IPE 141

Industrial & Production Engineering

Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet
 Lecture 28 Welding Processes

Arc Welding

28.1 Introduction
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By
applying intense heat, metal at the joint between two parts is melted and
caused to intermix directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten
filler metal.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by an
electric arc. The arc is formed between the actual work, and an electrode
(stick or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided along the joint. The
electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of simply carrying the current
between the tip and the work. Or, it may be a specially prepared rod or
wire that not only conducts the current but also melts and supplies filler
metal to the joint. Most welding in the manufacture of steel products uses
the second type of electrode.
The arc and the weld pool are shielded by gases, and slags, which result
from the decomposition of the electrode coating. The electrode material is
transferred across the arc to fill/fuse the joint, and the operator must feed in
the electrode to maintain a constant arc length.

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28.2 Classification of arc welding

The arc welding group includes eight specific processes, each separate and
different from the others but in many respects similar.
1. Carbon arc welding (CAW) process is the oldest of all the arc
welding processes. It is an arc welding process that produces
coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a carbon
electrode and the work-piece.

2. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is the most popular process. It

is an arc welding process that produces coalescence of metals by
heating them with an arc between a covered metal electrode and the
work-piece.

3. Submerged arc welding (SAW) process is an arc welding process

that produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc or
arcs between a bare metal electrode or electrodes and the workpiece.
Pressure is not used, and filler metal is obtained from the electrode
and/or a welding rod.
4. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an arc welding process that
produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between
a tungsten (non-consumable) electrode and the workpiece. Shielding
is obtained from a gas or gas mixture.
5. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an arc welding process that
produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between
a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the workpiece.
Shielding is obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas
mixture.
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 6. Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process that produces
coalescence of metals by heating them with a constricted arc
between an electrode and the workpiece (transferred arc) or the
electrode and the constricting nozzle (non-transferred arc).

7. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is an arc welding process that

produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between
a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the workpiece.
Shielding is provided by a flux contained within the tubular
electrode.

8. Stud arc welding (SW) is an arc welding process that produces

coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a metal
stud or a similar part and the workpiece.
Among various types of arc welding processes, the syllabus covers only
SMAW, GTAW, GMAW; therefore, these will be discussed here.

28.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is frequently referred to as stick or
covered electrode welding. SMAW is among the most widely used welding
processes. Coalescence is obtained by the produced arc between the
workpiece and the electrode. The electrode is heated to a liquid state and
deposited into the joint to make the weld. The flux covering the electrode
melts during welding. This forms the gas and slag to shield the arc and
molten weld pool. The slag must be chipped off the weld bead after welding.
The flux also provides a method of adding scavengers, deoxidizers, and
alloying elements to the weld metal.

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28.3.1 Process variations

• The stick welding power source provides constant current and may
be either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), depending
on the electrode being used.
• The best characteristics are usually obtained using DC power
sources. DC machines are made with capacities up to 1000 Amp,
with 40 ― 95 Volts.
• The amperage needed to weld depends on electrode diameter, the size
and thickness of the pieces to be welded, and the position of the
welding.
• Generally, a smaller electrode and lower amperage is needed to
weld a small piece than a large piece of the same thickness. Thin
metals require less current than thick metals, and a small electrode
requires less amperage than a large one. A 200 Amp machine has tha
rated current range of 40-250 Amp and arc voltage of 18- 40V during
welding. On heavy plates using large diameter rods welding with AC
is faster.
• It is preferable to weld on work in the flat or horizontal position.
However, when forced to weld in vertical or overhead positions, it is
helpful to reduce the amperage from that used when welding
horizontally.
• Best welding results are achieved by maintaining a short arc,
moving the electrode at a uniform speed, and feeding the electrode
downward at a constant speed as it melts.
• The basic circuit diagram of arc welding is shown in Fig. 29.1. An arc
is created across the gap when the energized circuit and the electrode
tip touches the workpiece and is withdrawn, yet still within close

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 contact. The arc produces a temperature of about 6500ºF at the tip.
This heat melts both the base metal and the electrode, producing a
pool of molten metal sometimes called a ‘crater’. The crater solidifies
behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint. The result is a
fusion bond.

