1. WHAT IS A WELD?

Welding is most the effective method of joining materials. The term "WELD" is unfortunately,
ambiguous because it is used in so many ways. Technically, it refers to the area of coalescence produced
by the welding process.

1.1. Welded Joint (=Weld)

A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals produced either by heating the materials to suitable
temperatures, with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with
or without the use of filler material. — (AWS/ASM) –

1.2. Weldment

This term normally means an assembly, large or small, which contains one or more welded joints.

1.3. Manual Metal Arc Welding (AWS/ASM=Shielded Metal Arc Welding = SMAW)

An arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heat ing them with an arc between a
covered metal electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode
covering. Pressure is not used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode (Fig.2)

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 Electrode Holder

1.3.1. Power Source

Electrodes operate on direct current attached to the positive or negative pole, or alternating current,
depending on the composition of the covering. A.C. is prefereable from a cost point of view.

A welding power source needs to be designed to give a stable arc during operation, so that it prevents
excessive current surges on short circuiting (no great spatter) or sticking of the electrode, and to give
adequate recovery of voltage to prevent arc extinction.

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Arc current must be reasonable constant at all arc lengths (i.e. arc voltages), to ensure constant
penetration and metal transfer.

The source must give an adequate voltage for starting, 65 — 80 volts, and suitable operating voltage. Arc
voltage vary from 15 — 25 V. for bare or lightly covered electrodes, 20 — 40 V for normal covered
electrodes and up to 45 V for special electrodes.

The A.C. transformer is the cheapest and most widely used source giving lower power and maintance cost
and eliminating arc blow. It can be arranged for multi-operator use in workshops. However, electrode
covering must be selected to give good arc stability with A.C. D.C. power gives better arc stability and
often a better quality deposit but D.C. arcs are susceptible to arc blow. Power costs are higher than A.C.
Generators are widely used on site work, particularly where there is no A.C. power supply and they are
still found in many factories. Transformer-rectifiers have been replacing generators in factories despites
higher capital cost because of quietness, minimum maintenance through no moving parts, and lower
operating costs.

The static characteristic i.e. current-voltage relationship under steady load, for SMAW is steeply
drooping so that the current remains nearly constant for all arc voltages i.e. arc lengths.

1.3.1.1. Selection Factors

Factors that influence the selection of power source include :

(1) Available input power, (10) Need to minimize arc blow

(2) Available floor space, (11) Safety

(3) Initial costs,

(4) Location of the operation ( in aplant or in

the field),

(5) Personel available for maintance,

(6) Versatility,

(7) Required output,

(8) Duty cycle,

(9) Efficiency,

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1.3.1.2. Direct Current

(1) The welding arc is relatively steady and smooth.

(2) Voltage Drop in Cables. Cable length is more critical for direct current than for
alternating current.

(3) Electrodes. All classes of covered electrodes can be used with direct current.

(4) Low Current. DC surpasses AC for use at low amperages with small-diameter electrode.
(5) Arc Strating is generally easier with DC than with AC, particularly with small-diameter
electrodes.
(6) Maintaining a short arc When the electode must be closed to the molten pool is easier with DC
than with AC.

(7) Arc Blow. DC is highly susceptible to arc blow.

(8) Welding Position. DC is somewhat easier to use for out-of- position welding on thicker section
than AC.
(9) Polarity. With direct current electrode negative (DCEN=DCSP) melting rates and deposition
rates are higher than with DECP (=DCRP), and the penetration is shallower.

1.3.1.3. Alternating Current

(1) AC arc is somewhat harsh and less stable when compared with DC Arc.
(2) Voltage Drop in Cables. The voltage drop is less than for DC in long cables.
(3) Low Current. AC is less suited than DC for use at low amperages with small-diameter
electrodes.
(4) Electrodes. Only AC/DC electrodes with covering specifically designed for use with AC should
be used.

(5) Arc starting_with small-diameter electrodes is more difficult with AC than with DC.

(6) Maintaining a short arc is more difficult with AC than with DC.

(7) Arc Blow is reraly a problem with AC.

(8) Weld Spatter. Somewhat more weld spatter is produced with AC than with DC.
(9) Welding Positions. With the use of suitable electrodes, satisfactory welds can be made in all
position.

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2. FUSION WELDING - BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Any welding process or method which uses fusion to complete the weld. Fusion is the melting together of
filler metal and base metal (substrate), or of base metal only, which result in coalescence.

Fig.3 : Single-Pass Weld

Depth of fusion is the distance that fusion extends into the basemetal or previous pass from the surface
melted during welding.

