Electric welding

Introduction: The word welding means the joining of two metals places together by heating
them to melting point.

The most essential requirements for welding is heat which can be obtained either
electrically by means of a gas torch. Pressure may also be employed but this is not essential in
many processes. The result of welding is homogeneous material of the composition and
characteristics of two parts which are being joined together.

Advantages of Welding:

1. A good weld is as strong as base metal.

2. General equipment is not very costly.

3. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.

4. A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by welding.

5. Welding can be mechanized.

6. Portable welding equipments are available.

Disadvantages of Welding:

1. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light) and fumes.

2. A skilled welding is must to produce a good weld.

3. Edge preparation of work pieces is generally required before welding them.

4. Jigs and fixtures are generally required to hold and position the parts to be welded.

5. If welding is not done carefully it may result in the distortion of work piece.

Electric Welding:

Electric welding is a process by means of which two metal pieces are joined
together by the heat produced due to the floe of fault current.

Due to the reliability of welded joints in comparison to riveted or bolted joints,

electric welding has been adopted in many engineering fields. There are two methods by which
electric welding can be carried out. These are

1. Resistance Welding. 2. Arc Welding.

Resistance Welding:

Definition: Resistance welding is the process in which a sufficiently strong electric current is
sent through the two metals in contact to be welded which melts the metal by the resistance
they offer to the flow of electric current.

In resistance welding a heavy current (above 100A) at a low voltage is passed

through the work piece and the heat developed by the resistance to the flow of current is
utilized.

The heat developed at the contact area between the pieces to be welded reduces
the metal to a plastic state, the pieces are then pressed together to complete the weld. In the
process, two electrodes of low resistance are used and metals to be welded are pressed between
the electrodes. The electric voltage required ranges from 4- 12V depending upon the
composition, area, thickness e.t.c. of metal pieces to be welded. Alternating current is found to
be most suitable for resistance welding as it can provide any desired combination of current
and voltage by means of a transformer.

The heat developed is given by I2Rt Where I- current flow (A) R- resistance (ohms) t- tine
for which the current flows.

The resistance in the above equation is made of:

1. Resistance of current path in the work.

2. Resistance between the contact surfaces of parts being welded.

3. Resistance between the electrodes and surface of parts being welded.

In order to develop higher temperature between the interfaces of the work t o be welded
rather than at surface of work in contact with the electrode, it is necessary to keep the resistance
between the electrodes and surface of the body being welded to a minimum.

In resistance welding, the magnitude of current is controlled by varying primary voltage

of a transformer. The time for which current floes is very important. Usually automatic
arrangements are devised which switch off the supply after a predetermined time.
Advantages:

1. Fast rate of production.

2. Less skilled workers can do the job.

3. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.

4. High reliability and reproducibility are obtained.

5. Employs semi automatic equipments and maintenance cost is less.

6. No rod is required for welding.

Disadvantages:

1. Initial cost of equipment is high.

2. Skilled persons are needed for the maintenance of equipment and controls.

3. In some materials, special surface preparation is required.

4. Bigger job thickness cannot be welded as it requires large amount of current.

Types of Resistance Welds:

Depending upon the shape of the weld and the manner in which the weld is
obtained, the resistance welding can be classified as:

(a) Spot Welding. (b) Projection Welding. (c) Seam Welding. (d) Butt Welding.

(a) Spot Welding:

Definition:

Spot welding is a form of resistance welding in which the parts or pieces are
joined in spots by heating relatively small sections of parts or pieces between suitable electrodes
under pressure.
It is a method in which two electrodes are placed on both sides of the work. With the help of
transformer the arrangements is such that current is passed from the electrode on one side
directly through the work into the electrode on the other side and back to the transformer.

The current required for this type of weld is 5000A and voltage between electrodes is less than
2V. The time period of floe of current depends upon the thickness and kinds of materials. For
obtaining good welds, having strength the work is cleared thoroughly.