Fig. 28.1 Basic circuit for arc welding

Polarity: Two types of polarity;
1. straight polarity, and
2. reverse polarity.

• Straight polarity: The workpiece is made positive (the anode of the

circuit), and the electrode is made negative in the DC mode.
• Reverse polarity: In the reverse polarity, the workpiece is negative
(cathode), and the electrode is positive in the DC mode.
For bare electrodes, straight polarity is preferred. Otherwise, greater heat
liberated at the anode would result in excessive molten metal. Some
shielded electrodes, however, change the heat conditions and are used with
reverse polarity.
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Electrodes: All arcs welding are performed with metal electrodes.

Consumable electrodes supply the needed filler metal having a melting
temperature below that of the arc. The electrode is covered with a coating
that protects and shields the arc from the surrounding, is illustrated in Fig.
29.2. Coating performs a number of functions, these are:
1. Provides a protective atmosphere;
2. Stabilize the arc;
3. Act as a flux to remove impurities from the molten metal;
4. Add alloying elements to the weld metal;
5. Reduce spatter of the weld metal;
6. Increase deposition efficiency;
7. Increase the depth of the arc penetration;
8. Slow down the cooling rate of the weld;
9. Contribute weld metal from the powder of metal in the coating.

Fig. 28.2 The coating on a coated (stick) electrode provides a gaseous shield
around the arc and a slag covering on the hot weld deposit.

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Remember, the above functions are not common to all coated electrodes.
The coating composition is decided depending on the welding needs.

28.3.2 Energy used:

Energy delivery rate, E = I2R;

where, I = current, and R = resistance in arc column.

Rate of metal melting, M = K1I2; where, K1 = constant.

But M = δAV;
where, δ = density, A = cross section area of bead, V = rate of traverse.

28.3.3 Designation of an electrode

Tensile strength, the welding position, the type of the current or polarity,
and the type of cover are the main factors to be reflected to designate an
electrode.

Fig. 28.3 The designation of an electrode used for arc welding.

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• The prefix “E” designates the welding electrode.

• The first two digits of four-digit numbers or the first three digits of
five-digit numbers indicate the minimum tensile strength (in ×103
psi) of the weldment.
• The next digit indicates the welding position of the electrode. The
next to last digit indicates position. The ‘1’ designates an all position
electrode, ‘2’ is for flat and horizontal positions only; while ‘3’
indicates an electrode that can be used for flat, horizontal, vertical
down and overhead. and
• The last digit indicates the type of coating and the correct polarity
or current to use in the deposit. The digits signifies:
Digit Type of coating Welding current
0 High cellulose sodium DC+
1 High cellulose potassium AC, DC+ or DC-
2 High titania sodium AC, DC-
3 High titania potassium AC, DC+
4 Iron powder, titania AC, DC+ or DC-
5 Low hydrogen sodium DC+
6 Low hydrogen potassium AC, DC+
7 High iron oxide, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-
8 Low hydrogen potassium, iron powder AC, DC+ or DC-

As an example, “E7016”, where the letter “E” designates the welding

electrode, then “70” ≈ 70,000 psi (70 kpsi) minimum tensile strength of
the weldment; next “1” means that the electrode can be used for all

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 positions of welding and last “6” meaning that the electrode is covered with
low hydrogen plus potassium coating.
Another example, “E12027”, where the letter “E” designates the welding
electrode, then “120” ≈ 120 ×103 psi minimum tensile strength of the
weldment; next “2” means that the electrode can be used for flat and
horizontal positions of welding, and last digit “7” meaning that the
electrode is covered with cellulose and iron powder coating.

28.3.4 Materials

• Carbon steel, and low alloy and stainless steels;

• Nickel alloys and cast iron typically.
Welding of non-ferrous metals is not recommended but occasionally
performed. Dissimilar metals are difficult to weld. The shield metal arc
welding is shown in Fig. 28.4, and the weldments are shown in Fig. 28.5.

Fig. 28.4 Manual shield metal arc welding process.

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Butt welding Lap welding Tee welding

Fig. 28.5 Various workpieces after weldment.

