola et al., 2005). Emotional
support is essential in fostering the child's sense of security and belonging.

iv. Consistent and Stable Routine

Consistency and stability in daily routines within the family have been identified as protective
factors. Fergusson et al. (2008) note that a predictable and stable environment can mitigate the
disruptive impact of domestic violence on children. Routine provides safety and predictability,
crucial for a child's emotional well-being.

v. Parental Coping Strategies

The coping strategies employed by parents in the face of domestic violence are integral to
family-level protection. Parents who utilize adaptive coping mechanisms, such as seeking
social support or self-care, contribute to a more resilient family unit (Holden & Ritchie).
Effective parental coping strategies can model resilience for children.

vi. Social Cohesion and Communication

Social cohesion within the family and open communication act as a protective buffer. Family
cohesion fosters a sense of unity and solidarity, and effective communication allows family
members to express emotions and concerns (Sullivan et al., 2010). These factors contribute to a
supportive family environment that can mitigate the impact of domestic violence.

 Community and Social Support

The impact of domestic violence on children extends beyond the familial sphere, and the role
of community and social support emerges as a critical factor in mitigating the associated
mental health consequences. Community and social support encompass a range of

28
interventions and networks that can significantly influence the well-being of children exposed
to domestic violence.

Social support is defined as providing assistance or comfort through social networks. In the
context of children exposed to domestic violence, this support can come from various sources,
including family, friends, neighbors, teachers, and community organizations.

Browne and Hamilton-Giachritsis (2005) note that community support involves a collective
response to domestic violence, including public awareness campaigns, educational programs,
and community services.

i. Family-Centered Support

Family-centered support is an integral component of community efforts. Fergusson et al.

(2005) emphasize the importance of extended family members as potential sources of support
for children in the aftermath of domestic violence. Grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other
relatives can provide stability and emotional support. There is the necessity of community-wide
coordinated family interventions to end the intergenerational cycle of violence.

ii. School-Based Programs

Schools play a crucial role in the social development of children, and interventions within the
educational system can provide essential support. Greene et al. (2005) highlight the
significance of school-based programs that create safe spaces for children and offer counseling
services. Riggs (2010) suggests that teachers and school staff can act as essential advocates,
providing a supportive environment and identifying signs of distress in children exposed to
domestic violence.

iii. Community Awareness and Education

Public awareness campaigns and educational programs contribute to community-wide support.

Levendosky et al. (2002) note that increasing awareness about the prevalence and impact of
domestic violence can reduce stigma and encourage community members to offer support.
McFarlane et al. (2004) emphasize the importance of community education programs that
equip individuals with the knowledge and skills to respond effectively to domestic violence
situations.

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 iv. Access to Community Resources

The availability of community resources is a critical aspect of support. Access to safe housing,
counseling services, and legal assistance can empower families and children affected by
domestic violence. Studies by Sullivan et al. (2010) highlight the positive impact of
community-based organizations that provide financial assistance, childcare services, and
vocational training.

v. Cultural Sensitivity in Support Services

Cultural competence is crucial in designing influential community and social support services.
Johnson and Zlotnick (2007) emphasize the need for interventions that respect diverse cultural
backgrounds and address the unique challenges faced by children in different communities.
Cultural sensitivity ensures that support services are inclusive and responsive to the specific
needs of families in Ojo Local Government and other diverse settings.

 Cultural and Contextual Factors

Cultural and contextual factors play a crucial role in shaping the experiences of children
exposed to domestic violence. Understanding the intricate interplay between cultural norms,
societal expectations, and contextual influences is vital for developing effective interventions
and support systems tailored to the specific needs of communities, such as Ojo Local
Government.

i. Cultural Influence on Perceptions of Domestic Violence

Cultural norms significantly influence how domestic violence is perceived within a

community. Studies by Smith and Freyd (2000) and Jackson et al. (2015) emphasize that
cultural attitudes toward family dynamics, gender roles, and acceptable behavior can impact
the acknowledgment and reporting of domestic violence. In Ojo Local Government,
understanding family life's cultural nuances is essential for recognizing and addressing
domestic violence.

ii. Stigma and Silence

Cultural stigmas around discussing family issues and private matters can contribute to a culture
of silence regarding domestic violence. Chung and Zemans (2016) highlight the reluctance to
seek help due to fear of stigma and judgment. In specific cultural contexts, seeking external

30
assistance may be viewed as a sign of weakness or a breach of privacy, hindering the
identification and mitigation of the effects of domestic violence on children.

iii. Collectivism and Community Support

Cultures emphasizing collectivism often have strong community ties. A study by Kim and Cain
(2008) suggests that close-knit communities can act as a protective factor, supporting affected
families. In Ojo Local Government, where communal bonds may be powerful, leveraging
community resources could be an effective strategy for mitigating the impact of domestic
violence on children.