Fig.4. Single-Layer Five Passes

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1.9 Page 6 of 51
- W e l d B ea d

A weld deposite resulting from a

pase

Fig.8 Weld Bead

- W el d M eta l
That portion of weld which has been melted during
welding

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 Fig.9 Weld Metal

- Deposited Metal

Filler metal that has been added during a welding process

Fig.10 Deposited Metal

- All Weld Metal

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 - Weld m ent

An assembly whose component parts are joined by welding

2.1. Weldability — Definition

Weldability is the capacity of a metal or combinication of metals to be welded under fabrication

conditions imposed into a specific, suitable designed structure, and the perform satisfactorily in the
intended service. The better the weldability, the easier it is to meet these requirements.

2.2. Weldabilitv — Base Metal

The weldability of the base metal depends on three criteria. - Chemical compositon influence the
susceptibility againts

 Hardening

 Brittle Fracture

 Hot Crack

etc.

- Metallurgical properties influence

 Grain Structure

 Grain Size

 Segregation

- Physical Properties Influence

 Toughness

 Heat Conductivity

 Thermal Expansion

2.2.1. HAZ of base Metal

2.2.1.1. Temperature versus Time

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1.9 Page 10 of 51
2.2.1.2. Influence on cooling rate

Heat input :

In arc welding, the total heat energy, H, generated by the power source is given by :

where U(E) is voltage, J(I) is the current, and v is travel speed in cm/s.
Due to small electrical losses in the arc, the total heat does not reach the work piece. The heat actually
transfered to the workpiece in units of joule/cm is defined as then et heat input, H I (Hn).
The heat input involved in a welding process is a function of amperage, arc voltage, welding speed
and thermal efficiency of the welding method employed. It can be calculated by a simple formula.

Where as amperage and arc voltage are indicated on most welding power sources by means of built-in
measuring devices, the evaluation of the welding speed calls for a short welding test, where the length of a bead
deposited without interruption is measure and the required welding time is taken with stop watch .

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The welding speed (v) is calculated as follows :

Of the head energy, HI(Hn), transferred to the work piece, only a portion is actually used to melt
metal. The melting efficiency (f 2) is defined as the ratio of the minimum head input necessary to
cause melting for the given HI(Hn) delivered to the workpiece:

Where : Hf : the head of fusion ;

L : the length of weld metal deposited ;

Tm : the melting temperature of the base metal in ° C

To : the temperature of the base metal prior to welding in ° C

C : the specific heat ;

W : the weight of the deposited weld metal

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The higher thermal ( heat ) conductivity the lower melting efficiency of metal.
Thermal conductivity :

In many cases HI is calculated without n —factor.

The permissible maximum heat input depends on the steel grade involved, on the preheating
temperature required and on the thickness of the plate to be welded.
As there are no universally applicable guidelines concerning maximum heat inputs it is necessary to
consult the steel manufacturer for such questions.
What is a universal rule, however, is the fact that thicker plates allow welding with more heat input
and that in case of higher preheating temperatures it is advisable to reduce it.

In practical application, the heat input is strongly influenced by the welding position.
While downhand welding is very flexible with a view to the heat input (stringer beads or
weaving), the possibilities in vertical-up welding are rather limited on account of the specific
electrode handling required. In vertical-up welding the heat input ussually amounts to 2-3 times
that involved in downhand welding.

Preheating Temperature ; Interpass Temperature

With increasing plate thickness cooling rate increases ( Fig.14). The
volume of the welded seam also influences the cooling rate. Heat
conductivity:

J/cm, s, °C 800°C
Ambient400°C
mild steel Temperature
0.52 0.43 0.26
stainless steel 0.16 0.20 0.26
Copper 4.0
Aluminum 2.4

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2.2.1.3. Hardness, Impact Energy versus Carbon Content

Fig. 15 Illustrated hardness and notched-bar impact strength in the HAZ as a function of the carbon
content in the base metal in the as hardened condition.

Up to about 0,2 % carbon it is possible to achieve crack free welds without preheating operations.
Hardness approx.. 350 vickers degree.

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1.9 Page 15 of 51
A steel with enough carbon and alloy content transform to martensite upon cooling from welding
(transformation hardening). The sequence of regions in the HAZ along with the pertinent phase diagram
is shown in Fig. 16.

Next to the fusion line will be a region (region 1) heated close to the melting point, and this will consist
of material heated high into the austenite temperature range. This material will be extremely coarse
grained, and if the cooling rate is high enough, can readily transform to martensite. It will normally be a
high hardness zone. Next to this will be a region (region 2) heated just into the all-austenite range. This
will normally be fine grained and will not readily transform to martensite. It will be of moderate hardness
only. The next region away the weld (region 3) will be the "intercritical zone". This area has been heated
partially into the austenite range and thus is a mixed structure. A small amount of martensite may form in
this zone. This area is usually not very hard, but if martensite is present, it may be somewhat brittle.