28.4 Benefits of arc welding

• Equipment used are simple, inexpensive, and portable;

• Electrode provides and regulates its own flux;
• Lower sensitivity to wind and drafts than gas shielded welding
processes;
• All position capability and weld rates up to 0.2 m/min;
• Most flexible of all welding processes and can weld a variety of
metals by simply changing the electrode;
• Tooling costs low. Need for jigs and fixtures not as important as
other methods and less accuracy required in setting up.
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28.5 Demerits of arc welding

• Non-continuous process. Frequent changes of electrode are

required. More power required for AC welding than DC welding.
• Economical for low production runs. It can be used for one-offs.
• Direct labor costs high. The skill level required is higher than MIG.
• Finishing cost is high relative to other welding processes. The slag
produced at the weld area, which must be removed during runs and
some grinding back of the weld, may be required.
• Weld spatter often covers the surface, which may need cleaning.

28.6 Applications

• Pressure vessels
• Structural steelwork
• Shipbuilding
• Pipework
• Machine frame fabrication
• Maintenance
• Household purpose: gate, window grille, frames, etc.

28.7 Common Stick Welding Concerns

Common welding problems and discontinuities such as those listed
below: (i) Weld discontinuities; (ii) Undercut; (iii) Incomplete fusion; (iv)
Porosity; (v)Slag Inclusions; (vi) Cracks; (vii) Arc blow; (viii) Excessive
spatter; (ix) Incorrect weld profile; (x)Rough surface; etc.

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Lecture 29 Welding Processes

TIG and MIG

29.1 Introduction
The two important types of arc welding, TIG tungsten inert gas welding, or
sometimes called gas tungsten arc welding, GTAW, and MIG stands
for metal inert gas welding or sometimes gas metal arc welding, GMAW,
used for joining a verity of shapes and materials. The main difference
between the two is that in TIG, a non-consumable tungsten rod is used as
electrode, and a filler rod may use separately. But, in the MIG process, a
metal rod is used as electrode and workpiece used as another electrode. The
electrode is feed continuously from a wire reel.

29.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is also known as Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding or Gas shield tungsten arc welding, or Argon-arc or Heli-arc
welding. An electric arc is automatically generated between the workpiece
and a non-consumable tungsten electrode at the joint line. The parent metal
is melted and the weld created with or without the addition of a filler rod.

IPE 141 pg. 281

Temperatures at the arc can reach 120000 C. The weld area is shielded with
a stable stream of inert gas, usually argon, to prevent oxidation and
contamination.

Gas: Argon is the most common gas used, and it is present in the
atmosphere to approximately 0.94% volume. Argon is tasteless, odorless,
non-toxic, and does not burn. The gas is supplied in light blue steel cylinders
and generally at a pressure of 2500 psi (14.5 lbs = 1 bar). It is extracted
through a pressure regulator at 30 psi. Argon combined with either
hydrogen, helium, or oxygen is used to improve the welding characteristics
of various materials.

Electrode: Apart from the shielding gases and the electrical power used, the
main consumable is the filler wire. The process may be used without the
addition of filler, especially on thin material. If the filler is required, then it
is added to the weld pool in the form of a rod that can either be added
manually or by an automatic wire feed unit. It may also be added in the form
of a fusible insert to produce an accurate penetration bead through a joint.
The non-consumable electrodes are improved by the addition of small
amounts of zirconium, thorium, and ceriated tungsten.

Electrical conditions: Requires a controllable supply of AC/DC current of

1- 300 amps, with an open-circuit voltage of between 60- 100 volts. DC
is most commonly used for welding of stainless steels and heat resisting
steels, mild and low alloy steels, copper, nickel alloys, lead, silver, titanium,
and other metals that do not contain aluminium, magnesium or their alloys.
The electrode must be connected to the negative terminal, where the work is
connected to the positive terminal. If the tungsten electrode is connected to

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the positive pole that would overheat and melt, causing contamination of the
weld and cracks may occur.
AC is used only for TIG welding of aluminium, magnesium, and their alloys.
Surface oxidation is automatically removed by the action of the arc each time
the electrode becomes positive.