iv. Cultural Protective Factors

Cultural values and practices can serve as protective factors for children exposed to domestic
violence. A study by Sabri et al. (2016) highlights how cultural rituals and community
cohesion can act as resilience-building mechanisms for children. Recognizing and
incorporating these cultural protective factors into interventions is crucial for their
effectiveness in specific cultural contexts.

v. Intersectionality and Diverse Cultural Experiences

Many overlapping identities, including gender, ethnicity, and social class, have varying effects
on victims of domestic abuse. Within the larger framework of domestic abuse, intersectionality
research emphasizes how important it is to take into account the distinct experiences of
children from different cultural backgrounds. Considering the diverse cultural context of Ojo
Local Government, this viewpoint is especially pertinent when creating interventions.

vi. Cultural Competence in Interventions

Effective interventions must be culturally competent. Marsiglia and Kulis (2009) argue that
interventions tailored to the cultural context are more likely to be accepted and successful.
Understanding the cultural norms, language nuances, and local practices is essential for
designing interventions that resonate with the community's specific needs in Ojo Local
Government.

2.1.5 MEASURES THAT COULD BE USED IN REDUCING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

ON CHILDREN

31
It is crucial to adequately protect children from abuse since domestic violence can have long-
lasting repercussions on their physical health, mental health, and later life. There are several
ways to shield a child from domestic violence.

The first measure to take is to make safety a priority; the most excellent strategy to safeguard a
child's interests and well-being is to ensure that victims have the assistance they require to exit
the abusive situation. This gives children the chance to grow up in more wholesome
environments and spares them further exposure to violence. (Very well mind, 2021).

Giving children a voice is another way of preventing domestic violence, whereby you make
them know and understand their fundamental human rights. The identification of domestic
abuse warning signals and the reporting of any concerns fall primarily on those who work with
children, such as parents, guardians, and teachers, amongst others. These individuals are crucial
in encouraging kids to express their concerns by speaking out.

Another measure of reducing domestic violence in children is gaining knowledge about

effective co-parenting and developing abilities to avoid confrontation and communicate better
(Schrader & Barlow, 2019).

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

 Object Relation Theory

The psychoanalytical school of thought known as "object relations theory" is based on

hypotheses regarding the stages of ego formation. Its concerns range from examining
relationships between external individuals and the psyche's relationship with others in
childhood to exploring internal pictures and the relationships found in them. (Wikipedia).

According to school thinkers, early family experiences shape how people relate to others and
circumstances in adulthood; a person who experienced neglect or abuse as a child will likely
expect the same behavior from others who, through transference, remind them of the abusive or
neglectful parent from their past. These recurring visions of the events that result from repeated
human behavior patterns become objects in the unconscious that the self maintains into
adulthood and are used to forecast how other people will respond in social situations and
interactions.

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According to the object relations theory, people need meaningful relationships with others from
an early age; in this view, "others" are called "objects." According to Fairbairn (2019), these
early relationships not only aid in psychic development but also serve as the psychological
"templates" for all subsequent relationships that an individual would have. Essentially, the
object relations theory postulates that beginning in infancy and childhood, people form mental
representations of themselves, other people, and the relationships between them; these mental
representations persist and impact interpersonal relationships throughout life.

Numerous well-known object relations theorists contend that a child's early interactions with its
primary carer provide the foundation for the internalization of solid, lasting, and accurate
mental images of oneself, others, and the emotional experiences related to those relationships.
For people to secure the development of optimal emotional health in later life, the first few
years of existence are crucial. Lack of nurturing during infancy and childhood can make it
challenging for adults to retain positive self-esteem, control their emotional reactions, and
control anxiety. Unmet dependency demands from childhood continue throughout adulthood,
frequently accompanied by anger about one's needs not being satisfied. As a result, adult
dependency demands are more challenging to satisfy and grow more demanding, which may
result in situations where one is either the abuser or the victim of domestic violence. For
instance, research points to the possibility that at least some men who engage in intimate
partner violence (IPV) did not receive enough nurturing during their early life.

According to Dutton et al. (2002), parental rejection and family dysfunction were both strongly
associated with an adult's tendency to commit domestic violence.

Contrarily, it has been asserted that people who experience violence in adolescent or adult
relationships and who keep those relationships going despite the violence do so as a result of
internal defense mechanisms used when they were young and were in an abusive, uncaring, or
inconsistent relationship with the primary carer. In that it enables survival in an abusive
familial setting, the development and use of defenses during infancy and childhood is highly
adaptive. These defenses, meanwhile, are maladaptive when they are used in teenage or adult
relationships because they make it difficult for the person to determine whether or not abuse is
occurring. They also encourage keeping up a relationship with someone who resembles the
abusive primary caregiver (Hyde-Nolan& Juliao, 2012).

 Trauma Theory

33
Trauma theory is a psychological theory that suggests that exposure to traumatic events, such
as domestic violence, can have lasting effects on a person's mental and emotional health.
Trauma theory emphasizes the impact of the traumatic event on the individual's thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. It suggests that trauma can lead to symptoms such as anxiety,
depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

In the context of domestic violence in children, trauma theory suggests that exposure to
violence and abuse can have long-lasting effects on the child's psychological well-being.
Children who experience domestic violence may develop symptoms of trauma, such as
hypervigilance, nightmares, and flashbacks. They may also struggle with emotional regulation
and have difficulty forming healthy relationships with others.

Trauma theory suggests that effective interventions for children who have experienced
domestic violence should focus on addressing the child's emotional and psychological needs.
This may involve providing trauma-focused therapy, creating a safe and supportive
environment for the child, and helping the child to develop healthy coping strategies. By
addressing the root causes of the child's trauma and providing appropriate support, it is possible
to help children who have experienced domestic violence to heal and move forward.

2.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

34
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

The diagram above shows the relationship between the theories and independent, dependent,
and intervening variables. The Independent Variable influences the actions and outcomes of the
dependent variable. The Intervening Variables determine the degree of the outcome of the
Dependent Variable. The Independent Variable, which is Domestic Violence, can come in the
form of Physical, Sexual, Emotional, or Economic Abuse. The Dependent Variable includes
the Psychological and behavioral effects of Domestic Violence. The Intervening Variable,
including Child development, Addictions, and Illiteracy, amongst others, affect the degree of
the outcome of the Psychological and Behavioural effects of children who experience
Domestic Violence.

2.4 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

35
HYPOTHESIS 1:

Children who have been exposed to domestic violence are more likely to have negative impacts
on their mental health.

HYPOTHESIS 2:

Children who have witnessed domestic violence are more likely to engage in aggressive or
violent behavior as they grow up.

CHAPTER THREE

36
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides us with the research methodology, which includes the research design,
study population, sample size, sampling techniques, research instrument, and method of data
analysis.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design to be employed in this research will be the use of a survey to collect data
from children who have experienced domestic violence and interviews with mental health
professionals as well as social workers who work with children exposed to domestic violence.
To use a survey to collect data from children who have experienced domestic violence and
interviews with mental health professionals as well as social workers who work with children
exposed to domestic violence. In this view, the following steps will be ensured;

Recruiting of Participants: To recruit participants for this study, the researcher will work
with local organizations that provide services to children who have experienced domestic
violence or mental health professionals who work with children exposed to domestic violence.

Obtaining Consent: It is essential to obtain consent from participants or their legal guardians
before collecting data. The researcher will consider using consent forms that include
information about the study, risks and benefits, and confidentiality.

Administering the survey: To administer the survey to participants, the researcher will
consider using either an online survey tool to distribute the study or conducting in-person
interviews.

Data Analysis: Analysing the data collected using statistical analysis or other methods.
Software such as SPSS will be used to analyze collected data and theme analysis for
interviews.

Ensuring Confidentiality: The researcher will ensure the confidentiality of participants by

storing data securely and removing any identifying information.

Reporting of Findings: Clearly and concisely reported findings will be ensured using tables,
graphs, or other visual aids to present our findings from the research.

37
3.2 THE STUDY AREA

Ojo is a town and Local Government Area in Lagos State, Nigeria. The Lagos State University
is situated in this part of Lagos. Ojo is about 37 kilometers west of Lagos, on the eastern part of
the Trans-West African Coastal Highway.

Ojo is predominantly a residential township, even though it is home to significant markets,

including Iyana-Iba Market, the old Lagos International Trade Fair Complex, Alaba
International Market, and Alaba Livestock Market (Alaba Rago). Additionally, it houses Navy
Town and the 81st Division's Divisional Headquarters. The local government area south of the
town (across Badagry stream) is sparsely populated and made chiefly of mangrove swamps and
sandy beaches.

The majority of travel is via road. The town is split into two halves by the Trans-West African
Coastal Highway, which runs east-west. The main thoroughfares in the city's southern portion
are Olojo Drive, Old Ojo Road, Kemberi Road, and Alaba Road. Major highways in the
northern portion include the Chief Esan Way, Iyana-Ipaja Road, and Igbo-Elerin Road.

3.3 THE STUDY POPULATION

The study population for the topic, ‘Effects of Domestic Violence on the Mental Health of
Children in Ojo Local Government area of Lagos State,’ consists of children (male and female
between the ages of 7–17 years) that have been being and or are victims of domestic violence
residing in the specific area in the Ojo Local Government area of Nigeria, Parents or
Guardians, Stakeholders in the formal and informal sectors of the selected location and
institutions such as Lagos state Ministry of Youth and Social Development (MYSD) and
Domestic and Sexual Violence Agency (DSVA).

The reason for choosing children between 7 and 17 years is to ensure a proper understanding
and easy breakdown of the research questions to the respondents, as selecting children below
this age may make it difficult to understand the research questions.

3.4 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

This study will employ a sampling technique called Purposive Sampling. Purposive sampling,
or judgmental or selective sampling, is a non-random sampling technique where researchers
deliberately choose participants based on specific criteria relevant to the research study. In the
context of researching the effects of domestic violence on the mental health of children in Ojo

38
local government, Lagos State, purposive sampling will be employed to ensure that the selected
participants meet specific criteria that are crucial to the research objectives. The researcher will
carefully select 20-30 participants, including children and officials who work with child
victims of domestic violence.

3.5 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

The procedure for data collection for this study is the Triangulation method. This is to ensure
the validity of data collected through the interviews of personnel who have worked with
victims of domestic violence in correspondence with data collected through questionnaires.
Also, it helps to mitigate and reduce the limitations posed by the conduct of this study.

Data to be collected in this study are both quantitative and qualitative. Both data will be
collected through the conduct of a structured interview, the administering of questionnaires,
and focus group discussions.

3.6 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative data will be analyzed using statistical tools such as regression analysis to examine
the relationship between domestic violence exposure and children’s mental health outcomes.
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), also known as IBM SPSS Statistics, a
software package used to analyze statistical data, will be employed. Qualitative data from the
focus group discussions will be thematically analyzed to gain a deeper understanding of the
impact of domestic violence on the mental health of children.

39
 CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the data collected through the research
process, which includes interviews, observations, and other forms of data collection. The
analysis and interpretation of the data are presented in a way that connects to the research
questions and objectives outlined in Chapter 1. The findings include a thorough description of
the data analysis methods used and a detailed presentation of the results.

4.1 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

4.1.1 SEX

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid MALE 47 47.0 47.0 47.0

FEMALE 53 53.0 53.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

From the above table, the sexes of respondents for this research are distributed as follows: 47
male respondents out of 100 respondents and 57 female respondents. The percentage
distribution is 47% of the respondents are male while 53% of the respondents are female.

40
4.1.2 AGE

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid 18 - 25 11 11.0 11.0 11.0

26 - 35 48 48.0 48.0 59.0

36 - 45 29 29.0 29.0 88.0

46 - 55 8 8.0 8.0 96.0

56 and above 4 4.0 4.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

From the above table, the age of respondents for this research is distributed as follows: there
are 11 respondents aged 18-25 years with 11% of the population, 48 respondents aged 26-35
years with 48% of the population, 29 respondents aged 36-45 years with 29% of the
population, eight respondents aged 46-55 years with 8% of the population, and four
respondents aged 56 and above years with 4% of the population.

4.1.3 RELIGION

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid CHRISTIAN 61 61.0 61.0 61.0

ISLAM 39 39.0 39.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

41
Discussion:

From the above table, the religion of respondents for this research is distributed as follows: 61
respondents, which amounts to 61% of the population, are Christians, and 39 respondents,
amounting to 39% of the population, are Islam faithful.

4.1.4 EDUCATIONAL STATUS

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid PRIMARY 3 3.0 3.0 3.0

SECONDARY 48 48.0 48.0 51.0

TERTIARY 49 49.0 49.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

From the above table, the educational status of respondents for this research is distributed as
follows: there are three respondents, which amounts to 3% of the population, have their highest
level of education as Primary education, 48 respondents, which amounts to 48% of the
population have their highest level of education as Secondary education, and 49 respondents,
which amounts to 49% of the population have their highest level of education as Tertiary
education.

4.1.5 ETHNICITY

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid YORUBA 71 71.0 71.0 71.0

IGBO 26 26.0 26.0 97.0

HAUSA 3 3.0 3.0 100.0

42
 Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

From the above table, the ethnicity of respondents for this research is distributed as follows:
there are 71 Yoruba respondents, which amounts to 71% of the population; 26 Igbo
respondents, which amounts to 26% of the population; and 3 Hausa respondents, amounting to
3% of the population.

4.2 RESULTS

4.2.1 TO IDENTIFY THE TYPES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE EXPERIENCED BY

CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

4.2.1.1 Have you or someone you know witnessed or

experienced domestic violence in Ojo Local
Government?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid YES 96 96.0 96.0 96.0

NO 4 4.0 4.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

When we asked the question, “Have you or someone you know witnessed or experienced
domestic violence in Ojo Local Government?” 96% of our respondents said they have once
witnessed or experienced domestic violence as well as know someone who has either witnessed
or experienced domestic violence. While 4% said they have no experience, neither do their
known associates have witnessed domestic violence.

43
4.2.1.2 If yes, please specify the type(s) of domestic violence observed or
experienced

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid PHYSICAL ABUSE 30 30.0 30.0 30.0

EMOTIONAL OR
PSYCHOLOGICAL 31 31.0 31.0 61.0
ABUSE

SEXUAL ABUSE 29 29.0 29.0 90.0

NEGLECT 10 10.0 10.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

When we asked the question, “If yes, please specify the type(s) of domestic violence observed
or experienced?” 30% of our respondents said they have witnessed or experienced physical
abuse. 31% of our respondents said they have seen or experienced emotional or psychological
abuse. 29% of our respondents said they have witnessed or experienced sexual abuse. While
10% said they have no experience, neither do their known associates have witnessed domestic
violence.

4.2.1.3 How frequently do you believe domestic violence occurs in Ojo

Local Government?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid RARELY 24 24.0 24.0 24.0

OCCASIONALLY 50 50.0 50.0 74.0

44
 FREQUENTLY 26 26.0 26.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

When asked, “How frequently do you believe domestic violence occurs in Ojo Local
Government?” 24% of our respondents said that domestic violence occurs at a rare rate. 50% of
our respondents said that domestic violence occurs at an occasion rate. While 26% said
domestic violence occurs frequently.

4.2.2 TO IDENTIFY THE FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

EXPERIENCED BY CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

4.2.2.1 Are there any cultural or societal norms that may

contribute to the prevalence of domestic violence in
this community?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid YES 77 77.0 77.0 77.0

NO 23 23.0 23.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

When we asked the question, “Are there any cultural or societal norms that may contribute to
the prevalence of domestic violence in this community?” 77% of our respondents said yes,
while 23% said no.

45
4.2.3 TO EXAMINE THE IMPACTS OF EXPOSURE TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON
THE MENTAL HEALTH OF CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

4.2.3.1 Have you observed any changes in the behavior or

mental well-being of children exposed to domestic violence?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid YES
100 100.0 100.0 100.0

NO
0 0 0 0

NOT
0 0 0 0
SURE

Discussion:

When we asked the question, “Have you observed any changes in the behavior or mental well-
being of children exposed to domestic violence?” 100% of our respondents said yes, while 0%
said no and not sure.

46
4.2.4 TO IDENTIFY HOW PROTECTIVE FACTORS REDUCE THE MENTAL
HEALTH EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL
GOVERNMENT

4.2.4.1 Are there any factors or resources within the community that you believe help
protect children from the mental health effects of domestic violence?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid SUPPORTIVE FAMILY

23 23.0 23.0 23.0
NETWORK

COMMUNITY
34 34.0 34.0 57.0
PROGRAMS

COUNSELLING
43 43.0 43.0 100.0
SERVICES

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

When we asked the question, “Are there any factors or resources within the community that
you believe help protect children from the mental health effects of domestic violence?” 23% of
our respondents chose supportive family networks, 34% chose community programs, and 43%
chose counseling services.

47
4.2.5 TO RECOMMEND SOLUTIONS IN ADDRESSING THE MENTAL HEALTH
NEEDS OF CHILDREN EXPOSED TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN OJO
LOCAL GOVERNMENT

4.2.5.1 Are there any existing community initiatives or resources that could be enhanced
to support these children better?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent

Valid YES 19 19.0 19.0 19.0

NO 81 81.0 81.0 100.0

Total 100 100.0 100.0

Discussion:

When we asked the question, “Are there any existing community initiatives or resources that
could be enhanced to support these children better?” 19% of our respondents answered yes,
while 81% said no.

4.3 THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE INTERVIEW

4.3.1 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE EXPERIENCED BY

CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Domestic violence is a pervasive issue that affects individuals across various demographics,
and children are often the silent victims of this deeply ingrained problem. Ojo Local
Government, like many other communities, is not exempt from the challenges posed by
domestic violence. This section aims to explore the multifaceted factors that contribute to
domestic violence experienced by children in Ojo Local Government, shedding light on the
root causes and consequences of this distressing phenomenon.

Ojo Local Government, situated in a diverse sociocultural context, is home to numerous

families facing economic, social, and psychological challenges. Domestic violence involving

48
children in this area is a matter of great concern, as it has long-lasting impacts on the overall
well-being of these young individuals.

Some factors Contributing to Domestic Violence have been categorized as follows;

1. Economic Stress: Economic instability primarily contributes to domestic violence in Ojo

Local Government. Families struggling with financial difficulties often experience heightened
tension and frustration, leading to an increased likelihood of violence within the household.
Children, as vulnerable members of the family, become easy targets for displaced anger and
stress.

2. Cultural Norms and Gender Inequality: Deep-rooted cultural norms and gender inequality
play a significant role in perpetuating domestic violence in Ojo Local Government. Traditional
beliefs and practices that emphasize male dominance can lead to the mistreatment of women
and children, reinforcing a cycle of abuse that is passed down through generations.

3. Lack of Education: Limited access to education can exacerbate domestic violence issues.
Families with lower educational attainment may lack awareness of alternative conflict
resolution strategies and resort to violence as a means of asserting control. This lack of
knowledge perpetuates a cycle of abuse, as children in such households may grow up without
understanding healthy interpersonal dynamics.

4. Substance Abuse: Substance abuse, including alcohol and drug addiction, is a prevalent
problem contributing to domestic violence in Ojo Local Government. Individuals grappling
with addiction issues may engage in violent behavior, posing a direct threat to the safety and
well-being of children within the household.

5. Inadequate Support Systems: Insufficient support systems, both within the community and at
the governmental level, contribute to the persistence of domestic violence. The absence of
counseling services, shelters, and legal resources leaves victims, especially children, without
the means to escape abusive situations.

6. Lack of Legal Protection: Weak legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms contribute
to the perpetuation of domestic violence. In Ojo Local Government, a lack of stringent laws
and their inconsistent implementation can embolden perpetrators, leaving children without
legal recourse and protection.

49
During the conduct of the interview, we asked our respondents, some of whom are relatives of
victims, workers of the Domestic Violence Agency, and members of NGOs working with
Domestic Violence, “What are the primary factors contributing to domestic violence in Ojo
Local Government?”

One respondent said,

“The factors responsible for the increase in the rate of domestic

violence have all ranged from poverty level, illiteracy, irresponsibility,
excessive intake of alcoholic substance and drugs amongst other
factors.” (IDI/Male/Yoruba/28years)

Another respondent said,

“The environment in which an individual serves as a factor

contributing to the rise of domestic violence in Ojo Local Government.
The people whom perpetrators of domestic violence socialize with can
influence whether or not domestic violence occurs.”
(IDI/FEMALE/29years)

4.3.2 THE IMPACTS OF EXPOSURE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON THE MENTAL

HEALTH OF CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Domestic violence is a pervasive issue that affects individuals and families worldwide. Its
impact on the mental health of children is a critical concern, as they often witness or experience
the consequences of violence within their homes. This section explores the specific impacts of
exposure to domestic violence on the mental health of children in Ojo Local Government,
shedding light on the challenges faced by this vulnerable population.

Some of the Key Impacts of domestic violence on the mental health of children are categorized
as follows:

1. Psychological Trauma: Children exposed to domestic violence are at a higher risk of

experiencing psychological trauma. Witnessing violence between parents or caregivers can
lead to feelings of fear, anxiety, and helplessness, leaving lasting emotional scars.

50
2. Behavioral Issues: Exposure to domestic violence may manifest in children through various
behavioral issues such as aggression, withdrawal, and difficulties in forming healthy
relationships. These behavioral patterns can interfere with their social and academic
development.

3. Emotional Distress: The constant exposure to conflict and violence within the family unit
can contribute to emotional distress among children. This may manifest as depression, low self-
esteem, and a sense of guilt or responsibility for the violence they witness.

4. Impaired Cognitive Function: Children exposed to domestic violence may experience

disruptions in their cognitive development. The chronic stress associated with living in an
environment of violence can impair concentration, memory, and overall cognitive function.

5. Long-term Mental Health Consequences: The impacts of exposure to domestic violence

during childhood can have long-term consequences on mental health. Such individuals may be
at an increased risk of developing mental health disorders, including anxiety disorders, post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression, later in life.

6. Cycle of Violence: There is a risk that children exposed to domestic violence may perpetuate
the cycle of violence in their relationships as adults. The learned behavior and coping
mechanisms acquired in childhood can influence their interpersonal dynamics in the future.

During the conduct of the interview, we asked our respondents, some of whom are relatives of
victims, workers of the Domestic Violence Agency, and members of NGOs working with
Domestic Violence, “Describe the observed impacts of domestic violence on children’s mental
health?”

One respondent said,

“I observed that they tend to withdraw from every social integration,

isolate themselves, live in constant fear of the perpetrator and every
individual who shares the same gender with the perpetrator of their
violence” (IDI, Female, Igbo, 45 years).

51
Another respondent said,

“They are often involved in violent behaviors which spring from the effects
of the violence against them, or they witnessed.” (IDI, Female, Yoruba, 29
years).

Another respondent said,

“Most of the child victims of domestic violence are absentminded in every

activity they are involved in. They mostly are present in the scene but not
emotionally and psychologically present.” (IDI, Male, Yoruba, 25 years).

4.3.3 HOW PROTECTIVE FACTORS REDUCE THE MENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS

OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON CHILDREN IN OJO LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Protective factors play a crucial role in mitigating the mental health effects of domestic
violence on children in Ojo Local Government. In the context of this community, several
factors contribute to safeguarding the well-being of children exposed to domestic violence.

1. Strong Social Support Networks: One key protective factor is the presence of strong social
support networks within the community. Children who have access to caring and supportive
individuals, such as extended family members, teachers, and friends, are more resilient in the
face of domestic violence.

2. Access to Mental Health Services: Adequate access to mental health services is essential for
addressing the psychological impact of domestic violence on children. Ojo Local Government's
commitment to providing accessible and culturally sensitive mental health resources ensures
that affected children receive timely support and intervention.

3. Educational Opportunities: Quality education acts as a protective factor by providing

children with a sense of normalcy, structure, and opportunities for personal development.
Schools in Ojo Local Government play a vital role in identifying and addressing the needs of
children facing domestic violence.

52
4. Community Awareness and Advocacy: A community that is well-informed about the
prevalence and consequences of domestic violence is better equipped to respond effectively.
Ojo Local Government's focus on community awareness and advocacy efforts helps reduce the
stigma associated with domestic violence and encourages supportive environments for affected
children.

5. Legal Safeguards: Stringent legal measures and enforcement against domestic violence
protect children. The existence of laws and policies within Ojo Local Government that
prioritize the rights and safety of children in such situations is a significant protective factor.

6. Counseling and Therapeutic Interventions: Accessible counseling and therapeutic

interventions tailored to the cultural context of Ojo Local Government provide children with
coping mechanisms and emotional support. These interventions empower children to navigate
the challenges arising from domestic violence.

7. Empowerment Programs for Caregivers: Supporting caregivers, often victims themselves,

through empowerment programs helps create a more stable and nurturing environment for
children. Ojo Local Government's efforts in this regard contribute to breaking the cycle of
violence and enhancing the overall well-being of families.

During the conduct of the interview, we asked our respondents, some of whom are relatives of
victims, workers of the Domestic Violence Agency, and members of NGOs working with
Domestic Violence, “How do protective factors contribute to mitigating the impact of domestic
violence on children’s mental health?”

One respondent said,

“A protective family is more likely to seek and utilize external support

services, such as counseling or therapy, which can be beneficial for the
child's mental health. These services can help children cope with the
trauma they may have experienced.” (IDI, Female, Yoruba, 30 years).

Another respondent said,

“It helps to educate victims of domestic violence, and it also encourages

them to move on and get over it.” (IDI, Female, Yoruba, 19 years).

53
Another respondent said,

“Prepares the child on the management of future occurrence.” (IDI,

Male, Yoruba, 25 years).

In summary, the proactive integration of protective factors in Ojo Local Government serves as
a comprehensive strategy to reduce the mental health effects of domestic violence on children.
By fostering a supportive community, enhancing access to resources, and implementing
targeted interventions, the local government contributes to building resilience in children
facing such challenging circumstances.

4.3.4 RECOMMEND SOLUTIONS IN ADDRESSING THE MENTAL HEALTH

NEEDS OF CHILDREN EXPOSED TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN OJO
LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Children exposed to domestic violence in Ojo Local Government face unique mental health
challenges that require targeted interventions. Domestic violence can have profound and lasting
effects on a child's well-being, necessitating a comprehensive approach to address their mental
health needs. The following recommendations aim to provide effective solutions for mitigating
the impact of domestic violence on children in Ojo Local Government. They include
establishing Trauma-Informed Care Services, Community Awareness and Education Programs,
School-Based Mental Health Programs, Counseling and Support Services, Parenting Programs
and Support, Legal Protection and Advocacy, Collaboration and Networking.

During the conduct of the interview, we asked our respondents, some of whom are relatives of
victims, workers of the Domestic Violence Agency, and members of NGOs working with
Domestic Violence, “What measures can be taken to address the mental health needs of
children exposed to domestic violence in Ojo Local Government?”

One respondent said,

“Establishing free counseling centers for children who have been

subjected to domestic violence.” (IDI, Female, Yoruba, 20 years).

54
Another respondent said,

“A well-defined environment should be guaranteed to ensure the safety

of children so as not to be victims of these ridiculous acts and aid adults
to be better individuals.” (IDI, Female, Yoruba, 19 years).

Another respondent said,

“The government should provide good security, counseling services,

punish people that commit domestic violence that they will regret doing it
in their life.” (IDI, Male, Yoruba, 25 years).

4.4 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This research investigated domestic violence experienced by children in Ojo Local

Government in Nigeria. It utilized mixed methods, including a survey, interviews, and thematic

analysis, to examine the types, factors, impacts, and solutions related to children's exposure to

domestic violence in the community.

According to the study's objectives, the key findings in this research are categorized.
Sociodemographic Characteristics
The respondents were relatively evenly split between males (47%) and females (53%). The
majority were aged 26-35 (48%), followed by 36-45 (29%). Most respondents were Christian
(61%) or Muslim (39%). Approximately half had secondary education (48%), while 49% had
tertiary education. The majority were Yoruba (71%), followed by Igbo (26%) and Hausa (3%).
Types of Domestic Violence
The most common types of domestic violence experienced by children were physical abuse
(30%), emotional/psychological abuse (31%), sexual abuse (29%), and neglect (10%). This
indicates exposure to multiple forms of abuse. 96% of respondents reported witnessing or
experiencing domestic violence personally or knew someone who had. 50% believed domestic
violence occurred occasionally in Ojo, while 26% said it was frequent.
Factors Contributing to Domestic Violence
Significant factors were economic stress, cultural norms, lack of education, substance abuse,
inadequate support systems, and lack of legal protection. Interviewees highlighted poverty,
illiteracy, alcohol/drug abuse, peer influence, and social environments as critical causes.
However, 77% felt there are cultural or societal norms that contribute to domestic violence in
the community.

55
Impacts on Children's Mental Health
100% of respondents observed negative changes in the behavior and mental well-being of
children exposed to domestic violence. Interviewees reported withdrawal, fear, anxiety,
absenteeism, violent behavior, trauma, and long-term mental health issues.
Protective Factors
Vital protective factors that can mitigate impacts on children were supportive family networks
(23%), community programs (34%), and counseling services (43%). Interviewees emphasized
social support, mental health services, education, community awareness, legal measures,
counseling, and caregiver empowerment programs.
Recommendations
81% felt there are no existing community initiatives or resources that could be enhanced to
support children exposed to violence. In comparison, 19% felt there were adequate existing
community initiatives to support children exposed to domestic violence. Suggested solutions
included counseling services, community programs, legal protections, counseling centers, safe
environments, security, legal punishment, parenting support, and collaboration.

In summary, the study confirms domestic violence is a highly prevalent issue affecting children
in Ojo LGA, with psychological, emotional, and behavioral consequences. While protective
factors exist, respondents overwhelmingly felt more could be done to address this problem
through counseling, community initiatives, awareness, and government support. The findings
highlight the need for greater attention and resources to address the mental health needs of
child victims. It also highlights the need for psychological services, community education,
policy changes, and collaboration to address this significant social welfare and public health
issue.

56
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

This research investigated the effects of domestic violence on the mental health of children in

Ojo Local Government Area in Nigeria.

The study utilized a mixed methods approach, including a survey, interviews, and thematic

analysis. Key findings indicate high rates of exposure to domestic violence among children in

Ojo LGA, with physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and neglect being prevalent. Significant

impacts were found on children's psychological well-being and behavior.

The research utilized a mixed methods design incorporating a survey of 100 respondents, in-

depth interviews, and thematic analysis of qualitative data. Findings showed a high prevalence

of domestic violence exposure among children, with 96% of survey respondents having

witnessed or experienced it directly or indirectly. Physical abuse (30%),

emotional/psychological abuse (31%), sexual abuse (29%), and neglect (10%) were the main

types of domestic violence reported. Half of respondents (50%) believed domestic violence

occurred occasionally in Ojo LGA, while 26% said it was frequent, indicating a normalized

societal issue. All survey respondents (100%) reported observing negative changes in the

behavior and mental well-being of children exposed to domestic violence. Interviewees

provided details of impacts, including withdrawal, fear, anxiety, school absenteeism, violent

behavior, psychological trauma, and potential long-term mental health consequences.

Key factors driving domestic violence were economic hardship, harmful gender norms, low

education levels, substance abuse, inadequate support systems, and weak legal frameworks.

Protective factors identified were social support, mental health services, education, community

awareness, legal measures, counseling, and empowerment programs. Significant factors

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contributing to domestic violence were identified as economic hardship, harmful sociocultural

norms, lack of education, substance abuse, poor support systems, and inadequate legal

protection. Protective factors that could mitigate effects on children's mental health include

social support, access to services, educational opportunities, community awareness, legal

safeguards, and targeted interventions.

5.2 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study provides compelling evidence that domestic violence is a critical issue

affecting children in Ojo LGA, with profound consequences for their mental health and

development. The findings indicate an urgent need for concerted action through a

multidimensional approach encompassing awareness raising, services provision, policy

reforms, inter-agency coordination implement services, awareness-raising, legislative reforms,

and capacity building. Tackling this issue should be made a priority by civil society,

government agencies, and policymakers. Preventing domestic violence and mitigating its

impacts on children should be made a priority to break intergenerational cycles of violence and

support the well-being of families and communities within Ojo LGA.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of the study on the Effects of domestic violence on the mental health of

children in Ojo local government, several recommendations can be put forward to enhance and

sustain the sanity within the society:

 Increase availability and access to support services such as counseling, helplines, and

shelters

 Implement trauma-informed interventions and mental health programs in schools.

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 Launch community outreach and education programs to increase awareness.

 Strengthen legal frameworks and enforcement of laws safeguarding women and

children.

 Ensure adequate training for health, social services, educational, and legal

professionals.

 Promote gender equitable norms through community-based programs.

 Develop parenting support programs aimed at non-violent discipline.

 Foster inter-agency coordination between government, NGOs, community leaders, and

other stakeholders

 Conduct further research to expand the evidence base and inform policy and

programming.

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