This type of welding is usually used for joining or fabricating sheet metal structures. It is also
used in cases where the number of welds required is relatively small. The lower cost of the
equipment makes spot welding economical for small quantities.

(b)Projection Welding:

It is a modified form of spot welding. In this type of welding, electrodes

used are flat metal knows as plates known as platens.

The two pieces of base metal are held together between the platens out of which one piece have
projections or bumps which are obtained by passing through a machine when current is passed
from a transformer to the pieces to be welded, metal gets heated up near the projection area and
charges to plastic state.

The heated and softened projection collapses under the pressure of the electrodes there by form
up the weld.This type of welding is used where small nuts are to be welded to large components
or the welding of the refrigerator condensers, crossed wire welding e.t.c.

Advantages:

1. Projection made the welding process simple.

2. With the projection welding, it is easy to weld certain parts where spot welding is not possible.

3. it is possible to join several welding points in projection welding.

(c) Seam Welding:-

Seam welding can be defined as a series of spot welds made progressively

along a joint between the two overlapping pieces of sheet metal.

In this method, the work pieces to be welded are cleaned, overlapped

suitably and is placed between two circular electrodes which clamp the work pieces together by
electrode force. A current impulse is applied to the circular rollers to the material is contact with
them.

The heat generated makes the material plastic and pressure from the electrodes completes the
weld. Due to the current impulse applied the power driven circular rollers are set in rotation and
the work piece moves steadily forward.

Throughout the welding period, the electrodes revolve and the work passes through them with a
specific speed.

The numbers of spots obtained per meter are between 200 to 400 depending upon the
nature of the joint required. This type of welding provides pressure tight or leak proof joint.
Seam welding is employed for welding pipes , conduits, tanks, transformers, refrigerators,
aircrafts and various types of containers.

(d) Butt welding;

It is of two types namely, (i) Upset butt welding (ii) Flash butt welding.

(i) Upset butt welding:

In this method, the two pieces to be welded are gripped firmly one in each clamp and
are correctly aligned so that when brought into contact one with other by sliding the movable
clamp to the fixed one they fit together. Force is applied so that faces of two pieces touch
together and remain under pressure.

When a heavy current is passed from one piece to another, the resistance to the electric
current flow heats the faces to fusion temperature and they become plastic which when pressed
together more firmly there by forming a debse joint.
 The voltage required is 2 - 8Volts and currents varies from 50A to several hundred amperes
depending upon the material and the area to be welded at a time.

This type of welding is used principally on non-ferrous metals for welding bars, rods, wires,
tubing e.t.c.

(ii) Flash butt welding:

In this process of welding no special preparation of faces to be

welded is necessary. In flash burr welding the voltage to the metal parts to be welded is applied
before putting them together. Protruding small parts of the faces to be welded are brought into
contact, the heat developed owing to high resistance of the contact areas raises the temperature of
the material at these points and causes them to melt.

The molten metal is blown out arc a small arc is formed which burns away some portion
of the material and temperature goes on increasing until the final welding temperature is reached.

As this stage, the pressure of the electrodes is greatly increased to forge the parts together
and expel the molten metal there by making a solid weld. The metal expelled forms a flash round
the joint which is removed later on cutting or grinding.
Advantages:

The advantages of flash butt welding over upset welding;

1. Power requirement is less.

2. No speed attention is to be paid to the surfaces being joined.
3. All the foreign materials appearing on the joining surface will be burnt due to the flash,
thus the weld obtained is pure and clean.

Flash welding finds applications in automotive and aircraft products, household appliances,
refrigerators etc

ARC WELDING

Arc welding is the process of joining two metal pieces by the heat produced by an arc produced
between an electrode and a metal to be welded or between two electrodes. As no pressure is
required in this process, it is also called non-pressure welding.

When the supply is given across the conductors separated by some distance, the air gap present
between the two conductors gets ionized. As the welding continues, the ionization of the medium
increases, causing a reduction in the resistance, thereby increasing the current. So the current
increases with the decrease in voltage giving rise to negative resistance characteristics. So in
order to have a safe current limit, it is necessary to have a control over the supply.