Equipment: The two main functions of this unit are (a) to initiate the arc
without the electrode touching the workpiece by means of a high-frequency
spark thus preventing contamination of the work by the electrode; and (b)
to stabilize the AC arc by superimposing a high frequency current on the
welding current thereby giving positive re-ignition of the arc at the
positive/negative changeovers.
The basic equipment for TIG welding consists of: (i) power source, (ii) high
-frequency unit, (iii) DC suppressor, (iv) contactor unit, (v) cables and
hoses, (vi) torch, (vii) electrodes, (viii) filler wire, etc.

Fig. 29.1 Tungsten inert-gas welding process.

IPE 141 pg. 283

 29.2.1 Process variations
• Portable manual or automated AC or DC systems. AC commonly
used for welding aluminum and magnesium alloys.
• Argon, pure helium, or more commonly, a helium/argon mix, is
used as the shielding gas for metals with high thermal conductivity.
• Pulsed TIG is excellent for thin sheets or parts with different
thickness (low heat input).
• The main controls are (i) current, (ii) filler wire supply, (iii) travel
speed. Current range is dependent on the type and size of the
electrode used, the thickness of the material and joint position.

29.2.2 Torch sed

Two main types of torches are:
1. Air-cooled
2. Water-cooled
Air-cooled torch: Air cooled torches are used for light duty work up to
approximately 1.6 mm thickness. They vary from pencil type and swivel
head type with a capacity of up to 50 amps, to the general-purpose torch
used for continuous welding at 75 amps.
Water-cooled torch: The water-cooled torches are used for heavy duty work
up to approximately 12 mm thickness with current capacities of between 100
- 500 amps. Cooling water passes through the tube carrying the welding
cable. This allows a reduction in power cable size, thus reducing weight and
increasing flexibility. A safety switch is incorporated on the power source,

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which prevents the arc being initiated if the water supply fails.

29.3 Applications

• Common applications consist of high-quality welding on stainless

steel, most non-ferrous metals like aluminium and its alloys,
copper, nickel alloys, and rare materials such as titanium and
zirconium (except zinc).
• Carbon steels, low alloy steels, precious metals, and refractory
alloys can also be welded. Mild steels are welded when full
penetration welds are required within certain tolerances, both in size
and x-ray quality. Dissimilar metals are difficult to weld.
• Typical applications are found in chemical plant pipework,
nuclear plant fabrications, aerospace structures, sheet metal
fabrication, etc.

29.4 Benefits and Limitations of TIG

The benefits of TIG welding include:
• Automation is relatively inexpensive if no filler is required, i.e.,
use of close-fitting parts.
• The process is suited to sheet thickness o f less than 4 mm;
heavier gages are become more expensive due to argon cost.
• Helium/argon gas is expensive but may be viable due to the
increased production rate.
• Tooling costs are low to moderate.
• Finishing costs are low. There is no slag produced at the weld

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 area, however, some grinding back of the weld may be required.
However, the demerits of TIG welding include:
• Automation is suited to long lengths of continuous weld in the
same plane.
• It is economical for low production runs. It can be used for one-
offs.
• Weld rates vary from 0.2 m/min for manual welding to 1.5 m/min
for automated systems.
• Equipment costs are moderate. Setup costs can be high for
fabrications using automated welding.
• Direct labor costs are moderate to high. Highly skilled labor
required for manual welding.

29.5 Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), or it is also called MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
welding, is an arc welding process in which the electrode is a consumable
bare metal wire, and shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with a
gas.
MIG welding uses a consumable electrode. An externally supplied gas (i.e.,
inert gas) is used to shield the arc. The filler metal is added continuously,
and welding without filler-material is therefore not possible. Since all
welding parameters are controlled by the welding machine, the process is
also called semi-automatic welding.

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Filler metal: The bare wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun, as illustrated in Fig. 30.2. Wire diameters
ranging from 0.8 to 6.5 mm are generally used, but the size depends on the
thickness of the parts being joined and the desired deposition rate. A
variation of the MIG process, referred to as metal-cored electrodes, uses a
tubular electrode filled mostly with metallic powders forms.

Fig. 29.2 Gas metal arc welding position and shielding.