The final region (region 4) of the weld heat-affacted zone in this case is the tempered zone. In this
region the metal is not heated high enough to form austenite ( that is, it is less than 723 °C) but rather the
welding heat server to temper the metal to soft condition.

Fig. 17 shows two hardness curves carried out transverse to the root pass of a vertical down w'elded
V-butt joint (Base metal API 5 L X 60 / 0,23 % C).

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Upper Curve
The hardness was measured before welding the filler passes. This curve shows that after depositing the
root pass the HAZ exhibits hardness values up to 440 HV, which corresponds approximately to the
hardness of the martensitic structure of a 0.23% C steel.

Lower curve
When filler passes were deposited the zones underneath got reheated and the peak hardness values are
reduced.
If, however, the intensive hardening after root welding has lead to underbead cracks in the heat affected
zone, these cracks will still be there after weldinmg the filler passes and may perhaps cause failure of the
weldment concerned.
For this reason it is highly important to dispose of sufficient knowledge — already prior to welding —
on the hardening tendency of a certain steel of given chemical composition and to further know how to
avoid hardening within acceptable limits

2.2.1.4. Prediction of hardening susceptibility; Preheating temperature in the HAZ

* Carbon Equivalent

A very common method to determine a materila's weldability is given on the basis of the carbon
equivalent (C.E.-value).
Fig. 18 shows how the carbon equivalent can be calculated from the chemical composition of the steel
to be welded, which can be taken either from the standard or manufacturer's data sheet better still from
an analysis actually conducted on a sample.

1.9 Page 17 of 51
As the calculation formula as follow :

In the case of C.E.-calues above 0.45 preheating is recommendable. The preheating temperature
should range between 100 and 250 °C.
For C.E.-values from 0.45 to 0.60, while in the case of C.E.-values above 0.60 the material should be
preheated to 250 – 350 °C (or more, if required) in order to safely avoid the formation of cracks in the
base metal.

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 The preheat temperature is to be increased up to the upper limit of the range in the following
case :
 When the base metal is a rimming steel;
 When the structure of steel is coarse grained;

 When the workpiece is big or of intricate shape;

 When a welding process with low heat input is used, such as manual arc welding using small
diameter electrodes;
 When no filler metals with excellent toughness, such as lime coated electodes are available;

 When welding must be done at outdoor temperatures.

Example

Base material : AISI 4130

This values means that we should preheat to 250 – 350 °C. Thin
sheets up to 250 ° C and heavy plates up to 350 ° C.

Quite frequently the unfacourable influence of heavy plate thickness is underestimated: in plate
thickness over 20 mm, even if the steels is good weldable (C.E. values below 0.45) may already result
in an unacceptable hardness increase.

Furthermore it has to be mentioned that thick plates tend to cool at a faster rate after welding

than thin ones. This is why thick plates require higher preheating temperatures.

The above mentioned CE-formular in not applicable to i.e. TMP-steels, stainless steels etc.

1.9 Page 19 of 51
* Continous Cooling Transformation (CCT-) Diagrams With some exceptions CCT-diagram can be
used for
 Assessment of hardening

 Assessment of critical cooling rate

 Ms-Temperature
Fig.19 shows a CCT-diagram for a steel with SMYS of 320 N/mm2. The dotted lines represent
different cooling rates.

1 Heat input 10 KJoule/cm/plate thickness 50 mm =HAZ consists of 50 % ferrite

34 % perlite

16 % bainite

hardness: 210 Vickers degree

2 Heat input 40 Kjoule/cm/plat e thickness 10 mm =HAZ consists of 81 % ferrite 19 %

perlite

hardness: 150 Vickers degree

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Fig.20 shows a CCT-diagram for a steel with SMYS of 460
N/mm2.

1 Heat input 10 KJoule/cm/plate thickness 50 mm

=HAZ consists of 2 % ferrite
18 % perlite
80 % bainite

hardness: 425 Vickers degree

2 Heat input 40 KJoule/cm/plate thickness 10 mm
=HAZ consists of 65 % ferrite

1 % perlite

20 % bainite

14 % martensite

hardness: 260 Vickers degree

Conclusion :
For steel SMYS 460 N/mm2, plate thickness > 15 mm preheating 150 °C is recommended. Welding with
higher heat input is also recommended.
Micrographs and Preliminary Hardness Tests
This methode requires destructive test methods.

1.9 Page 21 of 51
Fig.21 shows a sketch of a simple bead on plate test. It is recommended if no other information about the
chemical composition of the base metal is available. Following properties should be measured :

micrographs of a cross section

hardness test ( see Fig.17)

crack evaluation in the HAZ

2.3. Weld Metal

* Dilution
The change in chemical composition of a welding filler metal caused by admisture of the base metal or
preciously deposited weld metal in the deposited weld bead. It is normally measure by the percentage
of base metal or previously deposited weld metal in the weld bead.