The temperature of the arc should be 3,500°C. At this temperature, mechanical pressure for
melting is not required. Both AC and DC can be used in the arc welding. Usually 70-100 V on
AC supply and 50-60 V on DC supply system is sufficient to produce the arc and 20-30 V is only
required to maintain it. DC arc welding of low voltage is preferred for safety.
Welding flux is a combination of carbonate and silicate materials
used to shield the weld from atmospheric gases. The heat
produced in the welding melts the flux and out gases. The gases
push the atmospheric gas back, preventing oxidation. Slag is the
solidified remaining flux after the weld area cools.
Various types of electric arc welding arc:

1. Carbon arc welding

2. Metal arc welding
3. Atomic hydrogen arc welding
4. Inert gas metal are welding
5. Submerged arc welding.

CARBON ARC WELDING

 The electrodes are placed in an electrode holder used as negative electrode and the
base metal being welded as positive. If electrode is connected to positive terminal, there
is a possibility for carbon to mix with base metal which causes brittleness.

 DC is preferred for carbon arc welding

since there is no fixed polarity
maintained in case of AC.
 In the carbon arc welding, carbon or
graphite rods are used as electrode.
Due to longer life and low resistance of
graphite, graphite electrodes are used.
 The arc produced between electrode and base metal heats the metal to the melting
temperature. This process of welding is normally employed when addition of filler metal
is not required. The carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of the arc can be
easily varied.
 The instability in the arc can be overcome by using an inductor and a filler metal on the
base metal. Filler metal and flux may not be used depending upon the type of joint and
material to be welded.

Advantages

 The heat developed during the welding can be easily controlled by adjusting the length of
the arc.
 It is clean, simple, and less expensive when compared to other welding process.
  Easily adoptable for automation.
 Both the ferrous and the non-ferrous metals can be welded.

Disadvantages

 Input current required is approximately double the metal arc welding to produce the same
temperature.
 In case of the ferrous metal, carbon might get deposited on the weld at high temperatures,
which causes harder weld deposit and makes it brittle.
 A separate filler rod has to be used if any filler metal is required.

Applications

 It can be employed for the welding of stainless steel with thinner gauges.
 Useful for the welding of thin high grade nickel alloys and for galvanized sheets using
copper silicon manganese alloy filler metal.

METAL ARC WELDING

 The electrodes used must be of the same metal as that of the work-piece to be
welded. The electrode itself forms the filler metal.
 Arc is stuck by bringing the electrode momentarily in contact with the work pieces to be
welded and withdrawn apart. The arc produces about 2,400°C at negative metal electrode
and 2.600°C at positive base metal. This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as
well as the tip of the electrode, then the electrode melts and deposited over the surface of
the work piece forms complete weld.
 Both AC and DC can be used for
the metal are welding. The voltage
required for the DC metal arc
welding is about 50-60 V and for
the AC metal arc welding is about
80-90 V. In order to maintain the
voltage drop across the arc less than
13 V, the arc length should be kept
as small as possible; otherwise the
weld will be brittle.
 The current required for the welding
varies from 10 to 500A depending upon the type of work to be welded.
 The main disadvantage in the DC metal arc welding is the presence of arc blow
.Magnetic arc blow is the deflection of welding filler material within an electric arc
deposit by a buildup of magnetic force surrounding the weld pool.
  For obtaining good weld, the flux-coated electrodes must be used, so the metal which is
melted is covered with slag produces a non-oxidizing gas or a molten slag to cover the
weld and also stabilizes the arc.

Advantages

 Welding equipment is portable

 Cost is low
 Welding can be done in any position
 Can be widely used because of the availability of electrodes.

Disadvantages

 It forms slag and fumes are produced which makes the welding difficult.
 In case of long weld, electrode should be replaced during the process which
might damage the weld.

Applications:

 Used in fabrication process and maintenance and repair jobs.

 Ship building
 Building and bridge construction
 Automotive and aircraft industry.