Shielding gas: Gases used for shielding include inert gases such as argon
and helium and active gases such as carbon dioxide. The selection of gases
(and mixtures of gases) depends on the metal being welded, as well as other
factors. Inert gases are used for welding aluminum alloys and stainless
steel, while CO2 is commonly used for welding low and medium carbon
steels. But high chromium steels use an argon/O2 mix.
Process: An electric arc is manually created between the workpiece and a
consumable wire electrode at the joint line. The parent metal is melted, and
the weld created with the continuous feed of the wire, which acts as the filler
metal. The weld area is shielded by shielding gases, which eliminate the

IPE 141 pg. 287

slag covering on the weld bead and thus precludes the need for manual
grinding and cleaning of the slag. The GMAW process and the welding
machine are shown in Fig. 29.3. Typical joint designs possible using MIG
are butt, lap, fillet, and edge. For the thick butt weldment, it is necessary to
prepare the base metals for higher penetration and outstanding results.
Distortion can be reduced by designing symmetry in parts to be welded
along weld lines.

Fig. 29.3 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) setup; preparation of base metals (left)
and welding machine (right).

• The MIG-process uses a direct current power source, with the

electrode positive (DC, EP).
• By using a positive electrode, the oxide layer is efficiently
removed from the metal surface, which is essential for avoiding a
lack of fusion and oxide inclusions.

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• The metal is transferred from the filler wire to the weld bead by
magnetic forces as small droplets, spray transfer. This gives a deep
penetration capability of the process and makes it possible to weld
in all positions.
• There are two different MIG-welding processes:
o Conventional MIG, and
o Pulsed MIG.
Conventional MIG uses a constant voltage DC power source. This process
has a lower limit of arc current (or heat input), therefore limits the
application to weld material thicknesses above 4 mm.
On the other side, the pulsed MIG process uses a DC power source with
superimposed periodic pulses of high current. For the high pulsed current,
the metal is transferred in the spray mode, therefore, possible to operate with
lower average current and heat input compared to conventional MIG. This
makes it possible to weld thinner sections and weld much easily in difficult
welding positions.

29.6 Applications
Carbon, low alloy, and stainless steels. Most non-ferrous metals (except
zinc) are also weldable; aluminum, nickel, magnesium, and titanium alloys
and copper. Refractory alloys and cast iron can also be welded. Dissimilar
metals are difficult to weld.
Typical applications include general fabrication, structural steelwork,
automobile bodywork, etc.

IPE 141 pg. 289

29.7 Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of MIG welding include:

• Its ability to be operated in semiautomatic, machine, o r automatic

modes.
• It is the only consumable process that can weld all commercially
important metals, such as carbon steel, high- strength low alloy
steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys, titanium, aluminum, and copper.
• A weld can be performed in all positions with the proper choice of
electrode, shielding gas, and welding variables.
• Compared with shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), the
deposition rates and welding rates are higher for MIG.
• Also, the continuous electrode feed makes long welds possible
without stops and starts.
• Production costs reduced by high weld deposition rates with
continuous operation.
• Finishing costs low generally. There is no slag produced at the weld
area; however, some grinding back of the weld may be required.
• Clean, high-quality welds with a low distortion can be produced.

On the downside, the disadvantages are:

• The equipment for MIG:

o is more complex,
o more expensive, and
o less portable than the SMAW process.
• Contaminates must be removed from the weld area to avoid
porosity and inclusions.

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• Economical for low production runs. It can be used for one-offs.

• Equipment costs are low to moderate, depending on the degree of
automation.
• Direct labor costs moderate to high. The skill level required is less
than other arc welding processes.
• Joint edge and surface preparation important. Contaminates must
be removed from the weld area to avoid porosity and inclusions.

IPE 141 pg. 291

 Lecture 31 Welding Processes

Resistance Welding

31.1 Introduction
Resistance welding is a group of welding processes which produces
coalescence of metals with the heat obtained from resistance of the work to
electric current in a circuit of which the work is a part and by the application
of pressure. In this type of welding, a heavy current is passed for a short
time through the area of interface of metals to be joined. This process
differs from other welding processes in the respect that no fluxes are used,
and filler metal rarely used. All resistance welding operations are automatic
and, therefore, all process variables are preset and maintained constant.
Heat is generated in a localized area, which is enough to heat the metal to
sufficient temperature so that the parts can be joined with the application of
pressure. A pressure is applied through the electrodes.