Fig.22 shows a sketch of dilution.

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 For example: dilution 30 %

C-content deposited metal = 0.5 % 0.05 x 0.7 = 0.035

C-content base metal = 0.30 % 0.30 x 0.3 = 0.090
Weld metal diluted C-content ....................…………... 0.125 %

For example : dilution 30%

C-content deposited metal = 0.5 % 0.05 x 0.7 = 0.035
C-content base metal
1. 9-23 = 0.30 %
Weld metal diluted C-content
0.30 x 0.3 = 0.090
0.125 %

2.3.1. Solidification

Fig. 23 shows the primary structure of a shallow and deep weld.

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Fig. 24 Shows the macrostructure of a multipass welded seam

COLUMNAR STRUCTURE OF SHALLOW AND DEEP WELD

Fig. 24

Illustrates the distribution of columnar, coarse grained and fine grained regions in this weld
schematically.

Fig. 25

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The impact strength and the ductility of a welded joint is influenced by the layer sequence
Fig. 26

2.3.2. Carbon Content

The weld metal produced with electrodes suitable for welding mild steel has a carbon content in most
of the cases less than 0.1 %.

The final mechanical properties of weld metals are, to a large extent, established at that time were
solidification is complete. Post weld heat treatments beyond AC 1 usually soften weldments but this is
not very often applied.
In the case post weld heat treatment at high temperatures is required it is necessary to weld mild steel
with a low alloyed electrode to match the specified values.

2.3.3. Deposition Rate, Recovery of Coated Electrodes, Melting time

* Deposition rate (DR)

The weight of material deposited in a unit of time. It is usually expressed as kilogram per hour

(kg/h)•

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* Recovery of coated electrodes
The ratio of the weight of deposited metal to the net weight of filler metal consumed, exclusive of stubs.

Fig. 27 give two examples.

Examples :
Rutile electrodes approx. 90 %
Low hydrogen electrodes approx. 110 - 120 %

* Melting time

Time which stick electrode needs to be welded.

The melting time decrease with increasing welding current related to specific electrode diameter.

* Melting Rate

The weight or length of electrode melted in a unit of time.

1.9 Page 26 of 51
Recovery of Coated electrodes

2.4. Weld Discontinuities (-Defects) (Fig. 28)

- Porosity (Gas pockets) - Inadequate Joint Penetration

- Slag Inclusions - Undercut

- Tungsten Inclusions (GTAW) - Weld Profile

- Incomplete Fusion - Arc Strikes

- Cracks

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2.4.1. Cracks

Cracks are linear ruptures of metal under stress.

Two major classes of cracks are generally recognized :

- hot cracks

- cold cracks

All can occur in the weld metal or in the base metal.

2.4.1.1. Hot Cracks

Fig 29 shows an example of a hot crack. Hot cracks are divided in solidification cracks and liquation
cracks (reheat cracks).

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 Solidification cracks occur during weld pool solidification as a consequence of low melting

phases (grain borders) and shrinkage.

Low melting phases:

- residual elements i.e. S, P, Sb in connection with Fe, Si etc.

- alloying elements i. e. Cb I Si in stainless steel-s.

Liquation cracks can occur in HAZ of the base metal as well as in reheated weld metal.

Liquation cracks can be caused by:

- Rekristallisat ion

- Conversion from compressive stress to tensile stress in the material

- low melting phases

Stainless steel weldments are more critical than C-stee lweldments (thermal expansion).

1.9 Page 29 of 51
2.4.1.2. Cold Cracks

Cold Cracks (Fig. 30) occur under the presents of following factors at the same time :

- hardness of structure (i.e. HAZ-hardness)

- stresses (i.e. thermal contraction of the cooling weld)

- hydrogen (i.e. moisture in the flux)

During welding, hydrogen is absorbed by the weld pool from the arc atmosphere (Fig. 31 a). During
cooling, much of this hydrogen escapes from the solidified bead by diffusion but some also diffuses
into the HAZ and the parent metal. The amount which does so depends on several factors such as the
original amount absorbed, the size of the weld, the decreasing solubility and the time-temperature
conditions of cooling (Fig. 31 b).

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 In general, the more hydrogen present in the metal the metal the greater the risk of cracking. Control
over this hydrogen level may be achieved either by minimizing the amount initially absorbed or by
ensuring that sufficient is allowed to escape by diffusion before the weld cools. Frequently a
combination of both measures provides the best practical solution. The principal sources of hydrogen
in welding consumables are:

1.9 Page 31 of 51
 - Moisture in the coating of manual metal-arc electrodes, in the flux used in submerged-arc
welding or in flux-cored wires.
- Any other hydrogenous compounds in the coating or flux.
- Oil, dirt and grease either on the surface or trapped in the surface layers of welding wires.
- Hydrated oxide, e.g. rust, on the surface of welding wires.

The principal sources of hydrogen from the material to be welded are:

- Oil, grease, dirt, paint, rust, etc, on the surface and adjacent to the weld preparation: these can
break down to produce hydrogen in the arc atmosphere.
- Degreasing fluids used to clean surfaces before welding may likewise break down to produce
hydrogen.
- Hydrogen from the parent steel, either remaining from the original casting process
(particularly in the interior of heavy sections), following service at high temperature andhigh
hydrogen partial pressures, or as a result of corrosion processes, particularly sour (i.e. I-12S)
service.

2.4.2. Porosity, Non Metallic Inclusions (NMI)

* Porosity

The solubility of gases in liquid metal decreases as the metal cools and there is a further sharp
decrease in solubility as the metal solidifies. Any excess gas in solution in the liquid metal is
rejected as the weld pool solidifies and, if it does not all escape, bubbles are nucleated and
formed. If the cooling rate of the weld metal is so fast that these bubbles cannot reach the surface
and escape to the atmosphere they become trapped and frozen into the solid weld metal as
porosity.
The gases which commonly cause porosity in welding are nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) (Fig. 32)

1.9 Page 32 of 51
 * Non Metallic Inclusions (NMI)

Oxidation and de-oxidation processes causes remaining NMI in the weld metal.

The amount of NMI in the weld metal influences toughness and ductility properties.

3. COATED (COVERED) STICK ELECTRODES

3.1. Background

Metal arc welding started as bare wire welding with fence wire attached to the normal power line. The
result was poor with considerable instability and contaminated weld deposits.
Development occurred in a number of ways. Rusty wire gave better arc stability than clean wire, so did a
dip coating of lime.
Wrapping the wire in asbestos gave protection against contamination while cotton waste gave protection
and deep penetration.

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3.2. Characteristics

The major characteristic of covered electrodes is versatility. By attention to the composition of the
covering virtually all types of steel and many non-ferrous metals can be welded in all positions. Relative
requirements of ease of use, economics and quality can be balanced.

Electrode sizes vary from 1.5 mm to 6 mm (8 mm) and from 250 mm to 450 mm in length. The limits
are set by the limits of the welding operator. The current range varies from about 50 amps. To 350
amps the maximum that an operator can control easily.

Electrode size and current place limitations on the process. Minimum weld able thickness is 1.6 mm
(more usually 3 mm) and edge preparation is needed for thick nesses above 6 mm. There is no maximum
thickness but edge preparation must alloy access so that the weld volumes can be very large.

3.3. Electrode manufacture and quality control

Theoretical and practical knowledge and expertise are required in the development of an electrode as a
matter of course. Beyond these, extensive experimental work and trials have to be conducted - from
extruding and weld tests to verification of such properties as aging resistance, corrosion resistance,
creep strength - before a new electrode is ready for industrial scale production.

For every new electrode developed, a written specification with precise and complete details and
instructions regarding core wire, type and condition of raw materials for the coating, binder, extrusion
conditions, drying temperatures etc. is handed over to the production shop.

Manufacturing of coated electrodes for electric arc welding is a process in which the portion of material
costs is preponderant. The figures below are a schematic representation of the flow of the three base
material groups (Fig. 33)

1.9 Page 34 of 51
1.9 Page 35 of 51
Core wires are received in separate batches identified with heat number and chemical composition.
On their arrival, a spectroscopic analysis is conducted, and physical properties are checked.

For unalloyed coated electrodes, core wire from rimming steel is used with varying contents of carbon
and manganese, depending on the electrode quality required.

A simplified diagram of the extrusion process is shown in Fig. 34

1.9 Page 36 of 51
3.4. Electrode Coatings

The following summary illustrates the wide variety of requirements which coated electrodes must meet:

 Welding technology requirements:

 Good striking and restricting characteristics

 Good gap bridging ability

 Out-of-position weld ability

 Arc stability

 Coating elastic and resistant

 Low tendency to develop fumes

 Inoffensiveness of the gases and fumes produced

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 Economy :

 High rates of deposition

 High recovery

 Low spatter losses

 Easy removal of slag

 Overload capacity

 High welding speeds

 Great length of bead deposited

 Good upsetting ability

 Good bead surface

 Metallurgical requirements :

 High level of mechanical properties

 Absence of porosity in the weld

 Insensitivity to rust, scale, oil and dirt on the surface

 of base metal

 Insensitive to segregation

 Resistance to hot and cold cracking

 Coating insensitive to moisture

This list of requirements makes it clear at once that a coated electrode may at best be a good
compromise. Depending on the requirements involved in every individual instance, the emphasis will be
on one or the other property.

The majority of coating materials may be classified by the way they react to oxygen: one group gives off
0 to the weld pool, another group is more or less neutral, and a third group absorbs oxygen from the
pool:

How coating materials affect the oxygen content of the weld pool :

1.9 Page 38 of 51
Group I : gives off 0 to weld pool : iron ores FeO

manganese ores MnO

silicate SiO2

chromium ores Cr:z03

titanium ores TiO2

carbon dioxide CO2

steam H2O

Group II : neutral sodium oxide Na2O

potassium oxide K2O

aluminium oxide A1203

magnesium oxide MgO

calcium oxide CaO

calcium fluoride CaF2

Group III : deoxidizing agents : ferromanganese Mn

ferro silicon Si

ferrotitanium Ti

aluminium Al

carbon C

hydrogen H2

Fig. 35/36/37 list important raw materials for electrode coating.

1.9 Page 39 of 51
1.9 Page 40 of 51
3.5. Types of coated Electrodes

(Austrian, German Classification)

In the course of many years, a number of standards have been worked out for filler metals with the
intention of facilitating work in practice.
One of the most important of these standards up to now is DIN 1913. Which classifies electrodes
according to type of coating and coating thickness.

Symbol for coating types: according to (NORM M 7820 equ. to DIN 1913

Symbol and designation

A = acid

R = rutile (thin & medium) .

RR = rutile (thick)

AR = rutile/acid (mixed type)

C = cellulose

R (C) = rutile cellulose (medium)

RR (C) = rutile cellulose (thick)

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 B = basic

B(R) = basic, with a percentage of non-basic

RR(B) = rutile basic (thick)

The basic constituents making up the coating are:

- slag and shielding gas formers (lime, rutile)

- deoxidizing agents (FeSi - B, FeMn - A, R)

- binders (silicate of potassium and of sodium of different viscosities)

- extruding agents (Alginates; production of dipped electrodes has been more or less

discontinued).

Mechanical properties of the weld deposit are governed by the type of coating and its thickness
which is designated as follows:

thin coating : total thickness up to 120 % of core wire diameter

medium : total thickness from 120 to 155 % of core wire diameter

thick coating : total thickness over 155 % of core wire diameter

3.5.1. Acid coating (A)

An acid coating has approximately the following composition:

 40 % FeD + MnO (iron ore + manganese) ;

 20 % Si02 (silicate)

 30 % FeMn (ferromanganese)

 10 % Plasticizer

The acid coating is usually a thick coating. Quite in general, a thick coating yields better mechanical
properties of the weld than a thin one of the same type. Metal transfer in thearc takes the form of a spray.
Acid coated electrodes are best welded in horizontal

1.9 Page 42 of 51
position. The bead surface is smooth and finely rippled. Electrodes can be operated on direct current and
alternating current.

These electrodes being hot running. Electrodes with acid coating can also be used for cutting, when
amperage is increased beyond the level required for welding. There is the risk of porosity and hot
cracking when these electrodes are used for welding steels with higher carbon contents (above 0.25 %),
higher phosphorus and sulphur contents, and when segregation layers are being cut.

3.5.2. Rutile coating (R)

A rutile coating has approximately the following composition:

 50 % TiO 2 (rutile)

 15 % SiO2 (silicate)

 10 % CaCO3 (limestone)

 15 % FeMn (ferromanganese)

 10 % plasticizer

The coating usually contains TiO2 in the form of rutile. Coating thickness may vary and
governs the mode of metal transfer in the arc: thin coating yi elds large droplets, coating of
medium thickness medium-sized droplets, .and coating of greater thickness produces fine
droplets, however, not so fine as in the case of A electrodes with thick coating. Mechanical
properties improve with increasing coating thickness. Slag formation varies with coating
thickness and slag former content. Slag consistency may range from compact to honeycomb;
toughness also varies.
Rutile coated electrodes can be welded on direct current and on alternating current, in all positions.
Gap bridging ability is very good for thin and medium coated electrodes, and satisfactory for thick
coated electrodes - better in any case than for A electrodes with the same coating thickness.
Rutile coated electrodes are the most widely used electrode type nowadays. Beads are smooth,
fillet welds are from flat to slightly concave. Slag removal is easy. The deposit is less
susceptible to hot cracking than acid coated electrodes, although rutile coated electrodes have
the same manganese content. R electrodes whose coating contains certain percentages of
cellulose are eminently suitable for making vertical down welds. Slag produced by R type
electrodes has relatively good conductivity which explains the good arc striking and restricting
characteristics.

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3.5.3. Basic coating (B)

A basic coating has approximately the following composition:

■ 40 % CaCO3 (lime)
■ 35 % CaF2 (calcium fluoride)
■ 5 % SiO2 or TiO2
■ 10 % FeSi (deoxidize!)
■ 3 % FeMn
■ 7 % plasticizer

These electrodes usually have a thick coating and are operated on direct current, with positive polarity.
They admit all positions, vertical down excepted. Metal transfer is in medium-size droplets. The slag has
a characteristic brown to brown-black colour and is not removed so easily as for other electrode types.

Weld seams present a slight reinforcement. Mechanical properties are better than .in the case of other
electrode types, in particular, impact strength at temperatures below 0°C. B type electrodes are
particularly suited for welding heavy wall components and rigid structures.

Basic coatings are hygroscopic and must therefore be stored in a dry environment. If electrodes have
picked up moisture in storage, they must be rebaked for minimum two hours at a temperature between
300 and 350°C. The use of electrodes with moist coating may result in excessive hydrogen in the
welded joint which results in microcracks and porosity.
Recently developed B {R) electrodes possess a coating whose composition permits welding on alternating
current without any difficulty.

Welding with basic or lime coated electrodes requires a special technique. The arc must be kept short,
excessive weaving, high welding speeds and great lengths of bead deposited must be avoided to prevent
porosity. One exception: basic electrodes for vertical down welding can be welded with high speed.

The arc must be struck by a scratching motion rather than the customary pecking as this may cause
the relatively brittle coating to spall off the electrode tip or may cause the electrode to stic k. After
striking -in particular, when the plate or sheet is still cold the electrode must not be moved at once
in welding direction, as this would cause clusters of pores, but after a short forward movement
should be taken back to pass once more the place where the arc was struck. Also, at the end of the
run, the electrode should not be withdrawn vertically, but the arc should be allowed to continue in
the direction of the run, and shortened at the same time.

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3.5.4. Cellulose Coating

A cellulose coating has approximately the following composition :

 40% Cellulose

 20% TiO2 (Rutile)

 15% SiO2 (Silicate)

 10% Fe304 (Magnetite)

 15% FeMn (ferromangangese)

The world over, cross-country pipelines are being constructed on a large scale to assist in meeting the
increasing demands for oil and gas.
The progress of construction is to a great extent determined by the speed of welding the circular
seams. Quite in general, these seams are made with cellulose coated electrodes in vertical down
position, a method which permits using large electrode diameters, high amperages and high welding
speeds. Up to about 20 mm wall thickness, this approach affords substantial economic advantages
over conventional joints with root face executed with rutile or basic coated electrodes.

Vertical down welding with cellulose coated electrodes permits using large electrode diameters at high
amperages which do not change in any position around the pipe circumference. This is impossible with
other type electrodes which usually admit vertical up welding only. Use of cellulose coated electrodes has
resulted in considerably increased rates of pipeline construction. Vertical down weldability is the result of
the special composition of the coating of these electrodes. Even larger diameter cellulose electrodes 5.5
mm can be vertical down welded with best results owing to the stable, concentrated arc and very deep
penetration.

Fig.38 shows some properties of different coating types.

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3.5.5. Special electrode Types

Iron powder electrodes have a very thick coating containing so much iron powder that more than 120 %
recovery, related to the molten core wire, are obtained. These electrodes are also called high efficiency
electrodes.

The coating, due to its high iron content, conducts electricity and has higher current carrying capacity.
The arc is struck already when the coated electrode tip touches the workpiece, and the electrodes can
therefore be welded in contact with the base metal, in particular, when the coating is of the rutile type.

Iron powder electrodes permit high deposition rates and welding speeds, but due to the increased arc
voltage require adequate welding power sources. Out-of-position welding presents problems, and flat
welding alone is possible when recovery is in excess of about 160 %.

These electrode types yield highly satisfactory results in those applications where they are definitely
superior to standard electrodes, such as in structural steel work and in shipbuilding, where design
calculations are relatively easy.

Typical all weld metal properties of different electrode types are :

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 Mechanical Properties
Type YS TS E Impact Strength ISO-V
[Mpal [MpaJ [oki +20°C -20°C
Basic 420 530 30 140 102
Retile 360 500 28 94 39
Cellulose 400 500 28 78 63

Chemical Composition
All weld metal
Type
C Si Mn 0 HDM —
ok % m1/100
% %
Basic 0.08 0.40 1.00 0.03 4
Retile 0.08 0.35 0.60 0.08 25
Cellulose 0.12 0.20 0.40 0.05 60

3.6. U.S. Classification of electrodes

The American classification system (AWS Designation A 5.1, ASTM A 233 for mild steel and A
5.5, ASTM 316 for low alloy steel) is rather different than the Austrian and German system.
Classification consists of a prefix letter E specifying an electrode, a group of two or three digits
specifying weld metal strength in thousands of pounds per square inc h in either the "as welded" or
"Stress relieved" condition and a final two digits specifying type of covering, welding position
and current characteristics.

E 60xx 60,000 psi.

E 70xx 70,000 psi.

E 80xx 80,000 psi.

E 90xx 90,000 psi.

E 100xx 100,000 psi.

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Exx.10 Cellulosic covering for used with DC+. Deep penetration all positions electrode for

general purposes.

Exx.11 Cellulosic covering for A.C. or DC+, all positions.

Exx.12 Rutile covering, AC or DC-, F and lir positions only.

Exx 13 Rutile electrode, AC or DC, all positions.

Exx 14 Iron powder rutile covering giving same characteric as Exx13 but with a higher

welding speed.

Exx 15 Basic low hydrogen covering requiring use of D.C.+, all positions.

Exx 16 Basic low hydrogen covering as E xx 15 but with addition of potassium salts to

allow operation with A.C.

Exx 18 Low hydrogen electrode as E xx 16 but with 30% iron powder to give better
welding speeds and recovery.

Exx 20 Typical mineral (iron oxide/silicate) covering for use in F and H f positions.

Exx 24 Rutile and iron powder covering similar to E xx 12 but with better recovery and
suitable for touch welding. F and Hf positions only.

Exx 27 Mineral plus iron powder covering with similar charcterisitcs to E xx 20.

Exx 28 Low hydrogen basic plus 50% iron powder covering with high deposition rate. F

and Hr positions only.

Exx 30 Mineral covering similar to E xx 20 but with high deposition rates; F position only
Several high tensile low hydrogen electrodes are classified with extra suffixes e.g. Exxxx
-Al, -B2 etc. which indicates the chemical composition of the deposit.

3.7. Moisture Pick up of coated electrodes; Rebaking

Electrode coatings tend to pick up ( absorbe ) moisture in humide atmosphere (Fig. 39)

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3.8. Storage of Coated Electrodes

To obtain the best possible results from arc welding electrodes, it is essential that they should be
stored in suitably dry conditions. This is particularly so in the case of low hydrogen electrodes (basic
electrodes), which are more susceptible against hydrogen pick up than other types of electrodes.

Electrodes are manufactured so that the proper level of moisture, consistent with the covering type and
the electrode strength classification, is in the coverings. These electrodes are then normally packaged in
a container which has been designed to provide the degree of protection appropriate to the type of
covering involved.

Under proper storage conditions (normal room temperatures, 50 percent maximum relative humidity or
holding ovens) electrodes can be maintained for many months. However, if the original containers are
damaged, improperly stored, or for reason the electrodes are exposed to high moisture conditions, the
coverings of the electrodes may absorb excessive moisture.

1.9 Page 49 of 51
If there is a possibility that the electrodes may have picked up excessive moisture, they can be
restored by rebaking as indicated below. Such rebaking may well be required when low hydrogen
electrodes, purchased in non-hermetically sealed packages, may have been exposed, to the moist air.

The low hydrogcn (i.e. E 7015 and E 7016) and low hydrogen-iron powder (i.e. E 7018 and E 7028)
electrodes are the most critical
types for moisture absorption. When a container is opended, only sufficient electrodes for use in a
eight hour period should be removed and the remainder returned to the storage oven. These types of
inorganic covered electrodes are designed and developed to contain the very minimum of moisture in
their coverings and as such should be handled with the utmost care. This care should be extended
particularly to field welding where the danger of moisture absorption is greatly increased.

Cellulosic electrodes should not be rebaked because the coverings for these types are designed to
have moisture levels of 3 to 7 percent and excessive drying may substantially affect their operation.

Storage Temperature Rebaking Temperature

Filler Metal
° °
C C
Cellulosic
Electrodes 25 — 40 Not recommend

Basic Electrodes
25 — 40 300 — 350

Other
Electrodes 25 — 40 120 - 150

When a package of basic electrodes is opended, the electrode should be placed in a holding oven
heated to 100- 150°C. An oven holding basic electrodes should not contain anything else, or
even any of other type of electrode. When removed from the oven, basic electrodes must be used
within a certain period of time (8 hours for mild steel electrodes). If this is exceeded, the
electrodes should be rebaked at a higher temperature and this usually requires a different type of
oven. Electrodes that have become wet should be discarded. It should be ob served that the
success for rebaking depends on the oven-charge (Fig. 40)

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Store rooms for electrodes should have a controlled humidity of less than 50 % (relative humidity) by
using a dehumidifier and sealing the room. Smaller quantities of electrodes may be stored in unheated
containers that use silica gel or other material to maintain a dry atmosphere. Small portable containers
will also be effective in keeping electrodes dry.

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