ATOMIC HYDROGEN ARC WELDING

 Arc is struck between two tungsten electrodes in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Hydrogen

acts as a protective screen for the arc and also acts as a cooling agent for the glowing
tungsten electrode tips.It eliminates the need of flux.
 The hydrogen gas is normally diatomic (H2), but where the temperatures are over 600 °C
(1100 °F) near the arc, the hydrogen breaks down into its atomic form, absorbing a large
amount of heat from the arc. When the hydrogen strikes a relatively cold surface (i.e., the
weld zone), it recombines into its diatomic form releasing the energy associated with the
formation of that bond. The heat can be varied easily by changing the distance between
the arc stream and the work piece surface.
  This extra heat is added to
the intense heat of arc,
which produces a
temperature of about
4,000°C that is sufficient
to melt the surfaces to be
welded. Filler metal may
or may not be used.
 Hydrogen includes
oxygen and some other
gases that might combine with the molten metal and forms oxides and other impurities.
Hydrogen also removes oxides from the surface of workpiece. Thus, this process is
capable of producing strong uniform, smooth, and ductile welds.
 The arc is maintained between the two non-consumable tungsten electrodes under a
pressure of about 0.5 kg/cm'. AC supply is used. Arc currents up to 150A can be used.
High voltage about 300 V is applied for this welding through a transforner. For striking
the arc between the electrodes the open circuit voltage required varies from 80 to 100 V.
 As the atomic hydrogen welding is too expensive, it is usually employed for welding
alloy steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, etc.

INERT GAS METAL ARC WELDING

 It is a gas-shielded metal arc welding. Electric arc is stuck between consumable tungsten
electrode and work piece. Filler metal may be introduced separately into the arc if
required.
 The welding gun consists of a nozzle through which inert gas is blown around the
arc and onto the weld. As it is chemically inert, the molten metal is protected from
the atmosphere.
 The welding gun has a number of parts—a control switch, a contact tip, a power cable, a
gas nozzle, an electrode conduit (tube for protecting electric wiring), and a gas pipe.
 When the control switch is pressed by the operator, it initiates the wire feed, electric
power, and the shielding gas flow, causing an electric arc to be struck.
 If molten metal is exposed to the atmosphere it forms oxides and nitrides, which makes
weld leaky and brittle. With the use of flux coating electrodes or by pumping, the inert
gases around the arc produce a slag that floats on the top of molten metal and produces an
envelope of inert gas around the arc and the weld.
Advantages

 Flux is not required since inert gas envelope protects the molten metal without forming
oxides and nitrates so the weld is smooth, uniform, and ductile.
 Distortion of the work is minimum because the concentration of heat is possible.

Applications

 The welding is employed for light alloys, stainless steel, etc.

 The welding of non-ferrous metal such as copper. aluminum, etc.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

 Arc is formed between a continuously fed electrode and the work piece. Powdered flux
generates a protective gas shield and a slag which protects the weld zone. A shielding
gas is not required.
 Initially to scan an arc, short circuit path is provided by introducing steel wool between
the welding electrode and the work piece. This is due to the coated flux material, when
cold it is non-conductor of the electricity but in molten state, it is highly conductive.
 Welding zone is shielded by a blanket of flux, so that the arc is not visible. Hence, it
is known as submerged are welding.
 The arc melts the electrode, parent metal and the coated flux, which forms a protective
envelope around both the arc and the molten metal. As the arc in progress, the melted
electrode metal forms globules and mix up with the molten base metal, so that the weld is
completed.
 The flux may be made of silica, metal oxides, and other compounds fused together and
then crushed to proper size. Therefore, the welding takes place without spark, smoke, ash
etc. Thus, there is no need of providing protective shields, smoke collectors, and
ventilating systems.
 Voltage required for the submerged are welding varies from 25 to 40 V. Current
employed for welding depends upon the dimensions of the work piece. If DC supply is
used current ranges from 600 to 1,000 A while in AC it is usually 2,000A.
Advantages

 Deep penetration with high-quality weld is possible.