31.2 Principles of Resistance Welding

The principle of resistance welding is the Joule heating law where the heat
Q is generated depending on three basic factors as expressed in the following
formula: Q = i2Rt
where, i = the current passing through the metal combination,

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R = resistance of the base metals and the contact interfaces, and

t = the duration/time of the current flow.
The principle seems simple. However, when it runs in an actual welding
process, there are numerous parameters that influence the results of a
resistance welding. The most influential parameters are:

• Welding current: The welding current is the most important

parameter, which determines the heat generation by a power of square,
as shown in the formula. The size of the weld nugget increases rapidly
with increasing welding current, but too high current will result in
expulsions and electrode deterioration. The single-phase alternating
current (AC) that is still the most used in production, the three-phase
direct current (DC), the condenser discharge (CD), and the newly
developed middle frequency inverter DC, are also used.
• Welding time: The heat generation is directly proportional to the
welding time. If the welding current is too low, simply increasing the
welding time alone will not produce a weld.
• Welding force: The workpieces must be compressed with a particular
force at the weld zone to enable the passage of the current. If the
welding force is too low, expulsion may occur. On the other side, if the
contact resistance is too high, resulting in rapid heat generation.
• Contact resistance: The contact resistance generally decreases
with increasing temperature but has a local ridge around 300°C, and it
decreases almost proportionally with increasing pressure. When the
welding force increases, the contact pressure increases, thereby the real
contact area at the interface increases due to the deformation of the
rough surface asperities.

IPE 141 pg. 297

 • Materials properties: Nearly all material properties change with
temperature, which adds to the dynamics of the resistance welding
process.
• Surface coatings: Most surface coatings are applied for protection of
corrosion or as to substrate for further surface treatment. These
surface coatings often complicate the welding process. Most of the
surface coatings will be squeezed out during welding, and some will
remain at the weld interface as a braze metal.
• Geometry and dimensions: The geometry and dimensions of the
electrodes and workpieces influence the current density distribution and
the size of the weld nugget.
• Welding machine characteristics: The electrical and mechanical
characteristics of the welding machine have a significant influence on
resistance welding processes. The electrical characteristics include the
dynamic reaction time. The mechanical characteristics include the
speed and acceleration of the electrode follow-up, the stiffness of the
loading frame/ arms.

31.3 Resistance Welding Parameters

The process employs currents of the order of few KA, voltage range from
2 to 12 volts and times vary from few milliseconds to few seconds. Force is
normally applied before, during, and after the flow of current to avoid arcing
between the surfaces and to forge the weld metal during post-heating. The
necessary pressure may vary from 30 to 60 N.mm2 depending upon the
material to be welded and other welding conditions. These parameters are
appropriately selected, which depend mainly on the material of
components, their thicknesses, type, and size of electrodes.

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The material of the electrode should have higher electrical and thermal
conductivities with sufficient strength to sustain high pressure at elevated
temperatures. Commonly used electrode materials are pure copper and
copper-base alloys. Copper base alloys may consist of copper as base and
alloying elements such as Cd, Ag, Cr, Ni, Br, W.

31.4 Types of Resistance Welding

Depending on the shape of the workpieces and the form of the electrodes,
resistance welding processes can be classified into several variants among
which the most commonly used are:
1. spot welding,
2. seam welding,
3. projection welding, and
4. butt welding.

31.4.1 Resistance spot welding

Spot welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets by
directly applying opposing forces with electrodes with pointed tips, as
shown in Fig. 31.1. The current and the heat generation are localized by
the form of the electrodes. The weld nugget size is usually defined by the
electrode tip contact area.
Spot welding is the predominant joining process in the automotive industry
for assembling the automobile bodies and large components. The welding
steps are shown in Fig. 31.2. It is also widely used for the manufacturing
of furniture and domestic equipment, etc.

IPE 141 pg. 299

 Fig. 31.1 Resistance spot welding process.

Fig. 31.2 The basic steps used in resistance stop welding.

31.4.2 Resistance seam welding

Seam welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets in
continuous, often leak-tight, seam joints by directly applying opposing
forces with electrodes consisting of rotary wheels. The overlapping sheets
are gripped between two wheels or roller disc electrodes, and current is
passed to obtain either the continuous seam i.e., overlapping weld nuggets
or intermittent seam i.e., weld nuggets are equally spaced. The current may
be continuous or in pulsed, and the heat generation is localized by the

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peripheral shapes of the electrode wheels. The process of welding is

illustrated in Fig. 31.3.

Fig. 31.3 Resistance seam welding process.

In the seam welding, the overlapping of weld nuggets may vary from 10
to 50%. According to the weld nugget length, various types of seam
welding are: (a) tack welding, (b) overlap welding, and (c) continuous
welding, shown in Fig. 31.4. When the nugget is approaching around 50%,
then it is termed as a continuous weld. Overlap welds are used for air or
water-tightness in the containers, radiators, heat exchangers, etc. Moreover,
this method of welding is completely mechanized and used for making
petrol tanks for automobiles, seam-welded tubes, drums, and other
components for domestic applications.

(a) Tack welding, (b) Overlap welding (c) Continuous welding

Fig. 31.4 Various types of seam welding.

IPE 141 pg. 301

Seam welding is a relatively fast method of welding producing quality
welds. However, equipment is costly, and maintenance is expensive.
Further, the process is limited to components of thickness less than 3 mm.

31.4.3 Resistance projection welding

Projections are little projected raised points that offer resistance during the
passage of current and thus generating heat at those points. In the projection
welding, welding is done for joining metal components or sheets with
embossments by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes
specially designed to fit the shapes of the workpieces. These projections
collapse under heated conditions and pressure leading to the welding of two
parts on cooling.
The operation is performed on a press welding machine, and components
are put between water-cooled copper platens under pressure. The current
and the heat generation are localized by the shape of the workpieces either
with their natural shape or with specially designed projection. Large
deformation or collapse will occur in the projection part of the workpieces
implying high process/machine dynamics. Fig. 31.5 illustrates the
schematic view of the resistance projection welding machine and the
formation of welds from projections on components.
Projection welding may be carried out with one projection or more than one
projections simultaneously. Non-consumable electrodes are used in this type
of welding. It is widely being used for fastening attachments like brackets and
nuts to sheet metal, which may be required in electronic, electrical and
domestic equipment, automotive and construction industries, and
manufacturing of sensors, valves, and pumps etc.

pg. 302 Manufacturing Processes I

 Comprehensive lecture notes on Manufacturing Processes I

Fig. 31.5 Resistance projection welding machine (left) and formation of welds
from projections on various components.

Fig. 31.6 Resistance butt welding operation; (a) two thick plates are clamped
on a vise; (b) pieces are brought together; (c) pieces are pressed
together; and (d) formation of welds by pressing and heating faying
surfaces.

IPE 141 pg. 303

31.4.4 Resistance butt welding
Resistance butt welding is used for joining thick metal plates or bars at the
ends by directly applying opposing forces with electrodes clamping the
workpieces. A forging operation is applied after the workpieces are
heated up. Often no melt occurs, thus a solid-state weld can be obtained.
The principle of resistance butt welding is illustrated in Fig. 31.6. Butt
welding is applied in the manufacturing of wheel rims, wire joints and
railway track joints, etc.

31.5 Benefits of Resistance Welding

Followings features are present in resistance welding:

• No flux such as solder is necessary, so welded parts can be easily

recycled.
• Spatter and ultraviolet rays are most unlikely to be generated;
consequently, the clean and neat worksite is realized.
• Easy operation as only pressing buttons facilitates process
automation and does not require trained skilled workers.
• Welding is performed efficiently in a short period of time, so it is
suited for high-volumes production of low-cost products.
• Heat affected zone is minimum, so resulting in beautiful appearance.
• Low carbon steels commonly, however, almost any material
combination can be welded using conventional resistance welding
techniques.