 Job with heavy thickness can be welded.
 The weld so obtained has good ductility, impact strength, high corrosion resistance, etc.
 The submerged arc welding can be done manually or automatically.

Applications

 The submerged are welding is widely used in the heavy steel plant fabrication work.
 It can be employed for welding high strength steel, corrosion resistance steel, and low
carbon steel.
 It is also used in the ship-building industry for splicing and fabricating subassemblies,
manufacture of vessels, tanks, etc.

Electric Welding Equipments:

Equipment required for welding are:

1. Welding power source.

2. Welding cables.
3. Electrode holder.
4. Welding element and hand shield.
5. Protective clothing including hand gloves.
6. Chipping hammer, wire brush e.t.c.
Welding power Sources [Electric Welding Sets]:

The electric welding sets may be selected depending upon the following factors:

1. Available power (A.C or D.C single phase) where there is no power a diesel driven
engine may be used.

2. Available floor space.

3. Initial costs and running costs.

4. Location of operation.

5. Required output.

6. Duty cycle.

7. Type of work.

The power sources may be either D.C. or A.C type.

D.C welding Sets:

DC welding sets are of two types:

(i) Generator sets. (ii) Rectifier sets

(i) Generator sets:

A dc generator produces direct current in either or reversed polarity and it is

powered either by an electric motor or a diesel engine. Diesel operated generator sets are suitable
for outdoor applications where power is not available. The current supplied by dc generator is
obtained by use of a Commutator, a generator is designed such that it will compensate for any
change in voltage thus ensuring a stabilized arc.

Since most of welding processes requires low voltages with high value of current
therefore differential compound dc generator in an ideal selection since it has dropped volt-
ampere characteristic. The control may be obtained by tapping series field or a suitable shunt
across series field winding.

Advantages of Dc generator sets:

1. Straight and reversed polarity can be employed.

2. Welding can be carried out in any position.

3. Nearly all ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be welded.

 4. D.C is most universal in application. it can be used in practically all applications.

5. Generator output is not affected by normal variations in power line voltage.

Disadvantages of Dc generator sets:

1. High initial cost.

2. Higher maintenance cost.

3. Noisy machine operation.

(ii) Rectifier sets:

These sets essentially consists of a transformer containing an electrical device called

rectifier which changes a.c to d.c. the rectifier may consists of metal plate coated with a selenium
compound or silicon diodes each unit having the special property of allowing current floe in one
direction only. A rectifier is installed with a fan to cool the transformer. A rectifier unit may be
designed for a single phase or three phase supply d.c voltage is controlled by regulating the
transformer output.

Advantages;

1. They can provide both straight and reversed polarity.

2. They have good performance as it can be precisely controlled.

3. Their current can be adjusted by using a remote control kept near the operator.

Disadvantages:

The life of selenium plates is limited to about seven years only.

A.C Welding Sets:

A.C welding sets are singe phase or three phase step down transformer
which provide low voltage (80-100v) power for welding with some means of output control. An
a.c. transformer takes power directly from the mains and transforms it to voltage/current required
foe welding. A transformer is a normal frequency machine.

Since a.c. passes through aero twice every cycle, it means that there are
two periods in every cycle when the welding current is zero during which arc would extinguish
and make continuous welding difficult for arc welding which is prevented by development of
electrode coatings that produce a more complete ionization in the arc stream and keep that arc
igniting as current passes through zero.
 The transformer is housed in a steel tank which has external tubes. The
tank is filled with transformer oil to cool the transformer core by convection thereby preventing
its overheating when working under heavy load conditions. Instead of being oil cooled, some
transformers employ electric fans and are thus air cooled.

The transformer consists of a limited core on which primary and

secondary circuits are wire wound tightly around the core. The two circuits are thoroughly
insulated from one another.

Advantages:

1. It is least expensive, lightest and small welding machine.

2. There is freedom from magnetic arc blow that often occurs when welding with a d.c.
machine.

3. Operating and maintenance costs are low.

4. Since there are no moving parts in transformer, the operation is noise less and there is
hardly any wear.

5. Over all electrical efficiency is high.

Disadvantages:

1. Polarity cannot be changed.

2. Because of alternating nature of current flow, starting the arc is more difficult than
with d.c.

3. Low power factor.

Applications:

1. Mostly used in industrial welding operations.

2. Popular application of transformer is production welding on heavy gauge steel.

3. Transformers are mostly used for flux shielded metal arc welding.

Welding cables:

Two cables are needed for welding one of which connects the electrode
holder or electrode to the welding power source and other connects the job with the welding
source. These cables are well insulated with rubber above which a durable layer of rubber is
woven and the cables are checked periodically for insulation.

Electrode holder:

Electrode holder is a device used for mechanically holding the electrode

and conducting current to it. The electric jaws are made in electrode holder to hold the bare end
of the electrode in either a vertical or an angular position and are completely insulated to protect
the operator against electric shocks.

Welding helmet and shield:

Helmet is a protective used for shielding and protecting the face and neck
of the welder and is also be worn on the head of the operator. Hand shield is also a protective
device used for shielding and protecting the face and neck of the welder and is held in the hand
of the welder. The use of hand shields and helmet protect the operator eyes from getting
damaged due to the UV rays and infrared rays of welding arc.

Protective clothing:

Protective clothing usually includes the apron and gloves.Apron provides

protection to the clothes of welder from hot spattering particles may be made of chrome leather.

Gloves protect the hands of the welder from UV rays and a spattering
metal which may be made of leather.

Chipping hammer and Wire brush:

A chipping hammer is chisel shaped and is pointed on the

end to aid in the removal of slag from over the weld bead. A wire brush made up of stiff steel
wire embedded in wood removes small particles of slag from the weld after chipping hammer
have done its job.
Comparison between A.C and D.C Welding:

D.C Welding A.C Welding

1. As power supply available is 1. For a.c welding, only tansformer is

usually a.c a rectifier is required required which is relatively cheap in
for d.c welding hence the cost is cost.
high.
2. Maintenance of transformer is less
2. Maintenance of a rectifier is difficult.
somewhat difficult.
3. Operation costs of a.c. equipments
3. Operating cost of d.c equipments is are low.
high.

4. The electric energy consumption 4. The electric energy consumption per

per Kg of deposited metal in d.c Kg of deposited metal in a.c. welding
welding ranges between 6-10 kwh. is 3-4 Kwh.

5. In case of d.c welding the no load 5. In case of a.c welding, the no load
voltage is low and hence safer in voltage is high and hence somewhat
operation. dangerous in operation.
6. Heat produced is uniform.
6. Heat produced is not uniform.
7. Power factor is unity due to
resistance.
7. Power factor is low hence capacitors
are required.
8. Cheap electrodes can be used
because no coated electrodes are
8. Only coated electrodes are used or
used.
expensive electrodes are used.
9. The arc produced is stable and is
suitable for welding of non-ferrous
metals. 9. The arc produced is not so stable.
Comparison between Resistance and Arc Welding:

Resistance Welding: Arc Welding

1. It uses only a.c. 1. It uses both a.c and d.c

.

2. External pressure is required. 2. No external pressure is required

hence the equipment is more simple
and easy to control.
3. Heat is developed due to flow
of current through the contact resistance 3. Heat is developed due to the arc
mainly. electrode and the work piece.

4. No material is added in any form to get 4. Suitable filler metal electrodes are
the two pieces joined. necessary to get proper strength.

5. Power factor is poor.

5. Power factor is very low.

6. Maintenance is more as
6. Maintenance required is less as the
temperature of the arc is high and
temperature reached is not high.
so likely to damage the work if not
properly handled.
7. It cannot be used for repair work hence
it is most suitable for mass production. 7. Not suitable for mass production
and hence not suitable for repair
work and where more metal is to be
deposited.