31.6 Limitations
By contrast, there are some limitations too; they are:

pg. 304 Manufacturing Processes I

 Comprehensive lecture notes on Manufacturing Processes I

• Electric facility is required in some cases due to the use of large

current.
• Optimum welding parameters must be figured out before actual
welding since those parameters depend on the material and
thickness of parts to be welded. Welding condition setting must be
prepared.
• Visual inspection is difficult because welded portion cannot be
checked from the outside.
• Not recommended for cast iron, low melting point metals, and
high carbon steels.

31.7 Applications

• Resistance welding is widely used in the automotive industries.

• Projection welding is widely used in the production of nut and bolt.
• Seam welding is used to produce leak prove joint required in small
tanks, boilers, etc.
• Flash welding is used for welding pipes and tubes.

IPE 141 pg. 305

 Comprehensive lecture notes on Manufacturing Processes I

Lecture 33 Welding Processes

Electroslag Welding

33.1 Introduction
The electroslag welding (ESW) process is not a true arc welding process. It
is a non-traditional welding process in which a molten metal pool is created.
This method is a combination of both arc welding and resistance welding
because at the starting, heat is generated by establishes an arc between
electrode and base metal (as in arc welding). This heat leads to melt flux
and creates a molten metal pool between the electrode and base metal. The
current flows through the molten metal pool, and heat is developed due to
electric resistance (as in resistance welding). Due to this reason, this is called
a combination of arc welding and resistance welding. This welding is done
both in a single pass and multipass.

33.2 Description
Welds are produced in the vertical up direction called an ‘uphill welding
process’, a process in which weld joints are made in vertical direction and
the plates to be weld held vertically (and, occasionally, in horizontal fillets),

IPE 141 pg. 311

with the joint edges being melted and fused by molten weld filler metal
contained in the joint by water-cooled dams. The molten flux or slag
provides excellent protection to the weld. Deposition rates are typically 7-
13 kg per hour per electrode, and multiple electrodes can be employed.

Fig. 33.1 The electroslag arc welding set up.

33.3 Working principle

It works on the common principle of heat generation due to arc and electric
resistance. Electroslag welding set is shown in Fig. 33.1, and it works as
follow:

• First, current flows between the welding electrode and the base plate.
This establishes an arc between electrode and base plate, which heat
the flux or filler wire. This heat leads to melting the filler metal and
deposits into the weld cavity.

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 Comprehensive lecture notes on Manufacturing Processes I

• The cooled copper shoe comes into action and starts solidified this
filler metal into the weld cavity. This is made to avoid flowing out
the weld metal.
• As the filler metal solidified into t h e weld cavity, the current i s
flowing through it. It will generate heat due to electric resistance.
This heat is further used to continuous melting down the filler metal
into the weld cavity.
• During welding, both the copper shoe and feed mechanism are
moving upward unlit the whole cavity is formed.
• This creates a strong joint in a single pass. The single or multi-
pass weld is used according to plate thickness.

33.4 Advantages
The advantages include:

• Cooling rate is very low, so there is no problem of cold cracking.

• There is no problem with slag inclusion or porosity in electroslag
welding.
• The process is semi-automatic and faster.
• A heavier section can be welded in a single pass.
• High productivity can be achieved. Multiple electrodes can be
employed.
• Low cost for joint preparation.

33.5 Disadvantages

The process includes some demerits too, these are:

IPE 141 pg. 313

 • Too high heat input to base.
• High temperature of welding needs a cooling arrangement.
• The slow rate of cooling gives columnar grain in the weld.

33.6 Applications
It is used in heavy industries where plate thickness up to 80 mm to be joint.
This process is used to joint large casting and forging to produce a very large
and composite structure. Welding of thick-walled large diameter pipes,
pressure vessels, storage tanks, and ships, etc.

pg. 314 Manufacturing Processes I

I believe, the duties of a university teacher are teaching, research
and service. As a first part of my job, the cardinal aim of my
teaching is to carry out lectures on different subjects through the
effective utilizations of different teaching aids in the classroom
environment so that the students can understand subject matters
easily. Beyond striving to ensure, students learn the fundamental
content of the courses and in this way they get to facilitate the
acquisition of lifelong learning skills, to help students develop
evidence-based clinical problem-solving strategies, and to prepare
students to function as highly skilled and competent manpower
across the scope of practical field.

Industrial & Production Engineering

Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet