Lesson 1: The Self from Various Perspectives

Topic: Introduction to Understanding the Self

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. Explain the significance of understanding the self

2. Share expectation about how the course will help develop their understanding of the self
3. Discuss the different notions of the self from the points-of-view of the various philosophers across time and place

4. Formulate a personal philosophical understanding of the self

LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction:
College life is said to be the most challenging and exciting phase of your life. It is an entirely new adventure that
everyone looks forward to. It is a world different from your primary as well as junior and senior high schools. Since you
are in your freshman year, everything – including this subject is new to you.

Understanding the Self is really important because it deals with the nature of identity, as well as the factors and
forces that affect the development and maintenance of personal identity. It intends to facilitate the exploration of issues
and concerns regarding Self and Identity; It hopes to help in the better understanding of one’s self and that of others; and
most importantly, it will stress the integration of the personal with the academic.

Where do we start in understanding the self? Life is a journey, and every person is a traveler. Have you ever
encountered the great question “Who Am I?”. A simple question, but very difficult to answer. At no other period is this
question asked more urgently than in adolescence - traditionally believed to be a time of vulnerability and great
possibilities. Issues of self and identity are among the most critical for the young.

This course is intended to facilitate the exploration of the issues and concerns regarding self and identity to arrive at a
better understanding of one's self. It strives to meet this goal by stressing the integration of the personal with the
academic - contextualizing matters discussed in the classroom and in the everyday experiences of students - making for
better learning, generating a new appreciation for the learning process, and developing a more critical and reflective
attitude while enabling them to manage and improve their selves to attain a better quality of life.
The course is divided into three major parts.
After distinguishing the significance of Understanding the Self, let’s try this simple activity.

Let us imagine that the world suddenly went into chaos. There is an impending melting of planet Earth because of Global
Warming. All people are asked to submit a Bio Data to the World Screening Committee. The committee will only select
1,000 citizens from each country to be sent to an Earth-like planet in the neighboring galaxy.

As to what the criteria are for the selection process is unknown to anyone. Because of the urgency of the situation, we are
only given 10 minutes to fill up the Bio Data Form. We are supposed to draw the self-portrait accurately and as quickly as
possible. Further, in order to increase our chances to be selected, we have to fill in all the necessary data on the form
below.

GUIDE QUESTIONS:
1. Which part of the Bio-Data Form is the easiest to answer? How about the most difficult?
2. What do you have in mind while writing your Bio Data? What part did you answer first?
Be sure to answer the questions before proceeding.
PROCESSING:
While we sometimes thought that some factual information about ourselves are easy to access, the activity probably made
you realize that it is not only about accessing the factual information but also pulling over what are truly essential about
ourselves. What distinguishes us and what individualizes us from the rest of humanity, all of a sudden, becomes a real
question.
The activity taught us to take time to know ourselves better and deeper than anyone else. We do not always have
the luxury of time to examine ourselves and truly connect with our deepest thoughts. Most of our days will be filled with
responding to the expectations of others, doing norms that are dictated by the society and establishing things that are set
for us by our biological and socio-economic conditions. There are plenty of factors that affect our understanding of our
self. One of which is our membership to a certain group or institution.
Your affiliation in the University of Saint Louis will now form part of your identity. Your membership however is
superficial. Identity goes beyond the cards they give you or your enrolment. Being a Louisian is means living its core values
and being imbibed the missionary spirit. Let’s start with your current understanding of yourself and your expectations.
Lesson Proper:
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF
Many philosophers grappled to understand the meaning of human life. They have attempted to answer the question “who
am I?” and most of their views have influenced the way we look at our lives today. They have different notions of the self
from the points-of-view of the various philosophers across time and place. Let’s begin with Socrates.
“Know thyself”
This is an ancient greeting of the highly civilized Greeks. It was believed that the temple gods greet the people with this
salutation as they enter the holy sanctuary. To know thyself is first an imperative and then a requirement. It is
imperative to know the limits of the self so that one knows what one is capable of doing and what one is not. The real
meaning of knowing thyself is a requirement for self-moderation, prudence, good judgment, and excellence of the soul.
(Ortiz de Landazuri,2014). Anything excessive is not good is termed Self-moderation. Part of it is prudence, it strikes the
balance of things, it is just wise then to put oneself in moderation so that one is capable of self-control and sound
judgment.
This means that prudence and judgement aspects of knowing thyself are already extensions from self-knowledge to ethics.
The expression is an ethical requirement to be wise in choosing moderation, and to be able to make good judgements in
desiring what is good and avoiding that which will only bring harm.

SOCRATES
“THE UNEXAMINED IS LIFE NOT WORTH LIVING”
He is the first philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning of the self. according to him, the true
task of the philosopher is to know oneself. He affirmed that the unexamined life is not worth living. An examined life is a
life that is duty bound to develop self-knowledge and a self-dignified with values and integrity. The unexamined life is no
better than animal life, the worst that can happen to anyone: to live but die inside wherein he distinguishes the “Examined
life” as having the wisdom to distinguish right from wrong, only in recognizing your ignorance can a person truly know
oneself - “I KNOW THAT I DO NOT KNOW”. For him, only in recognition of one’s ignorance that a person can truly know
oneself.
This only means that when we become readily contented with the information we receive from the social media,
for example, and submit to how virtual reality defines life, develop needs and wants, classify morality, delineate universal
values, and mystify human reason, we are not better off than the dogs who become contented with the crumbs provided
by their “masters.”The individual person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the
value of himself that can be achieved through incessant soul-searching. Socratic-Method or “Introspection” – is a method
of carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotions – to gain self-knowledge.
He believed that every man is dualistic. This means that human person is composed of two important aspects of his
personhood. Body which refers to imperfect, impermanent aspect that is vulnerable to basic emotions and actions,
whereas soul refers to the perfect and permanent aspect that controls the body and prevents it from falling into fallacy
and inadequate behavior. Therefore, the “soul” in the context of ancient philosophers refers to the mind.

SOCRATES – Two Dichotomous realm

Physical Realm - changeable, transient, and imperfect. The physical world “like body” in which man lives belongs to the
physical realm.
Ideal Realm - unchanging, eternal, and immortal. Intellectual essences of the universe, concepts such as truth, goodness
and beauty.
He believed that evil is the result of ignorance wherein most men were really not fully aware of who they were and
the virtues that they were supposed to attain in order to preserve their souls for the afterlife. Therefore, it means that
humans always seek to do what is obviously perceived to be the good. For example, even if the action of a person can be
perceived to be evil to everyone else, the person who commits the act is seeking to attain some good that they perceive
in it. This does not excuse anyone of the wrong committed. Rather it is a recognition that ignorance and confused
perception can be the source of great evil.
Let’s have a break:
After appreciating the core of knowing oneself as explained by Socrates in his philosophy or the concept of virtue
and knowledge, could you recognize the virtues you think you currently have or lack? How will your knowledge of your
won virtues affect your relationship with other people?

PLATO
“SELF IS AN IMMORTAL SOUL”
He is a follower of Socrates who also believes that self is soul. His philosophy focuses on a process of self-
knowledge and purification of the soul. He believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who
consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites. He believes that it is the responsibility
of Reason to sort things out and exert control, restoring harmonious relationship among the three elements of our selves:
The appetitive soul also termed as “physical appetite” that is in charge of effortless craving required to stay alive like
eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex that is only intended for married couples and must be controlled as well. The
spirited soul is in charge of basic emotions such as love, anger, and empathy. It is also termed as “Spirit or passion” that
produces desires that love victory and honor. This means that it is a part of psyche or mind that is excited when given
challenges, or fights back when agitated, or fights for justice when unjust practices are evident. In a way for example, this
is the hot-blooded part of the psyche. The rational soul also known as “reason” is forged by reason and intellect, has to
govern the affairs of the human person. Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be attained if the
three parts of the soul are harmoniously with one another.
He conceptualized Psyche as core of the self that is composed of three elements mentioned above. Nous which
means the conscious awareness of the self. It is the super power that controls the affairs of the self. One has to develop
the nous and fill it with the understanding of the limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards.
To enrich these three ideas of Plato, we take as an example - college life. College students want to hang out with
their friends, spend time on computer games, eat the favorite food, do thrilling activities that will excite the whole gang.
These satisfy the appetitive element of the psyche. However, when professors throw challenging projects and assignments
that would require tremendous amount of time and effort, the spirited psyche kicks in to face the challenges head on. All
these are going on because the mind or the nous is orchestrating these pursuits according to the quality of the nous a
person has. In other words, in order to have a good life, one has to develop the nous, and fill it with the understanding of
the limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards.
Let’s have a break:
What experiences do you have in the past that you can relate to desire of the appetitive soul? Did reason affect your attain
or avoidance of the desire?

AUGUSTINE
“You have made us for yourself., O Lord, and our heart is restless until it finds rest in You.”
“SELF HAS AN IMMORTAL SOUL”
He believed that the development of the self is achieved through self-presentation and self-realization.
Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine agreed that man
is of a bifurcated (split/branched) nature: body dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with
the Divine; is bound to die on earth and the soul is capable of reaching immortality; anticipate living eternally in a realm
of spiritual bliss in communion with God. The goal of every human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the
Divine by living his life on earth in virtue
He believes that man’s goal is happiness. The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living
eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God. He believes that the physical body is radically different from
and inferior to its inhabitant, the Immortal soul. Body “spouse” of the soul. (Attached by one another by a “natural
appetite”). He believes that the body is united with the Soul, so that man may be entire and complete. “Knowledge can
only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us” (The truth of knowing God) - Human beings alone, without God, is
bound to fail. Augustine argues that the soul must be a reality because of its capacity to reason (freewill). He believed
that we are eternal and the body is not. The soul is immortal because God created them and intended them to be immortal.
It bears the very image of God.This only means that for him, man’s end goal is happiness. Only in God can man attain true
and eternal happiness, made possible in his contemplation of the truth and divine wisdom that refers to God himself. For
example, Christianity is the full and true philosophy. It is the full revelation of the true God. Human beings alone, without
God, are bound to fail.

THOMAS AQUINAS
“Experiencing that something exists doesn’t tell us what it is.”
Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, St. Aquinas contended man is composed of two parts: matter comes from
the greek word “hyle” which means the common stuff that makes up everything in the universe that includes man's body
while form come from the greek word “morphe which means the essence of a substance or thing that makes it what it is.
In the case of the human person, the body is something that he shares even with animals; what makes a human person a
human person is his soul, his essence.
It only means that the cells in man’s bod for example are more or less akin to the cells of any other living, organic
being in the world. However, what makes a human person a human person and not a dog, or tiger for example is his soul,
his essence. For him, we don’t encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves, but always an agent interacting with our
environment. Therefore, the soul is what animates the body, it is what makes us humans.

RENE DESCARTES
“Cogito, Ergo Sum”
He is the father of Modern Philosophy, a rationalist (a person who bases her opinions and actions on reason and
knowledge not beliefs). He conceived of the human person as having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise, The
Meditations of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much that we should doubt. The Act of thinking about the self-
of being conscious – is in itself proof that there is a self. If man reflects thoughtfully, he will realize that there are two
dimensions of human self: The self as Thinking Entity and The self as a physical body.
“Cogito,ergo Sum” translated as “ I think therefore I am” or “ I doubt therefore I exist.” The discovery of the cogito
revolutionizes the way we view ourselves and the world around us. Human rationality which includes the need of reason
in order to evaluate our thoughts and actions. One should only believe that since which can pass the test of doubt; if
something is so clear and lucid as not to be even doubted, then that is the only time when one should actually buy a
proposition. According to him, everything must be subjected to doubts- our existence, our world. The only thing that one
cannot doubt is the existence of the self for even if one doubts oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a
thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be doubted.
He quoted: “But what then am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a thing that
doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perceives.” The self, then, is also a combination
of two distinct entities: the cogito refers to the thing that thinks, which is the mind the extenza refers to the extension of
the mind, which is the body. In Descartes view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind; it is
the mind that makes man a man.
The concept of Descartes will best explain through human rationality. For example, human being needs a reason in order
to evaluate his thoughts and actions. In this he live fully the demands, challenges and call of his religion for example.

Let’s have a break:

What is it that you can never doubt?...
It is the fact that you are doubting…
I doubt therefore, I exist
 JOHN LOCKE
“Tabula Rasa”
Self is comparable to an empty space where everyday experiences contribute to the pile of knowledge that is put
forth on that empty space. Experience is an important requirement. Personal identity is a matter of psychological
continuity. It means that it is not in the brain, nut in the consciousness.
Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that
man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an “empty” mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience,
and sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas. Self- is compared to an empty space where everyday
experiences contribute to the pile of knowledge that is put forth on that empty space.

DAVID HUME
“The ego is a fictional idea”
He is an empiricist who believes that one can know only what comes from the senses and experiences and argues
that the self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. If one tries to examine his experiences, he finds that they can all
be categorized into two: impressions refers to the basic objects of our experience or sensation; they form the core of our
thoughts; they are the products of our direct experience with the world, yet they are temporary while ideas refers to
the copies of impressions and are thus not as lively and vivid as our impressions.
“Bundles of temporary impressions” examples: name, height, affiliations, skills, achievements and the like. (temporary
and non-persisting) He harshly claimed that there is no Self. He quoted: “Self is simply a bundle or collection of different
perceptions, which succeeded each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement." It
only means that what one thinks is a unified, coherent self, a soul or mind, just like what previous philosophers thought,
is simply a combination of all experiences with a particular person.

IMMANUEL KANT
“It is beyond a doubt that all our knowledge that begins with experience.”
Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume's account that everything starts with perception and sensation of
impressions; however, he believes that the things that men perceive around them are not just randomly infused into the
human person without an organizing principle that regulates the relationship of these impressions. For him, there is
necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the external world (e.g., time and space are ideas
that one cannot find in the world but is built in our minds). Kant calls this the apparatuses of the mind. Along with the
apparatuses of the mind goes the "self". Without the self, one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in
relation to his own existence.
Kant therefore suggests that it is an actively engaged. intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge and
experience Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality; in addition, it is also the seat of knowledge acquisition
for all human persons Our rationality makes sense the perceptions we have in our experiences. He also believes that
perception does not belong to the world, but to the self.
It only means that our rationality unifies and makes sense the perceptions we have in our experiences and make
sensible ideas about ourselves and the world. For example, we have the capacity to solve the problem of the ability of the
our self to perceive the world. The self is always transcendental. It explains that being or the self is not in the body, it is
outside the body and even outside the qualities of the body-meaning transcendent.
 SIGMUND FREUD
“Early childhood experiences that create high levels of anxiety are repressed into unconscious, where they may influence
behavior, emotions, and attitudes for years.”
The psyche is structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego, all developing at different
stages in our lives (also known as three layers of the self). These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical.
ID (Pleasure Principle) is the primitive and instinctive component of personality consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological)
components of personality present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the
aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. It is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche which responds directly and
immediately to the instincts. It remains infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not change with time
or experience, as it is not in touch with the external world; it is not affected by reality, logic or the everyday world, as it
operates within the unconscious part of the mind. It operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its demands, we
experience pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or tension.
EGO (Reality Principle) refers to the part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of the external world.
It develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the decision-making component of
personality, it operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands, often
compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities
and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction)
and avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has
no concept of right or wrong; something is good simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without causing harm to itself
or the id. If the ego fails in its attempt to use the reality principle, and anxiety is experienced, unconscious defense
mechanisms are employed, to help ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the
individual. The ego engages in secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem-
solving. If a plan of action does not work, then it is thought through again until a solution is found. This is known as
reality testing and enables the person to control their impulses and demonstrate self-control, via mastery of
the ego.
SUPEREGO (Moral and Idealistic Principle) refers to the incorporation of the values and morals of society which are
learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic stage of psychosexual
development. Its function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression;
it also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for
perfection. It consists of two systems: conscience - can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt, ego- ideal - is an
imaginary picture of how one ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to
behave as a member of society. Behavior which falls short of the ideal self may be punished by the superego through guilt.
The super-ego can also reward through the ideal self when one behaves ‘properly’ by making him feel proud.
We are certain about the many wrong things that may be bought about by our actions, but we never understand
why there is something somewhere inside us that makes many of us do what we know is wrong.

GILBERT RYLE
“Man need not to be degraded to a machine by being denied to be a ghost in a machine. He might, after all, be a sort of
animal, namely, a higher mammal.”
This means to solved the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a long time in the history of thought by
blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non-physical self. For him, what truly matters is the behavior that a person
manifests in his day-to-day life. Mind is not separated from the body (contradict with Descartes’ dualism) mind- ghost in
the machine. He suggests that the "self" is not an entity one can locate and analyze but simply the convenient name that
people use to refer to all the behaviors that people make. It simply says that Mental Processes are merely intelligent.
The thinking I will never be found because it is just a “ghost in the machine”. The mind is never separate from the body.
The physical actions or behaviors are dispositions of the self. The mind is a disposition of the self. This only means that all
manifestation in physical activities or behavior for example are the dispositions of the self, the basis of the statement; “I
act therefore I am” or “You are what you do”.

PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

“Our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity”
Paul and Patricia Churchland promoted the position called “eliminative materialism” which bring forth
neuroscience into the fore of understanding the self. It simply means that Philosophy and Psychology has failed to provide
satisfactory position in understanding the self. They tossed aside the concept of dualism and the brain and adhered to
materialism - the belief that nothing but matter exist, if it cannot be recognized by the senses, then it is akin to a fairytale
in his identity theory, the minds are identical to a particular brain state our mind and individuality are based upon unique
neurological assemblies of one type of brain function.
According to Churchland, “Our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity..."
NEUROBIOLOGY- as the Churchland’s wanted to predict, when people wanted to ask what is going on with themselves,
they might as well go for MRI scan or CT scan to understand the present condition of the brain and how it currently works.
Let’s take the idea that why should we believe in a mind when science is proving that mental health is connected
to the physical brain? For example, depression is strongly linked to brain chemicals gone wrong. Yes, some people still say
things like, 'She's lost her mind.' However, neuroscience says, No, it's a physical problem and we aim to fix it.
Adding to this, Churchland challenges the concept of the mind by using the misfortune of traumatic brain injury. With this,
for example, eliminative materialism asks 'if the mind is the seat of self, why does brain injury alter a person's personality?'
If the mind was a real separate entity, wouldn't it retain a person's sense of self despite damage to a physical organ? Since
brain damage alters a person's personality, Churchland asserts that the concept of self originates in the physical brain, not
an invented mind.

MERLEAU-PONTY
“The world and I are within one another”
A phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body bifurcation is a futile endeavor and an invalid problem. Unlike
Ryle who simply denies the "self," he instead says that the mind and body are intertwined that they cannot be separated
from one another. For him, the living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one. He proposes treating
perception as a causal process. It means that our perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences the self, and
processed intellectually while distinguishing truthful perceptions from illusory. Therefore, the self is taken as a
phenomenon of the world. He also believes that perception does not belong to the world, but to the self.
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION

Classical Antiquity
· Knowledge is the personation
of good while ignorance is
that of evil.
Socrates Idealism Socratic Philosophy
· Self-knowledge is the
ultimate virtue. As the
ultimate virtue, it will lead to
ultimate happiness.

· Moral virtue is rooted in the

intellect and leads to
happiness.
Plato Idealism Dualism and Idealism
· Wisdom and knowledge lead
to virtue which will lead to
happiness.

· Ideal is found inside

phenomena and the
universals inside the
Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian Philosophy particulars.
· Ideas are essence and
phenomena is matter.
· Matter and essence need
each other.

Middle Ages

· All knowledge leads to God.

· Only the pure in hear can see
God.
St. Augustine Platonism Neo-platonism
· Love of God, faith in him, and
understanding of His Gospel
will ultimately lead to
happiness

Renaissance

· I think, therefore, I am.

Rene Descartes Rationalist Mind-Body Dualism · The mind and soul can exist
without the body.
· Establishing the distinction of
soul from the body can make
people believe in the afterlife
and the soul’s immortality.
 · It is in consciousness along
that identity exists, not in the
body and soul.
John Locke Empiricist Theory of Personal · There is a distinction
Identity between man and person.
· The soul may change, but
consciousness remains
intact.

· All knowledge passes

through the senses.
· Separate ideas can be joined
David Hume Empiricist Skeptical Philosophy in the mind.
· There is no self, only a
bundle of perceptions.

· Reason is the final authority

of morality.
· There is inner self and outer
self.
Immanuel Kant Rationalist/ Metaphysics of the Self · The inner self includes
Empiricist rational reasoning and
psychological state.
· The outer self includes the
body and physical mind,
where representation occurs.

Modern Times

Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of Mind · I act, therefore, I am.

· The mind is not the seat of
the self. It is not a separate
parallel thing to our physical
body.
· The mind is a category
mistake, brought about by
habitual use. The only way it
can affect the other is through
the external world.
 · I act, therefore, I am.
· The mind is not the seat of
the self. It is not a separate
parallel thing to our physical
Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of Mind body.
· The mind is a category
mistake, brought about by
habitual use. The only way it
can affect the other is through
the external world.

· Both empiricism and

intellectualism are flawed in
nature.
Maurice Merleau- Existentialist/ Phenomenology of · We are our bodies.
Ponty Empiricist Perception
· Our bodily experiences of not
detach the subject/object,
mind/body, rational/irrational.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
INTRODUCTION
“Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice
or more than human. Society is something that precedes the individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life
or is so self-sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not partake of society, is either a beast or a god. ” ― Aristotle,
Politics
We often hear the quotation: Man is a social animal, but what does it mean?
No human person can live alone. In order to survive, he must be able to satisfy certain natural basic needs. In order to
effectively do this, he must enter into a relationship with his fellowmen in order to create mutual dependence. Mutual
dependence is said to begin between an embryo and the mother and continues ‘till his last breath – from womb to tomb
as they say. The need can be physical, socio-emotional, mental, or financial even, and many others. Let’s take your
dependence from your parents as an example. For now, you may be dependent in your parents in terms of food, shelter,
finances or may be in terms of emotional support. It may not seem apparent, but your parents also gain something from
you like when you are able to help in the household chores, a sense of purpose even! There is mutuality.

What is sociology?
The American Sociological Association defines sociology as:

…the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate
the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts

From a sociological perspective, the self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves,
others, and to social systems that shaped through interaction with other people (Crossman, 2018). When asked to
introduce our selves, we would often say traits such being thrifty, altruistic, generous, fun to be with, competitive, quiet,
shy, frank and so on. These traits, although unique for a particular individual and are psychological in a sense, can be
understood in a sociological perspective. When someone says he is generous, he is actually describing himself in relation
to other people. What he means to say is that he is liberal in giving what he has to other people. The same also applies
when someone says he is quiet or shy, for one cannot say he has no basis for comparison. Thus, a person is said to be shy
because, unlike other people, he may have the tendency to be hesitant in approaching or mingling with other people.
SOCIOLOGICAL VIEWS OF THE SELF

1. The Self as Product of Modern Society

Because of modernization, there is said to be the “destruction of the traditional way of life” that has “delocalized” the self
(Mannheim, 1950). The self has been “dislocated and deracinated” (David, 2004). This means to say that modernization
has disrupted and disturbed the conventions on how people live or has isolated us from our native or customary culture.
What seemed to be the usual way of doing things are now being consistently modified to adapt to the changing needs and
possibilities that modernization has brought. People are now presented, not only with the traditional way of doing this
within their culture, but also to the culture of others from societies. The stability of one's self-identity is no longer anchored
on pre-given tradition-bound definition of the self - it is now freely chosen (David, 2004)
Let’s take the traditional wardrobe as an example. We would think that traditional Filipinos would wear rather conservative
but ornate and embroidered rich outfit but today, options are almost unlimited. We are influence, not only by the US,
Spanish, and Japanese culture (as with colonial period) but also by the culture of Koreans, Thais, and Chinese among others.
We see a rise of concept stores and online shops that offers numerous varieties of outfits. We are no longer duty-bound to
wear conventional outfits even when we are invited to attend weddings or other celebrations!

However, more choices often do not equate to a better or a meaningful life. Sometimes it often results to decision paralysis
and even decreased satisfaction (Schwartz, 2004). In this sense, the ability to choose who we want to be no
longer liberates but debilitates. Simmel (1971) tells us that the struggle for one’s individuality is only possible in modern
society where religio-theological traditions are gradually replaced by rational and scientific calculations; and the intimate
personal affiliations are replaced by exceedingly impersonal associations brought about by urbanized way of life.

How many “friends” do you have? You would probably think of the number of friends you have accepted or invited on
Facebook or the number of people you have in all the group chats you have in messenger… but how many friends do you
really have? Modernization has allowed us to communicate with people in numerous ways. Then, you can only meet a
friend in person or maybe through phone and you can only expect to be able to deepen your relationship by physically
hanging out or by sending out a snail-mail. Today, connecting with some people you know is almost always possible at any
time of the day and anywhere you are. Although this can be beneficial for many, we cannot discount the fact that this
possibility has also changed how we value our relationships. We have formed more impersonal relationships than
meaningful ones. Some have been pre-occupied in gaining more “followers” with hopes of improving their esteem – a
misconception on how we put worth or recognize the value of our selves.

Something to think about: How do you think modernization changed the way courtship is being done? Do you think it has
improved or worsened?

1. The delocalized self poses the following problems:

A. The newfound freedom threatens the very authenticity of the self
As we consistently create ourselves from the limitless possibilities and options, we ask ourselves the question: Is this
really me? Is this what I want?
B. Alienation
Derived from Marx, alienation refers to an “unhappy condition” and is the the process whereby the worker is made to feel
foreign to the products of his/her own labor.
Purdue University (2002) explains that
In capitalism, the worker is exploited insofar as he does not work to create a product that he then sells to a real person;
instead, the proletariat works in order to live, in order to obtain the very means of life, which he can only achieve by selling
his labor to a capitalist for a wage (as if his labor were itself a property that can be bought and sold). The worker is alienated
from his/her product precisely because s/he no longer owns that product, which now belongs to the capitalist who has
purchased the proletariat's labor-power in exchange for exclusive ownership over the proletariat's products and all profit
accrued by the sale of those products.
C. Objectification of the body
In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing (Arluke, 1988). As presented in
the essay Life in the Medicalized Society:
“These days, nothing strikes more fear in me than a doctor who no longer looks at patients as total human beings,
but from the narrow prism of specialization, sees only disembodied hearts, lungs, livers or kidneys”.
D. Dehumanization of the self
The birth of modern society allows infinite possibilities for self-cultivation but it also simultaneously suggests
dehumanization of the self. In Herbert Kelman's work on dehumanization, humanness has two features:
• "identity" (i.e., a perception of the person "as an individual, independent and distinguishable from others,
capable of making choices") and
• "community" (i.e., a perception of the person as "part of an interconnected network of individuals who care for
each other").
When a target's agency and embeddedness in a community are denied, they no longer elicit compassion or other moral
responses.
Solution: For the individual to discover the “true” and “authentic” part of himself/herself to realize his/her potentials,
there is a need to abolish repressive social constraints. What does being authentic mean then? Brené Brown in her book:
The Gifts of Imperfection states that “Authenticity is the daily practice of letting go of who we think we are supposed to be
and embracing who we actually are.” Choosing authenticity means:
• cultivating the ability to be imperfect
• allowing ourselves to be vulnerable, and
 • setting boundaries.
The concept of social constraints enters when society sets its own standards on how you should look, behave and
sometimes even feel. Being authentic means letting go of these standards to follow your passion regardless of who you
disappoint and how you may be perceived by others. “When we are being authentic, we are being vulnerable; we are
showing all parts of us, the good with the bad. When we do this, we allow for more intimate and honest relationships, and
we allow for true acceptance and unconditional love.( The Center for Growth)”

2. Self as Necessary Fiction

Some modern philosophers do not believe that the self is a solid or metaphysical entity having a continuous identity given
that there is nothing in the self that persists or endures through time. For instance, it possible for individuals to remember
something they have not experienced or the possibility the individuals have the tendency to acquire amnesia and
experience psychological disorientation due to brain injury.
Self for Nietzsche is the sum of individual’s action, thoughts and feelings and is nothing more than a metaphor –a
representation of something abstract. Nietzsche contends that all belief systems are ‘necessary fictions.’ Necessary
fictions are beliefs that cannot be proven to be true and sometimes can be proven false, but are, nonetheless, necessary
to sustain life. They are fictions because they cannot be proven. They are necessary because without them we would be
rudderless in a world of chaos. Thus, they are convictions that satisfy the need for stability.
Tenbusch (2015) states that necessary fictions
….are necessary because people need some sense of certainty in a world of constant change. Necessary fictions create
meaning out of the chaos of lived experiences. They are formulations about what feelings and behaviors mean at a given
time. One’s experiences can be organized into a coherent and inclusive story, but that story cannot be proven. Hence it is
illusory and temporary.

Did you know that the quote “That which does not kill us makes us stronger” is associated with Nietzsche?

3. Post-Modern view of the Self

The self is a narrative, a text written and rewritten. The self is a story and therefore dynamic, bound to change every now
and then. Self in post modernity is complicated by electronic mediated virtual interaction of cyber self in cyberspace. This
means that our identity is now created not merely by our physical interaction with other people but is complicated our
interactions in the digital world.
Nicola Green states:
"Every little piece of information that you post on the internet - the messages you write, the website you visit, the files
you download, the e-mail addresses you contact, the books, tapes, CDs, and airplane tickets you order on the Internet,
and the credit card numbers you give - all become the raw data from which someone out there can piece together an
identity, a virtual version of who you are."
This is called digital footprints. Your digital footprint is the “data that’s created through your activities and communication
online. This can include more passive activities, such as if a website collects your IP address, as well as more active digital
activities, such as sharing images on social media” (Athanasiadis, 2018)

The following are manifestations of the self in post modernity:

1. Information technology “dislocates” the self, thus, the self is said to be “digitalized” in cyberspace
We are now able to present and express ourselves online.
2. Global migration produced multicultural identities
It has produced a mixture of cultures that may be a combination of country of origin and the new country where one
resides. We can expect for example a Filipino migrant who is living in Canada combine the staple food, rice, or a variety of
pansit with other cuisines there.
3. Post-modern selves are “protean selves”
A protean self refers to a “mutable form of human personality that changes fluidly from situation to situation (IGI Global)”.
*In other resources such as that of David (2004), it is also called “pluralized” self. This implies that because of post-
modernity, we are able to create different versions of our selves particularly if we are dealing with various social media
sites. For example, if you have a Twitter or Instagram account, you would probably agree that what you post in those
accounts are quite different in Facebook. The same concept can be likened to what Anderson (1997) mentioned as
multiphrenia.
4. Rewriting the Self as an Artistic Creation
One thing is needful. -- To "give style" to one’s character-- a great and rare art! It is practiced by those who survey all the
strengths and weaknesses of their nature and then fit them into an artistic plan until every one of them appears as art and
reason and even weaknesses delight the eye. Here a large mass of second nature has been added; there a piece of original
nature has been removed -- both times through long practice and daily work at it. Here the ugly that could not be removed
is concealed; there it has been reinterpreted and made sublime…
-Nietzsche, Gay Science
Nietzsche contends that the unity of the self is not pre-given but accomplished through conscious effort. Individuals
therefore must fashion, care for and cultivate themselves in order to transform self through beautiful work of art.
Concealing the “ugly” does not refer to rewriting the narrative (as that would be impossible) but rather redescribing
one’s self by reinterpreting the past. For example, one might have experienced having a failing grade in his academic
history. This event might be used by someone to describe himself as a student, probably thinking that he might not be
able to do well in schooling particularly in a certain program to a point that he/she would label him/herself as inferior to
his colleagues. But one might also get the idea that the failure was the event, a turning point that have led him to where
is right now –say a wake-up call to pursue something that he is passionate about. Life is about creating ourself even if it
means re-interpreting our experiences. As Nietzsche would put it: There are no facts, only interpretations.
5. Self Creation and Collective Identity
The self is a "body moving in space" and time (Kempen, 1998). The self is unthinkable apart from its physical body. It is
through the body that the self takes different spatial positions and expressions in social interaction. This implies that an
individual's identity is largely associated with its position in space and its corresponding historical dimension. Simply put,
the identity is influenced by the community from it belongs and its collective memory. Collective memory refers to the
shared pool of memories, knowledge and information of a social group that is significantly associated with the group's
identity. (Roediger and Abel, 2015)

What we mean to say here is that an essential aspect of self-creation is formed within “imagined communities”. Imagined
communities is a term coined by Benedict Anderson (1983) Anderson famously defines the nation as imagined “because
the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them,
yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion” (p. 6). The nation is defined as a community because
“regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep,
horizontal comradeship” (p. 7). “Therefore, the concept of imagined community assumes that nations, national identities,
and nationalism are socially constructed; “imagined” in this context then does not mean false, but instead points to the
socio-cognitive element in the construction of the nation (Jones, 2007)” It is an idea that is being recognized by a group of
people paving the way for its existence.

How are Filipinos such as the OFWs and immigrants able to create Filipino communities even if they are from other
countries? What makes them a community? What is the basis of membership? What does being a Filipino mean?
ARTICLE READING!
 MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SELF
According to Mead, the self emerges from social interaction. This lies contradictory to the argument of biological
determinism “because it holds that the self is neither initially there at birth nor necessarily at the beginning of a social
interaction, but is constructed, and re-constructed in the process of social experience and activity” (Villafuerte, etal 2018).
This means to say, Mead contends that the self is not inborn and that the self is developed as one ages and accumulate
more experiences.
In the perspective of Mead, Victor had not developed normally according to his age. He had not developed his “self”
because of his isolation from the world. It was also mentioned in the article because of Victor’s isolation, there was already
a lack of proper care, emotional stimulation, and education that hindered his social progress and delayed their mental
development.

Three Stages of Development according to Mead

The self is learned during childhood which comes in three stages of development:

As our self gradually develops, we internalize the expectations of more and more people. Our ability to take the role of
others eventually extends to being able to take the role of “the group as a whole.” Existence of the community, therefore,
comes before individual consciousness.
Phases of Self according to Mead
For Mead, all human experience internal conversation. This conversation involves the I and me which he called the phases
of self.
The “me” refer the organized set of attitudes and expectation of others which one assumes. It represents learned
behaviors, attitudes and expectations of others and society that arouse from the social interactions of the individual. It is
the socialized aspect of the individual. Because of this, the “me” is said to be the mechanism by which community exercises
control over the conduct of its individual members.
The “I” is the response to the “me” or the person’s individuality. It is the active, spontaneous, creative part of the self. It
is the part of you that’s acting being spontaneous and doing things on your own. Because of this the “I” is said to be the
subject while the “me” is the object. Object
Let’s try to relate it to grammar. As a basic rule: The subject is the person or thing doing something. The object is having
something done to it.(IELTS) In formulating sentences, we usually use the term “I” when we are the doer of the action and
use “me” when we are the receiver. We say I like you, to mean that “I” is the doer of the action like. We do not say me likes
you. We say “You like me”, to mean that “me” is the receiver of the action like. In the context of Mead, the “me” is the
object? Object of what? Receiver of what? The receiver of norms society, thus it is the me that adheres to the expectations
of other people.
Let’s suppose that you would like to watch your favourite series in Netflix but you have other assessments due in the said
week. The “me” is that aspect of you that would tell you to read your lesson and answer the learning tasks given by your
teacher. These are the expectations of society from you given your role as a student. Your “I” is that aspect of you that
will tell what you will do.
Remember: “The action of the 'I' is revealed only in the action itself; specific prediction of the action of 'I' is not possible.
The individual is determined to respond but the specific character of the response is not fully determined. The individual's
response are conditioned but not determined by the situation in which he acts.(SociologyGuide)”

COOLEY’S LOOKING GLASS SELF

The concept of looking-glass self states that part of how we see ourselves comes from our perception of how others see us
(Cooley, 1902). Charles Horton Cooley contends proposed that the self is developed as a result of perceptions of other
people’s opinion. “People are the way they are at least partly because of other people’s reactions to them and to what
they do. They are constantly picking up feedback and incorporating it into their sense of self (Corpuz, Estoque and
Tabotabo (2019). For instance, if parents praise a child for being diligent in terms of doing his or her chores, then the child
might think that he is responsible.
It generally involves three process:

This implies that our view of our selves comes from the contemplation of personal qualities and impressions of how others
perceive us. This means that we are not what others think we are, it is what we believe others see us.
REMEMBER:
• Development of the self does not depend on accurate evaluations.
• Although the self-concept begins in childhood, its development is an ongoing, lifelong process
There are certain we have to watch out for that are related to this concept.
1. Labeling Bias
The labeling bias occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling (Fox
& Stinnett, 1996). Labeling can be beneficial or detrimental.
A typical example of labelling bias is when a teacher perceives a certain class, say Class A, as a “bunch of troublemakers”.
When this happens, the teacher’s behaviour towards the students in that certain class changes and may be made to think
that any behavior (even those that are neutral) may be misinterpreted as a result of their misdemeanour. A likely scenario
can also be seen if a teacher will view one her classes, Class B, as a “model class”. Let’s imagine a situation: A student got
absent one day in both classes. The teacher might think that the one who got absent in Class A is uninterested with
schooling, not motivated and more likely wont be successful in life. The student in Class B might make the teacher think
that the child might not be feeling well or have some sort of a problem. As you can see from this example, the teacher’s
perception affected her attitude towards his or her student.
Because of labelling bias, people’s behavior or reaction towards us also change. This is called self-fulfilling prophecy.
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief that comes true because we are acting as if it is already true.
For example, a student might think that he will not be able to do well in an examination. Since he already has this
expectation, the student might not review since he might think that his efforts will all go to waste. When the examination
results were released, he found himself getting a failing score.
If we are repeatedly labelled and evaluated by others, then self-labeling may occur. Self-labeling happens when we
adopt what others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept. The effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem appear to
depend very much on the nature of the labels. Labels used in relation to diagnosis of psychological disorders can be
detrimental to people who then internalize them. A particular study (Moses, 2009) found that adolescents who self-
labelled according to diagnoses they had received were found to have higher levels of self-stigma in their self-concepts
along with higher levels of depression compared with those who described their challenges in non-psychological terms.
For this part, I think it’s important to be guided by the words of Yehuda Berg:
“Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. We can choose to use this force constructively with
words of encouragement, or destructively using words of despair. Words have energy and power with the ability to help,
to heal, to hinder, to hurt, to harm, to humiliate and to humble.”

SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY

We constantly evaluate ourselves, and others, in domains like attractiveness, intelligence, skills and success through social
comparison. Social comparison theory is the idea that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based
on how they stack up against others (Psychology Today) These comparisons can be with people who we know and interact
with or even those whom we read about or watch on television or online. However, the most meaningful comparisons we
make tend to be with those we see as similar to ourselves (Festinger, 1954.) “Later research has shown that people who
regularly compare themselves to others may find motivation to improve, but may also experience feelings of deep
dissatisfaction, guilt, or remorse, and engage in destructive behaviors like lying or disordered eating (PsychologyToday)”

Here’s an article from Psychology Today to help us better understand Social Comparison:

THE BENEFITS OF COMPARISON

When individuals compare themselves to others as a way of measuring their personal development or to motivate
themselves to improve and, in the process, develop a more positive self-image, comparisons can be beneficial. It takes
discipline, however, to avoid the pitfalls of negative comparison. In large part, how we react to comparisons depends on
who we compare ourselves to: When we just want to feel better about ourselves, we tend to engage in comparisons to
people worse off than we are, although this can become an unhealthy habit. When we want to improve, though, we may
compare ourselves to people roughly similar to us but higher achieving in one trait or another.
How can comparison help you?
Social comparison can be highly beneficial when people use social networks to push themselves. In a study, friendly
competition was highly effective in pushing people to exercise more, as peers pushed each other to keep up and do
more. In such a "social ratchet effect," each person’s activity generates more activity among others. Social networks in
which people simply offered each other positive encouragement were far less helpful.

Is it better to compare yourself to those doing better or worse than you are?
People generally engage in either upward or downward comparisons. In upward comparisons, we compare ourselves with
those we believe are better than us in some way; in downward comparisons, we do the opposite. Research, unsurprisingly,
finds that downward comparisons make us feel better about ourselves, but that there are dangers to each approach—
insecurity and jealousy, or overconfidence and arrogance.

Can envy ever be a positive emotion?

Envy is usually an unpleasant feeling that can lead to brooding, resentment, or even violence. Some psychologists,
however, have suggested that people can experience “benign” envy, in which they use envious feelings as motivation to
improve themselves. Benign envy could lead someone, for example, to try to emulate the best qualities of a person who
has what they want.

THE DANGERS OF COMPARISON

Theodore Roosevelt called comparison “the thief of joy,” and he may have been right. Social comparison can motivate
people to improve, but it can also promote judgmental, biased, and overly competitive or superior attitudes. Most people
have the social skills and impulse control to keep their standards for social comparison to themselves, and not to act on
any envy or resentment spurred by comparison-making. But their true feelings may manifest in other ways.

Why can comparisons make people feel bad?

Comparisons are likelier to make us feel bad when we make the error of only comparing ourselves to paragons of certain
traits. For example, many people believe they have a less active social life than others. But when making such comparisons,
people tend to compare themselves only to the most social people they know. Understanding this bias can help us make
more realistic and motivating comparisons.

Is social media harmful to self-esteem?

Constantly checking social-media feeds full of images from parties, concerts, or other aspirational events can diminish self-
esteem and contribute to depression. But some studies have found that such risks primarily affect those high in the trait
of neuroticism, and others suggest that social-media use can reinforce self-esteem; for example, when people review their
own images of good times with friends.

How can I stop comparing myself to others?

To be less vulnerable to painful comparisons, notice the people or events that prompt the behavior. Commit to being
deeply grateful for what’s good in your own life. And remember that the human propensity to want what others have is
such a waste of time, unless what you see and “covet” in another is something of deep worth, such as their
generosity or kindness.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF
INTRODUCTION

What does it mean to be Filipino?

“In most dictionaries, the term “Filipino” is defines as belonging or relating to the Philippines, or to its people and culture.
In the context of citizenship, “Filipino” simply means membership in a nation-state. In the constitution a citizen is someone
who legally resides in a country. Anthropologically, however, it is different. To belong to a people is not necessarily
implying a legal association to a country’s cherished values. To belong and relate to a culture means to adopt, accept and
treasure its entire way of life. Therefore, in order to be called Filipino, you have to belong to the Filipino people and adopt
to their culture. In this perspective, the self must be embedded in the culture”. (Corpuz, Estoque & Tabotabo, 2019)

What is anthropology?
It is a study of all aspects of human condition. This includes human history, the present human condition and even the
future possibilities. (Kottak, 2009) It explores the interconnectedness and interdependence of human cultural experiences
in all places and age. (Havilland, et.al, 2014)
The key difference between the two social sciences is that sociology concentrates on society while anthropology focuses
on culture.
In the perspective of anthropology, the self is both a biological and a cultural entity. The traditional anthropological
understanding of the self is that the self is an animal species which underwent the process of biological evolution and has
shared characteristics with other living animals, the hominids, in particular. Since the self has better development in terms
of the brain and adaptation in the environment for survival, the self develops a culture resulting in behavioural changes.
It is said that the self is a living animal but superior to other animals in the following factors:
1. Physical aspect – Humans are the only animal with a larger brain capacity making him/her a rational animal; the
only animal that can stand straight allowing him/her to have better mobility in doing things etc.
2. Social aspect – Humans uses language and symbol in dynamic, complicated yet systematic manner allowing
him/her to communicate, and preserve history, knowledge, culture etc; can operate with others in a systematic
manner in larger cooperation and invests new things for survival

What is culture?
Cultures are those complex structures of knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, law, language, traditional practices,
and all other aspects needed by humans to function in a society. The way you dress, the way and the food you prepare,
the things your value, the language you speak, the way we celebrate Christmas, everything else around us and everything
we do (and even avoid) is culture.
Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include
homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools,
means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth.
Non-material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules,
norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion
consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the
culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.
haracteristics of Culture
Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from
families, peers, institutions, and media. The process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have
basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.
Enculturation is the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary transmission,
cultural transmission is done through observation, use of language, adaption to environment, rituals, and formal and
informal education.
 o Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially
appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean
that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail
below.
o Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially
appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean
that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail
below.
o Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross- culturally
and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art
are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component of culture.
o Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being interconnected. All aspects
of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not
only a few.
o Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact
with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems
adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system
changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

What is identity?
Identity refers to “who a person is” or the qualities and traits an individual that make him or her different from
others. We can distinguish a person according to their geographical context or based on where they come from. It can be
a membership in a particular group or institution (such as being a Louisian). It can also refer to how one person sees and
expresses himself
Cultural identity refers to the identity or feeling of belongings to a certain cultural group. It is an individual’s
perception about himself or herself anchored on race, gender, nationality, religion, ethnicity and language that eventually
influences his behavior. One may identify himself or herself as Filipino because he or she embodies Filipino cultural ways
and traditions to which he or she has been exposed while growing up. While being a Filipino, one may also identify as a
Catholic because it is his or her religious background. He or she may likewise identify himself or herself as Ybanag. The
cultural categories that shape one’s overall cultural identity prove that one’s cultural identity is multidimensional.

WHAT IS SELF-AWARENESS?
In Anthropology, self-awareness is that which permits one to assume responsibility for one’s own conduct, to learn how
to react to others, and to assume a variety of roles (Haviland, 2003). Self-awareness allows us to distinguish ourselves
from others. It has been observed that the child starts to conceptualize self-awareness at age two. However, studies also
show that self-awareness is conceptualize much earlier by children sleeping with parent’s and are exposed to variety of
stimuli like touch and the like. Stimulation is maximized when the child is in close contact with the mother or carer and all
the other members of the family. This develops the neural circuitry or hard wiring of the brain faster than with children
with less stimulation. This is particularly advantageous for us Filipinos because most of the time our cultural practice is to
sleep with our parents until at least school age.
Following the faster process of enculturation and self-awareness is the importance of attachment of positive values to
one’s self. The child must be able to get the culturally correct values necessary for adult life. What the child observes from
what the adults are doing or thinking will more likely be adapted and imitated by the child, however, he will later develop
his own identity.
The identity is further intensified by a practice common to all cultures – the naming ritual. Naming individualizes a person.
It gives a person his/her own unique traits, experience, personality and identity. The person’s name is also a symbol of
one’s status in the c ommunity that can either give the person honor or stigma. This is fairly demonstrated among families
of politicians and famous businessmen. It is important to remember however, that a person’s name is at
the same time a project in progress –an identity you wish to establish in the community. For example, you are now at the
process of adding the titles like CPA, RN, Engr, Atty, Ar, LPT, RPsy, or Honorable and many others, who knows what the
future holds?

Do you know why you were given the name you currently have right now? If not, you can ask your parents about it! It
might reveal some expectations they have for you as their child.

THE SELF AND CULTURE (according to Mauss)

According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi.
• MOI refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic identity. Moi is a person’s basic identity, his
biological givenness. It is stable and static.
PERSONNE refers to what to what is means to live in a particular institution, family, religion, nationality and how to
behave. It is culturally specific. This refers to certain behaviors that are dependent on the circumstances and contexts.
The self (especially the personne) morphs according to different circumstances and contexts. For example, Rico, a
certain Filipino who is currently living in the Philippines, has the tendency to be disobedient to local policies. He would
usually spit anywhere he likes or would even cross highways even if the pedestrian signals are still on red (moi). Then,
Rico went to Singapore to work. It was noticeable that while he was there, Rico was no longer doing the behaviors he
usually did in the Philippines. He was not spitting on the streets and he was even more compliant and obedient to traffic
rules there (personne)
SELF AND BEHAVIORAL ENVIRONMENT
Behavioral environment model emphasizes the importance of perception in human geography, the significance of
subjective experience and the potential of man as an active agent in the environment. This suggests that our worldview
towards the different orientations affects our values and therefore our behaviour.
• Object orientation positions the self in relation to the surroundings. The self should be able to act responsively to
the cultural objects around. T’boli, an indigenous group in South Cotabato, respects the trees, lakes, falls and
animals in the forests.
• Spatial orientation provides the self with personal space in relation to other people or things. Individualistic
society where independence is of utmost importance, personal space is emphasized.
• Temporal orientation endows the self with sense of time. In Filipino philosophy, time is spherical where life events
are repeated but may not necessarily be the same (this will be elaborated further in the next module)
• Normative orientation provides the self with the grasp of accepted norms in the community. Ex. Being on time is
a generally accepted norm in the society. In communities where punctuality is considered a value, being on time is
already a chartable gesture.
CULTURAL DEGRADATION
Cultural degradation or more horribly cultural genocide means the loss of a particular culture due to assimilation or loss
of interest. Assimilation happens when a dominant culture overshadows an inferior culture. For instance, some culture of
the Tagalogs or even those coming from Urban Manila is largely influencing the culture of the Ybanags. You might notice
that many children are no longer speaking their own dialect, or performing other religious and celebratory rituals
commonly performed by the folks.
In a larger scale, culture is also lost through violent, genocide, inability to respect traditions, religions, beliefs and the
cultural community’s sense of pride, which are largely the result of globalization. For many decades, the Moros of
Mindanao, for example are continuously striving for the recognition of their cultural identity and self-realization. However,
history tells us that both the Moros and the dominant culture living in Mindanao are constantly victimized by the unending
violence perpetrated by various groups, In the end many of the cultural landmarks, which are part of the identity of the
people are either prejudiced or lost forever.(Villafuerte, 2018)

Another classic example is the Bikini Atoll.

In the late 1940s the US government wanted the island for use as a nuclear test site and relocated the island’s
population. The government made the decision, the move was to a totally new environment, it occurred in a very short
period of time, and the Bikinians had no choice in the immediate or subsequent attempts to ameliorate the ensuing
problems. The result was a substantial loss of the original culture, serious demoralization among the people, and a great
deal of stress with which individuals continue to cope with varying success.
Introduction:
THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN THOUGHT

Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the most common
distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern vs. Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and
Western represents Europe and Northern America.
Besides a general observation of cultural/artistic/principal differences showing the distinction between western and
eastern concepts of ‘self’, in this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly influenced
the mindset of each nation or culture.
Are we all different and independent, or are all people part of one whole?

THE NATURE OF THE SELF

Ashley has been watching the news and the way everyone is at each other's throats, and though it's painful and sad to
watch, she also thinks it's inevitable. After all, people are all independent and very different from one another.
Her friend Tan isn't so sure though. He believes that everyone is connected to each other and to the world. To Tan, we
are all one, so no one should be fighting.
Ashley and Tan are thinking about the nature of the self. When philosophers talk about the nature of the self, what they
are really asking is:

Individualistic and Collective Self

There are many differences between individualistic and collective cultures. In general, individualistic cultures emphasize
individual actions. In this culture, people are encouraged to prioritize their own needs and their independence over the
group’s needs. In collective cultures, people are encouraged to prioritize the needs and harmony of the group over their
own success. These core differences in values impact the ways these cultures communicate, celebrate, and cultivate the
economy.
WESTERN
The concept of the psyche is a western' model of the soul. Western traditions are always preoccupied by the duality of
the body and soul.

Plato started with the idea that the soul inhabited the world of ideas, while the body descended to the world of the
sensible. The ideal self is there up above the heavens while the bodily self, or the soul imprisoned in a finite material body,
by which we know today is only thrown into the oblivion of remembering what the soul used to know while still living in
the world of ideas.

Even Aristotle did not solve this problem of duality. He proposed the hylemorphic theory, meaning that the human person
is composed of matter or the body and form or the soul. Matter is changeable while the form remains. This means that
the body will grow and eventually die and decompose and will be transformed into something else. The form
however remains unchanged. But unlike Plato, Aristotle asserted that the body is equally important as the soul, because
the former will give the latter the knowledge it ought to have through senses.

This is very much similar to the duality of body and soul of Descartes. The body is the one gathering information through
the senses, although he never always trusted the information coming from the senses. It is the reason that processes all
information and makes sense with experiences of the body. In an attempt to solve the issue of duality, Descartes proposed
that the body and the soul fused in one very important part of the brain – the pineal gland.

Still, the western concept of the self is very much anchored on the individuality of the psyche. The individual self is always
in a struggle to reconcile the connection between the ideal self or perfect soul and the limited self or sinful body. This
dichotomy drives us in the understanding of the self as lifetime toil for self-perfection. What is important in this concept
of the self is the development of the self from conception to death.

This will normally be in order to correspond with some determined ideal, depending on the social and historical conditions
under which a person lives. Once an individual has reached a sufficiently high level of consciousness and self- knowledge,
he or she has the capacity both for self-analysis and observation, and for understanding the actions of others. Motivated
by the wish for acceptance and authority in a peer group, an individual develops personal qualities by self-perfecting.
In other words, from the moment of conception, the self is molded and prepared to live a good and happy life.
A daughter, for example will be provided with the best possible upbringing by the parents. She will be sent to the best
school in town in view of bestowing on her the necessary knowledge and skills to be independent and successful
professional in adult years. She is expected to compete with other professionals in her field and become the best in her line
of work. She will eventually find a partner and raise children the way she was raised. This is such an example of an ideal
self that manifests the perfection of the soul.
When, on the contrary, the self did not have the opportunity to be raised, and to grow, and to die a good and happy life,
the self becomes a waste as it did not live the ideals of the soul. The lone purpose of the self, therefore is:
To live according to the ideals of the soul.
The Greeks call this aréte -the ultimate goodness, perfection, excellence. All of life’s directions, in as much as the western
individualistic self is concerned, are geared towards self-perfection.

EASTERN
Although the self in the eastern perspective also wants to attain perfection in meditation and enlightenment, there has
never been an issue of dualism. Easterners do not have the notion of the separation of the body and soul.
It is always one self.
1. The Atman - An Indian philosophy which is considered to be the seat of consciousness.
The atman may have different levels of consciousness but there is always one self. Even death is considered to be just
another level of consciousness but the atman continues to exist because it is not dependent on the body. This in fact is
also the concept of the non-self in Buddhism. In this concept the self is considered as nothing but an evolution and
transformation of inner consciousness.
B. The Confucian – A philosophy from China that emphasized the relational self and the social understanding of the self.
holars read Confucius’ philosophy in two ways.
1. The ideal moral self is always able to forego individual interest in view of prioritizing the social interest.
In a way, the self is the ideal of a selfless person who is willing to forget about his self-interest in favor of the interest of
the community. In this conception, there is still the individual self and the self is mutually exclusive as the social self.
However, the individual self is subsumed in the interest of the social self.
2. The individual self and the social self are not mutually exclusive but are metaphysically and profoundly related.
The individual character of the ideal self cannot be separated from the social character of the self. It means that the self
is constructively connected with the pursuit of the social self.
Let us take as an example many family dynamics in which, when in dire poverty one or the other sibling will be asked to
stop going to school so that the family will be able to send the rest of the children to school to continue with their education.
Here, the self is willing to sacrifice and may forget to assert self-interest in order to pursue the resolve of the whole family.
The same self-sacrifice may be manifested in groups, communities and nation.

Features of Individualism Features of Collectivism

• “I” identity
• Each person is encouraged to be an active
• Promotes individual goals, initiative and player in society, to do what is best for
achievement. society as a whole rather than in
themselves.
• Individual rights are seen as being the most
important. Rules attempt to ensure self- • The rights of families, communities, and the
importance and individualism. collective supersede those of the: individual

• Independence is valued; there is much less • Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
of a drive to help other citizens or selflessness.
communities than' in collectivism.
• Working with others and cooperating is the
• Relying or being dependent on others is norm; everyone supports each other.
frequently seen as shameful.
• as a community, family or nation more than
• People are encouraged to do things on their as an individual
own; to rely on themselves people strive for
their own successes

The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought

Social construction is a shared assumption or perception of the people in society. The western social construct of the self
can be characterized in three ways.

1. Individualistic self - At a very young age, the child is already taught to pursue what is best for self. Thus, later in adult
life, the measure of a successful life is when the self is able to fulfil the life-goals set for and by the self.
The individualistic self is always conceived as the autonomous bounded entity. For one to be autonomous, one must be
able to show independence.

2. Self-sufficiency - This construct presumes that a successful self must be able to supply one’s needs without external
assistance.
Being self-sufficient also implies confidence in one’s capacity to provide what the self needs from one’s own resources
and authority. Therefore, it is important for the self to establish one’s power and accumulate the needed knowledge and
resources so that one will be able to provide one’s needs.

3. The self being rational - In the western practice, there is no time for the self to be weak and emotional. The self must
not waste resources on meditation and other metaphysical cognitions but to be constantly rational and reasonable.
The self masters the causal relationships of things. Everything must be explained by logic and reason. Phenomenon
outside the logical realm are simply discredited and rejected. This explains the western logical positivist movement. It
contends that what is rational and reasonable are only those which can be logically viable. The successful self therefore, is
grounded on one’s investment on reason and logical thinking.

It also necessarily follows that. when the self adapts the rational-logical conception of things, one must be scientific. The
self marvels at the safety measures of scientific procedures. Scientific researches ascertain the cause and effect
relationship of things and phenomena. Safety is derived from the mastery of the phenomena concerning the self.
This brings about the ideals of self-efficacy in which everything can be explained by science, and everything can be
provided for by science. The successful self embraces the scientific conception of things that affect one’s growth, psycho-
physical development, intellectual capacity, interaction with others and involvement in societal institutions and
infrastructures.

The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought - Eastern Construct
Eastern social infrastructures are mostly seen as contrary to the western individualistic construct. The eastern social
construct is primarily viewed as collectivistic and is always grounded on nature. There were many eastern traditions that
flourished in the history of thought that were firmly based on how the self relates to others, to the Divine Being and to
nature.
Confucius or Kung Fu Zi ascertained the ancient Chinese civilization by establishing social order. The society will be led by
wise leaders who guaranteed peace, prosperity and harmony. Here in the Confucian system we can immediately notice
the primacy of the society over the individual person. In fact, Confucius believed that the threat to social order is only
caused by the unchecked selfish desires of individuals.
The self therefore in the Confucian system is:
A person within the society who exhibits refinement and compassion.
1. Junzi - It is the new self formed in the right education under the virtuous teacher as the role model.
Central in the educational formation of junzi are humanistic learning, refined personal manners and the capacity to govern
the community wisely and with compassion. In principle, the new self of junzi the sage king brings to life the virtues of the
ancestors to the new order of society. The self therefore is the transmitter of the ancient virtues to the new world.
2. Li – It is a refined manner of spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols in honoring the ancestors.
To carry out the transmission, one must have the correct procedures and protocol, In Chinese philosophy, religious rituals
are of great importance. The word li originally means sacrifice. Li is both the restraining and the refinement of the self.
The virtuous self must be able to practice the correct customary procedures and protocols governing all of life.
3. Ren – It is the character of the self that sincerely shows compassion for others.
The self must embody human-heartedness by prioritizing the self-interest of others. The sage king - jenzi - is
characterized by his practice of ren in putting others first before the self.
Although Confucius was not given the opportunity to become the leader of China, his principles of jenzi, li and ren
became influential all throughout China even unto many other modern civilizations of the world.

To conclude, we commonly hear the dichotomy between the east and the west. The eastern traditions are known for
their communal and spiritual constructs. On the other hand, the western traditions developed a construct of being
individualistic, self-reliant, rational and scientific. In this chapter we were able to distinguish between the individualistic
and collective self. We clarified the many western constructs of the self vis-a-vis the relational and spiritual construct of
the east.
COMPLEMENTARY GRAPHICS: The visual artist and designer based in Germany Yang Liu, created a series of graphs that
explains the differences between Eastern and Western Culture. Based on her own experience, she tries, through
minimalist visualizations, to transmit, in the simplest of ways, his feelings against the gap that exists between these two
cultures.
kifesty Ie: Ind epa naent vs. d o pa naent AttItu de towa rcls p un ctu al ity

At a party
How co stand I n iine

Slze of the Indl vldu at's ago

Eldeny I n day to day life

Anoer Comp lex ity of se If-expression

Introduction:
PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

We may only have one physical body but at times, it may feel like having several selves all at once. In our own little corner,
this might not be bothersome. But, to be asked in public “Who are you?” could be stressful. This question seems to force
us to come up with an interesting answer that we might begin to feel unsatisfied with right after saying it.
If a picture, still and stagnant, paints a thousand words what more a moving living, complex, dynamic, breathing human
being? We may be able to figure out who we are to a certain aspects but no answer might be enough to really articulate
who we really are. Questioning who we are and engaging in self-reflection to figure out and understand why we behave
in a certain way is normal and is actually beneficial in increasing self-awareness.
Most of the time, we are too hard on ourselves because of the many expectations we have. We always want to be stable,
in control and pleasing to others. As mentioned by Weiten (2014), “possible selves are developed from past experiences,
current behavior and future expectations.
Who we are, though not easily changed, might be likened to liquid, able to take many forms, depending on the factors
and context affecting it.
SELF/SELF-CONCEPT
According to Carl Rogers, the self or our self-concept “is an organized, consistent of perceptions of and beliefs about
oneself”. These perceptions and beliefs that comprise our self-concepts are called self-schemas. Self-schemas are formed
by numerous factors that may be aware or unaware of, some of which are: (1) past experiences, (2) personality traits, (3)
abilities, (4) physical features, (5) values, (6) goals, (7) social roles, (8) own observations and (9) feedback from others.
Real and Ideal Self-Concepts
CARL ROGERS
“Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's
potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the
conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their
environment is good enough. (McLeod, 2014)”
• Real self – includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness by the
individual. It is the part of ourselves where we feel, think, look and act involving our self-image.
Ideal self – revolves around ambitions in life and is dynamic, the idealized image that we have developed over
time (what we admire in others, what our society promotes, what we think in our best interest)
 Who is your ideal and real self?
Our notion of both selves are results of our self-schemas. Our ideal self is essential in guiding and motivating us to behave
in a way that would lead us to the best version of who we want to be – a guide to the real self to continue improving.
How aligned is you ideal self from your real self?

When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment or there is a small gap between our
real and ideal self. This gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a sense of self-actualization or fulfilment leading to a high
self-esteem.
However, when we are disappointed or frustrated about ourselves, it is said that there is incongruence or misalignment
or disparity or a huge gap between our real and ideal self. This results to us being distressed, anxious, leading to a low self-
esteem or self-worth and be defensive in our actions. In cases where in the gap between the real and ideal self is immense,
this may cause instability to one’s psychological well-being.
Summary: If the way that I am (real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (ideal self), then I will feel a sense of
mental well-being or peace of mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with hot I want to be, the incongruence, or lack of
alignment, will result in mental distress or anxiety. The greater the level of incongruence between the ideal self and the
real self, the greater the resulting distress.
If the level of incongruence is too much to handle, causing a person’s self-worth to be questionable, it is best to seek help
through counselling or seeking advice from people who can help.
Experiencing incongruence may happen from time to time, most especially in cases or contexts that are new or extreme.
In circumstances like these, we need to reflect, evaluate our behaviour, and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back
on track. We have to learn to separate behaviors from the totality of one’s being. We may have behaved badly but it does
not mean that we are automatically a bad person. Changing our way of thing may take a bit of getting used to since most
of us may have been exposed to people who might be given us negative labels such as “bad, stupid, weak, fat, ugly etc.”
Negative labels could come from a single failure or blunder. Sadly, a single unintentional mistake is used to judge a person
holistically. We might have been victim of this or we might also be guilty of doing this to other people.
Whether we feel it or not, we have to understand and accept that we are very capable to help ourselves and attain the
ideal self we intend to become. Ideal does not always have to mean perfect. Life may be imperfect but we can work with
that and use it to our advantage. We need to decide and choose to stop comparing ourselves with other people especially
to those we see on social media.
The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change.
~Carl Rogers
 A similar concept
KAREN HORNEY believed that everyone experiences basic anxiety through which we experience conflict and strive
to cope and employ tension reduction approaches.
Because people feel inferior, they develop an idealized self-image – an imaginary picture of the self as the possessor of
unlimited powers and superlative qualities. The actual self – the person one is in everyday life – is often despised
because it fails to fulfil the requirement of the idealized image. Underlying both the idealized and actual self is the
real self, which is revealed only as a person begins to shed the various techniques developed to deal with basic
anxiety and to find ways of resolving conflicts.

Multiple versus Unified Selves

KENNETH GERGEN, in the view of postmodern psychology contends that man has an identity that shifts and morphs
in different social situations and in response to different stimuli. Having a flexible sense of self in different context
is more socially adaptable than force oneself to stick to one concept.
• Multiple selves are the capacities we carry within us from multiple relationships. These are not ‘discovered’
but ’created’ in our relationships with our people
• Unified selves, as pointed out in Traditional psychology, emphasizes that well-being comes when our personality
dynamics are congruent, cohesive and consistent.

True versus False Selves

DONALD WINNICOTT believes that a person is in his true self if he has a sense of integrity and of connected
wholeness. When the person has to comply with external rules, such as being polite or otherwise following social
codes, then a false self is used.
Healthy false self is functional both for the person and for society then it is considered
healthy. Unhealthy false self fits in but through a feeling of forced compliance rather than
loving adaptation. False selves can lead towards narcissistic personality (Kohut, 1971)

Global versus Differentiated Needs

Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth
• Global Self-esteem (a.k.a Trait self-esteem) is a personality variable that represents the way people
generally feel about themselves. It is relatively enduring across time and situations.
• State Self-esteem (a.k.a Feelings of self-worth) refers to temporary feelings or momentary emotional
reactions to positive and negative events when we feel good or bad about ourselves during certain
situations or experiences.
• Domain Specific Self-esteem (a.k.a Self evaluations) is focused on how people evaluate their various
abilities and attributes.
SELF-ESTEEM shall be discussed further in the topic: Physical Self
 MIDTERM PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
Week 7 & 8: The Physical Self

LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction:
Our physical self is mostly represented by our face. It gives other people a first impression about who we are
and what we are. How we look give initial clues about our attitudes and the cosmetics put onto our faces may give
hints about our economic status in life. It is undeniable to most of us that we give too much attention to our
faces than any other part of our body from the time we wake up to the moment before we sleep. Our face is the
primary part of our body that we protect in times of danger. We do not want any scars inflicted on any part of
our face and admittedly, many of us are willing to spend money to make it pleasing to other people. We maintain
a face value because we consider our face as our initial asset. Before other people can discover our true attitude
and capabilities, they first rely on what they can physically see. The way we take care of ourselves, especially
our faces, represents the kind of personality we have. It is no wonder that people spend significant amounts of
money just to make themselves beautiful.

At this moment, you are going to learn about how your physical self play a role in defining who you are. This will
also help you learn about the physical self from various sources of information. We will talk about the physical self
in a way that we will see how our perception of our body affects how we think of ourselves.

Now let’s begin by how taking a look at the different conceptualizations of the physical self:

The Self as Impacted by the Body

Through the years, the concept of physical self has gained a considerable attention in the fields of Psychology,
Sociology, and Anthropology, including religious and biological or health studies. These disciplines agree on the
premise that the physical self is an important component in the study of the person's self and identity.

Sanjay Singh, the physical self refers to the body, a marvelous container and complex, finely timed machine with
which we interface with our environment and fellow beings. The Physical Self is the concrete dimension, the
tangible aspect of a person that can be directly observed and examined.

As with William James “The self is the sum total of all that man call his, which includes his body, family and
reputation, also his clothes and his house….”

Such body, family, clothes, and the like are also described by Russell W. Belk as part of our Extended Self. But
what do we mean by physical self? The concrete or tangible aspect or dimension of the person which is primarily
observed and examined through the body is known as the physical self.

James considered body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance of
personality. However, James considered body as subservient to the mind e.g., mental concentration can be
so tightly focused… as not only to banish ordinary sensations, but even the severest pain. (James, 1890, Vol. 1,
p.49). A simple example could be the numerous reports of soldiers in the battle or a boxer in the ring who suffer
severe wounds but were not notice of them until the intensity of the fighting abates. For James, the body is an
expressive tool of indwelling consciousness and good physical health. It is an element of spiritual hygiene of
supreme significance (James, 1899. p. 103).

Sigmund Freud's construction of self and personality makes the physical body the core of human experience.
Freud was of the view that the ego is first and foremost a body ego. However, in spite of Freud's recognition of
the centrality of body, his own writings on therapy rarely discussed it.

Erikson, on the other hand, mentioned that experience is anchored in the ground-plan of body. According to
him the role of bodily organs is especially important in early developmental stages of a person's life. Later in life,
the development of physical as well as intellectual skills help determine whether an individual will achieve a sense
of competency and ability to choose demanding roles in a complex society.

For example, healthy children derive a sense of competence as their bodies become larger, stronger, faster, and
more capable of learning complex skills. However, as a stage theorist Erikson is aware of the constant interaction
of the body, psychological processes and social forces. He acknowledges the classical Freudian view of
fundamental biological drives but insists that these drives are socially modifiable.

Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) placed the body at the center of human existence, as a way of
experiencing the world. Such ideas make clear to us the fact that the body is the way through which we make
sense of the world and our environment. We experience life through our bodies and senses (sight, smell, touch,
etc.), allowing us to interpret the world around us. However, the body is not merely an object in the world but
we are also our bodies in that the body is the vehicle for our expression in the world. The body is the sight for
the articulation of all our identifications of gender, class, sexuality, race, ethnicity and religion.

The emergence of "body culture".

From the late 1970s to 1980s, Humanities and Sociology developed a new and broader interest in the body.
Sociologists, historians, philosophers, and anthropologists, including scholars from sport studies and medical
studies spoke about this interest on the body which was then called then called "body culure". The
sociologists, Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens, agree in saying that the body is the only fix-point of “self-
identity”.
Studies also show that one of the visible and deeper changes in relation to the modern body concerns the dress
reform and the appearance of the naked body. The change from noble pale skin to suntanned skin as a "sportive"
distinction was not only linked to sport, but had a strong impact on society as a whole. The change of
appreciated body color reversed the social-bodily distinctions between people and classes, and nudism became
a radical expression of this body-cultural change.
 The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self-esteem: The Importance of Beauty

Well dressed, elegant, good-looking, attractive! These are the words we usually associate with beauty.
As Kenny and Nichols describe, they are the determining factors shaping beauty. "Attractive children,
and adults are treated more favorably by others in the society.

Some people as you would agree are lucky to possess features that stick to the standardized ideals of beauty
though nature bestows less-than-perfect physical attributes upon others such as slightly misshapen noses,
protuberant chins, breasts that appear too large or too small. For the most part, people have learned to live with
these inadequacies. But in some cases, there are people who are dissatisfied with their physical characteristics
that they seek to alter them through surgical means. The process appears trouble-free, yet there are many
unseen pitfalls.

Needless to say, this pursuit of perfection puts a huge strain on both genders but “females in particular receive
a massive amount of societal pressure to conform to conventional beauty standards.”

People do set unrealistic images of beauty, genetically impossible for many of us to emulate. Yet we are told
that these unattainable bodies are normal, desirable, and achievable. When we don't measure up to this
satisfaction, we develop a strong sense of dissatisfaction.

What do we exactly mean by body image?

Now, let’s talk about "body image" and "identity". Popular interest in body image issues has grown dramatically
in recent years, due to an emphasis on individual limitless capacities of modern medicine.
Society shapes us in many ways, possibly more than we realize from our interactions to our personal
development through to other's perception of our bodies as a reflection of self-worth. We are social beings.
Genetically, we rely on one another for the survival of humanity. That primal connection makes our
 interactions physiologically and psychologically important. So it is not surprising that how society perceives our
bodies.
Body image is both internal (personal) and external (society)

The inner beauty which refers to the inner qualities of the person and the external beauty which refers to the
physical characteristics of the person. External beauty focuses on the physical features of the body commonly
defined as "a combination of qualities, which includes shape, color, or form that pleases the aesthetic senses,
especially the sight."

Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings that result from
that perception. These feelings can be positive, negative or both, and are influenced by individual and
environmental factors. (Psych alive by Collin Mc Shirley)

Body image lies at the heart of adolescence. In this concept, we think of how attractive our body is. It is the mental
representation of one's own body, or somebody’s own impression of how his or her body looks which is a very
important aspect of identity.
This includes:

• How we perceive our bodies visually

• How we feel about our physical appearance
• How we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies
• Our sense of how other people view our bodies

Body image is determined by 4 factors:

1. How you SEE your body is your perceptual body image. This is not always a correct representation
of how you actually look. For example, a person may perceive themselves as overweight when they are
actually underweight.

2. The way you FEEL about your body is your affective body image. This relates to the amount of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction you feel about your shape, weight, and individual body parts.

3. The way you THINK about your body is your cognitive body image. This can lead to preoccupation
with body shape and weight.

4. BEHAVIORS in which you engage as a result of your body image encompass your behavioral body image.
When a person is dissatisfied with the way he/she looks, they may isolate themselves because they feel bad
about their appearance.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Now that you have your “body image cheat sheet,” does it give you a better understanding of how you
perceive your own body and thoughts? How does the four aspects resonate with you?

------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------
 How we look at our bodies has possibly never held as much societal importance or reflected so significantly
on our perceived self-worth. Each one, male or female, strives to acquire the body of his/her dream. We
are in a culture in which beauty is judged by numbers. As commonly observed, attraction to another
person’s body increases if that body is symmetrical and in proportionate, we are more likely to notice it
and find it beautiful. We even perceive proportional bodies to be healthier.

The promise of an “aesthetic capital”

The presence of aesthetically based cultural goods and their ever- increasing influence in modern society poses
a new conceptual opportunity to Sociology. A new term “aesthetic capital”, is introduced. Such concept covers
the privileges and wealth people receive from aesthetic traits, such as their face, hair, body, clothes, grooming
habits and other markers of beauty.
For Samantha Lovascio, visually appealing traits greatly impact our lives, in matters of modest importance (friend
selection) to great importance (friend selection) (e.g. getting a job career mobility). Thus, the promise of an
aesthetic capital concept lies in enabling Sociology to better understand inequality and the socially based forms
of wealth available to modern society. It seems such attraction to “body image” and “aesthetic capital” is
increasingly becoming today's preoccupation, especially of young people as it gradually becomes the basis upon
which one's identity and self-esteem are built.

ADDITIONAL READ:
AESTHETIC CAPITAL
Authored by: Sylvia Holla , Giselinde Kuipers

ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF THE

SOCIOLOGY OF ART AND CULTURE
People are also inclined to associate ‘good looks’ with other positive qualities, from moral goodness to economic
success.

Social psychologists call this the ‘halo effect’: the assumption that persons with visible desirable traits also have
other, maybe less visible, positive qualities (Nisbett and Wilson 1977; Kaplan 1978). In present-day societies,
research has shown that people who are deemed more attractive tend to have higher wages, more durable
relationships, higher grades and better assessments (Andreoni and Petrie 2008). Thus, physical attractiveness
comes with many rewards, also in fields that at first glance have nothing to do with physical appearance.

Beauty comes with benefits. There are the obvious perks, such
as sexual attractiveness and a desire on the part of others to seek
out the company of good-looking people.

The Role of Culture in our Understanding of "Body Image" and "Self-esteem"

What is culture?
It is commonly defined as the shared patterns of thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, and habits in both material and
symbolic realms.
"Culture includes language, technology, economic, political and educational systems, religious and aesthetic
patterns, social structures and so on. It is widely recognized by social scientists that the self is shaped, in part,
through interaction with groups."(Harry Triandis).

Through culture, society shapes us in many ways. As mentioned earlier, body image is both internal (personal)
and external (society). These include how we perceive our bodies visually, how we feel about our physical
appearance, how we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies, and our sense of how other people view our
bodies.

We are all body-builders

“Drawing on contemporary culture, our bodies are not only biological but also cultural in that we say, we all
shape and manipulate our bodies. We are all body-builders as we build and style our bodies on a daily basis. We
decide how to dress and style our bodies, we decide how much hair we want on our bodies, and we shave, wax,
etc. We manipulate our bodies' weight through diet and exercise and we even modify our bodies to extreme
levels and introduce mechanical agents into our bodies merging flesh and technology. The body is enthralled to
cultural regimes, telling us how we should look - especially how we should dress and what our bodies weight
(fat levels) should be".

What happens when your body doesn’t look like how it's supposed to look like, or feel how it's
supposed to feel, or do what it’s supposed to do?
Who or what defines the ideals behind these expectations?

How can we challenge them and live more peacefully in our bodies?

De Mello (2014). In the ‘Encyclopedia of Body Adornment', De Mello explores these questions as she says:

All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet their cultural standards of
beauty, as well as their religious. In addition, people modify and adorn their bodies as part of the complex or
process of creating and recreating their personal and social identities.
 The Role of Culture in our Understanding of "Body
Image" and "Self-esteem"
What is culture?
It is commonly defined as the shared patterns of thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, and habits in both material and
symbolic realms.

"Culture includes language, technology, economic, political and educational systems, religious and aesthetic
patterns, social structures and so on. It is widely recognized by social scientists that the self is shaped, in part,
through interaction with groups."(Harry Triandis).
Through culture, society shapes us in many ways. As mentioned earlier, body image is both internal (personal)
and external (society). These include how we perceive our bodies visually, how we feel about our physical
appearance, how we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies, and our sense of how other people view our
bodies.

What do you think are characteristics that Filipinos find to be attractive? Are they similar with other the
American’s perception of beauty?

Try to watch this video to see the various beauty standards different cultures

hold. As/Is (2014), Beauty Standards Around The World,

We are all body-builders

“Drawing on contemporary culture, our bodies are not only biological but also cultural in that we say, we all
shape and manipulate our bodies. We are all body-builders as we build and style our bodies on a daily basis. We
decide how to dress and style our bodies, we decide how much hair we want on our bodies, and we shave, wax,
etc. We manipulate our bodies' weight through diet and exercise and we even modify our bodies to extreme
levels and introduce mechanical agents into our bodies merging flesh and technology. The body is enthralled to
cultural regimes, telling us how we should look - especially how we should dress and what our bodies weight (fat
levels) should be".

What happens when your body doesn’t look like how it's supposed to look like, or feel how it's supposed to
feel, or do what it’s supposed to do?

Who or what defines the ideals behind these expectations?

How can we challenge them and live more peacefully in our bodies?
De Mello (2014). In the ‘Encyclopedia of Body Adornment', De Mello explores these questions as she says:

All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet their cultural standards of
beauty, as well as their religious. In addition, people modify and adorn their bodies as part of the complex or
process of creating and recreating their personal and social identities.
A particular practice related to body modification is Female Genital Mutilization (FGM). Here are some key facts
regarding FGM provided by the World Health Organization (2020).
• Female genital mutilation (FGM) involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia
or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.

• The practice has no health benefits for girls and women.

• FGM can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, as well as
complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths.

• More than 200 million girls and women alive today have been cut in 30 countries in Africa, the
Middle East and Asia where FGM is concentrated.

• FGM is mostly carried out on young girls between infancy and age 15.

• FGM is a violation of the human rights of girls and women.

• WHO is opposed to all forms of FGM, and is opposed to health care providers performing FGM
(medicalization of FGM).

• Treatment of health complications of FGM in 27 high prevalence countries costs 1.4 billion USD
per year.

What is Pop culture?

Audrey Tramel (2013) mentions that the predominance of "pop culture” in today’s society definitely has some
effects such as the way teenagers think of themselves, how they associate with others, and how they express
characteristics of their maturation.

Pop culture or popular culture from a common understanding is a culture widely accepted and patronized by
the public as in pop music which is very appealing to the youth. Pop culture influences how teens define
themselves as in the case of a recent famous K-pop group, named "Momoland" which gained the admiration of
millions of Filipino teenagers.
Its influence on them goes to the point of imitating the way they dress and style their bodies, the way they talk
and express themselves. It influences the way they define themselves. Indeed, an important characteristic of
every teenagers’ maturation is his/her self-definition.

Self-definition refers to the way a person sees himself. For teens, that image is influenced to a large
extent by personal choices, which are, in turn, influenced by the images and associations teens glean
from pop culture on a daily basis.

Recent researchers agree that pop culture has some impact on teenagers’ self- definition. Pop culture can
provide benchmarks which become the teenagers’ basis of their self-definition. In this way, they see themselves
adopting certain characteristics from the various celebrities and other models they see in pop culture. Lastly,
self-definition can be intrinsically tied into self-esteem and confidence, two critical components of a healthy
disposition throughout maturation and into adulthood.

Pop culture icons tend to extend their visibility beyond culture and into brands, which they sell via
advertisements or products carrying their name.

Teenagers who see, for instance, Liza Soberano or James Reid using beauty products like Vicky Belo's kojic soap,
may then be influenced to patronize that label. Beyond fostering a certain degree of commercialism, these
brands have associations in and of themselves that tie into self- definition or social groups within a teenager’s
life. Often, celebrity brands tie into an acceptance level among teenagers, such that some teenagers feel they
must own a particular brand in order to be accepted. These sentiments can distract teenagers from key aspects
of their development.

Teenagers who see, for instance, Liza Soberano or James Reid using beauty products like Vicky Belo's kojic soap,
may then be influenced to patronize that label. Beyond fostering a certain degree of commercialism, these
brands have associations in and of themselves that tie into self- definition or social groups within a teenager’s
life. Often, celebrity brands tie into an acceptance level among teenagers, such that some teenagers feel they
must own a particular brand in order to be accepted. These sentiments can distract teenagers from key aspects
of their development.

So then, in our hyper-mediated society, we are constantly beset with media images especially advertisements
representing appropriate bodies or skin, so that we internalize these and either attempt to conform to them or
resist them. The media creates ideals, in the form of celebrities and models, for men and women to admire.
These give us pressure to conform to expectations. Images in the media often make us worry about our own
appearance, defining what body is attractive and which one is not, seeing being fat as unattractive, etc.

It seems contemporary culture is obsessed with the body. At any moment, we are likely to be told, from a variety
of media, how the body should act and should look; also telling us how we should dress, what our weight should
be, how we should spend our leisure and even how our bodies should age. Through media, campaign on the use
of certain beauty products, has the goal of improving the look of the spokes model in order to improve his/her
appearance to perfection using those cosmetics. As a result, most women are dissatisfied with their appearance
which, Annie Lennox says, is the "stuff that fuels the fashion and beauty industries". This results in women feeling
insecure about their own appearance and then conforming to the media's perception of beauty by buying beauty
products such as make-up, creams, and hair dyes. "Beauty has become a currency system and it assigns
hierarchical value to women, encouraging escalating consumerism.
 The Influence of Media on the Adolescent's
Understanding of Beauty
Genesis M. Javellana (2014) mentions that the media plays a large role in how teenagers view themselves by
shaping images or what teenagers are supposed to be or do. Research findings revealed that:

Internet- is the most frequently used media with the respondents using it often.
Magazines-have the strongest negative relationship with the weight of the respondents, and, proposed that
measures such as media awareness seminars and screening and balancing or commercials and advertisements
on television and magazines are needed to balance the effects of media on adolescents.

Findings from further studies, showed that teenagers:

"
# Imagine themselves being the actor/actress in a movie they have watched.
✔

✔ "
# They copy an actor's/actress' clothes, hairstyle, and/or lines in the movie because it would make them
look cool or feel good.

"
# They like a movie because the actor/s and or actress/ es clothes, in that movie look exceptionally good.
✔

"
# They immediately try any new product that they saw in a commercial.
✔

"
# They use the product endorsed by their favorite actor/actress.
✔

"
# They feel upset after seeing handsome/beautiful personalities on or internet.
✔

✔ "# They spend more than nine hours in a week online, searching tips, advice and/or procedures from the
internet that would improve their outward appearance.

"
# They edit their solo pictures to make them look better before posting them online.
✔

"
# They feel handsome/beautiful when their solo picture gets a lot of likes.
✔

✔"
# Similarly, teenagers follow a lot of beauty, fashion and/or fitness advice that they rea ad from
magazines.

"
# They also feel unhappy about their weight after seeing a model from a magazine.
✔

The impact of Media on the Self-esteem of the

Adolescent
In the concepts of physical changes in the body and identity of the adolescent, Davies& Furnham, found out that
the average teenager is sensitive to, and critical of, his/her physical self. Constant exposure to cultural standards
of beauty in evaluating own body image (via media and social networks) may produce non-normative shit in the
form of dieting practices which may lead to eating disorders as a result of body image dissatisfaction, the feeling
of discrepancy between actual and ideal body image.
Researchers have found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong predictor of depression, exercise
dependence, eating disorders and steroid use among young people in the US (Stice and Withenton, 2002).

• Boys body image is generally more positive than girls, and boys are much more likely to welcome
weight gain. Simmons and Blyth's "Cultural ldeal Hypothesis" indicate that puberty brings boys
closer to their ideal body while girls shift further from theirs. A Cultural ideal is that male bodies
be big and strong while ideal female bodies in Western (and Asian) culture is slim.

The Cultural Ideal Hypothesis predicts that, since the cultural ideal for the female body is being slim, adolescent
girls should more likely to express body dissatisfaction and resort to dieting.

• Caufmann and Steinberg say that girls in western cultures are more concerned about appearance
and express more worry and concern about how other people respond to them than in other
cultures. If body shape is far from dominant cultural ideal of slimness, teens are more likely to
develop low self-esteem and negative body image.
• Strikingly, today, girls exposed to images of Barbie dolls reported lower body esteem and a greater
desire for a thinner body shape. Clearly, the body-image expectations of pre-teens can be
distorted with their ‘If Barbie and Ken Were Real’ thinking. Barbie's neck would be too long and
thin to support the weight of her head, and her upper body proportions would make it difficult
for her to walk upright. In Ken's case, his huge barrel chest and enormously thick neck would nearly
preclude him from wearing a shirt. Ken would be 7 feet 2 inches tall while Barbie would be 5 feet
2 inches. (Brownell and Napolitano, 1995).

Certainly, the exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women posed a great impact on their self-esteem. It
increased body dissatisfaction, negative mood states, and eating disorder symptoms and decreased self-
esteem. "Exposure to thin-ideal media images may contribute to the development of eating disorders by causing
body dissatisfaction, negative moods, low self-esteem, and eating disorders symptoms among women"
(Hawkins, et. al., 2010). Miller also speaks of the disturbing problem of very young girls dieting and having
negative thoughts about their body.

Who's to blame for our body perceptions, be it good or

bad?
Society gives us a number of reference points that shape our perceptions whether positive or negative.
When it comes to our bodies there are a number of sources that affect us more than the others.

The Media
The images of perfection we see in print, film, and television projects an unrealistic version of
reality that we are continually told is attainable - if we work out, eat less, and lather our bodies in
transformative, firming and tightening creams.

The media are powerful tools that reinforces cultural beliefs and values, and while they may not
be fully responsible for determining the standards tor physical attractiveness, they make
escaping the barrage of images and attitudes almost impossible.
Prejudice – Size
 Intolerance of body diversity has a lot to do with prejudice of size and shape in our culture.
Being thin, toned, and muscular has become associated with the hard-working, successful, popular,
beautiful, strong, and the disciplined. Being fat is associated with lazy, ugly, weak, and lacking in will-
power.

With this prejudice, fat is not a description like tall or redhead - it's an indication of moral character
and we are conditioned to think that fat is bad.

Those closest to us - family and friends

We learn from other people, particularly those closest to us about the things that are considered
important. Friendships are particularly important in body image development because we place high
value in them, spends lots of time with our friends and develop shared experiences, values, and beliefs.

Classrooms, university dorms, and common rooms are often filled with negative body talk: "I wish I
had her stomach" "I hate my thighs," "I feel fat." Listening to this tends to reinforce the need to focus
on appearance and make comparisons between us and other people's bodies.

But the impact of media and society in general, are not all bad.

As with most things, with the bad comes the potential for good. If not for this awakening, we would not have
initiatives like Live Life, Get Active; where awakening ourselves to a healthy and fulfilled life is at the core of
what we do.

Live Life Get Active is a social initiative built to create a fitter, healthier, and happier lifestyle. We approach
health and well-being from a fun and socially engaging perspective and the importance we put on a healthy
lifestyle. People nowadays exposed themselves to biking, yoga, Zumba, sports and other wellness activities.

Self-esteem and its Significance

”Self-esteem, sometimes referred to as self-worth or self-respect, is an important part of success.

Too little self-esteem can leave people feeling defeated or depressed. It can also lead people to make bad
choices, fall into destructive relationships, or fail to live up to their full potential.

Too much self-esteem, however, as exhibited in narcissistic personality disorder, can certainly be
irritating to others and can even damage personal relationships". (Kendra Cherry)

The Concept of Self-esteem

Self-esteem levels at the extreme high and low ends of the spectrum can be harmful, so ideally, it's best to strike
a balance somewhere in the middle. A realistic yet positive view of yourself is generally considered the ideal.
But what exactly is self-esteem? Where does it come from and what influence does it really have on our lives?
In Psychology, the term self-esteem is used to describe a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value.
In other words, it is how much you appreciate and like yourself. Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait
which tends to be stable and enduring. Self-esteem can involve a variety of beliefs about yourself, such as the
appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.

Why is Self-esteem important?

Self-esteem can play a significant role in one’s motivation and success throughout life. Low self-esteem may
hold you back from succeeding at school or work because you don't believe yourself to be capable of success.
By contrast, having a healthy self-esteem can help you achieve because you navigate life with a positive,
assertive attitude and believe you can accomplish your goals.

Maslow suggested that people need both esteem from other people as well as inner self-respect. Both of these
needs must be fulfilled in order for an individual to grow as a person and achieve self-actualization. Self-esteem
is one of the basic human motivations.

Those who consistently receive overly critical or negative assessments from caregivers, family members, and
friends, for example, will likely experience problems with low self-esteem. Additionally, your inner thinking,
age, any potential illnesses, disabilities, or physical limitations, and your job can affect your self-esteem.
“Possessing little self-regard can lead people to become depressed, to fall short of their potential, or to
tolerate abusive situations and relationships. Too much self-love, on the other hand, results in an
irritating sense of entitlement and an inability to learn from failures. It can also be a sign of clinical
narcissism which is a personality disorder.”

So how can we build a strong, positive body image?

Positive body image involves understanding that healthy attractive bodies come in many shapes and sizes, and
that physical appearance says very little about our character or value as a person. How we get to this point of
acceptance often depends on our individual development and self-acceptance. To get too that all important
point of balance, there are a few steps we can take:

a. Talk back to the media and speak our dissatisfaction with the focus on appearance;

b. De-emphasize numbers as pounds, kilograms or inches, feet and meters on the scale; they
don't tell us anything meaningful about the body as a whole or our health;

c. Stop comparing ourselves with others and remember that each one is unique;

d. We need to appreciate and enjoy our bodies in the uniqueness of what we have;
e. Spend time with people who have a healthy relationship with food, activity, and their bodies;

f. Question the degree to which self-esteem depends on our appearance because basing our
happiness on how we look is likely to lead us to failure and frustration, and may therefore prevent
us from finding true happiness;

g. Broaden our perspective about health and beauty by reading about body image cultural
variances, or media influence and check out a local art gallery paying particular attention to fine art
collections that show a variety of body types throughout the ages and in different cultures;

h. Recognize that size prejudice is a form of discrimination, as shape and size are not indicators
of character, morality, intelligence, or success;

i. Approach health and well-being from a firm and socially engaging perspective; and
put importance on a healthy lifestyle and;
 j. Keep in mind that the body, in whatever shape or size, is good and sacred, having been created
in the image and likeness of god. Such body deserves love and respect.
We will have a positive body image when we have a realistic perception of our bodies, when we enjoy, accept
and celebrate who or what and how we are, and let go of negative societal or media perpetuated conditioning.

IT PAYS TO READ!
Clothing and Self-Image

By: Jill L Ferguson

Your style and the clothes you choose reflect and affect your mood, health, and overall confidence.
Scientists call this phenomenon "enclothed cognition.” Adam Hajo and Adam D. Galinsky, both
professors at the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University wrote in the Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology that enclothed cognition "involves the co- occurrence of two
independent factors the symbolic meaning of the clothes and the physical experience of wearing
them.”
It was further asserted that when we put on a piece of clothing we cannot help but adopt some of the
characteristics associated with it unconsciously. The Business Insider says that clothes don't just affect
your confidence level, they can affect your success, as clothing significantly influences how others
perceive you and how they respond to you.

Understanding the psychological dynamics of why the right-for-us clothing can contribute to our
confidence, raise our self-esteem, and help propel us in the workplace has become big business. So
the next time you reach for those yoga pants or for that fiery red dress, ask yourself how will that
clothing item make you feel and what is it saying to the world around you today?

“If beauty and fame bring ideal relationships, then celebrities should have the best marriages. But for those
who live simply, walk humbly and love genuinely, all good will come back to you! That's life.
Enjoy yours!"
 MIDTERM PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
Week 9 & 10: Sexual Self
LEARNING CONTENT

Sexuality is one of the fundamental drives behind everyone’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. It defines
the means of biological reproduction, describes psychological and sociological representations of self, and
orients a person’s attraction to others. Further, it shapes the brain and body to be pleasure-seeking. Yet, as
important as sexuality is to being human, it is often viewed as a sensitive topic for personal or scientific inquiry.
This module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame
or sensitivity, using science as a lens, we examine fundamental aspects of human sexuality— including gender,
sexual orientation, fantasies, behaviors, paraphilia, and sexual consent.
Sexuality is commonly defined as “the ways people experience and express themselves as sexual beings”
(King, 2014, p. 373).
The World Health Organization (WHO) provides a working definition of the term “sexuality” that
encompasses or specifies much more.

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex, gender identities and roles,
sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in
thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships. While
sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed (WHO, 2006a
as cited in “Defining Sexual Health”, 2018, para. 6).

Sex influences the way we dress, talk and behave. In many ways, sex defines who we are. It is so
important that the eminent neuropsychologist Karl Pribram (1958) described sex as one of four basic human
drive states. Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to Pribram,
feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these
drives are so closely associated with our psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study,
understand, and discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for three of the four drives
(Malacane & Beckmeyer, 2016).

Ignorance about sex and sexuality is deadly and may cause serious problems. Sex education may not yet
have been implemented in the country in a full blast but it doesn’t mean that learning cannot take place. If more
Filipinos would continue to learn, whether formally or informally, about proper sex education, than it may be
indirectly passed on to young children through teaching proper hygiene or through being discerning of a child’s
actions, reactions, questions, or comments about sex. Sex education is not to promote sexual intercourse but
to promote good sexual health and safety from sexual violence. “Withholding information about sex
and sexuality will not keep children safe; it will only keep them ignorant” (Hauser, 2013, para. 2).
 SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
As one grows up, one experiences many changes. There are changes in the body; in the way one behaves and
the way others expect one to be. There are also changes in interests and preoccupations. All of this is normal. It
is part of growing up, but growing up is not easy. This is a time when one has many questions and hardly any
answers. It is difficult to talk about the things upper-most in your mind. Why is my body changing? Why do I get
an erection? Why do I feel attracted to the opposite sex? Many older people are not willing to discuss these
issues openly. As a result, your friends (peer group), TV, films, magazines and imagination become your sources
of information.

In order to deal with the confusion, we need to know the facts of growing up, distinguish between myths and
realities and come to terms with change. This module deals with these issues.
“It’s natural for everyone to become more sexually aware, but it doesn’t mean you are ready to have sex”
(Cole, 2009, p. 11).

Puberty could have been less stressful if only we were properly oriented of what to expect physically and
emotionally. Just by reading few books on sexuality, we would be comforted to know how normal the things
and feelings we thought were abnormal. Though puberty is normal, it is not a one size fits all experience. It could
manifest in varying rates and specific ages. Every individual “develops and reacts in different ways” due to factors
like stress, weight, nutrition, hormonal activity, and inherent characteristics” (Cole, 2009, p. 4).

People have been scientifically investigating sex for only about 125 years. The first scientific investigations
of sex employed the case study method of research. Using this method, the English physician Henry Havelock Ellis
(1859-1939) examined diverse topics within sexuality. From 1897 to 1923, his findings were published in a seven-
volume set of books titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex. Among his most noteworthy findings is that
transgender people are distinct from homosexual people. Ellis’s studies led him to be an advocate of equal rights
for women and comprehensive human sexuality education in public schools.
 Using case studies, the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is credited with being the first
scientist to link sex to healthy development and to recognize humans as being sexual throughout their lifespans,
including childhood (Freud, 1905).

Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our
personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us
must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting
during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud’s stages are called the stages of psychosexual
development. According to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body,
called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

As we develop from infancy to childhood, our sexual or libidinal energies focus on different parts of the
bodies (erogenous zones). The primary goal of the individual at each stage is to maximize the gratification of
needs associated with the center of libidinal pleasure, in a way that conforms or is acceptable to reality. If that
balance is not attained, however –if needs are not gratified or is over gratified at a certain stage – the individual’s
libidinal energies remain stuck, or fixated to a particular needs characteristic of that stage.

Erogeno
Stage Age Gratifying Activity Fixation
us Zone

Nursing-eating, Gossiping and talking too much,

0-18
Oral Mouth sucking, biting overeating, smoking, nail biting,
months
swallong (feeding) chewing on gums, sarcasm

Anal Expulsive:-excessively
18 sloppy, disorganized, reckless,
Anal months- Anus Bowel movement careless, defiantAnal Retentive:-
3years very careful, stingy, obstinate,
meticulous, conforming, passive-
aggressive
Masturbation Anxiety and guilt feelings about
an sex, and narcissistic personality,
Phallic 4-5 years Genital d Genital interpersonal problems, problems
fondling*Oedipus with authority of the same-sex
Complex*Electra parent, uncertainty in gender
Complex identity
Learning and
Latency 6-11 years None None
social
adjustment
Masturbation
11 to
Genital Genital an Normal
adulthood
d Heterosexual
Relationship
 While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the
contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud’s psychosexual
stages as a legitimate explanation for how one’s personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud’s
theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood.

According to Freud, each of these stages could be passed through in a healthy or unhealthy manner. In
unhealthy manners, people might develop psychological problems, such as frigidity, impotence, or anal-
retentiveness.

THE DIVERSITY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

Applying for a scholarship or filling out a job application requires your name, address, and birth-date.
Additionally, applications usually ask for your sex or gender. It’s common for us to use the terms “sex” and
“gender” interchangeably. However, in modern usage, these terms are distinct from one another.
Sex describes means of biological reproduction. Sex includes sexual organs, such as ovaries— defining
what it is to be a female—or testes—defining what it is to be a male. Interestingly, biological sex is not as easily
defined or determined as you might expect (see the section on variations in sex, below). By contrast, the term
gender describes psychological (gender identity) and sociological (gender role) representations of biological
sex. At an early age, we begin learning cultural norms for what is considered masculine and feminine. For
example, children may associate long hair or dresses with femininity. Later in life, as adults, we often conform to
these norms by behaving in gender-specific ways: as men, we build houses; as women, we bake cookies
(Marshall, 1989; Money et al., 1955; Weinraub et al., 1984).

Because cultures change over time, so too do ideas about gender. For example, European and American
cultures today associate pink with femininity and blue with masculinity. However, less than a century ago, these
same cultures were swaddling baby boys in pink, because of its masculine associations with “blood and war,”
and dressing little girls in blue, because of its feminine associations with the Virgin Mary (Kimmel, 1996).
 Sex and gender are important aspects of a person’s identity. However, they do not tell us about a person’s
sexual orientation (Rule & Ambady, 2008). Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual attraction to others.
Within the context of sexual orientation, sexual attraction refers to a person’s capacity to arouse the sexual
interest of another, or, conversely, the sexual interest one person feels toward another.

We live in an era when sex, gender, and sexual orientation are controversial religious and political issues.
Some nations have laws against homosexuality, while others have laws protecting same-sex marriages. At a time
when there seems to be little agreement among religious and political groups, it makes sense to wonder, “What
is normal?” and, “Who decides?”
The international scientific and medical communities (e.g., World Health Organization, World Medical
Association, World Psychiatric Association, Association for Psychological Science) view variations of sex, gender,
and sexual orientation as normal. Furthermore, variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation occur naturally
throughout the animal kingdom. More than 500 animal species have homosexual or bisexual orientations
(Lehrer, 2006). More than 65,000 animal species are intersex—born with either an absence or some
combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes (Jarne & Auld, 2006).
In humans, intersex individuals make up about two percent—more than 150 million people—of the world’s
population (Blackless et al., 2000). There are dozens of intersex conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity
Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome (Lee et al., 2006). The term “syndrome” can be misleading; although intersex
individuals may have physical limitations (e.g., about a third of Turner’s individuals have heart defects; Matura
et al., 2007), they otherwise lead relatively normal intellectual, personal, and social lives. In any case, intersex
individuals demonstrate the diverse variations of biological sex.

Just as biological sex varies more widely than is commonly thought, so too does gender.
Cisgender individuals’ gender identities correspond with their birth sexes, whereas transgender
individuals’ gender identities do not correspond with their birth sexes. Because gender is so deeply
ingrained culturally, rates of transgender individuals vary widely around the world.

Sexual orientation is as diverse as gender identity. Instead of thinking of sexual orientation as being two
categories—homosexual and heterosexual—Kinsey argued that it’s a continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, &
Martin, 1948). He measured orientation on a continuum, using a 7-point Likert scale called the Heterosexual-
Homosexual Rating Scale, in which 0 is exclusively heterosexual, 3 is bisexual, and 6 is exclusively homosexual.
Later researchers using this method have found 18% to 39% of Europeans and Americans identifying as
somewhere between heterosexual and homosexual (Lucas et al., 2017; YouGov.com, 2015). Of the 39
countries covered by a global survey, only 17 countries had majorities that accepted homosexuality, with the
Philippines ranking at number 10 among the 17 (https://globalnation.inquirer.net/).

The change from child to adult is an especially dangerous time for adolescents in our society. From their earliest
years, children watch television shows and movies that insist that "sex appeal" is a personal quality that people
need to develop to the fullest (focusas.com/SexualBehavior-Range.html, 2008). While adolescents and their
parents generally agree about many issues and aspects of life, they hold strikingly different views on sex.
Parents, based on their perspective from greater experience, urge caution and restraint.
Adolescents, experiencing strong sexual desire for the first time and eager for all pleasures life can offer, are
frequently tempted to throw caution to the wind and indulge (Tria, et al., 2012). TV, movies, and music are not
the only influences the Internet provides teens with seemingly unlimited access to information on sex as well as
a steady supply of people willing to talk about sex with them. Teens may feel safe because they can remain
anonymous while looking for information on sex. Sexual predators know this and manipulate young people into
online relationships and, later, set up a time and place to meet. (commercialexploitation.org/factsheets/ccfc-
factsmarketingsex.pdf, 2008).

What about sexual orientation and coming out during the adolescence?

Adolescence is a period when people separate from their parents and families begin to develop autonomy.
Adolescent can be a period of experimentation and many youth may question their sexual feelings.
Becoming aware of sexual feelings is a normal developmental task of adolescence. Sometimes adolescent have
same sex feelings or experiences that cause confusion about their sexual orientation. This confusion appears to
decline over time, with different outcomes for different individuals. Some adolescents desire and engage in same
sex behaviour but do not identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual, sometimes because of the stigma associated with
a non-hetero sexual orientation.
Some adolescents experience continuing feelings of same-sex attraction but do not engage in any sexual activity
or may engage in heterosexual behavior for varying lengths of time. Because of the stigma associated with same-
sex attractions, many youths experience same-sex attraction or many years before becoming sexually active
with partners of the same sex or disclosing their attractions to others. For some young people, this process of
exploring same-sex attractions leads to a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity. For some, acknowledging this identity
can bring an end to confusion. When these young people receive the support of parents and others, they are
often able to live satisfying and healthy lives and move through the usual process of adolescent development.
The younger a person is when she or he acknowledges a non- heterosexual identity, the fewer internal and
external resources she or he is likely to have. Therefore, youths who come out early are particularly in need of
support from parents and others. Young people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual may be more likely to
face certain problems, including being bullied and having negative experiences in school. These experiences are
associated with negative outcomes, such as suicidal thoughts, and high-risk activities, such as unprotected sex
and alcohol and drug use. On the other hand, many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths appear to experience no
greater level of health or mental health risks. Where problems occur, they are closely associate with experience
of bias and discrimination in their environments. Support from important people in teen’s life can provide a very
helpful counterpart to bias and discrimination.

CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY
 Sexuality is much more than sexual feelings or sexual intercourse. It is an important part of who a person
is and what she/he will become. It includes all the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors associated with being
female or male, being attractive and being in love, as well as being in relationships that include sexual
intimacy and sensual and sexual activity. It also includes enjoyment of the world as we know it through the
five senses: taste, touch, smell, hearing, and sight.

Circle #1—Sensuality
Sensuality is awareness and feeling about your own body and other people's bodies, especially the body of a
sexual partner. Sensuality enables us to feel good about how our bodies look and feel and what they can do.
Sensuality also allows us to enjoy the pleasure our bodies can give us and others. This part of our sexuality affects
our behavior in several ways.

• Body image—Feeling attractive and proud of one's own body and the way it functions influences
many aspects of life. Adolescents often choose media personalities as the standard for how they
should look, so they are often disappointed by what they see in the mirror. They may be especially
dissatisfied when the mainstream media does not portray or does not positively portray physical
characteristics the teens see in the mirror, such as color of skin, type or hair, shape of eyes, height,
or body shape.
• Experiencing pleasure—Sensuality allows a person to experience pleasure when certain parts of
the body are touched. People also experience sensual pleasure from taste, touch, sight, hearing,
and smell as part of being alive.
• Satisfying skin hunger—The need to be touched and held by others in loving, caring ways is often
referred to as skin hunger. Adolescents typically receive considerably less touch from their parents
than do younger children. Many teens satisfy their skin hunger through close physical contact with
peers. Sexual intercourse may sometimes result from a teen's need to be held, rather than from
sexual desire.

• Feeling physical attraction for another person—The center of sensuality and attraction to others
is not in the genitals (despite all the jokes). The center of sensuality and attraction to others is in
the brain, humans' most important "sex organ." The unexplained mechanism responsible for
sexual attraction rests in the brain, not in the genitalia.
• Fantasy—The brain also gives people the capacity to have fantasies about sexual behaviors and
experiences. Adolescents often need help understanding that sexual fantasy is normal and that
one does not have to act upon sexual fantasies.
Circle #2—Sexual Intimacy

Sexual intimacy is the ability to be emotionally close to another human being and to accept closeness in return.
Several aspects of intimacy include

Sharing—Sharing intimacy is what makes personal relationships rich. While sensuality is about physical
closeness, intimacy focuses on emotional closeness.

Caring—Caring about others means feeling their joy and their pain. It means being open to emotions that may
not be comfortable or convenient. Nevertheless, an intimate relationship is possible only when we care.
Liking or loving another person—Having emotional attachment or connection to others is a manifestation of
intimacy.
Emotional risk-taking—To have true intimacy with others, a person must open up and share feelings and
personal information. Sharing personal thoughts and feelings with someone else is risky, because the other
person may not feel the same way. But it is not possible to be really close with another person without being
honest and open with her/him.

Vulnerability—To have intimacy means that we share and care, like or love, and take emotional risks. That makes
us vulnerable—the person with whom we share, about whom we care, and whom we like or love, has the power
to hurt us emotionally. Intimacy requires vulnerability, on the part of each person in the relationship.

Circle #3—Sexual Identity

Sexual identity is a person's understanding of who she/he is sexually, including the sense of being male or of
being female. Sexual identity consists of three "interlocking pieces" that, together, affect how each person sees
him/herself. Each "piece" is important.

• Gender identity—Knowing whether one is male or female. Most young children determine their
own gender identity by age two. Sometime, a person's biological gender is not the same as his/her
gender identity—this is called being transgender.

• Gender role—Identifying actions and/or behaviors for each gender. Some things are determined
by the way male and female bodies are built or function. For example, only women menstruate
and only men produce sperm. Other gender roles are culturally determined. In some countries
like the Philippines, it is considered appropriate for only women to wear dresses to work in the
business world. In other cultures, men may wear skirt-like outfits everywhere.
There are many "rules" about what men and women can/should do that have nothing to do with the way
their bodies are built or function. This aspect of sexuality is especially important for young adolescents to
understand, since peer, parent, and cultural pressures to be "masculine" or "feminine" increase during the
adolescent years. Both young men and young women need help sorting out how perceptions about gender
roles affect whether they feel encouraged or discouraged in their choices about relationships, leisure
activities, education, and career.
Gender bias means holding stereotyped opinions about people according to their gender. Gender bias
might include believing that women are less intelligent or less capable than men, that men suffer from
"testosterone poisoning," that men cannot raise children without the help of women, that women cannot
be analytical, that men cannot be sensitive. Many times, people hold fast to these stereotyped opinions
without giving rational thought to the subject of gender.
• Sexual orientation—Whether a person's primary attraction is to people of the other gender
(heterosexuality) or to the same gender (homosexuality) or to both genders (bisexuality) defines
his/her sexual orientation. Sexual orientation begins to emerge by adolescence although many
gay and lesbian youth say they knew they felt same sex attraction by age 10 or 11. Between three
and 10—percent of the general population is probably exclusively homosexual in orientation.
Perhaps another 10 percent of the general population feel attracted to both genders.
Heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth can all experience same-gender sexual attraction and/or
activity around puberty. Such behavior, including sexual play with samegender peers, crushes on same-
 gender adults, or sexual fantasies about same-gender people are normal for pre-teens and young teens and
are not necessarily related to sexual orientation.
Negative social messages and homophobic culture in the society can mean that young adolescents who are
experiencing sexual attraction to and romantic feelings for someone of their own gender need support so
they can clarify their feelings and accept their sexuality.

Circle #4—Reproduction and Sexual Health

These are a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors and attitudes that make sexual relationships
healthy and enjoyable.
• Factual information about reproduction—Is necessary so youth will understand how male and
female reproductive systems function and how conception and/or STD infection occur. Adolescents
often have inadequate information about their own and/or their partner's body. Teens need this
information so they can make informed decisions about sexual expression and protect their
health. Youth need to understand anatomy and physiology because every adolescent needs the
knowledge and understanding to help him/her appreciate the ways in which his/her body
functions.

• Feelings and attitudes—Are wide-ranging when it comes to sexual expression and reproduction
and to sexual health-related topics such as STD infection, HIV and AIDS, contraceptive use,
abortion, pregnancy, and childbirth.

• Sexual intercourse—Is one of the most common behaviors among humans. Sexual intercourse is a
behavior that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in females and in
males. Sexual intercourse may also result in pregnancy and/or STDs. In programs for youth,
discussion of sexual intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of male-female (penile-
vaginal) intercourse. However, youth need accurate health information about sexual intercourse—
vaginal, oral, and anal.
• Reproductive and sexual anatomy—The male and female body and the ways in which they actually
function is a part of sexual health. Youth can learn to protect their reproductive and sexual health.
This means that teens need information about all the effective methods of contraception
currently available, how they work, where to obtain them, their effectiveness, and their side
effects. This means that youth also need to know how to use latex condoms to prevent STD
infection. Even if youth are not currently engaging in sexual intercourse, they probably will do so
at some point in the future. They must know how to prevent pregnancy and/or disease.

Finally, youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that
particular community and/or culture) may be ineffective in preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the
method, even increase susceptibility to STDs. The leader will need to determine what those traditional methods
are, their effectiveness, and their side effects before he/she can discuss traditional methods of contraception in
a culturally appropriate and informative way.

• Sexual reproduction—The actual processes of conception, pregnancy, delivery, and recovery

following childbirth are important parts of sexuality. Youth need information about sexual
reproduction—the process whereby two different individuals each contribute half of the genetic
material to their child. The child is, therefore, not identical to either parent. [Asexual reproduction
is a process whereby simple one-celled organisms reproduce by splitting, creating two separate
 one-celled organisms identical to the original [female] organism before it split.] Too many
programs focus exclusively on sexual reproduction when providing sexuality education and ignore
all the other aspects of human sexuality.

Circle #5—Sexualization
Sexualization is that aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence, manipulate, or control other
people. Often called the "shadowy" side of human sexuality, sexualization spans behaviors that range from the
relatively harmless to the sadistically violent, cruel, and criminal. These sexual behaviors include flirting,
seduction, withholding sex from an intimate partner to punish her/him or to get something, sexual harassment,
sexual abuse, and rape. Teens need to know that no one has the right to exploit them sexually and that they do
not have the right to exploit anyone else sexually.
Flirting—Is a relatively harmless sexualization behavior. Nevertheless, upon occasion it is an attempt to
manipulate someone else, and it can cause the person manipulated to feel hurt, humiliation, and shame.
Seduction—Is the act of enticing someone to engage in sexual activity. The act of seduction implies manipulation
that at times may prove harmful for the one who is seduced.

Sexual harassment—Is an illegal behavior. Sexual harassment means harassing someone else because of her/his
gender. It could mean making personal, embarrassing remarks about someone's appearance, especially
characteristics associated with sexual maturity, such as the size of a woman's breasts or of a man's testicles and
penis. It could mean unwanted touching, such as hugging a subordinate or patting someone's bottom. It could
mean demands by a teacher, supervisor, or other person in authority for sexual intercourse in exchange for
grades, promotion, hiring, raises, etc. All these behaviors are manipulative. The Philippine laws of the {provide
protection against sexual harassment. Youth should know that they have the right to file a complaint with
appropriate authorities if they are sexually harassed and that others may complain of their behavior if they
sexually harass someone else.

Rape—Means coercing or forcing someone else to have genital contact with another. Sexual assault can include
forced petting as well as forced sexual intercourse. Force, in the case of rape, can include use of overpowering
strength, threats, and/or implied threats that arouse fear in the person raped. Youth need to know that rape is
always illegal and always cruel. Youth should know that they are legally entitled to the protection of the criminal
justice system if they are the victims of rape and that they may be prosecuted if they force anyone else to have
genital contact with them for any reason. Refusing to accept no and forcing the other person to have sexual
intercourse always means rape.
Incest—Means forcing sexual contact on any minor who is related to the perpetrator by birth or marriage. Incest
is always illegal and is extremely cruel because it betrays the trust that children and youth give to their families.
Moreover, because the older person knows that incest is illegal and tries to hide the crime, he/she often blames
the child/youth. The triple burden of forced sexual contact, betrayed trust, and self- blame makes incest
particularly damaging to survivors of incest.

SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE

Below is the sexual response cycle. This cycle is applicable not only to teens but to adults as well.
SEXUAL HEALTH AND SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES INFECTIONS
The factual information about reproduction is necessary so youth will understand how male and
female reproductive systems function and how conception and or STD infection occur. Adolescents
often have inadequate information about their own and/or their partner's body Teens need this
information so they can make informed decisions about sexual expression and protect their health.
Youth need to understand anatomy and physiology because every adolescent needs the knowledge
and understanding to help him/her appreciate the ways in which his her body
functions (advocatesforyouth.org/publications/Ipe/index.htm, 2008).

Sexual intercourse

Sexual intercourse is one of the most common behaviors among humans Sexual intercourse is a
behavior that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in females and in males.
Sexual intercourse may also result in pregnancy and or STDs. ln programs for youth, discussion of
sexual intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse.
However, youth need accurate health information about sexual intercourse—vaginal, oral, and anal.
 COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS HAVING SEX
all teens are having sex
having sex makes you matured and an adult

something is wrong with an older teen (17-1() who is not having

sex a girl can’t get pregnant when she is menstruating

a girl can’t get pregnant if it’s her first time

you are a virgin can't have sexual intercourse --- oral sex doesn't count
oral sex is not sex

Premarital Sex

Is sexual activity practiced by people who are unmarried. It can be any sexual relations a person has prior to
marriage. The alternative terms for premarital sex have been suggested, including non-marital sex (which overlaps
with adultery), youthful sex, adolescent and young adult sex.
A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in
predominantly Muslim nations", such as Indonesia. Jordan, Pakistan and Egypt, each having over disapproval,
while people in Western European countries were the most accepting with Spain, Germany and France
expressing less than 10% disapproval. People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals
to tak precautions to protect themselves against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS. There
is also a risk of an unplanned pregnancy in heterosexual relationships
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE HAVING PREMARITAL SEX

Having poorly educated parents

Unsupportive family relationships

Lack of Parental supervision

Friends who are sexually active

Poor school grades poor academic performance

Poor spiritual exercises (not hearing mass, lack of church involvement
Engaged in risky leisure activities

Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections

These are also known as Venereal Diseases (VD). They are passed through sexual contact or genital through vaginal
intercourse, oral sex and anal sex. The term STI evolved from "venereal disease" to "sexually transmitted
disease", then "sexually transmitted infection" which has a broader range of meaning: that it can be passed
without disease. (You don't have to be ill to infect others)
HIV/AIDS

HIV is "Human Immunodeficiency Virus". This is a retrovirus-genetic info @RNA than DNA. HIV is the virus that
causes AIDS and it is preventable and manageable but no curable. AIDS is "Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome". Since this is a syndrome, there are several manifestations of the breakdown in body's immune system
and have developed in people who have been infected by HIV.

How do people get AIDS? AIDS is developed through:

• Bodily fluids (blood products--transfusions, semen and vaginal fluids)

• Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse (sharing needles and use of unsterilized blades)

• Sexual intercourse (unprotected vaginal, oral and anal sex)

HIV/AIDS Situationer:
In the Philippines, here is the number of HIV/AIDS cases reported:

2000 1 case in every 3 days

2009 2 cases in each day
2010 5 cases in each day
2012 1 in every 3 hours (8 cases in each
day)
2014 17 cases in each day
2015 22 cases in each day

Around the World, there are 448 million new infections of curable sexually transmitted infections which occur
yearly.

TEENAGE PREGNANCY
This is pregnancy in human females under the age of 20 at the time that the pregnancy ends. Pregnant teenagers
face many of the same obstetrics issues as other women. There are, however, additional medical concerns for
mothers aged below 15 years old. For mothers aged 15-19, risks are associated more with socio-economic
factors than with the biological effects of age. In teenage pregnancy, there are risks of low birth weight,
premature labor, anemia, and pre-eclampsia are connected to the biological age itself, as it was observed in
teen births. Every day in developing countries, 20,000 girls under age 18 give birth.

This amounts to 73 million births a year. And if all pregnancies are included, the number of adolescent
pregnancies is much higher

THINK ABOUT THESE:

 Having SEX isn't always a healthy choice. Impulsive decisions can lead to lifelong problems:
serious disease and infertility
Abstinence is an OPTION. Choosing not to engage in sexual contact with another person can be
a very powerful personal
choice.

Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy

Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy. It is
unclear if a single intervention is most effective. In the United States free access to a long acting form of reversible
birth control along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of
abortions by more than 75%.

Education
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The
curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of
reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health care system guarantees confidentiality
and a non-judgmental approach.

Abstinence only education

Some schools provide abstinence-only sex education. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of
abstinence-only sex education. It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world,
and does not decrease rates of unplanned pregnancy when compared to comprehensive sex education.

FAMILY PLANNING/RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD

In Philippine education, the concept of Family Planning is a mandatory topic in the curriculum. Family Planning,
also called Responsible Parenthood, is as old as humankind. It is a simple way of regulating and spacing the births
of children. It is giving birth according to the health and economic conditions of the family, giving birth of the
mother according to her right age. Conception is not left to chance. Benefits derived from Family Planning are
identified as follows:

1. For the family to promote healthy, happy family.

2. For the mother - she can recover her health and strength after delivery.

3. For the child - a better chance of growing healthy and well cared.

Family Planning Methods / Methods of Contraception

Youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that
particular community and/or culture) may be ineffective in preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the
method, even increase susceptibility to STDs. It should be determined what the traditional methods are, their
effectiveness, and their side effects and know traditional methods of contraception in a culturally appropriate
and informative way, (advocatesforyouth.org publications/Ipe/index.htm, 2008).
A concept linked to family planning is contraception, also known as birth control and fertility control. This is a
method or device used to prevent pregnancy. It is also defined as a deliberate prevention of conception or
impregnation. Family planning methods and/or contraception methods are presented as follows:

1. Natural Birth Control employs natural control methods that people do to help prevent an
unintended pregnancy are without the use of modern/artificial ways of contraception. These
require commitment when you make the decision, discipline and self-control for it to be
effective. These include abstinence, fertility awareness methods, the rhythm, calendar or
standard days method, intercourse and continued breastfeeding, all requiring discipline and
responsibility which the Catholic Church approves.

2. Artificial Birth Control employs artificial control methods to help prevent unintended pregnancy
use modern/contemporary measures such as contraceptive or birth control pills, diaphragm,
male and female condoms, spermicide, cervical cap, today sponge, birth control patch, birth
control shot, birth control implant, intrauterine device (IUD), tubal ligation/vasectomy, tubal
implants and emergency contraception pill.

The best way to avoid these infections is prevention. “Prevention is better than cure”.
** END of LESSON on THE SEXUAL SELF***

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 1

 UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS
Tuguegarao City

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

First Semester
A.Y. 2020-2021

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self

Prepared by:

MELANIE T. BUCO, LPT

RENZ MARION C. GAVINO, MP
MA. HAYDEE C. GUILLERMO, MAPsy
JOHN MARK A.NARAG, MP
JINKY C. RAMOS, MP
CAMILLE JAM L. SERA
PERLIE JOY C. TAMBOA, MaPsy
KENETH DALE R. TUAZON
ALDWIN D. TULIAO, MBA
Course Instructor

Reviewed by:

RENZ MARION C. GAVINO, MP

General Education Coordinator

Recommended by:

VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

Academic Dean

Approved by:

EMMANUEL JAMES P. PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

Vice President for Academics

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 2

 UNIVERSITY PRAYER

O God, wellspring of goodness and blessings, we give you thanks and praise as one Louisian community. The
graces You incessantly grant upon us and Your divine providence have sustained our beloved University
throughout the years of mission and excellence.
Having been founded by the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, we pray that You keep us
committed and dedicated to our mission and identity to serve the Church and the society as we become living
witnesses to the Gospel values proclaimed by Jesus. For if we are steadfast in our good and beautiful mission,
our works will bring success not only to ourselves but also to those whom we are bound to love and serve.
Inspired by St. Louis our Patron Saint, who was filled with a noble spirit that stirred him to love You above all
things , may we also live believing that we are born for a greater purpose and mission as we dwell in Your
presence all the days of our life.
Grant all these supplications through the intercession of
Mother Mary and through Christ our Lord. Amen.

Academic Intellectual Property Rights: This module and the materials posted over NEO-LMS are the properties
of USL and the Facilitators. Students are not allowed to share it to any third-party individuals not part of the class
without any permission from the owners.

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 3
 AY 2020-2021

Lesson 2: Unpacking The Self

Topic: The Spiritual Self

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

At the end of this learning module, the student is expected to:

a. Differentiate spirituality from religion
b. Explain the Filipino understanding of the soul and the spirit
c. Discuss the significance of the practice of religion and the spiritual beings in the life of the person
d. Articulate ways of finding meaning in life

Weekly Timetable
Date Topics Activities or Tasks
November 9-11 The Spiritual Self Read the topic on Spirituality and Religion
November 12-13 Completion of learning tasks
November 16-18 Read the topic on Loob and Logotherapy
November 19-20 Accomplish the quiz in the module
November 23 Return of Module 6 and acquisition of Module 7

INTRODUCTION
In search of his true identity, man can never do away from considering his spiritual well-being. For one
thing, he is composed of both body and soul. The body points to his relationship with the material world and the
soul his relationship with the spiritual world, which is the transcendental dimension of life. Man's spirituality is the
focus of our discussion in this section.
In the search for meaning in life, one of the major concerns is the development
of a balanced spirituality of the human being which integrates well with his/her
psychological maturation. This psycho-spiritual integration or development can be of
help in bringing about social transformation since it exposes the individual to different
situations or cases that awaken in him/her the desire to make a difference in his/her
life as he/she searches for the meaning of his/her life.
Such integration leads to a better understanding of oneself with the questions:
Who am I? What are my big aims in life? How clear are they? How truly Christian am
I? It seeks answers to the basic existential questions in life. It leads to self-
introspection, a journey into the core of the human being.
We are not human beings having a spiritual experience. We are spiritual beings having a human
experience.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

SPIRITUAL SELF

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 4

 Spiritual self is who we are at our core. It is more permanent than the other selves -material self and
social self. The spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. It is the aspect of self which develops
a certain level of spirituality which is deemed as man's way of seeking as well as expressing the meaning
and purpose of his life. It speaks of the quality of one's relationships - with God, self, others, institutions
and God's entire creation, marked by respect, forgiveness, generous service and prayer. It is showing great
refinement or high level of Christian maturity and concern with the higher things in life such as the Sacred or the
Divine. This spirituality is specified more concretely in deepening the faith. Spirituality leads man to a deeper
communion with the Divine. It is a path of direct and personal connection with the Divine. It embraces all faiths,
social and political ideologies. It aids persons in spiritual, emotional or physical distress, crisis or discomfort as
well as those seeking to make a significant change in their lives through self-awareness. This can be a healing
process that leads to personal development.
THE CONCEPT OF SPIRITUALITY
Religion and spirituality are often mistakenly understood as synonymous terms. Although they have many
similarities and there is a relationship between the two, there are differences between religion and spirituality.
Religion: By definition, religion is a
personal set or institutionalized system of
religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices; the
service and worship of God or the supernatural.
Spirituality: Spirituality, on the other
hand, connotes an experience of connection to
something larger than you; living everyday life in
a reverent and sacred manner. Or as Christina
Puchalski, MD (leader in trying to incorporate
spirituality into healthcare), puts it, “Spirituality is
the aspect of humanity that refers to the way
individuals seek and express meaning and
purpose and the way they experience their
connectedness to the moment, to self, to others,
to nature, and to the significant or sacred."
Religion vs. Spirituality: What Is the
Difference?
from Brady(2020)
RELIGION SPIRITUALITY
Objective Experience. There is usually a greater focus Subjective Experience. Spirituality is an inward journey
on the externals (Houses of worship, books of scripture, that involves a shift in awareness rather than some form
eternal rituals and observances) of external activity. As such, spirituality is much more
about inner understanding than outer worship.
Organization. It is a structured, frequently rule-based Formless. Spirituality though, breaks free from the
construct that to some degree governs the behavior of restrictions and rigid structure sometimes associated
its members. Moral rules, laws, and doctrines, as well as with traditional religion. The spiritual aspirant recognizes
specific codes and criteria, create the organized that he or she is on a “pathless path” of self-discovery.
structure that contains the religion’s specific belief They are following not a set of external rules, but their
system. own inner call to spirit.
Traditional Approach. Religions are by nature often Evolutionary Approach. Spirituality often favors an
deeply rooted in tradition, ritual, creed, and doctrine. evolutionary mentality. This refers to both a more flexible
Religious institutions conservatively guard their practices and adaptive mindset toward core teachings of the great
and values, holding rigidly to the past and the original wisdom traditions but also reflects the understanding that
interpretations of the founder’s teachings. spiritual growth is an evolutionary process. Spirituality
embraces change and the evolution of consciousness.
Exclusive. Traditional religious beliefs, sometimes Inclusive. Spirituality makes no such distinctions.
based upon rigid interpretations of key teachings, can Instead, it favors an inclusive approach. In the
create an exclusive worldview that isolates those who recognition that pure spirit is a unifying force, no one is
may not share their views or interpretations. Sadly, this left out. You are part of the universal hologram, all gods
religious “in-group” mentality can be used to justify the and goddesses in disguise. In other words, from a
exclusion of minorities or those deemed unworthy of spiritual perspective, no one has a monopoly on the
God’s favor. truth. All are welcome in God’s eyes.
Belief. At its core, religion is about faith. That is to say, Spiritual Experience. Spirituality doesn’t dismiss faith;
belief in something based upon unconditional however, it often
PDEV 1013- leans more heavily
Understanding on direct
the Self Module experience
8|5
 acceptance of the religion’s teachings. Through religion, of the soul or divinity. Spiritual practices such as
you are taught to have faith in God or the scriptures as meditation, yoga, silence, and contemplation allow you
being the infallible and ultimate truth of reality. to make conscious contact with more expanded states of
Acceptance and surrender to the divine are taught as the consciousness, thus helping to experientially validate the
path that leads to ultimate salvation. teachings rather than accepting them on faith alone. You
know something because you have tasted the
experience yourself and have allowed it to resonate, as
opposed to taking the word of another.
As Giovanni (n.d) would present it:
Religion asks you to believe. Spirituality asks you to look.
Religion has dogmas. Spirituality has wisdom teachings.
Religion wants obedience. Spirituality wants experimentation.
Religion speaks of sin and hell. Spirituality speaks of karma.
Religion wants to comfort you. Spirituality wants to liberate you.
Religion is external. Spirituality is internal.
Religion is the form. Spirituality is the essence.
Religion wants to convert you. Spirituality wants to inspire you.
Religion is an institution. Spirituality is a journey.
Spirituality in Higher Education
The study reported in the book Cultivating the Spirit: How College Can Enhance Students' Inner Lives
authored by Dr. Helen Astin, Dr. Alexander Astin, and Dr. Jennifer Lindholm of UCLA surveyed (in 2004) more
than 112,000 freshmen as they enrolled in 236 public and private (religiously affiliated and non-religiously
affiliated) colleges and universities, and then followed up (in 2007) 14,527 of these students (at 136 institutions)
as they were completing their junior year. Here are the findings:

- They found religious engagement among students declines somewhat during college, but their
spirituality shows substantial growth. Students become more caring, more tolerant, more
connected with others, and more actively engaged in a spiritual quest.
- Also found spiritual growth enhances academic performance, psychological well-being,
leadership development, and satisfaction with college.
- The study also identified a number of college activities that contribute to students' spiritual growth.
Some of these--study abroad, interdisciplinary studies, and service learning--appear to be
effective because they expose students to new and diverse people, cultures, and ideas.
- Spiritual development is also enhanced if students engage in "inner work" through activities such
as meditation or self-reflection, or if their professors actively encourage them to explore questions
of meaning and purpose.
- Spiritual development is impeded when students engage in activities that distract them from the
ordinary experience of campus life--activities such as watching television and playing video games.

Spiritual Questions to Ponder

1. Who are the most important people in my life?
2. Where would I like to be in 10 years?
3. How can I avoid a stagnant life?
4. What qualities must I possess to be a good person?
5. Do things happen for a reason?
6. What are the values that guide my life?
7. When do I feel the most alive or real?
8. What gifts can I give of myself to the world?
9. How would I like others to see me?
10. What are my beliefs on life purpose?

THE SPIRIT AND THE SOUL

The interconnection of two important terms in our discussion needs to be considered, which is that of
the spirit and the soul. Though these are sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinctions which need
to be recognized.
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 As mentioned by L. Mercado (1994), "the spirit in the Hebrew language is ruach or pneuma in Greek
which means breath (esp. the breath of life). The spirit is described as the disposition of an individual, a
person's habitual attitudes, as man's supernatural power which comes from God. It is the part of us through
which all life and power of God flow. It is the "life-giving part of man" (Jas. 2:26).
Soul on the other hand, is in Hebrew, nephesh or in Greek, psyche, originally meaning 'throat' or 'neck',
which means 'human life, the animating principle of human nature.’ Here, the Hebrew concept of man is holistic,
not a trichotomy of body (Mesh), soul, and spirit, but one totality. However, the Hebrew sees the distinction
between the natural and the supernatural, in respect to the soul and spirit.
Both soul and spirit mean life. But soul (nephesh-psyche) stands for natural man, while spirit is the ethical
factor which adds the new dimension of relationship with God. Spirit enables man to serve God and to
participate in the supernatural order.
Dy (2020) simplifies this by stating that:
While the soul is the source of our expression through our humanity, it has its limitations and the
only way we can experience God is through our spirit. The soul is merely a channel.
The body is the outer level, followed by the soul and the spirit is the core. The expression of love
to God paved the way through the soul. We first magnify God’s power and grace, and then we express
and experience it fully through our spirit.
The function of the spirit is spiritual. The spirit is the only way
to connect with God, and we can only use the spirit if we believe in
God and receive Him through our Lord Jesus Christ’s salvation.

The Spirit gives life; the flesh counts for nothing. The words I have
spoken to you—they are full of the Spirit and life. (John 6:63)
The term used by the Filipinos for spirit is a loan word, "espirito" or
"espiritu", which is in Visayan term, "ginhawa" in Tagalog, "hininga" and in Ilocano, "anges". The concept of
soul is very familiar to the Filipinos. It is the person's emotional and moral nature, where the most private thoughts
and feelings are hidden. In some systems of religious belief, the soul is the spiritual part of a human being that
is believed to continue to exist after the body dies. The soul is also regarded as subject to future reward and
punishment. The Bible further speaks of the soul as the innermost aspect of the person which signifies the
spiritual principle in him, "the breath of life". It is because of this spiritual soul that the body becomes alive.
How is the soul perceived by our ancestors?
Below is a translated excerpt from one of the historians of the Philippines,
Michael Charlestone Chua:
The ancient Filipinos also had a belief in the soul. For our ancestors,
man was made up of two parts — external and internal. The outer is the
body while the inner also has two parts — the life force called "ginahawa"
which carries the intestine or liver, and the "kalulwa" which carries the brain
which gives life, mind and human initiative. They believe that souls come out
of the body even though they are still alive in the holes of the human body
and in the hands and feet so they protect it by wearing gold. The release of
the soul is reflected in the instructions of our elders, do not sleep hungry and
the soul may come out, look for food and be locked in a pot.
Sa mga pintados ng Bisaya, ang kanilang tatoo ang kanilang anting-anting o proteksyon sa
kaluluwa.
Larawan mula sa Boxer Codex.
THE SOUL ACCORDING TO THE
ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS OF THE PHILIPPINES
Gaverza (2017) summarized how the soul is viewed in various groups in the Philippines. Below is the list.
IFUGAO – ‘LINNAWA’
The soul (linnawa) of a child floats around in the heavens, awaiting its entry into the human world. During
sexual intercourse the soul/spirit enters the female through the male, resulting in pregnancy. If a woman cannot
conceive, shamans conduct sacrifices to see if the couple is compatible. If they are, shamans offer other
sacrifices to enhance fertility.
The soul is believed to continue in existence in the world of its ancestors. In time the soul of the new-
dead becomes one of the callading or ancestral spirits. The callading
PDEV are considered
1013- Understanding theman’s benefactors.
Self Module 8|7
 In some sources (The Soul Book) the Ifugao believe there are two souls, one in the eyes and one in the
breath. Illness is the withdrawal of the soul in the eyes. Death is the withdrawal of the soul in the breath.

IBALOI
The Ibaloi afterlife is populated by ancestral spirits, and explains animal sacrifices. In that spiritual world,
when the soul arrives with physical treasures, it receives a great welcome. An empty-handed soul finds himself
the object of scorn. He is unwelcome and unaccepted in his new world and this feeling of insecurity may cause
the spirit to bring evil, disease and even death among his relatives. In the light of all those beliefs, relatives of
the dead person bring donation of cash or animals.

ISNEG – ‘KADUWA’
The Isneg believed that dead exist in other world, the Aglalanawan, where the earthly tasks of planting,
harvesting and communal living are functions common to them. The kaduwa, soul, is believed to cross the pond
in a ferry piloted by the spirit, Kutaw(A psychopomp). In a bid to please kutaw, who could facilitate the spirit’s
entry to aglalanawan, the appropriate customary death rituals would be the key.

KANKANA-EY – ‘AB-ABIIK’
Ab-Abiik is the spiritual self as oppsed to the physical self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to
inanimate objects such as mountains, trees or rivers. It can also mean ‘inspiration’ in some contexts.

BIKOL
No one should miss their dinner and go to bed hungry or their spirit will roam for food. If a pot of food is
covered while the spirit is eating inside, the person who is sleeping will now wake up until the lid is lifted.

TAGALOG – ‘KALULUWA AND KAKAMBAL’

The Tagalog soul, the kaluluwa can leave the body involuntarily. The kaluluwa refers more to the soul of
the deceased. The soul of a living person is called kakambal (meaning twin or double). The kakambal may travel
around at night and some particularly bad encounters are the cause of nightmares (bangungut). The kakambal
becomes a kaluluwa after death.

ILOKANO – ‘KARARUA, KARKARMA, ANIWAAS AND ARARIA’

The first soul of the Ilokanos is called the kararua, or the soul proper. This is the term used for the equivalent
of the Christian soul that can only leave after death. The Ilokano have a four soul system. In addition to the kararua
there are three other souls.

• Karkarma is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is frightened, or may
be stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner becomes insane, sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure
back a lost karkarma. Karkarma stands for natural vigor, mind and reason.
• Aniwaas is the name of the third soul. It can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the
body. If one wakes up while the aniwaas is visiting these places, they may lose the aniwaas and become
insane.
• Araria is the name of the fourth soul. This is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that visits relatives
and friends in the earthworld asking them to pray for it or perform a duty it failed to do in life. Its presence
can be heralded by the howling of dogs. This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical objects
usually relating to what it did in life.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 8

 IBANAG – ‘IKARURUWA’
The Ibanag have a distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikaruruwa). Ikarurua means ‘a companion
of the body’. Mekararuanan (me + kararua – to be rid of the soul) is a phenomenon where the soul can leave the
body but it is without sense. The ritual Mangagaggako invites the soul to return to the body
The Ibanag believe that the soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color and the souls of
dead babies can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to
the man, but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences material
wants and needs.

MANGYAN – ‘KARADUWA’
The Hanunoo Mangyan believe in a plurality of souls. Karaduwa
tawu/tawo (human soul), karaduwa manok (Chicken soul) Karaduwa Baboy (pig
soul) karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). An individual
may possess 2-5 other souls. These other souls are explanations for miraculous
recoveries from near fatal experiences, their dream life or natural reactions to
startling sounds or movement.
A soul can also separate itself from the physical body. If a person is
scared, his soul leaves his body causing sickness. When a person dreams the
karaduwa walks around. The dream that a person has is caused by this walk.
Image from the Soul Book courtesy of GCF books

BISAYA – ‘DUNGAN’
A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. engkantu). Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded
by old Tan Mulong whose spirit dog has one mammary gland and two genitals. Sickness is the temporary loss
of the soul, permanent loss is death. The soul can be lured back by a skillful shaman. The dungan is ethereal,
something not weighed down by the world. Before it inhabits a human body it inhabits a region above the earth
with other dungan. The dungan then takes interest in the unborn being, usually a
relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows
proportionately with the person’s body. Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug or the
unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak one by
proximity. There are many rituals performed to protect and nurture the dungan.
Dungan also has a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan
means that the person has a greater capacity to dominate others to their line of
thought. People living together may lead to a spiritual competition between the two
dungan leading to the weaker becoming sick.
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with the
air toward the upper regions. There it waits until it finds another body to enter.

Image from Tan Mulong by Leandro Geniston

ILONGGO – ‘DUNGAN’
The Ilonggo soul, the dungan is not seen by the human eye. Sometimes it goes out of the body and takes
on visible forms as insects or small animals. A dungan may leave the body voluntarily while the person is
sleeping. If one sees themselves in their dreams it means their dungan has left their physical body. A slumbering
person should be waken gently to give the soul a chance to return to the body. Whatever happens to the dungan
also happens to the physical body. The dungan also withdraws from the body if said body is badly treated

SULOD – ‘UMALAGAD’
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 9
 Dying among the Sulod is said to be like passing through a narrow door. The experience is horrible, as if
the person has to pull hard to get in the door. Once one departs they simply disappear. No trace of them is left
behind.
This soul is watched over by three brother gods Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes. Mangganghaw
keeps track over man’s affairs immediately after marriage. He keeps track of pregnancy. He is also the first to
come to the house of a laboring mother, peeps in the house and sees the child being born, after which he reports
to Manglaegas. Manglaegas, after being reported to by Mangganghaw, enters the house to look for the child to
make sure the child was born alive, then reports to Patag’aes who waits until midnight then enters the house to
have a conversation with the infant. If Patag’aes discovers anyone eavesdropping on their conversation, he
chokes the child to death. The conversation is on how long the child wants to live and how the child will eventually
die. The child gets to choose. After the child has chosen, Patag’aes takes out his measuring stick and computes
the child’s life span, and then he departs.\

TAGBANWA – ‘KIYARALUWA’ AND OTHERS

A Tagbanwa has one ‘true soul’ the kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given to each
infant by the god Magindusa as the nose of the child emerges from the vulva.
The secondary souls are located in the extremities of both hands and feet and in the head just below the
air whorl (puyo). The souls of the feet protect one while walking and from injuries to the feet, the same functions
to those in the hands. The secondary soul located by the puyo is not fixed in young children and may cause
illness if not properly aligned, some shamans specialize in realigning the soul to its proper place. This soul is
said to have a material form like a round white stone.

BUKIDNON – ‘MAKATU’ AND ‘PIPITU HA MAKATU’

The makatu, their world for soul, exists before a child’s birth but it is separate from the body. There is a
ritual in which a miniature cradle is hung over the pregnant mother in a place where the mother sleeps. The small
cradle is where the soul of the unborn baby will sleep before it joins the infant at birth. The makatu is breathed
into man at birth by Miyaw-Biyaw. If all are present in an individual, they are healthy, if one or more wanders
away from the body then Illness, irritability and sadness follow. If all makatu leave the body at the same time,
the individual dies.
The Bukidnon also believe in seven souls called the ‘pipitu ha makatu’. One jumps off the cliff, one swims
in the water, one puts its hand in snake holes, one sits under a tree, one is always walking around, one is awake
in the day and one is awake at night.
BAGOBO – ‘GIMOKUD’
There are two souls called gimokud. Right hand gimokud is the good soul that manifests as a shadow on
the right hand side of the path while the left hand gimokud is the bad soul that manifests as a shadow on the left
side of the path.
The right hand is associated with life, health, activity and joy, remaining in the
body throughout life. When death causes the right hand gimokud to leave the body,
it gives notice by visiting in the form of an insect.
The left hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain and illness. The left hand
soul also leaves the body at night and risks various dangers, if it visits the sea the
sleeping person feels shivers, the behavior it engages in leaves a physical effect on
the body. After death the gimokud becomes a busaw (digging up dead bodies).
When the throbbing of the skull cap stops, the soul exits through what used
to be the fontanel.
All larger animals have two souls each while smaller birds bees and insects
only have one soul. Inanimate objects have a single soul which goes to the
underworld so they can serve their owners.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 10
 Busaw by Leandro Geniston and Mykie Concepcion

THE PRACTICE OF RELIGION

Researches speak of religion as the people's way of connecting themselves to God as they search for
meaning in life. Religion is also popularly understood as "belief and behaviors related to supernatural beings
and powers.” Still others define religion as "an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere, along
with ceremonial practices, or way of relating with the supernatural or the divine.” It can be simplified as
the bond between God and man”
Characteristics of Religion
• A belief in anthropomorphic* supernatural being
o *having human characteristics.
• A focus on the sacred supernatural
• The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on
supernatural beings as well as physical beings and objects
o Some religious traditions consider geographic places to be spiritually
sacred.
• The performance of ritual activities
• The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and
other means
• Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism
of social control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a sense of control for
individuals

The Functions of Religion

1. Stability and cohesion - shared religion binds people closely together.
a. Religion forms a balance and cohesive moral
community. It is a means of protecting individuals
from anomie, alienation and the threats of
disruptive mass movements and so maximizes
the individual's potential for happiness.
b. Shared religious experiences provide the social
cement for group unity and consensus
2. Social identity - shared religion gives people an identity and social membership
a. This is achieved through special naming ceremonies, in christening and baptism in the Christian
church. For Durkheim, group solidarity is affirmed and heightened during collective ceremony and
ritual
b. Religion represents the necessary power of the social group over the
otherwise isolated, anomic individual
c. Religion serves to integrate the person into the society. It is functionally
useful for people to grow up identifying with a particular place or nation,
to strengthen a person's sense of national commitment, especially if
either religion or nation come under threat

3. Collective conscience - religion unites people in moral ways

a. The group affirms its belief in the central values through its commitment to the religious system.
These sentiments produce "value consensus”.
b. Religion thereby generates and maintains the collective conscience. This was observable in its
effects and was open to scientific study just as other social effects could be studied and analyzed,
by collecting relevant statistics, through careful observation and recording or other experimental
methods.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 11
 c. Durkheim saw society as a moral community, whose members were socialized into accepting
appropriate patterns of behavior over time. This is an unending process since people are always
being integrated into new groups, adopting new norms, absorbing new values and adapting new
patterns of behaviour.
d. An orderly social life is only possible when people share moral values, in this way, society
becomes embedded in the individual.

4. Socialization and social control - religion represents the value system of the society
a. It is a conservative force which contributes to moral and wider social order and stability.
b. Many cultural norms are given sacred legitimacy by religious beliefs, eg, the Ten Commandments
provide a prescription for an orderly lifestyle. By promoting such values through family, school
and church, the process of socialization occurs.
c. Appropriate modes of thinking and behaving are controlled in ways which will promote the good,
orderly society.

5. Meaning and purpose - religion gives meaning and purpose to people's lives
a. In the face of death, disease and the hazards of everyday living, people are vulnerable to all kinds
of disasters beyond their control. Religious beliefs offer people comfort in times of crisis
b. It is the institution which gives people the strength to continue and promotes the long-term
maintenance of society as a result

Haviland, et.al (2007) has this to say about religion the benefits of religion:
"Therefore, the practice of religion is beneficial to individuals, families, states, and the nation. It improves
health, learning, economic well-being, self-control, self-esteem, and empathy. It reduces the incidence of
social pathologies, such as out-of-wedlock births, crime, delinquency, drug and alcohol addiction, health
problems, anxieties, and prejudices, Furthermore, religion creates a moral community to which people
experience a sense of belonging. It provides rites of passage as in the case of sacraments in Christianity
It provides emotional support. It serves as a means to provide answers to ultimate questions in life. It
shapes the people's views of the universe. Finally, it can be a powerful agent of social change"
Techniques of Religion

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 12

 The practice of religion pertains to the general acts followed by the laity
in accordance with the religious requirements. This, points to the overt conduct
of the laity or believers performing the beliefs and feelings.
1. Prayer - This is the communication to the Supernatural Being through
speech or thoughts. It simply means conversation with the Almighty.
2. Divination - It is the elevation of a person's weak state to GOD. It is a
process of which a man strive to perfect his imperfection (Bernardo,
2016)
3. Ceremony - This refers to a number of interconnected rituals done at
specific time and place. Examples of these are Holy Mass, solemnizing
marriage, priest's ordination and tedium.
4. Sacrifice - This is expressing reverence to GOD or any perceived
spirits or supernatural powers. For instance, abstinence and fasting.
For the Catholic, abstinence is not eating meat on Lenten season and
Good Friday during Holy Week. Fasting is having one full meal a day
and small meals the rest of the day. Fasting is simply a sacrifice.
5. Reverence - This pertains to the feeling of awe coupled with love and
admiration a person offers to the Almighty or Supernatural.
6. Power Duty - This tries to please the Almighty by reverent act. For
instance, it is the duty of anyone to follow GOD's Ten Commandments.
7. Rituals - This is a means of sanctification. Sanctification involves act
of purification, supplication and thanksgiving (Schmidt, et al. 2005) In a
simple way rituals are expected means of performing religious acts. For
instance, praying, making the sign of the cross, processions, way of the
cross on Lenten Season - for the Catholics.
8. Sacred Objects - These are objects attributed to the Supernatural
Power such as the Bible, rosaries, prayer books and crucifix. To the
Catholic, the bread and wine sanctified during Holy Mass is a very
sacred symbolism of the life of Jesus Christ
9. Taboo - This pertains to negative presentation of propitiatory devices
or action wherein a person should refrain from certain act not in
conformity with the desire of the Almighty. It refers to the thou shall not"
behavior. For instance, one must not practice incest (San Juan &
Centeno, 2011).

COMMON ELEMENTS OF RELIGION

One of the hallmarks of religion is a belief in supernatural beings and forces. They can take a variety
forms, not all of which are found in every religion. Other categories of religion is animism and animatism.
ANIMATISM
A belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings is referred to as animatism. For those
who hold this belief, the power is usually impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither good nor
evil, but it is powerful and dangerous if misused. It is something like electricity or "the force" in the Star Wars
movies.
ANIMISM

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 A belief that natural objects are animated by spirits is animism. The term comes from the Latin word for
soul (anima). This belief can take diverse forms. Things in nature may all have within them different spirits--
each rock, tree, and cloud may have its own unique spirit. Alternatively, all things in nature may be thought of
as having the same spirit. This latter version of animism was characteristic of many Native American cultures.
In both forms of animism, the spirits are thought of as having identifiable personalities and other characteristics
such as gender. A belief in a powerful, mature, protective "mother nature" is an example. The spirits may be
benevolent, malevolent, or neutral. They can be lovable, terrifying, or even mischievous. They can interact with
humans and can be pleased or irritated by human actions.
Therefore, people must be concerned about them and will try to avoid
displeasing them.

Initially, animatism and animism may seem to be the

same thing. In fact both beliefs are often found in the same
culture.

CRITERIA ANIMISM ANIMATISM

Definition the belief that spirits exist in natural belief that there is power in all forces
objects around you

Characteristics speaks of individual spiritual beings does not speak of individual spiritual
beings
Supernatural Force does not speak of a singular supernatural speaks of a supernatural force that exists
force but various spiritual beings everywhere in both inanimate and
animated

Personality Supernatural forces have personalities Supernatural force does not have a
particular personality

SUPERNATURAL CREATURES IN PHILIPPINE FOLKLORE

Supernatural forces range from impersonal spirits to gods
and can be all powerful or annoying creatures that possess
humans
The Philippine folklore is rich with mythical and
supernatural creatures. It is not as popular as those in Western
cultures since it is mostly composed of fragmented tales of horror
and wonder. Nevertheless, it has influenced the lives of Filipinos
that certain customs are being practiced so to appease these
beings and to prevent them from terrorizing people. So which
supernatural creatures Filipinos are most afraid of? What are their
equivalents to other cultures? And how evil are they?
Many Filipino customs are influenced by their beliefs in
various supernatural creatures. Say avoiding too much noise
when near old trees so as not to disturb these unearthly beings,
or beeping the vehicle when crossing bridges at nights as a permission from them. It may seem peculiar but
these habits and more have become part of the way of life for many Filipinos, even for those living in the urban
areas.
Let’s review!

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 14

Aswangs are the most feared mythical creature by the Filipinos. They are Filipino ghouls and shapeshifters.
They are human-like by day but transform into monsters at night. They can change from human to an animal
form like bat, bird, pig, cat, or black dog. The transformation can happen through their own will or through the
use of foul concocted oil. They also have the ability to steal cadavers secretly and replace them with the trunk of
a banana tree carved in the cadaver’s likeness.
The tiyanak is another popular name in the Philippine folklore. Also known as impakto, it is a baby who died
before receiving baptism rites. After its death, it goes into the Limbo, a certain place in Hell where unbaptized
dead people fall into, and then transforms into an evil spirit. It returns to the mortal world as a goblin or a vampire-
like creature, bound to eat living victims. A tiyanak can also be the offspring of a mortal woman and a demon, or
an aborted fetus which comes to take vengeance on its mother.
The tikbalang (also tigbalang, tigbalan, tikbalan, or demon horse) is a half-man and half-horse creature. It has
the head and feet of a horse, and the body of a human. It usually appears on the night of full moon looking for a
female prey and usually rapes the victim in order to bear its offspring. Tikbalangs are playful creatures and they
usually make people imagine things that are not real, sometimes to the point that they become crazy.
The Manananggal is a special type of aswang who has the ability to fly after separating itself from the lower half
of its body. It resembles the Western vampire in being an evil, man-eating monster or witch. Its name is taken
from the Filipino word “tanggal” which means to “to separate” or “to remove.” Most manananggals, like most
aswangs, are females. It appears in human form during the day. At night, it finds an isolated place where she
will leave her lower torso. It separates itself by will and its upper body flies, using bat-like wings, to hunt for
victims.
Kapre is the Filipino equivalent of bigfoot from the West. It is a tree demon with more human characteristics. It
is described as a dirty, dark giant (around 7 to 9 ft tall) who hides and lives within and atop large trees, particularly
old trees such as balete (or banyan), acacia, or mango trees. This creature loves to smoke huge rolls of cigars
or tobaccos. Unlike other supernatural beings, the kapre does not harm human; instead, it is a “friendly” creature
who loves to fool around. It may make contact with people to offer friendship, or if it is attracted to a woman. It
also play pranks to people and scares away little children playing at night. It is said that if you are stuck in a place
and keep going around in circles, a kapre must have been playing with you. To escape the spell, you must wear
your shirt inside-out.
Engkantos, or engkantadas (when referring to female creatures), are nature fairies and spirits. They are said to
be angels who revolted with Lucifer against the Lord. When the angels of God drove them out of heaven, some
fell on earth. Those who fell in the forest or thick woods and lived in trees are the engkantos. Hence they will
possess some extraordinary powers but are limited. They are fair skinned, blond, with blue or green eyes, and
far shorter or much taller than the average human. They are mostly beautiful, with so much grace and charm
that they attract many people. The dwelling place of the engkanto may look like a large rock or trees but to their
human friends, their house can appear as beautiful palaces. They also like to live in large trees like the balete
where they can also put their belongings.
A nuno or nuno sa punso is a dwarf-like creature or goblin in Philippine folklore which lives in an anthill or
termite mound. The term “nuno sa punso” means ancestor or grandparent of the anthill. It is described as a small
old man with a long beard. It is ill-tempered and easily gets angered. If someone disturbs, especially kicks, his
mound, the nuno would put curse on that person. In effect, the offender would have swollen foot or pain on any
part of his body, experience vomiting blood, urinate black liquid, inflict illness, and have excessive hair growth
on the back.
RITUALS
Rituals are 'patterned forms of behavior that have something to do with the supernatural realm'. They are
performed in a repetitive nature. They can be religious or secular. "People worldwide engage in religious ritual
require a considerable amount of time or personal sacrifice. A good example is the case of the Vegans of Phuket,
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 15
Thailand who perform various acts of self-torture, including bathing in hot oil, fire walking, and piercing
themselves with sharp implements during their annual vegetarian festival. "Life cycle rituals", often referred to
as 'rites of passage, mark a status change from one important life stage to another. The Christian sacraments
are examples of this. Many religions encourage rituals of pilgrimage, a round trip to a place considered sacred
for the purpose of religious devotion or ritual" (Sosis, 2010).
In many cases, sacrifice as the offering of something to the supernatural beings is performed to please
or to express gratitude to such deities. An example of this is the offering ritual called 'harang'. practiced by the
Visayan fishing villages. Such ritual is described as "a process of purification (tuob), invocation (pagtawag),
entreaty (pangamuyo), offering (bayad), feast (kan-on), encompassing almost every aspect of the community's
existence including good or bad harvest, the operation of fishing boats and cases of illnesses" (Kawada, M.,
1956). Kanyaw in the Cordillera, which is performed as an expression of thanksgiving to their deities as well as
a means to appease them is also noteworthy. This is also an expression of solidarity among the members of the
community. Similarly, the Buklog of the Subanens in Aurora, Zamboanga is performed in their fiesta to honor the
spirits and plea for favors. It is also a symbol of the Subanens' relationship with their fellowmen, and a spiritual
journey to their Creator. Rituals in this sense have the function of uniting the people. They allay fear of crisis as
they prompt collective action.
MAGIC
Magic is commonly referred to as "tricks" and
"illusions" that make impossible things seem to
happen, usually performed as entertainment. Stein
and Stein (2011), describe it as a special talent or skill;
an act that makes impossible things happen through
some sort of trickery or deception, and thereby
manipulating not the supernatural world, but rather
human perception. However, magic, as
anthropologists use the term, refers to activities,
usually rituals, by which a person can compel the
supernatural to behave in certain ways. It is seen as
the ability which gives somebody control over the
forces of nature. It is used in many cultures for healing, keeping away evil, seeking the truth, and for vengeful
purposes. It is an attempt to make supernatural forces act in specific ways for good or evil purposes by recourse
to certain specified formulas.
Stein & Stein (2011), state that magic answers our need to have some control of our lives and also of
others with the ability to control the supernatural forces. Haviland (2007), also explains that like religion, magic
tries to explain the unexplainable and provides comfort and a coherent view of the world. It also reduces stress,
reinforcing group norms and identity, providing sanctions for individual behavior and providing a sense of the
world. It leads to avoidance or healing of illness. In the area of entertainment, magic captivates the audience
with expert showmanship. It promotes and advances the art of staged magic. Magic exists in all cultures.
WITCHCRAFT
Witchcraft, commonly understood as 'kulam',
refers to the idea that certain people have an inborn
power to harness spirits or energies for specific
purposes. "It is an explanation of events based on the
belief that certain individuals possess an innate
psychic power capable of causing harm, including
sickness and death" (Microsoft Encarta 2009). Here, it
is closely understood closely with sorcery. Witchcraft
is widely considered evil. Like sorcery, it is seen as
magic or special power that is worked for illegal or
antisocial ends. For example, magic that is worked to
kill someone for vengeful purposes is bad. The witch or sorcerer tends to steal food remnants, hair, nail clippings,
or clothes from the victim and use these objects to inflict harm upon the victim. As stated by Stein & Stein (2011),
"Although magic is used for variety of reasons to increase success and control the uncertainties of life, magic
can also be used in antisocial ways to interfere with the economic activities of others and to bring about illness
and even death. Anything that disrupts the life and happiness of someone is evil. The use of magic in this way
in abominable. But why do people still practice witchcraft?
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 16
 Haviland (2007), mentions that witchcraft serves a number of functions in society. Just like religion and
magic, he says that witchcraft provides explanations of the inexplicable, like illness, or natural disasters, as well
as allows a community to come together, focus their energies on something (ridding themselves of bad witchcraft
and to reassert their communal identity. It is also a way for people to explain a personal misfortune without having
to shoulder any blame to themselves. Finally, it provides an outlet for feelings of hostility and frustration without
disturbing the norms of the larger group
WHAT THE BIBLE SAYS ABOUT MAGIC, RITUAL AND WITCHCRAFT
As Filipinos of today, predominantly Christians, we have the Bible as our guide in the practice of our
religion. Specifically, the Book of Deuteronomy states:
"Don't sacrifice your children in the fires on your altars, and do not let your people practice fortune-telling, or use
sorcery, or interpret omens, or engage in witchcraft, or cast spells, or function as mediums or psychics, or call forth
the spirits of the dead. Anyone who does these thing is detestable to the Lord. It is because the other nation have
done these detestable things that the Lord your God will drive them out ahead of you but you must be blameless
before the Lord your God" (Dr.18 10-13).
For us Christians, God alone is worthy of adoration, for He alone, is the ONE, TRUE GOD. Such acts
contrary to this, such as ascribing power to amulets, magic and others mentioned above, are considered
idolatrous and therefore, unacceptable. It is a violation to the very first commandment of God, "I am the Lord,
your God who brought you out of Egypt where you were slaves; worship no god but Me" (Ex. 20:2-3).
This is further made clear in Jesus Christ's declaration of the "Great Commandment of Love when He said:
"The most important one is this: Listen, Israel! The Lord our God is the only Lord. Love the Lord your God with all
your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind and with all your strength. The second most important commandment
is this: Love your neighbor as you love yourself. There is no other commandment more important than these two"
(Mark 12:29-31).
In conclusion, submission to practices such as magic, kulam, and others of their kind may not lead us to
the "ONE, TRUE GOD", the source of all power. Much discernment must be done to examine or evaluate our
practices whether or not they lead us closer to the One, True God. There are indeed Filipino traditional religious
practices (popular/folk religiosity) which are not helpful to our true worship of GOD, practices which need to be
purified, and this calls for a genuine, meaningful Christian evangelization. Without careful examination, our
practices may lead us away from the ultimate source of happiness, our ultimate end. Such ultimate end is God
Himself, our union with Him. Failure to examine the things that we do, the way we live our lives, results to the
loss of meaning in life. Jesus Christ Himself gave us a clear guide when He spoke about the commandment of
love - love of God and love of neighbor.
THE CONCEPT OF LOOB
In the contemporary Filipino understanding of self, we have the concept of loob and personhood. LOOB,
the inner self or inner being, is the core of one's personhood and where the true worth of the person lies. It is
what makes one what he is and who he is as a person. It is a term used to describe a person in relationship with
others. Contemporary psychology has defined the person by his relationship with others and such is done by
describing what sort of loob he has such as magandang loob or mabuting loob and masamang loob. A person
is said to be of magandang loob/mabuting loob if he relates well and positively with others. He is not only well-
intentioned but be also promotes the well-being of others, especially those in need. They are called people of
goodwill. On the contrary, a person is said to be of masamang loob if he is of bad character. He correlates
negatively with others. This LOOB is manifested through external behavior, and behavior in an authentic person
stems from the loob.
According to Mercado (1994). "a purified kalooban is supported by prayer. This loob that has been
continually purified and strengthened acquires commitment to the cause of the individual. This happens through
forms of sacrifices which include prayers, abstinence from certain kinds of food, or comforts, and sexual
abstinence. Constant prayer and religious exercises are ways to purify the loob. One of the most popular
sacrifices done by some Filipino Catholics is the penitensia during Good Friday. The penitents reenact the
suffering of Jesus Christ, from the flagellation to the crucifixion. Penitents whip themselves on the back, using
whips made of bamboo or paddles to draw blood. To complete the rites, some devotees willingly allow
themselves to be nailed to the cross, reenacting Jesus crucifixion. Despite the pain, loss of blood, the penitent
emerges a "new man" whose loob has been renewed, ready to face squarely the challenges of this world. Prayer
and ritual can be a source of power".

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 17

 Covar, in Mercado's book, The Filipino Mind' says that "the use of amulet (anting-anting) may also be a
source of power. Those who use the anting-anting believe that the words of Christ and the things used in Catholic
liturgy are a strong source of power. While Scriptures say that the Word of God is efficacious (Heb 4:12; 1Th.2:13
f.), meaning, *has the power to produce a desired result, their belief extends to other rituals and liturgical
language in the Catholic rite. The efficacy of the
anting-anting depends upon the proper
execution of certain rituals and the following of
strict rules." Holy Week is supposedly the best
time for obtaining, testing and recharging the
powers of anting-antings".
God's Kagandahang-loob
The Filipino concept and value, kagandahang-loob (kindness, generosity, benevolence, helpfulness) can
be a very appropriate description of who God is for Filipinos. It connotes all that is good in a person which is the
ideal among Filipinos. It is a quality of BEING which has its roots in the very heart of a person and which is given
expression in the totality of one's life of interrelationship. This reminds us of Jesus in whom words and deeds
are true manifestations of His kagandahang-loob. This is why God's saving activity is described as kagandahang-
loob.
Loob and Prayer
Prayer is said to be the first expression of man's interior truth". Interior truth refers to the core of one's
personhood, his loob, which is closely related to man's spirit. It the ultimate organizing center of human reality.
It is also the very zone of creaturehood which is the bedrock layer of ideas, feelings and behaviors.
Prayer then is the Christian's acknowledgment and awareness of the true nature of the look and the
richness or weakness of this loob as exposed by the light of faith. This look is made "in the image and likeness
of God, hence, it is constituted by being related to God.
With this, payer becomes an active receptiveness, an active listening to what God is revealing through
one's loob. It is the recognition, acknowledgment, acceptance of this relates to God of our loob in an explicit
manner. Christian prayer is our conscious personal communion with God, our Father, in Christ Jesus. It is the
fruit of the Holy Spirit working in our hearts, enabling us to turn to God and with confidence, to call Him our
Father. This prayer is always a free gift of God, which leads us back to Him, pagbabalik loob (conversion) when
astray, restoring the original goodness of one's kalooban.
How does this concept of loob and prayer help us find meaning in life?
LOGOTHERAPY: FINDING AND CREATING MEANING
Viktor Frankl's refers Human spirit in Logotherapy as that which is uniquely human. Logotherapy is based
on the premise that the human is person motivated by a "will to meaning an inner pull to find meaning in life.
Here is a list of tenets or doctrine that represents basic principles of logotherapy
• Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
• People's main motivation for living is their will to find meaning in Life
• People have freedom to find meaning in what they do, and what they
experience or at least in the stand they take when faced with certain
situation of unchangeable suffering (Frankl,1959, Retrieved)

According to Frankl, the main motivation why men continue to live is the will to
meaning A person must see meaning in his life. This meaning is unique for every
individual and it gives a talk that wily an individual alone can do at a given moment.
This may vary from time to time, as well as from person to person. It is this kind of
significance that gives his own will to meaning. According to Logotherapy, we can discover this meaning in life
in three different ways
1. By creating a work or doing a deed
Whenever we find value in who we are through the things we do, then we create meaning in our lives. It can be
a scientist who has discovered a cure for cancer or a book vendor whose reason for selling is to spread learning
or it can also be a father taking care of his son.
2. By experiencing something or encountering someone

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 18

Finding meaning in life can also happen when one experiences positive things like
goodness, truth, beauty and especially being loved. Where love means that
one is accepted for his uniqueness or that his present and that change lives
other potentialities are encouraged to the fulfilment of becoming the best
person he can be. It can also be just by experiencing nature and culture where
there is human flourishing
3. By the attitude people take toward unavoidable suffering
The third emphasizes that even in suffering one can find meaning in life where cm
turn ones predicament into triumph. Suffering costs to be suffering at the
moment it finds a meaning, such as the meuning of a sacrifice. A good
example of this would be NickVujicic who was born without limbs but has now
become an international inspirational speaker. For Vujicic, he chose to be
worthy of his suffering and meet the challenge that was given him
One big emphasis from all these three is that a person can always find
meaning in every situation one finds oneself.

** END of LESSON on THE SPIRITUAL SELF***

CLOSING PRAYER
By: Noelle Kirchner

Lord,
I surrender my life to you. I want to do something, to make something happen, all on my own strength, but I
know without you I can do nothing. I know my life is not my own, it is yours to work through me. Lord, I am
grateful for this life you’ve given me. You’ve blessed me with different gifts and talents. Help me understand
how to cultivate those things to bring glory to your great name. Amen
Amen.

REFERENCES:
Books:
Ariola, M. (2018), Understanding the Self, Unlimited Books Library Services, Manila, PH
Corpuz, R., Estoque, R. and Tabotabo, C. (2019), Understanding the Self, C & E Publishing Inc, Quezon City,
PH
Frando, M., and Isip, L (2019), Understanding the Self, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp, Mandaluyong City, PH
Magalona, E., Sadsad, E. and Cruz, E. (2018), Understanding the Self, Mindshapers Co. Inc, Manila, PH
Palean, E. (2018), Introspection: Understanding the Self, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp, Mandaluyong City, PH
Villafuerte, S et.al (2018), Understanding the Self,Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd. Quezon City, PH
Online references:
O'neil, D (2011), Common Elements of Religion, https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/religion/rel_2.htm
Martin, I. (nd), Supernatural Creatures in Philippine Folklore,
https://www.academia.edu/37262886/Supernatural_Creatures_in_Philippine_Folklore
Malonzo, M. (n.d), Types of Magic - Kwentillion, https://www.mervinmalonzo.com/content/types-magic-kwentillion
Stuart, G. (2014), Anting anting, http://www.stuartxchange.com/AntingAnting.html

School of Education, Arts and Sciences

General Education Area
PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
ANSWER SHEET

Name: Scores:
Course and Year: Contact No.:
Instructor Code:
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 19
 FINALS WEEK 1
ACTIVITY F.1
Draw a symbol that best illustrates your most meaningful experience with God. Share your experience and the
lessons you learned from such encounter. What do you think was God telling you in that particular experience?

Draw here: Share your experience here:

Share one of the religious RUBRICS RUBRICS Describe the

practices you usually observe in your respective religious sectors.
Neatness of the drawing 5
practice and explain their significance in your faith. Substantiality 8
Visual impact 5 Grammar and neatness 2

RUBRICS
Substantiality 8
Grammar and neatness 2

School of Education, Arts and Sciences

General Education Area
PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
ANSWER SHEET
Name: Scores:
Course and Year: Contact No.:
Instructor Code:

EVALUATION F.1
Cite two differences between religion and spirituality and their similarity.
Rubric:
Content and accuracy - 9 points
Neatness and grammar -1 point

Difference 1

Difference 2

Similarity

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 20

 Explain by means of an example three techniques in religion
Rubric:
Content and accuracy - 9 points
Neatness and grammar -1 point

Technique 1

Technique 2

Technique 3

Relate Frankl’s quotation to logotherapy:

Ever more people today have the means to live, but no meaning to live for.
Rubric:
Content and accuracy - 4 points
Neatness and grammar -1 point

UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS

Tuguegarao City

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

First Semester
A.Y. 2020-2021

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 21
 Prepared by:

MELANIE T. BUCO, LPT

RENZ MARION C. GAVINO, MP
MA. HAYDEE C. GUILLERMO, MAPsy
JOHN MARK A.NARAG, MP
JINKY C. RAMOS, MP
CAMILLE JAM L. SERA
PERLIE JOY C. TAMBOA, MaPsy
KENETH DALE R. TUAZON
ALDWIN D. TULIAO, MBA
Course Instructor

Reviewed by:

RENZ MARION C. GAVINO, MP

General Education Coordinator

Recommended by:

VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

Academic Dean

Approved by:

EMMANUEL JAMES P. PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

Vice President for Academics

UNIVERSITY PRAYER

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 22

O God, wellspring of goodness and blessings, we give you thanks and praise as one Louisian community. The
graces You incessantly grant upon us and Your divine providence have sustained our beloved University
throughout the years of mission and excellence.
Having been founded by the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, we pray that You keep us
committed and dedicated to our mission and identity to serve the Church and the society as we become living
witnesses to the Gospel values proclaimed by Jesus. For if we are steadfast in our good and beautiful mission,
our works will bring success not only to ourselves but also to those whom we are bound to love and serve.
Inspired by St. Louis our Patron Saint, who was filled with a noble spirit that stirred him to love You above all
things , may we also live believing that we are born for a greater purpose and mission as we dwell in Your
presence all the days of our life.
Grant all these supplications through the intercession of
Mother Mary and through Christ our Lord. Amen.

Academic Intellectual Property Rights: This module and the materials posted over NEO-LMS are the properties
of USL and the Facilitators. Students are not allowed to share it to any third-party individuals not part of the class
without any permission from the owners.

CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE

PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
AY 2020-2021
Lesson 2: Unpacking The Self

Topic: The Digital Self

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

At the end of this learning module, the student is expected to:

1. Examine the practices and products through which individuals express, represent, identify and “datify”
themselves online, in virtual environments, and through “self-tracking” technologies
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 23
 2. Explore how digital technologies shape the experience, identity, and notion of the self
3. Evaluate through the ideologies and other cultural ramifications of digital self-identification

Weekly Timetable
Date Topics Activities or Tasks
December 7 to 9 The Digital Self Read the topic on Digital Self and Online Identity
December 10 to 11 Completion of learning tasks

INTRODUCTION
The concept of the digital self originated from the phenomenon Russell Belk (1988) call as ‘extended
self’. He believed our possessions are a main contributor to and reflection of our identities. Then, external objects,
such as clothes, jewelry and cars etc. that he believed we used and considered as part of ourselves.

Nowadays however, it isn’t merely the tangible belongings that researchers

consider as part of our extended self. Our digital possessions such as photos, videos,
statuses, texts, and emails are now seen to be significantly important to shaping our
digital self. Think about it, could you live without your smartphone or laptop?

The immense progress of technology in the field of communications has greatly

influenced the lifestyle, work, habits and the overall experiences of people all over the world. The digital, mobile,
and social media have become an indispensable part of everyday life. Also, the internet is also playing an ever
more important role in our lives. With the world’s internet users spending an average of 6 hours and 43 minutes
online each day, the typical user now spends more than 40 percent of their waking life (Kemp, 2020 on Digital
2020 Report.) This constant rise in the use of digital communication has irrefutably re-defined and expanded the
concept of the digital self of individuals. Online activities are no longer separable from our real lives, but an
integral part of it (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015)

Before we begin, let’s try to investigate what we know about the digital users. The questions below are
based on the research data presented in the Digital 2020 reports – published in partnership with We Are Social
and Hootsuite. This will not be recorded so it’s okay to take a guess! Answers are on the next page so don’t
peek!

1. What's the world' most-used social platform?

2. How long does a user (aged 16 to 64 worldwide) spend on the internet on average?
3. How long does a user (aged 16 to 64 worldwide) use social media on average?
4. What generation (Boomers, X, Millenials) tops use of social media?
5. What do you think is the most visited website in the world (according to SimilarWeb)?
6. What is the top messenger app around the world?

1. FACEBOOK
As of January, there are
approximately 2.4 billion users
of Facebook followed by
Youtube!

2. 6H 43M
An average user spends 6H and 43 minutes using the internet! Was your answer close? How
many hours do you think an average Filipino is connected to the internet?

3. 2H 24M
An average user spends 2H and 24M using social media! Do you think a Filipino users spend
more than that average time?

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 24

 4. MILLENIALS
A research of Qualtrics found that young
millennials check their phones on average 150
times a day and 90.4% of Millennials, 77.5% of
Generation X, and 48.2% of Baby Boomers are
active social media users (Emarketer, 2019).

5. Google, Youtube and Facebook

These three remain the to be the most visited
websites along with Wikipedia, Twitter, Instagram
and Baidu. Baidu is a Chinese multinational
technology company specializing in Internet-
related services and products.

6. WHATSAPP
The most used online messaging app is Whatsapp!
Many countries in Russia, Affrica and South
America use this application. FB Messenger ranks
second but is highest in the Philippines!

Here’s an interesting research data on the digital users in the Philippines presented in the Digital 2020 Report:
• An average user in the Philippines use or connect to the internet 9 hours
and 45 minutes on average and spend 3 hours and 53 minutes using
social media. That’s the highest in the world!
• Facebook is the most-used social media platform in the Philippines followed
by Youtube and FB Messenger and Instagram.
• The average speed of mobile internet connections is 16.76 MBPS and 25.55
MBPS for fixed internet user. This is lower than the average worldwide.
• Most visited website according to SimilarWeb is Google, followed by
Facebook and then Youtube.
• The most searched query in Youtube are movies followed by songs and
then... Kadenang Ginto. That was during the course of 2019. Data on 2020
is still on process! What do you think will it be then?
• 97% of users from age 16-64 use chat apps and 98% use social networking
apps, 92% use entertainment or video apps and 68% play games (any type)!

ONLINE IDENTITY

Identity has many definitions, but we can simplify it into a few words: you are who you are and what
you do. Simply put, your identity is the sum of your characteristics, including your birthplace and birthday, the
schools you attended, your shoe size, and so on. Some of those characteristics never change, such as your
birthday, and some change over time, such as your hair color.

Similarly, when you are using the Internet, your online identity is
the sum of your characteristics and interactions online. Because you
interact differently with each website you visit, each of those websites will
have a different picture of who you are and what you do. For example,
the way you project yourself in Facebook may be entirely different than
how you express yourself in Twitter. Your audiences therefore in these
two sites may have an idea about who you are. Sometimes the different
representations of you are referred to as partial identities, because
none of them has the full and true picture of who you are. Let’s just say
that these partial identities reflect tidbits about an individual's
PDEVpersonality
1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 25
and identity.

Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the characteristics you represent
online differ from the characteristics you represent in the physical world. Every website you interact with has its
own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees you and your characteristics differently. For example,
shopping sites like Shopee, Lazada and Zalora has established a partial identity for you based on the products
you prefer and buy, whether it’s you on your phone or someone else using your account. Google Finance has
established a partial identity for you based on the stocks you are following, whether you actually own those
stocks or not. Spotify gives you a recommendation on the songs and playlists you like. Neither one has your full
identity, even if they were to put together your partial identities.

The result is that you have one true identity and many partial identities. Some of the information
associated with a partial identity is under your control; other information may be out of your control or even
completely invisible to you. Regardless of what you can and cannot control, they all contribute to “who you are
and what you do.”

Evonomie (2018) mentions that online identity is likened to an investment. “You start out with a small
amount of capital, and the way you use it over time determines how much you end up with later on. The difference
is, it’s actually a lot easier to control your online identity than it is to predict the stock or real estate markets”.
Evonomie sites the following elements of the digital self.

YOUR ONLINE BEHAVIOR

•People tend to assume that your online actions are representative of the
way you are in person. What do you like and share in your accounts?

YOUR ONLINE VOICE

•When you post online, what do you say? Are you controversial,
contentious or otherwise inappropriate?

YOUR ONLINE PRESENTATION

•From your blog or website to your Facebook profile, the images, fonts and
other style elements you choose say a lot about you.

Concept Recall:
A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet. It includes the websites you
visit, emails you send, comments on social media, and information you submit to online services.
As we have mentioned, anything you do online, whether it is merely searching or actual interaction
with other people or companies, they form part of your online identity.

Learn more about Digital Footprint!

WATCH: Four Reasons to Care About Your Digital Footprint by Internet Society
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ro_LlRg8rGg&feature=emb_logo

SUMMARY:
• The digital self is the persona you use when you’re online.
• Online Identity is the sum of your characteristics and your interactions.
• Partial Identity is a subset of characteristics that make up your identity.
• A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 26

 SELF PRESENTATION ONLINE

Magalona, Sadsad and Cruz (2018) stated that the digital self is a decoy
that we use to conceal our real self. As we share ourselves to the world we try
to hide our true self to cover up the issues that we have about ourselves and
show the world that we are fine and perfect. As we show the significant others
our cover through the digital self we, on the other hand, expect affirmation and
acceptance. The digital world has made thing happen more swiftly which
includes finding a partner or losing one through dating sites and the social media,
customize a character and joining gaming tournaments worldwide; filter or edit
an image according to the physical features desired; or maybe store and transfer
loads of file using our hand held gadgets.

The Dramaturgy of the Self

All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances
and one man in his time plays many parts."
~William Shakespeare

Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective that focuses on the management of everyday life proposed by
Erving Goffman. Goffman compares the human world to a theatre and drew comparisons between humans in
everyday life and the actors that played roles on-stage.

As in theatrical performances, social interaction also has the front

stage, back stage, and off-stage regions. At the front, factors like the
performer's consciousness that there is an audience and their expectations
of him/her influence or impact the performance. As for the back stage region,
this is where the performer can relax and be himself/herself, away from the
prying eyes of the crowd. Someone is then considered off-stage if he/she
gets to meet members of the audience completely independent or separate
from the performance.

In the context of social media, the front stage region is when people's carefully-constructed digital selves
engage in online activities, such as publicly commenting on posts, choosing which "selfie" to upload, or even
deciding on what thoughts to publish. On the other hand, the back stage region is when someone simply logs
out and momentarily abstains from social media use. Off-stage, finally, is when people actually meet up with
people they only know on the internet, or at least those they perform to online through various cues and
expressions.

Furthermore, Goffman added that people, when engaged in social

interactions, internalize what he calls impression management: a process wherein
each attempts to manufacture and present one’s self positively to avoid
embarrassment (Crossman, 2018). He also stated that people often give out
expressions or cues that aid in the formation of an identity for others to confirm or
deny later on (Rosenfeld, 2015). As examples, when a user posts something on
social media in broken English or uploads a picture of a newly purchased designer
bag, others may accuse them of being a try-hard or social-climber, respectively;
but reactions can also be of the exact opposite.

SUMMARY:
According to Goffman, every individual is engaged in impression management by his conscious decision
to present himself in a certain way and his continuous performance to ensure that a particular image of himself
is established. This implies that individuals wear masks, play roles and present themselves in the ways they see
themselves or in the ways they desire to be seen by others (Goffman, 1959).

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 27

 Impression Management in Social Media

Impression management refers to “conscious or unconscious

attempts to influence images during interaction” (Gilmore, Stevens, Harrell-
Cook & Ferris, 1999). It is how people attempt to manage or control the
perceptions which others form of them. Individuals manage their impressions
when they wish to present a favourable image of themselves to others. Thus,
the concept of impression management is based on the assumption that
individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and
therefore act accordingly.

The opportunity to manage impressions has been greatly influence by new communication technologies.
In the Internet era, people can make and remake themselves, choosing the details of their online impression.
Adolescents now can manage the impression they make through social media in many ways. These impression
management opportunities come with the visual anonymity of the social media, providing users much greater
degrees of freedom. People can manipulate various characteristics online to present themselves as more
humorous, friendlier, or more likable than in daily life.

The following are impression management strategies:

• Through ingratiation, people try to elicit the affection of others by conforming to others' opinions, by
doing favours, or by praising others' achievements.
• Through intimidation, people try to elicit fear in others by projecting both the capacity and inclination to
deliver negative outcomes. Typically, this strategy is used in relationships that are non-voluntary rather
than in freely formed relationships among peers.
• Through self-promotion, people try to elicit the respect of others by highlighting their prior successes
and excusing previous failures.
• Through supplication, people try to elicit the nurturance of others through self-deprecation and
entreaties for help. This is the last resort and is typically used by low-power persons who have little else
going for them.

Our strategies in impression management change depending on who we are interacting with or what personal
information we need to be providing to present ourselves in a way that will be acceptable to others. Thus, we
can select only what we want to present and impress to others, what we view beneficial to our personality,
especially when we create a digital self. We carefully choose representation or expression of one’s real world to
the online world.

SUMMARY:
Impression Management refers to conscious efforts by people to influence how
others think of them.
• Why: individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and
therefore act accordingly
• How: with the use of controlling information, photos, and videos and
present them in a proper way in social media.
Impression Management strategies:
• Self-Promotion -individuals point out their abilities or accomplishments in
order to be seen as competent by observers
• Ingratiation -individuals do favors or use flattery to elicit an attribution of
likability from observers
• Exemplification -people self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of
duty in order to gain the attribution of dedication from observers
• Intimidation -where people signal their power or potential to punish in
order to be seen as dangerous by observers
• Supplication -where individuals advertise their weaknesses or
shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being needy from
observers.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 28
 The Impact of Digital Advancements to Identity

1. Disconnectedness
The increasing use of gadgets and presence in the social media
results in being disconnected from the people around us. As we rush to
check and connect to the online world we neglect to interact face to face
with those who demand attention from us. Often, we prefer to stay stuck
on the social media creating recent posts or stalking on someone else
account for hours while being mentally insensitive to the happenings
around us. Such reality is what disconnects us from our relationships.

2. Developing and Nurturing Virtual Relationship

The progressive development in the features of social networking

sites allows individuals to gain thousands of friends and even millions of
followers. This eventually leads to creating virtual relationships which
satisfies the need for relationships and intimacy. However as this can
provide positive impact on the individual the same can also cause inability
to maintain face to face relationships which demands more personal
adjustments and understanding of human differences. Hence, it can be
concluded that relationships have become superficial as we tend to
nurture the relationship only within the confines of the digital environment
which demands simple duties such as "liking' or sharing a friend's recent
online post

3. Online Recklessness

The online world has provided its users the opportunity to express themselves by communicating their
thoughts and responses whether in the form of an emoticon, emoji, animated gif, meme or through traditional
words. These are ways to express positive or negative feedback on a recent post seen on a random feed in a
social networking site.

The digital world provides us with the chance of

expressing our thoughts and viewpoints from the confines and
comforts of our room but do we really use this freedom with a
sense of responsibility? If we state an unconventional response
that can trigger public outrage or collective reaction from all of
those who can see our raw reactions, are we willing to stand for
the consequences? We are all liable for our acts but many have
revealed the tendency is to be reckless and irresponsible. They
cannot regulate and monitor on their expression of emotions.
After the damage has been done through the posting of
opinions or personal reactions online, the next step is to delete
the same. This is definitely a manifestation of extreme
recklessness which does not in any way help in the
development of maturity among individuals.

BUT remember, class, that whatever you post online is there forever. You may have deleted a post but
people out there have a receipt of what you posted. Receipts are evidences or proof often in the form of
screenshots or saved snapshots. Case in point: Liza Soberano on rape comment

4. Distorted Identity Formation

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 29
 The digital world offers the opportunity to create
several identities according to our hearts' desire. An individual
can change his citizenship, gender, looks, character, and
status in the online world. The desire to be someone else or to
create an ideal self in this realm can be achieved instantly
through the advance features offered in the social networking
sites as enhanced by open sourced applications. The identity
that we desire to project Online may either reflect our true self
or our ideal self. However as we work for affirmation from our
Online friends and acquaintances, we tend not to be truthful to
ourselves. Indeed, nobody wanted to be rejected, everyone
desires to be loved and accepted but as the Online world offers
varied ways to enhance our image then that becomes our tool
to create a 'new identity that will guarantee acceptance by the
valued online friends, followers and acquaintances despite the
deviation from what is real.

5. A Significant Portion of Our lives is Being Broadcasted (OverSharing)

The online world gives its users the chance to have that 'celebrity feel'. We pose everything from food to
travel to relationship status and minor or major events in our life. If analyzed well, it shows that every detail of
what we post online is for public consumption. Without considering the risks and the hazard online world has
evidently become an outlet for most of us. This is called oversharing.

Oversharing happens when people share too much personal information to the public or a stranger. It is
a big problem on social media sites, which make "putting yourself online" easy. The following are examples of
oversharing:
• Posting intimate details about your relationships, friendships, family matters, or personal drama including
heated arguments with significant others
• Using social media as a soapbox or a way to vent your
emotions.
• Posting photos or videos of things meant to be private
including embarrassing photos or videos of yourself or
others.
• Regularly posting your meals.
• "Checking In" to everywhere you go.
• Posting about whatever you are doing at a given moment,
multiple times a day.
• Sharing too much info about and photos of your
children.

Bu why do we overshare?
Social Media Encourages It
• Social media sites invite users to share everything about their personal lives. It's easy to post a status
update, a photo, an event, or a "check-in" with the click of a button. Unfortunately, this can lead to FOMO,
or fear of missing out. FOMO, according to JWTIntelligence, is “the uneasy and sometimes all-
consuming feeling that you’re missing out — that your peers are doing, in the know about, or in
possession of more or something better than you.”
Are you experiencing FOMO? Here are the signs:

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 30

 o You’re always on your phone, checking your Facebook or other
social media notifications, and texting friends, even when you’re
at a party, supposedly having a great time.
o When you’re at home, you’re still constantly checking Twitter,
Facebook, and text messages.
o You have a hard time making a buying decision because
something better might come along.
o You don’t want to commit to making plans until you’ve heard from
everyone and can pick the most exciting option.
o You think other people are having a better time, buying better
things, or living happier lives based on their profile page or
tweets.
o You feel anxious and inadequate after reading your friends’
Facebook updates.

To Vent Emotions And Stress

• It is likely that we have seen someone's angry Facebook or Twitter rant at least once. Because social
media gives everyone a voice and a platform to express it, it can be tempting to "air your dirty laundry"
there.

Venting anger was found to relax people (in the short-run). In a study by Martin,
Coyier, Van Sistine, & Schroeder (2013), 100 percent of frequent internet ranters
reported feeling calm and relaxed after posting on a rant-site like justrage.com.
They concluded that benefits are only short-term and, in the long run, people who
rant online (or in person) suffer for it. In fact, in this same study, they found that
frequent ranters were angrier than the average person and expressed their anger
in a more negative way than the average person. So, even though it relaxes people
in the short-run, it’s bad for you in the long-run.

For Attention
• Getting likes, comments, shares, and that little boost of attention can give them the feeling of being
famous. This can lead to a desire to post things they know will get them noticed, even if they're "too
much."

In an article published by the Association for Psychological Science (2016), they

presented that:
The same brain circuits that are activated by eating chocolate and winning money are
activated when teenagers see large numbers of “likes” on their own photos or the
photos of peers in a social network, according to findings from a study in which
researchers scanned teens’ brains while they used social media.

6. Digital Self-Harm

Almost of similar degree to mutilating oneself we show how sad and problematic we are through the
online space. Studies have revealed that around 6 adolescents between the ages of 12 to 17 years are practicing
this so called digital self-harm," and they are done through the use of smartphones. According to criminologist
and cyberbullying researchers Justin W. Patchin, Ph.D., and Sameer Hinduja, Ph.D., digital self-harm entails the
“anonymous online posting, sending, or otherwise sharing of hurtful content about oneself.” This implies that
people tend to demean themselves on public as they tend to validate their insecurities and weaknesses among
their online friends and followers.

Patchin and Hinduja (2017) note in their study that “…many who had participated
in digital self-harm were looking for a response,” What kind of response exactly? The
youth in Patchin and Hinduja’s survey reported several different kinds. These included
wanting others’ pity, wanting “to be validated that someone did actually care about me,”
and attempting to elicit others’ help (e.g., hoping that another person might come to the
assistance of or defend the target of the harmful statement—the individual who made
the statement to begin with).
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 31
 The loneliness, emptiness and anxiety digital technology produce results in the declining mental health
and the increasing rate of adolescent suicide. As the online world has provided a means for these individuals to
express themselves, it also allows the chance to post bad self-impressions about one's looks and traits which
later validates insecurities and low self-concept.

7. Contribute to a Declining Mental Health

Severe exposure and engagement in the digital world can result to extreme loneliness and anxiety
especially among teens. The inability to gain attention from the significant others results to sadness and
frustration. This is contributing a lot to a declining mental health as the individual is unable to overcome stress.
Crimes arise due to this reality as they develop angst and heighten emotional issues which they cannot resolve
in a more mature manner.

According to the Royal Society for Public Health, YouTube tops the table as the most positive, with
Instagram and Snapchat coming out as the most detrimental to young people’s mental health and wellbeing.
Based on the ratings young people gave to each platform for each of the health and wellbeing-related issues,
the five most popular platforms were given a net average score which were used to establish the league table
rankings:
1. YouTube (most positive)
2. Twitter
3. Facebook
4. Snapchat
5. Instagram (most negative)

8. Self-Obsession

Constant exposure to the online world has evidently increased the incidence
of narcissism. Many have become self-obsessed and self-absorbed as facilitated and
promoted by the social media. As social networking sites allow escape from the daily
woes of life, expectations consequently arise. Users expect that there will be following
and responses to their posts whether it is an image, a quote, an emotional post
evident through likes' 'shares' and 'tweets.' Individuals who submit themselves to the
mentality propagated by these social networking sites have become preoccupied by
trying to produce their best photos and images, detailed account of their most recent
activities as well as the best image of the cup of coffee they have bought from that
high-end café with a location posted on their Facebook, Instagram or Twitter
accounts. All of these accounts have to do with themselves, what they are doing now,
who they are with and what they feel now. Individuals have become so engrossed
with themselves.

The digital world has inspired individuals to be so amazed about the “me, myself and I” craze

Consequently the development of the social media has brought forth the introduction of intangible
elements which become an extension of ourselves. Those are what we post online and what we keep offline
which become part of our digital possessions. Photos, emails, SMS, videos and the like have become vital
reflections of our digital self.

7 REASONS FOR ENGAGING IN THE DIGITAL HYPE

By Magalona, Sadsad, Cruz (2018)

The digital world offers a unique experience which makes great impact on the way individuals express
themselves as largely the same sentiment is driven by the following basic reasons:

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 32

 1. Every individual desires to meet the expectation of the significant others in his/her life. Many would not
readily post their photos online but will edit or filter the same to ensure that they look a lot better in their
digital images. The use of several online applications (Apps) facilitates this need;

2. Online posting of objects as well as current statuses is expected to receive responses and reactions from
their followers as in the form of ‘likes’ and ‘shares.’ These are gestures that boost their ego and self
esteem

3. As Abraham Maslow had stated in the 'Hierarchy of Needs' (1943), each has the need to 'belong.'
Everyone desires to blend in.' And so when everyone on the social media poses photos of his/her food
then all others follow the trend. Uploading of these images creates a feeling of being part of the hype.

4. The digital web provides individual with much more freedom to express themselves in varied forms.
Whether verbally or non-verbally these digital platforms create an avenue to communicate and express
ideas and views just about everything.

5. The digital world allow the individual to achieve his or her ‘ideal self’
whether it is physical such as those provided by online applications to
improve their images physically. And it could also be emotionally as
platform users can express themselves by 'Vlogging' or even Blogging.'
Whichever manner results in an emotional experience that makes one
feel good about his or her self.

ONLINE DISINHIBITION: THE CAUSES

By: Palean, Nazario, Valero and Descartin (2018)

The online disinhibition effect describes the loosening of social restrictions and inhibitions that are normally
present in face-to-face interactions that takes place in interactions on the Internet. John Suler posits six factors
that often cause online disinhibition. They are as follows

1. DISSOCIATIVE ANONYMITY ("People Don't Know Me")

This is the confidence you feel every time you anonymously engage in online
activities. Because you can easily disassociate your online identities from your
offline ones, you can be relatively carefree (or careless, even) in your virtual
behavior, resulting in a more unfiltered, even harmful, you. Arguing online in the
comments sections, for example, emboldens you to use profanities and even
hate slurs because none of them really knows you personally.
#ANONYMITY - the act of communicating wherein the sender does not openly reveal his/her identity

2. INVISIBILITY ("People Can't See Me")

In this factor, you can sometimes intentionally misrepresent yourself to come
across as an entirely different person. Unlike in real conversations, invisibility
enables you to alter your virtual avatar's personality and even appearance,
sometimes to lure attractive people into taking notice of you, or just to generally
avoid scrutiny when you participate online. In hiding your true physical and
personal attributes away, you are effectively freeing yourself up from the
baggage of having to present yourself as you truly are.
#PSEUDONYMITY - same as anonymity, but the sender takes on alternate personas

3. ASYNCHRONICITY ("See You When I See You")

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 33

 Time is a very important element in face to face communications. This is why
meetings at work are scheduled based on the attendees availability.
Conversely, you have the luxury of time delay in the virtual world. Every time
you send an e-mail or even a message on Facebook, time is on your side. You
can compose, structure, and edit it in a span of several minutes, sometimes
an hour or even more. Even your posts in online forums can be made to read
smarter than they are originally, thanks to web references you can access in
an instant. Another plus is that you do not even need to be physically present
in your virtual engagements. In effect, this makes you more relaxed in dealing
with people online with the pressures of real world communication removed
completely

4. SOLIPSISTIC INTROJECTION ("It's All in The Mind")

We essentially communicate online through typewritten words. Verbal cues,

though ever-present are not the accepted norm in interacting virtually. In this
regard, you unconsciously recite in your head both the messages you send
and those deployed your way. You play casting director for these voices,
imagining how the pitch or intonation would be if spoken out loud. Ultimately,
you think of your voice when you read the messages. And because the words
are filtered through you, you feel less intimidated in communicating thinking it
is all happening in your own personal psychic domain. This is why
acquaintances are sometimes very talkative to each other virtually but do not
actually speak let alone interact much in real life.

5. DISSOCIATIVE IMAGINATION ("It's All a Play")

Simply put, this is the faulty belief that online interaction is a game, and whose rules you can easily break
with no perceived implications. Buoyed by the assumption that your real-life identity and digital avatars
are separate entities and that the cyberspace is but an outlet for escape (like movies), you sometimes
resort to doing unspeakable things you normally wouldn't in real life. This notion often rationalizes criminal
behavior online, particularly identity theft or even sexual harassment

6. MINIMIZATION OF STATUS AND AUTHORITY ("Your Rules Don't Work Online")

Have you ever stumbled upon one of your professors Facebook profiles
and it suddenly occurred to you how powerless he/she seems to look? If
yes, then this is because the internet, more than just providing users a
disinhibited space, levels the playing field, with no one personality having
unanimous clout over others. Perhaps your professor, or even a politician
for that matter, is influential outside the realm of the cyberspace, but within
it, he/she, along with the great many, still belong under the same
classification: user. Take notice how ordinary individuals suddenly have
the guts to engage influential people in arguments on social media. Online,
people are perceived to be equals.

CHAPTER SUMMARY:
People often engage in performance when encountering different abstractions online, sometimes to the
detriment of their identity. The cyberspace, in addition, also allows the creation of multiple personalities (the
concept of multiphrenia) to cater to different sets of audience. Activities online also fit within the broader contours
of Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical framework, which outlines the relationship between an individual and how he
or she interacts with the audience. Given prominence also in digital interactions is the idea of impression
management or peoples’ attempt to come across positively to others to avoid embarrassment. On the flip side,
though, not everyone wants to be readily recognizable online. As a remedy, they use anonymity and
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 34
pseudonymity. This hiding away of ones true identity in effect, allows users to become more open in freely
expressing their thoughts in the virtual space, which John Suler calls online disinhibition.
** END of LESSON on THE DIGITAL SELF***
Prayer for the Internet
- by Patti Maguire Armstrong
Dear Lord, give me your protection as I use the Internet.
Keep me from darkness,
Surround me with your light.
Help me act always in love.
In the company of your angels and saints,
Guide my path to sites that glorify You.
Be my timekeeper and filter.
Let me hear Your Divine call to my duties,
Repel me by anything against You.
Guide me to evangelizing opportunities,
And send your Holy Spirit with the words.
Let the Godly draw me stronger than the worldly
Keep me from self-indulgence and addiction.
Thank you, Lord, for the blessings of technology.
Forgive me for the times I have misused it.
And in all things, lead me closer to You.
Amen.

Copyright 2014 Patti Maguire Armstrong

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Frando, M., and Isip, L (2019), Understanding the Self, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp, Mandaluyong City, PH
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Palean, E. (2018), Introspection: Understanding the Self, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp, Mandaluyong City, PH
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harm/McGraw-Hill Global Education Holdings, LLC (2020), Applying Social Psychology,
http://novella.mhhe.com/sites/0070329737/student_view0/module4/applying_social_psychology.html
TechTerms (n.d) Digital Footprint, Retrieved from https://techterms.com/definition/digital_footprint
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 35
 School of Education, Arts and Sciences
General Education Area
PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
ANSWER SHEET

Name: Scores:
Course and Year: Contact No.:
Instructor Code:
FINALS WEEK 2
ACTIVITY F.2

“The first rule of social media is that everything changes all the time. What won’t change is the community’s
desire to network” – Kami Huyse

Examine how social media various aspects of the life of an individual. Complete the table by listing the
advantages and disadvantages of using social media. Explain your answer to ensure substantiality.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
RELATIONSHIPS
ACADEMICS
SELF-ESTEEM

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 36

SOCIAL ISSUES
AND TRENDS

UNIVERSITY OF SAINT LOUIS

Tuguegarao City

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, ARTS and SCIENCES

First
Semester
A.Y. 2020-
2021
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 37
CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self

Prepared by:

MELANIE T. BUCO, LPT

RENZ MARION C. GAVINO, MP
MA. HAYDEE C. GUILLERMO, MAPsy
JOHN MARK A.NARAG, MP
JINKY C. RAMOS, MP
CAMILLE JAM L. SERA
PERLIE JOY C. TAMBOA, MaPsy
KENETH DALE R. TUAZON
ALDWIN D. TULIAO, MBA
Course Instructor

Reviewed by:

RENZ MARION C. GAVINO, MP

General Education Coordinator

Recommended by:

VENUS I. GUYOS, Ph.D.

Academic Dean

Approved by:

EMMANUEL JAMES P. PATTAGUAN, Ph.D.

Vice President for Academics

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 38

 UNIVERSITY PRAYER

O God, wellspring of goodness and blessings, we give you thanks and praise as one Louisian community.
The graces You incessantly grant upon us and Your divine providence have sustained our beloved University
throughout the years of mission and excellence.

Having been founded by the Congregation of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, we pray that You keep us committed
and dedicated to our mission and identity to serve the Church and the society as we become living witnesses to the
Gospel values proclaimed by Jesus. For if we are steadfast in our good and beautiful mission, our works will bring
success not only to ourselves but also to those whom we are bound to love and serve.

Inspired by St. Louis our Patron Saint, who was filled with a noble spirit that stirred him to love You above all things ,
may we also live believing that we are born for a greater purpose and mission as we dwell in Your presence all the
days of our life.

Grant all these supplications through the intercession of

Mother Mary and through Christ our Lord. Amen.

Academic Intellectual Property Rights: This module and the materials posted over NEO-LMS are the properties of USL
and the Facilitators. Students are not allowed to share it to any third-party individuals not part of the class without
any permission from the owners.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 39

 CORRESPONDENCE LEARNING MODULE
PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self AY
2020-2021
Lesson 2: Unpacking The Self

Topic: The Material/Economic Self

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

At the end of this learning module, the student is expected to:

1. Identify personal factors that affect purchasing behavior
2. Explain how consumer culture shapes one's identity
3. Examine how personal things act as an extension of the self

Weekly Timetable
Date Topics Activities or Tasks
December 21-23, 2020 Material/Economic Self Read the topic on Material Self
January 4-8, 2021 Completion of learning tasks
January 11, 2021 Return module

INTRODUCTION

MATERIAL SELF
A man’s self is the sum total of what he can call his (James, 1980)

CHAPTER X, The Consciousness of Self (A)

THE EMPIRICAL SELF OR ME, The Principles of
Psychology (JAMES, 1890)

The body is the innermost part of the material Self in each of us; and certain parts of
the body seem more intimately ours than the rest.

The clothes come next. The old saying that the human person is composed of three
parts - soul, body and clothes - is more than a joke. We so appropriate our clothes and
identify ourselves with them that there are few of us who, if asked to choose between
having a beautiful body clad in raiment perpetually shabby and unclean, and having
an ugly and blemished form always spotlessly attired, would not hesitate a moment
before making a decisive reply.

Next, our immediate family is a part of ourselves. Our father and mother, our wife and
babes, are bone of our bone and flesh of our flesh. When they die, a part of our very
selves is gone. If they do anything wrong, it is our shame. If they are insulted, our anger
flashes forth as readily as if we stood in their place.

Our home comes next. Its scenes are part of our life; its aspects awaken the tenderest
feelings of affection; and we do not easily forgive the stranger who, in visiting it, finds
fault with its arrangements or treats it with contempt. All these different things are the
objects of instinctive preferences coupled with the most important practical interests
of life. We all have a blind impulse to watch over our body, to deck it with clothing of
[p. 293] an ornamental sort, to cherish parents, wife and babes, and to find for
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 40
ourselves a home of our own
which we may live in and
'improve.'

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 41

EVIDENCES BEHIND THE IDEA THAT MONEY TRULY
CAN CHANGE PEOPLE
Lifted from Understanding the Self by Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, R. and Borja, E. (2018)

Psychologists who study the impact of wealth and inequality on human behavior have found that money can
powerfully influence our thoughts and actions in ways that we’re often not aware of, no matter what our
circumstances are (Greogoire, 2014)

Curtis (2017) manifested that cash can have serious bearing on one’s belief regarding the way a person views
himself/herself. The following are evidences of such idea.

A. Social and Business Value

▪ By recognizing a task’s social value a person sees it as a worthy investment of time and a part of his/her
social duty, and he/she is usually happy to help out. When money is offered as the motivation, however,
people then sat thinking less of the social aspect and more about the business value.

For example, if a relative asked you to baby-sit their kids or tend the elderly for few hours, you may be
more motivated to do so when you will receive more in exchange of your service. You may even be more
enthusiastic the next time around. However, if you will be paid less or think that you will not gain from
the activity, then you are more likely to give alibis and excuses.
B. Self Sufficiency and Service
▪ Those who are conscious of money typical strive to be more self-sufficient than those for whom money
isn’t a priority. In a research that was conducted, it was found that when given a very difficult and even
impossible task, with instructions that help was available, it was the money- related group that seems the
most intent on getting the job done alone, even when it was not possible to finish the task solo. It only
means that money-conscious individuals are more self- sufficient than their peers, particularly when
money is made the focus.

C. Self-view
▪ The wealthiest people are those with the deepest sense of class essentialism – the idea that differences
between classes are based upon identity and genetics, rather than circumstance. Poor people tend to
believe that social class was not related to genes, that essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone can be
poor. Rich people were more likely to believe that wealth was part of genes and identity, that they were
entitled to wealth based upon their personal circumstances and actions. Wealthy people also believe that
more or less, life is fair and people mostly get what they deserve.

D. Ethics
▪ Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class were most likely to engage in unethical behaviour,
particularly when a symbol of wealth is introduced. That is, people who have more tendencies to break
the law. e.g. cutting off a pedestrian when in a luxury car.

▪ Piff (2012) also found in his research a phenomenon he labelled as self-interest maximization. It is the
idea that suggests that those who have the most money or occupy higher classes are more likely to take
a “what’s in it for me?” attitude. They actively work toward the most benefit for themselves.

E. Addiction
▪ Many addictions begin because a person gets a positive response from a certain type of
behaviour. Whether it’s a happy feeling that one gets from shopping or a thrill that comes from
gambling, actively seeking out that behaviour again and again for the same outcome can trigger
addiction.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 42

 ▪ Behavioral or process addiction – a compulsive behavior not motivated by dependency on an addictive
substance, but rather by the process that leads to a seemingly positive outcome.

IMPULSIVE BUYING COMPULSIVE BUYING

This refers to a sudden and powerful urge in the consumer to buy This is characterized by an excessive preoccupation or poor
immediately. It occurs when desire for a product or brand outweighs impulse control with shopping, with adverse consequences, like
one's willpower to resist. marital conflict and financial problems.

MONEY WORLDS AND WELL-

BEING
Materialism as a philosophy is held by those who maintain that existence is explainable solely in material terms, with no
accounting of spirit or consciousness. Individuals who hold to this belief see the universe as a huge device held together by
pieces of matter functioning in subjection to naturalistic laws.
(https://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/materialism.htm)

▪ Cycle of work and spend - work more to buy more. The level of consumption is set mainly by people’s choices
about how much to work, and therefore how much income to earn

CORRELATES OF MATERIALISM
Lifted from Understanding the Self: Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018)
1. Materialism and happiness reportedly do not go well together as it was shown that people who value
possessions and material wealth over other more significant life goals are said to be less happy and are more
prone to depression.
2. Materialism and self-esteem show an inverted relationship.
3. Materialism and financial stability show an inverted relationship.
4. Materialism and well-being manifest opposite relationship as individuals practicing this principle tend to isolate
themselves from the significant others as they continue try to derive gratification from amassing objects rather
than interacting with the people around them.
5. Materialism and self-concept prove how insecurity motivates people to work so hard for material
possessions as the same wealth becomes their source of security.
6. Materialism and lack of engagement mean losing one’s ability to empathize with others as they become callous
to other people’s needs.
ACCORDING TO GREGOIRE (2017) MATERIALISM MAKES PEOPLE UNHAPPY
FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:

1. Consumer culture may be harming individual well-being.

▪ Allegedly those who pursue more wealth and greater material
possessions are less satisfied as they experience less positive emotions.

2. Materialistic values are linked to Type-A behaviour.

▪Those who are highly ambitious are highly competitive and
materialistic. These are traits of a Type-A personality.

3. Money really cannot buy you happiness.

▪Several studies have shown that wealthy people are highly
susceptible to depression.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 43

 ▪ Researches have also shown that money is not exactly what
▪
▪ brings about the dissatisfaction and the unhappiness but the
extreme desire to earn more.

4. Materialism could ruin your relationship.

▪ Materialistic values result to low-quality relationships and
disconnectedness.

5. Consumer cultures may breed narcissistic personalities.

▪ Narcissist are highly arrogant as they are deeply concerned with
inadequacy. They work a lot for power and prestige to cover up their
perceived emptiness and low self-worth. All these sentiments
demand validation form others through praises, compliments and
approval.

6. Consumerism is fuelled by insecurity.

▪ Research shows that those who are extremely doubtful of their self-
worth are highly insecure and thus have the tendency to be more
materialistic.
▪ Consumerism capitalizes on insecurity so their products and
services will sell and be highly demanded.

THE ART OF BUYING: COMING TO TERMS WITH MONEY AND

Tatzel, M
MATERIALISM Journal of
(2003), Happiness
The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism,
Studies 420-

ABSTRACT. Money and possessions hold strong attractions, but being driven to acquire them in order to enhance one’s
social standing is associated with lowered well-being. Literatures on money and happiness, materialism, and cultural
mediators are reviewed. Consumer well-being is associated with being neither very tight nor very loose with money, with
having relatively low financial aspirations, and with being low in materialism. Price-related behaviors – whether to spend
low, spend high, or attempt to maximize value – are ways of responding to economic outlay vis-a-vis material wants, and
these “strategies” offer a window into broader consumer lifestyles: the Value Seeker type is tight with money and
materialistic; the Big Spender is loose with money and materialistic; the Non-Spender is tight with money and not
materialistic; and the Experiencer is loose with money and not materialistic. Each of these types is described in terms of
the potentials for well-being as well as the risks. Intrinsic motivation emerges as a key to well-being.

TIGHT WITH MONEY LOOSE WITH MONEY

Value seeker Big spender
Bargain hunter Exhibitionist
Hold possessions Replace possessions
HIGH MATERIALISM Enjoy price comparison shopping Price-quality schema
Cool involvement Trend conscious
Save-to-spend Debt prone
Non-spender Experiencer
Saver Spend for recreation, self-development
LOW MATERIALISM Ascetic lifestyle and services
Price averse Generous
Quality less important

Here is an excerpt from Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of
Happiness Studies 420-429
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 44
What type of consumer are you?

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 45

Value Seeker: Tight with Money and Materialistic
Given the combination of high materialism and tight with money, we might expect the Value Seeker to be especially unhappy –
anxious about money, other directed, dissatisfied, and in conflict between material desires and reluctance to spend.
• Value Seekers enjoy price comparison shopping, through which they derive knowledge and hedonic benefits
(Mamorstein et al., 1992).
• This is a “smart shopper” who can outwit the retailer and thus save money by paying less than the going
price (Mano and Elliott, 1997).
• Good value can be thought of as the lowest price for a given level of quality (Bei and Heslin, 1997). Bargain hunters can
ply their skills at virtually all points along the quality continuum, even for luxury goods.
• Instead of the “hot” materialism of “I must have it now”, they can wait for the synchrony of the right product at the
right price. The pleasure of delayed acquisition is sweetened by the triumph of the good buy.
• A preference for saving for expensive purchases (“save-to-spend”), rather than borrowing, is also a form of delayed
gratification.
• The Value Seeker should be debt averse. Debt is a form of loss of control over money. Not only has one not held on to
money (as the tight-with-money prefer to do), not only has one spent what one has, one has also spent what one does
not have. Furthermore, paying interest on a loan is a “waste” of money for which one gets nothing (no thing) in return.
• Many traits of the Value Seeker can support well-being: this is a
competent consumer, who enjoys shopping, enjoys saving
money, and enjoys possessions.
• Yet being tight with money and materialistic are both associated
with lowered well-being. The risks to well- being for this type
come from being extreme in these traits plus having strong
financial aspirations. The Value Seeker could become a fretful
individual, who feels poor, agonizes over purchases, and is a
compulsive bargain hunter.

Big Spender: Loose with Money and Materialistic

The Big Spender enjoys spending money and displaying high status possessions. The price-seeking Big Spender feels
successful with conspicuously expensive purchases. They have attraction to spending, the belief that expensive things are
better, and prestige-seeking, with its overtones of competitiveness.
• The Big Spender is concerned with consuming in a showy manner. Thus possessions that hold value may be of less
interest, and money would flow into renewable possessions, like cars, and into replacing outdated possessions, such as
furniture. The Big Spender wants the latest and the best.
• The Big Spender lifestyle is especially treacherous for those with limited means. Low inhibitions about spending can
lead to buying on credit, and debt in itself is detrimental to well-being (Ahuvia and Friedman, 1998). If living within
one’s means requires buying a used car, the trend-conscious Big Spender may instead lease an outsized sport utility
vehicle, even if it means stretching credit to the limit.
• The Big Spender illustrates what is wrong with consumer culture: in the elusive quest for the “good life”, the
driven consumer overworks (Schor, 1992), overspends (Schor,
1998), and goes into debt in order to own too many possessions
(Dominguez and Robin, 1992).
• Making one’s possessions visible to others and being fashionable
both be speak sociability. In its positive aspect, we can find in the
Big Spender a healthy extraversion, even though the need for
admiration hints at the social anxiety and competitiveness that
motivate materialism.
• Being overly loose with money and highly materialistic, however,
are both risk factors for well-being. So is strong financial
motivation, particularly for these ends, and it is likely that the Big
Spender will need lots of money to support a lifestyle of free
spending and endless material wants or else he will be at risk for
compulsive spending, social anxiety, guilt, low self-esteem, and
dissatisfaction with life.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 46

Non-Spender: Tight with Money and Not Materialistic
The Non-Spender is unmoved by the temptations of materialism.
• There is anxiety over parting with money and the fear over being cheated, and on the other hand there is the
enjoyment of holding money, tracking it, and perhaps watching it grow.
• The Non-Spender is probably ill-at-ease in the marketplace and relatively unskilled. He or she suspects that prices do
not reflect quality, and this suspicion strengthens the resolve to buy “low” and spend as little as possible (Rao and
Sieben, 1992).
• Not spending is an adaptation to being poor, a strategy for survival in constrained circumstances. In less constrained
circumstances, such self-restraint can be a route to financial independence and may even be the road to riches. The
“millionaire next door” (Stanley and Danko, 1996) lives modestly while amassing a fortune through scrimping, saving
and investing.
• The Non-Spender, free from the lures of consumer culture and free from the
needs for social approval that induce consumer conformity, may be
particularly individualistic, self-reliant, and self-controlled.
• The Non-Spender is also prone to the drawbacks of being overly tight with
money – worried, suspicious, stingy, withholding. Although low materialism
is mostly a positive force for well-being, one can imagine that a life of severe
material denial would be bleak and unstimulating with little to nourish
growth. If the motive to hoard money supercedes other life values, there
would be little to counter the barrenness.

The Experiencer: Loose with Money and Not Materialistic

The Experiencer is someone who is relaxed about spending money and lacks material motives, and so likely to spend on the
transitory intangibles that enhance life.
• Spending for experience can take various forms.
o Activities is one category. Examples include recreation, travel, self-improvement workshops, entertainment.
o Another category is service, the willingness to pay to have someone tend to one’s needs. Dining at good
restaurants and shopping at boutiques and specialty stores can provide the personal attention and pleasant
surroundings that are hard to come by in serve-yourself supermarkets and in stark, impersonal discount stores.
• When money is spent on material objects, the value for the Experiencer lies more in using the possessions than in
showcasing them (Holt, 1995).
• It seems that of all the types, the Experiencer, who spends for personal growth and pleasure and is low in materialism,
is the most attuned to intrinsic motivation and is therefore the most likely to enjoy wellbeing. Yet for the Experiencer,
too, there are risk factors, and one lies in the motive when spending for experience. Just as objects can satisfy intrinsic
or extrinsic motives, so can experiences.
o Tourism is one such example: it can be a way of authentically participating in the spirit of other cultures, or it can
be a source of ego gratification, especially when the tourist destination has been fashioned so as to flatter the
tourist (MacCannell, 2002). Is the motive for travel to savor the experience or to boast about having been to
the in-spots and thereby enhance one’s social standing? When experiences are valued as status symbols (and
certainly one can spend conspicuously for experiences as well as for things), the Experiencer has moved toward
the Big Spender type.

• A risk factor is being overly loose with money. A lack of concern about
spending, or a lack of self-control, can eventuate in the money problems
and debt associated with compulsive spending. When a large inflow of
money is required in order to feed the stream of spending, the pressure to
acquire more money, which can strengthen financial drives, can have
negative consequences for well-being.

Let us consider how the same consumer choice may be assessed in the four money worlds. Given a choice between replacing old,
shabby furniture and going on vacation, the Value Seeker might shop around for furniture sales or else refurbish the old furniture,
the Big Spender might upgrade and update the furniture in the latest style, the Non-Spender

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 47

might neither go on a vacation nor do anything about the furniture, and the Experiencer is likely to opt for the vacation and make
do with the shabby furniture for a while longer.
VARIOUS WAY TO APPRECIATE OUR OWN UNIQUENESS AND
BE GENUINELY JOYOUS ABOUT IT.
Lifted from Understanding the Self: Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018)
1. Learn to share your blessings no matter how simple it is.
2. Improve your self-esteem and self-worth by engaging in worthwhile activities.
3. Learn to communicate and relate with people around you.
4. Take time to appreciate the beauty of life and God’s creations.
5. Be grateful to those who compliment you by returning the favour.
6. Focus on your strengths and not on your flaws.
7. Stop projecting on media accounts about what you have and others do not.
8. Learn to let go of things that are not significantly needed,
9. Develop a mantra to counter the negativities entering your thoughts.
10. Stop brewing on negativities and on hurtful past. Focus on the future and what you can do to be
productive and happy.

SHAPING THE WAY WE SEE OURSELVES: The Roles of Consumer

Culture on Our Sense of Self and Identity Lifted from Understanding the Self by Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A.,
Tunac, R. and Borja, E. (2018)
POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF
If possessions are viewed as part of the self, it follows that an unintentional loss of possessions should be regarded
as loss or lessening of self

Example: In situations that deliberately such as mental hospitals, prisons,

concentration camps or military training camps, the firsts step in receiving members
is to systematically deprive them of all personal possessions including clothing, money
or even names. Their bodies may be standardized to some degree (e.g. military
haircuts, standard wardrobe) and their behaviors and conversations may be strictly
prohibited. The result of this systematic substitution of standardize “identity kits” for
former possessions is an elimination of uniqueness (Snyder and Fromkin, 1981) and
a corresponding and often traumatic lessening of the
individual’s sense of self.

Another instance of non-voluntary loss of possession that bring about a diminished sense of self
is when possessions are lost due to theft or casualty. Rosenblatt, Walsh and Jackson (1976) suggest
that a process of grief and mourning may follow the discovery of theft just as one might grieve and
mourn the death of a loved one who had been part of one’s life.
▪ Handbag snatching can produce not only a financial but also emotional, long term
effects on victims.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 48
▪ Losing photographs of loved ones that are often carried in a purse may cause victims sense of security impaired

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 49

 ▪ Those who lost possessions to a natural disasters went through a process of grief similar to that of losing a loved
one.

SPECIAL CASES OF EXTENDED SELF

1. Collections (I shop, therefore, I am)
a. Humans and animals once primarily assemble collections of necessities for future security, but today
humans more often assemble collection of non-necessities for distinction and self- definition. The
cultivation of a collection is a purposeful self-defining act. Collecting has become a significant activity in
our consumer society as it has become more widely affordable through the discretionary time and
money available to the general population rather than just to the wealthy elite (Mason, 1981)
b. Many collectors who are inhibited and uncomfortable in social interaction, surround themselves with
favoured objects upon which they project human-like qualities. They practicallytalk to these objects; they
find comfort in being with them and regard them as friends (Goldberg & Lewis, 1978). Note that not all
collectors are inhibited and uncomfortable in social interaction.
c. Collections may be seen as transition objects or security blankets for adults.

2. Pets
a. Pets are regarded as family members (Cain, 1985; Friedman & Thomas, 1985 etc).
b. It is significant that we name our pets, feed them, sleep and play with them, and mourn their death
(Hickrod & Schmitt 1982; Meer 1984)
c. In some cases, the mourning that comes with the death of the pet is similar to the loss of a home
or the loss of a limb (Carmack, 1985; Cowles; 1985 & Keddie 1977)
d. Pets are so instrumental to self-identity that they are often useful as transition objects (surrogate
parents) for children and as surrogate children for adults (Levinson, 1972; Robin & Bensel, 1985)

3. Body Parts
a. In psychology, cathexis is defined as the process of allocation of mental or emotional energy to a person,
object, or idea. Body cathexis is defined as the degree of satisfaction reported by an individual for the
parts of his body. (Jourard and Secord, 1955). This refers to the feelings (positive or negative) one feels
towards his own body. When a body a body is highly cathected, there is greater use of grooming products
to care for this part of the body.
b. Since we are permanently attached to out body parts, these body parts are expected to be more strongly
cathected than material possessions that can be more easily acquired and discarded. And since body parts
are normally central to conceptions of self, the loss of body parts is tantamount to losing one’s identity
and one’s very being. Indeed the loss of limb is often viewed by those from whom it has been severed in
just this way.

** END of LESSON on THE MATERIAL SELF***

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 50
 A PRAYER ABOUT MATERIALISM

Reflections of the Heart:

Jesus said, “A person is a fool to store up earthly wealth but not have a rich relationship with God.” Luke 12:21 (NLT)

Scriptural Prayer:
Heavenly Father, Your Name is to be honored. Lord, how excellent is Your Name in all the earth. You have set Your glory
above the heavens. Lord, You are a great and greatly to be praised. Your greatness is unsearchable.
Today, we lift our voices towards heaven and offer praises to Your Most Holy Name. We thank You for Your marvelous
works and Your loving kindness and tender mercies toward us. Thank You for providing us with employment and
blessing us with homes, cars, and “things.” Lord, You are good. Your mercy endures forever.

Father, it is Your will that we do not lay up material treasures on earth for ourselves, where moth and rust can destroy and
where thieves can break in and steal; but lay up treasures in heaven for ourselves, where neither moth nor rust can destroy
and where thieves do not break in and steal. Your word states that our lives do not consist in the abundance of the things we
possess: therefore, we will beware of covetousness. The one who lays up treasure for himself is not rich towards You. Where
our treasure is, there our heart will be also. Lord, we confess that life is more than food, and the body is more than clothing.
Therefore, we declare that we, as a church body, will seek first Your kingdom and Your righteousness and all things will be
added to us. Lord, we confess that we will not trust in uncertain riches but we will trust in You, the living God, who gives us
richly all things to enjoy. We confess that we will be a church that will continue to do good works and we will be ready to
give and be willing to share.

REFERENCES:

Books:

Ariola, M. (2018), Understanding the Self, Unlimited Books Library Services, Manila, PH

Corpuz, R., Estoque, R. and Tabotabo, C. (2019), Understanding the Self, C & E Publishing Inc, Quezon City, PH Frando, M.,

and Isip, L (2019), Understanding the Self, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp, Mandaluyong City, PH Magalona, E., Sadsad, E.

and Cruz, E. (2018), Understanding the Self, Mindshapers Co. Inc, Manila, PH

Palean, E. (2018), Introspection: Understanding the Self, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp, Mandaluyong City, PH

Villafuerte, S et.al (2018), Understanding the Self,Nieme Publishing House Co. Ltd. Quezon City, PH

Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of Happiness
Studies 420-429

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 51

THE VISION, MISSION, EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY,

AND CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY
VISION
USL is a global learning community recognized for science and technology across all disciplines, strong research, and
responsive community engagement grounded on the CICM mission and identity for a distinctive student experience.
MISSION
USL sustains a Catholic academic community that nurtures persons for community, church and society anchored on
CICM’s Missio et Excellentia.
EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND CORE VALUES
The University of Saint Louis upholds the philosophy that education is for building of self and persons for the Church
and the Society. Wisdom builds. To these ends, the following are University of Saint Louis’s core values integral in the
formation of every member of the Louisian community.
Christian Living. We are witnesses to the Gospel values as taught and lived by Christ thus making God’s love known
and experienced by all. We seek and maintain uncompromising standard of quality in teaching, learning, service, and
stewardship of school resources.
Professional Responsibility.We are committed to efficiently and responsibly apply the learned principles, values and
skills in the chosen field of discipline, taking initiative and command responsibility in one’s professional advancement
Social Awareness and Involvement.We engage ourselves with society by listening to the prevailing issues and
concerns in the society, thereby initiating and participating in constructive and relevant social activities for the
promotion of justice, peace and integrity of creation and for people’s wellness and development consistent with the
CICM charism.
Innovation, Creativity and Agility.We keep ourselves relevant and responsive to the changing needs of our
stakeholders by being flexible, solution oriented, and having cutting-edge decisions and practices
The Greeks even had the Maxim, “Know thyself” and Prins (2014) mentions that:
You could think of it (know thyself) in terms of limitations, of understanding your various strengths
and weaknesses; what you are capable of and what you are not. You can look at it in terms of
mortality, in knowing and accepting that as a human you are not immortal and will die. You may
see it in terms of knowing your place, in your family, work, and social networks. You may interpret
“know thyself” as Socrates did, as a process of questioning and testing one’s most fundamental
beliefs.
Now one of the ways for you to get to know more of yourself is to understand that you don’t. it is important
to have that humility to recognize your ignorance and acknowledge the things that you know and things that you
don’t know about yourself. You have to accept that it is not that easy to have that understanding of who you are.
Sometimes you know, sometimes not, sometimes you know a lot, sometimes you know few. You’re not as skillful
as you think. You are flawed. Maybe you don’t know yourself as well as you think. But it’s hard to get low enough
to understand how deeply it is the case that you are ignorant about who you are and ignorant about who you could
be. And so, the discovery of that is some reward for the horror of determining who you actually are.
What are my strongest desires? What is it that I’ve been wanting to do? What interests me? What am I lazy
about? What am I and am I not willing to do? What do I think is good and bad? What do I congratulate myself for
accomplishing and what do I really care about? These are just some incredibly complicated questions and you may
not know the answers to them yet or not even sure of the answers that you have. Basically, this is the start until
eventually, you will come to know more of your potentials. You will discover a little bit more about your potentials
as you discover who you are. It’s actually something that strengthens you because the first thing that a realization
like that can in fact produce is the ambition to incorporate the dangerousness into a higher-order personality and
that can make you implacable. That can make you say no when you need to say no. That can make you someone
who won’t avoid necessary conflict. And so that’s unbelievably useful. And so that is one of the potentials you might
discover.
Challenging yourself could also be one of the ways in which you could discover yourself. Take a bit of a look
at yourself and think about what’s not so good that you could improve that you should improve by your own
standards and that you would improve. And set yourself a little goal.
Throughout this semester, I want you to watch what you say how you act and even how you look at yourself
and you listen closely to those. You try to get to know more of yourself deeply and try to piece them all out together
and arrive with a more accurate answer to the question, “Who am I?” as we go through the different topics on this
module.
Lesson Proper:

Good day everyone! For the first two weeks, we1013-

PDEV are Understanding
going to discuss
the Selfthe self 8from
Module | 52 various
Philosophical perspectives. In this subject, we are going to use different lenses or different fields in
understanding the self. That would be philosophical down to the digital self (please refer to your course
outline). So basically, we are going to take a look at the self from different disciplines but we will begin by
looking at the perspective of philosophy.
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE SELF
Many philosophers grappled to understand the meaning of human life. They have attempted to
answer the question “who am I?” and most of their views have influenced the way we look at our lives
today. They have different notions of the self from the points of view of the various philosophers across
time and place.
 Let’s begin with Socrates. Now let us begin by tapping the inner philosopher in you. I want you to try to
answer the following question about the SELF:

1. What is your definition of self?

2. Are we souls, bodies, or fragments of someone else’s imagination?
3. Are we just minds or a combination of mind and body
4. Is there a life after death?
5. 5. Am I a man of freewill, or my existence is predetermined?

“Know thyself”
This is an ancient greeting of the highly civilized Greeks. It was believed that the temple gods greet
the people with this salutation as they enter the holy sanctuary. To know thyself is first an imperative and
then a requirement. It is imperative to know the limits of the self so that one knows what one is capable of
doing and what one is not. The real meaning of knowing thyself is a requirement for self-moderation,
prudence, good judgment, and excellence of the soul. (Ortiz de Landazuri,2014).

SOCRATES
“The ultimate wisdom comes from knowing oneself”
The first philosopher that we are going to talk about in this module is Socrates. The other
philosophers focused on answering questions about the universe, science, mathematics, and gravity.
Socrates on the other hand was one of the first one who was concerned with the problem of the self. So,
he asked questions about our existence and what does it mean when we say the word self. He is the first
philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning of the self and according to him, the true task
of the philosopher is to know oneself.
How does Socrates view the self?
In Socrates' idea, he believed in a dualistic approach to understanding the self. He believed that every
human person is composed of two important aspects of his personhood:

1. Body which refers to the imperfect, impermanent aspect that is vulnerable to basic emotions and
actions, whereas
2. Soul refers to the perfect and permanent aspect that controls the body and prevents it from falling into
fallacy and inadequate behavior. Therefore, the “soul” in the context of ancient philosophers refers to the
mind and should not be viewed from the vantage point of Christianity which is a religious conception of
the soul.
It is safe to assume that the SOUL for Socrates is the intellectual and moral personality of humans.
The soul is the responsible agent in knowing and acting rightly or wrongly
Famous quotes of Socrates:
• “The unexamined life is not worth living.”
Through this statement, Socrates believed that we should know how to question our existence or to reflect
on it. We have to engage ourselves in talking about things that are beyond what we see. We should
question ideas because, for him, a life must be examined. We should reflect on the meaning of life, even
on the meaning of death. Just like a plant needs fertilizer, water and sunlight for it to grow healthier and
more radiant. When you try to make sense of your PDEV existence
1013- or your experiences
Understanding throughout
the Self Module 8 | 53 life, that
enriches your personhood thus make your life a life worth living. To be human means using our highly
developed faculty of thought for if we don’t think, then we are no different from animals who simply eat,
sleep and procreate. So, in order for us to discover our true self, we have to turn inward in search of self-
knowledge.

THE EXAMINED LIFE: 7 QUESTIONS

But what does the statement “unexamined life is not worth living” mean for us
today? In order to facilitate our reflection, I want you to read the following questions
 provided by Taibbi (2018) and reflect on your answers:
1. How is my life going?
On an average day, is it good enough that you want to live it over? If you had to
pick one emotion to describe your overall state of mind, your everyday mood, what
would it be?
2. When I look over the past 6 months, year, what have I learned from my mistakes?
Successfully running your life is a process of elimination where mistakes are
opportunities to learn a lesson so you don’t make the same mistakes again.
3. What is my one conflict?
Everyone is essentially grabbling with one core issue that your life is trying to
resolve, one problem that your life is circling around. When you look back over past
5, 10, 20 years and the problems you've faced, is there something that links them
all together? If you were to see your past played out as movie, what would the title
of that movie be?
4. Does my life reflect my values?
Take some time to consider and write down what your values may be — defining
what is important in life and what it means to you to be a good human being. The
next part is evaluating whether there is a gap between your values and the way
they are reflected in your everyday life.
5. Do I have integrity?
Integrity comes from the Latin, integritas, meaning unified, whole. Do you think that
what you believe and what you present to others are the same? Is there a gap
between them? What do you need to do to bring them back in line?
6. Has my vision of the future changed?
Have your current priorities and goals changed since the last time you checked in?
Time to upgrade who you are and what you want?
7. What do you need to change in the next 6 months, next year, to make your life
better, be who you want to be, have the future you envision?
Begin to think in terms of concrete behavioral change — bad habits you want to
give up, new ones to develop, parts of your personality that have been pushed to
the sideline of your life that you want to reclaim or expand. It's time to come up with
a plan to begin this process.

Taibbi, R. (2018), The Examined Life: 7 Questions, Psychology Today,

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fixing-families/201806/the-examined-life-7-questions

• “I know that I do not know”

Socrates observed that the only true wisdom that man possesses is knowing that he knows nothing. Only
in recognizing your ignorance can a person truly know oneself. The individual person can have a
meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the value of himself that can be achieved
through incessant soul-searching or “Introspection”, a method of carefully examining one’s thoughts and
emotions to gain self-knowledge.
The worst that can happen to anyone is to live but die inside wherein he distinguishes the
“Examined life” as having the wisdom to distinguish right from wrong. Only those who have at least
achieved self-moderation and distinguished what is good from bad are capable of condemning those who
PDEV
are pretentious to be knowing themselves when the fact is 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 54
contrary.
The famous Socratic dictum:

“Knowing what is right is doing what is right”

Once the person knows her SELF, she may then learn how to take care of it. Finally, one’s true self
according to Socrates should not be identified with what one owns, with one’s social status, reputation
and even with one’s body. For him, it is the state of the SOUL, that is, the person's inner being that
determines the quality of one’s life. So it is not the fame, money, elegant clothes, nice car or high-tech
 gadgets that makes life meaningful but it is the KNOWLEDGE, WISDOM, and VIRTUE. The true self for
Socrates is one that lived in accordance with these three. The true self is the virtuous self.
TRIVIA minute…
Socrates never wrote a book and most of the things we know about him came from Xenophon and his
prized student-Plato. This is also the reason why it is sometimes difficult to differentiate Socrates’ idea
from Plato’s

PLATO
If we are ever to have pure knowledge of anything, we must get rid of the body and contemplate
things by themselves with the soul by itself (Phaedo 66a)

This time, let’s talk about the perspectives of Plato, a student of Socrates. He founded the Academy
which is the prototype of today’s universities. The universities nowadays are designed after the
Academy founded by Plato.
He believed that human beings are composed of two things:

1. Body- what we see in the material world which is not the real self but only a replica of our true Self. This
is the reason why it is constantly changing- getting older, changing shape, etc. On the other hand,

2. Soul- it is the true self -the permanent, unchanging self. The soul exists before birth and leaves room for
the possibility that it might survive bodily death. We continue to exist even in the absence of our bodies
because we are Souls only. Source: Kreis, S (2000)
Plato stated that the Soul or the ‘psyche’ comprised of three elements:
1. The appetitive soul
So basically, this involves our pleasurable desires such as those which provide us physical pleasure and
physiological comfort. It is in charge of effortless craving required to stay alive like eating, drinking,
sleeping, and having sex that is only intended for married couples and must be controlled as well.
2. The spirited soul
This denotes the part within us that is agitated most of the time. It is in charge of basic emotions such as
love, anger, and empathy. This means that it is a part of psyche or mind that is excited when given
challenges, or fights back when agitated, or fights for justice when unjust practices are evident. In a way,
for example, this is the hot-blooded part of the psyche. It is the area within us that enjoys triumph, honor,
greatness, and affirmation.
3. The rational soul
also known as “reason” is forged by reason and intellect, has to govern the affairs of the human person.
It is the conscious awareness that thinks, meditates, weighs choices, and assesses situations in our
lives. This side is rational and logical as it chooses only the best for us.
Plato believed in the existence of the Nous- the conscious awareness of the self. It is the superpower
that controls the affairs of the self. One has to develop the nous and fill it with the understanding of the
limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards. He also emphasizes that justice in the human person
can only be attained if the three parts of the soul are working harmoniously with one another. He
conceptualized Psyche as the core of the self that is composed of three elements mentioned above.

PDEV 1013-
Pop-up Question #1 How would you describe the relation Understanding
of your thebody?
Self to your Self Module 8 | 55

To enrich these three ideas of Plato, we take as an example, your college life. You want to hang
out with your friends, spend time on your computer games, eat your favorite food, and do thrilling activities
that will excite the whole gang. These satisfy the appetitive element of the psyche. However, when
professors throw challenging tasks and assignments that would require tremendous amount of time and
effort, the spirited psyche kicks in to face the challenges head-on. All these are going on because the
mind or the nous is orchestrating these pursuits according to the quality of the nous a person has. In
 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
“Experiencing that something exists doesn’t tell us what it is.”

other words, in order to have a good life, one has to develop the nous, and fill it with the understanding of
the limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards.

ST. AUGUSTINE
“You have made us for yourself, o Lord, and our heart is restless until it finds rest in You.”
Taking his cue from the two worlds of Plato, he now differentiated what is the real world and the
temporary world. According to him, (AD 426) our world (world of materials) is not our final home but just
a temporary home where we are just passing through. Our real world is found in the world where God is.
So basically, the perspective of Saint Augustine is greatly influenced by Plato. The only thing that
is different is that St. Augustine also thinks that this world is a material world and that there is another type
of world where we would like to live in because that is the world where God is and that is the ideal world
so we should strive to be reunited with God so that we could live in that world.
Only God is fully real-as the unchanging, permanent being and he sees God as the ultimate expression
of LOVE. (City of God, Books XIXXII)
He believed that the development of the self is achieved through self-presentation and self-realization.
Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine
agreed that man is of a bifurcated (split/branched) nature:

1. Body dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine; is bound to die
on earth and the
2. Soul is capable of reaching immortality; anticipate living eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion
with God. The goal of every human person is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living
his life on earth in virtue
The body is bound to die on earth and the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a realm of spiritual
bliss in communion with God. Human beings alone, without God, are bound to fail. Augustine argues that
the soul must be a reality because of its capacity to reason (freewill). He believed that we are eternal and
the body is not. The soul is immortal because God created them and intended them to be immortal. It
bears the very image of God.

This only means that for him, man’s end goal is happiness. Only in God can man attain true and
eternal happiness, made possible in his contemplation of the truth and divine wisdom that refers to God
himself.
A lot of philosophers believed that a man is composed of a body and a soul. According to St. Aquinas,
our two parts are the matter and the form. So basically, that is his own version of the body and the soul.

1. Matter comes from the Greek word “hyle” which means the common stuff that makes up everything in the
universe that includes man's body while
2. Form comes from the Greek word “morphe” which means PDEV the
1013- Understanding
essence the Self Module
of a substance 8 | that
or thing 56 makes
it what it is. In the case of the human person, the body is something that he shares even with animals;
what makes a human person a human person is his soul, his essence.
It only means that the cells in man’s body for example are more or less akin to the cells of any
other living, organic being in the world. The body of the human may be similar to animals or objects, but
what makes a human person a human person and not a dog, or tiger for example is his soul, his essence.
For him, we don’t encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves, but always an agent interacting with
our environment. Therefore, the soul is what animates the body, it is what makes us humans.
 RENE DESCARTES
“Cogito, Ergo Sum”-I thing therefore I am

So we are moving to Descartes’ perspective and he is very famous for his quote, “I think therefore
I am.” He deviated from theocentric philosophies before him. He is the father of Modern Philosophy, a
rationalist (a person who bases her opinions and actions on reason and knowledge, not beliefs).
In his famous treatise, The Meditations of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much that we should
doubt. His quest for self-discovery was by his methodic doubt.
He claimed that we cannot really on our senses because our sense perceptions can often deceive us
and so he started to doubt everything about our existence, our world. That is why he also endorsed the
term “HYPERBOLICAL DOUBT”- a method of reasoning that stated that though he may doubt, he
cannot doubt that he exists. Does this mean that there is no SELF?
So how did Descartes prove our existence?
But then he realized, that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self for even if one
doubts oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot
be doubted.
“Cogito, ergo Sum” translated as, “I think therefore I am” or “I doubt therefore I exist.” The discovery of
the cogito revolutionizes the way we view ourselves and the world around us. He said that the mere fact
that I can doubt is the evidence that I exist. The Act of thinking about the self, of being conscious, is in itself
proof that there is a self. Basically, he is one of the reasons why we question a lot of things about existence
and he will tell you that your ability to question things is proof that you are existing. Human rationality,
therefore, is the primary condition in the existence of the self. This includes the need for reason in order to
evaluate our thoughts and actions.

The self, then, is also a combination of two distinct entities:

1. Cogito refers to the thing that thinks, which is the mind the
2. Extenza refers to the extension of the mind, which is the body.
In Descartes's view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind; it is the mind
that makes a man a man.

TRIVIA minute…
Rene Descartes was hired to tutor Queen Christina of Sweden but soon after, he died of pneumonia
because his health couldn’t take the 5 am start of lesson required by the queen.

JOHN LOCKE
John Locke
“Tabula Rasa” introduced the
concept of
tabula rasa which is the belief that the mind is a 'blank slate' at birth where everyday experiences
contribute to the pile of knowledge that is put forth on that empty space and we are formed and develop
from our own experiences with the environment. PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 57
Experience is an important requirement. Personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity. It means
that it is not in the brain, but in the consciousness.
Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position,
which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an “empty” mind, a tabula
rasa, which is shaped by experience, and sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our
ideas. Self- is compared to an empty space where everyday experiences contribute to the pile of
knowledge that is put forth on that empty space
TRIVIA minute... He is known as the “Father of Classical Liberalism” because of his contribution to the
formation of human rights.
 Pop-up question #2: Do you agree with Locke? If such is the case, what will happen to your existence
when we forget what we have been doing three days ago?

DAVID HUME
“The ego is a fictional idea”
David Hume continued in the empiricist tradition of John Locke, believing that the source of all genuine
knowledge is our direct sense experience. In Locke’s view, yourself is not tied to any particular body or
substance, and it only exists in other times and places because of our memory of those experiences.
Using the same empiricist principles as Locke, Hume ends up with an even more startling conclusion—if
we carefully examine our sense experience through the process of introspection, we discover that there
is no self! How is this possible? From Hume’s perspective, this astonishing belief is the only possible
conclusion consistent with an honest and objective examination of our experience.
According to Hume, if we carefully examine the contents of our experience, we find that there are only two
distinct entities, “impressions” and “ideas”:
• IMPRESSIONS—Impressions are the basic sensations of our experience, the elemental data of
our minds: pain, pleasure, heat, cold, happiness, grief, fear, exhilaration, and so on. These
impressions are “lively” and “vivid.”
“Bundles of temporary impressions” examples: name, height, affiliations, skills, achievements, and the
like. (Temporary and non-persisting). He harshly claimed that there is no Self. He quoted: “Self is
simply a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeeded each other with an
inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement."
• IDEAS—Ideas are copies of impressions, and as a result, they are less “lively” and “vivid.” Ideas
include thoughts and images that are built up from our primary impressions through a variety of
relationships, but because they are derivative copies of impressions they are once removed from
reality.
So, impressions are those things we perceive through our senses as we experience them. Like when I
see the sky, and my sense of sight tells me I am looking at a blue sky. That is now my impression. On
the other hand, ideas are those things that we create in our minds even though we are no longer
experiencing them. For example, even when I’m already inside my room and can no longer see the sky,
I can still think of the idea of the sky and might even combine that idea with another idea.
If we examine these basic data of our experience, we see that they form a fleeting or changing stream of
sensations in our mind and that nowhere among them is the sensation of a “constant and invariable” self
that exists as a unified identity over the course of our lives.

Pop-up question #3: Do you agree with Hume that if we look at what is happening in our minds, we
will not be able to find a permanent self? In light of Hume’s answer, how shall we respond when
somebody tells us, please don’t change?

IMMANUEL KANT
“It is beyond a doubt that all our knowledge that begins with experience.”
Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume's account that everything starts with perception and
sensation of impressions; however, he believes that the things that men perceive around them are not
just randomly infused into the human person without an organizing
PDEV principle that
1013- Understanding theregulates the
Self Module 8 |relationship
58
of these impressions.
For him, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the external world (e.g.,
time and space are ideas that one cannot find in the world but are built in our minds). Kant calls this the
apparatuses of the mind.
Along with the apparatuses of the mind goes the "self". Without the self, one cannot organize the different
impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence.

Kant, therefore, suggests that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all
knowledge and experience. Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality; in addition, it is also
the seat of knowledge acquisition for all human persons. Our rationality makes sense of the perceptions
we have in our experiences. He also believes that perception does not belong to the world, but to the self.

It only means that our rationality unifies and makes sense of the perceptions we have in our
experiences and make sensible ideas about ourselves and the world. For example, we have the capacity
to solve the problem of the ability of our self to perceive the world.
The self is always transcendental.
It explains that being or the self is not in the body, it is outside the body and even outside the
qualities of the body-meaning transcendent

SIGMUND FREUD
“Early childhood experiences that create high levels of anxiety are repressed into
unconscious, where they may influence behavior, emotions, and attitudes for years.”

The psyche is structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego, all developing
at different stages in our lives (also known as three layers of the self). These are systems, not parts of
the brain, or in any way physical.

The id is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires and impulses. He
believed that the id acts according to the “pleasure principle” – the
psychic force that motivates the tendency to seek immediate gratification
of any impulse.
It remains infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not
ID change with time or experience, as it is not in touch with the external
(Pleasure world.
Principle) It is not affected by reality, logic, or the everyday world, as it operates
within the unconscious part of the mind. It operates on the pleasure
principle which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied
immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its
demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience
‘unpleasure’ or tension.

Freud called it the rational part of our mind. He said that “the ego
represents what may be called reason and common sense, in contrast
to the id, which contains the passions.”
EGO
Like the id, the ego seeks pleasure and avoids pain, but unlike the id,
(Reality
the ego is the decision-making component of personality, it operates
Principle)
according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying
the id’s demands. The ego considers social realities and norms,
etiquette, and rules in deciding how to behave.

It refers to the incorporation of the values and morals of society which

are learned from one's parents and others. Its function is to control the
id's impulses, especially those whichPDEVsociety
1013-forbids, such as
Understanding thesex
Self and
Module 8 | 59
aggression
SUPEREGO
It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals
(Moral and rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection.
Idealistic
Principle) According to Freud, the superego can be thought of as a type of
conscience that punishes misbehavior with feelings of guilt,” working in
contradiction to the id.
Freud believes that this part of human beings is not inborn and that
human beings do not develop the superego part of their mind until the
 age of five.

TRIVIA minute…
It is claimed that one of the proofs for the unconscious is what we call ‘slip of the

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 60

 PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND
“Our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity”

tongue. This happens when instead of saying Shaun, we blurted out Paolo. This, means that
subconsciously, we are thinking of Paolo
GILBERT RYLE
“The self is the way we behave”

For him, what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his day-to-day life. Mind is
not separated from the body (contradict with Descartes’ dualism).
The mind is not distinct from the body. The mind is not distinct from the body but rather refers to
certain aspects of our bodies. Suppose that your parents went to your and ask you to tour them around.
You show them the library, the rooms, the However, they look disappointed and so you ask them what is
wrong. They answer that they ask you to tour them around the university, instead you show them the
library, rooms, etc. They do not realize that the term university refers to the whole thing and not one
specific building.
This is how Descartes made the category a mistake. Like the university, the concept of mind
expresses the entire system of thoughts, emotions, actions, and so on that make up the human self (Ryle,
1949). The mind is not like a specific, separate entity but is certainly a part of our body. The only way by
which we can know how the mind is working is through the behavior of the person, hence we can only
know a person through how a man behaves, their tendencies and reactions in certain
circumstances.
This only means that all manifestation in physical activities or behavior for example is the
dispositions of the self, the basis of the statement; “I act therefore I am” or “You are what you do”.

Paul and Patricia Churchland promoted the position called “eliminative materialism” which brings
forth neuroscience into the fore of understanding the self. It simply means that Philosophy and Psychology
have failed to provide a satisfactory position in understanding the self. They tossed aside the concept of
dualism and the brain and adhered to materialism - the belief that nothing but matter exists, if it cannot be
recognized by the senses, then it is akin to a fairytale in his identity theory, the minds are identical to a
particular brain state our mind and individuality are based upon unique neurological assemblies of one
type of brain function.
According to Churchland, “Our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural
activity..." NEUROBIOLOGY- as the Churchland’s wanted to predict, when people wanted to ask what is
going on with themselves, they might as well go for an MRI scan or CT scan to understand the present
condition of the brain and how it currently works.
Let’s take the idea that why should we believe in a mind when science is proving that mental health is
connected to the physical brain? For example, depression is strongly linked to brain chemicals gone
wrong. Yes, some people still say things like, 'She's lost her mind.' However, neuroscience says, No, it's
a physical problem and we aim to fix it.

MERLEAU-PONTY
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 61
“The world and I are within one another”
Adding to this, Churchland challenges the concept of the mind by using the misfortune of traumatic brain
injury. With this, for example, eliminative materialism asks 'if the mind is the seat of self, why does brain
injury alter a person's personality?' If the mind was a real separate entity, wouldn't it retain a person's
sense of self despite damage to a physical organ? Since brain damage alters a person's personality,
Churchland asserts that the concept of self originates in the physical brain, not an invented mind.
A phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body bifurcation is a futile endeavor and an invalid problem.
Unlike Ryle who simply denies the "self," he instead believed that the mind and body are intertwined that
they cannot be separated from one another.
For him, the living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one. He proposes treating
perception as a causal process. It means that our perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences of
the self, and processed intellectually while distinguishing truthful perceptions from illusory. Therefore, the
self is taken as a phenomenon of the world. He also believes that perception does not belong to the world,
but to the self.

Module 2: Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

Sociological Perspective of the Self
INTRODUCTION
“Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either
beneath our notice or more than human. Society is something that precedes the individual. Anyone who
either cannot lead the common life or is so self-sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not
partake of society, is either a beast or a god. ” ― Aristotle, Politics
We often hear the quotation: Man is a social animal, but what does it mean?
No human person can live alone. In order to survive, he must be able to satisfy certain natural basic
needs. In order to effectively do this, he must enter into a relationship with his fellowmen in order to create
mutual dependence. Mutual dependence is said to begin between an embryo and the mother and
continues ‘till his last breath – from womb to tomb as they say. The need can be physical, socio-emotional,
mental, or financial even, and many others. Let’s take your dependence from your parents as an example.
For now, you may be dependent in your parents in terms of food, shelter, finances or may be in terms of
emotional support. It may not seem apparent, but your parents also gain something from you like when
you are able to help in the household chores, a sense of purpose even! There is mutuality.
What is sociology?
The American Sociological Association defines sociology as:
…the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human
behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how
people interact within these contexts
From a sociological perspective, the self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in
relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems that shaped through interaction with other people
(Crossman, 2018). When asked to introduce our selves, we would often say traits such being thrifty,
altruistic, generous, fun to be with, competitive, quiet, shy, frank and so on. These traits, although unique
for a particular individual and are psychological in a sense, can be understood in a sociological
perspective. When someone says he is generous, he is actually describing himself in relation to other
people. What he means to say is that he is liberal in giving what he has to other people. The same also
applies when someone says he is quiet or shy, for one cannot say he has no basis for comparison. Thus,
a person is said to be shy because, unlike other people, he may have the tendency to be hesitant in
approaching or mingling with other people.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 62

The Self as Product of Modern Society
Because of modernization, there is said to be the “destruction of the traditional way of life” that has
“delocalized” the self (Mannheim, 1950). The self has been “dislocated and deracinated” (David, 2004).
This means to say that modernization has disrupted and disturbed the conventions on how people live or
has isolated us from our native or customary culture. What seemed to be the usual way of doing things
are now being consistently modified to adapt to the changing needs and possibilities that modernization
has brought. People are now presented, not only with the traditional way of doing this within their culture,
but also to the culture of others from societies. The stability of one's self-identity is no longer anchored on
pre-given tradition-bound definition of the self - it is now freely chosen (David, 2004)
 Let’s take the traditional wardrobe as an example. We would think that traditional Filipinos would
wear rather conservative but ornate and embroidered rich outfit but today, options are almost
unlimited. We are influence, not only by the US, Spanish, and Japanese culture (as with colonial
period) but also by the culture of Koreans, Thais, and Chinese among others. We see a rise of
concept stores and online shops that offers numerous varieties of outfits. We are no longer duty-
bound to wear conventional outfits even when we are invited to attend weddings or other
celebrations!
However, more choices often do not equate to a better or a meaningful life. Sometimes it often
results to decision paralysis and even decreased satisfaction (Schwartz, 2004). In this sense, the ability
to choose who we want to be no longer liberates but debilitates. Simmel (1971) tells us that the struggle
for one’s individuality is only possible in modern society where religio-theological traditions are gradually
replaced by rational and scientific calculations; and the intimate personal affiliations are replaced by
exceedingly impersonal associations brought about by urbanized way of life.
How many “friends” do you have? You would probably think of the number of friends you have
accepted or invited on Facebook or the number of people you have in all the group chats you have in
messenger… but how many friends do you really have? Modernization has allowed us to communicate
with people in numerous ways. Then, you can only meet a friend in person or maybe through phone and
you can only expect to be able to deepen your relationship by physically hanging out or by sending out a
snail-mail. Today, connecting with some people you know is almost always possible at any time of the
day and anywhere you are. Although this can be beneficial for many, we cannot discount the fact that
this possibility has also changed how we value our relationships. We have formed more impersonal
relationships than meaningful ones. Some have been pre-occupied in gaining more “followers” with
hopes of improving their esteem – a misconception on how we put worth or recognize the value of our
selves.
Something to think about: How you think modernization changed the way courtship is being done? Do
you think it has improved or worsened?
The delocalized self poses the following problems:
1. The newfound freedom threatens the very authenticity of the self
As we consistently create ourselves from the limitless possibilities and options, we ask
ourselves the question: Is this really me? Is this what I want?
2. Alienation
Derived from Marx, alienation refers to an “unhappy condition” and is the the process
whereby the worker is made to feel foreign to the products of his/her own labor.
Purdue University (2002) explains that
In capitalism, the worker is exploited insofar as he does not work to create a product
that he then sells to a real person; instead, the proletariat works in order to live, in
order to obtain the very means of life, which he can only achieve by selling his labor
to a capitalist for a wage (as if his labor were itself a property that can be bought and
sold). The worker is alienated from his/her product precisely because s/he no longer
owns that product, which now belongs to the capitalist who has purchased the
proletariat's labor-power in exchange for exclusive ownership over the proletariat's
products and all profit accrued by the sale of those products.
3. Objectification of the body
In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing
(Arluke, 1988). As presented in the essay Life in the Medicalized Society:
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 63
“These days, nothing strikes more fear in me than a doctor who no longer looks at
patients as total human beings, but from the narrow prism of specialization, sees
only disembodied hearts, lungs, livers or kidneys”.
4. Dehumanization of the self
The birth of modern society allows infinite possibilities for self-cultivation but it also
simultaneously suggests dehumanization of the self. In Herbert Kelman's work on
dehumanization, humanness has two features:
▪ "identity" (i.e., a perception of the person "as an individual, independent and distinguishable from others,
capable of making choices") and
▪ "community" (i.e., a perception of the person as "part of an interconnected network of individuals who
care for each other").
When a target's agency and embeddedness in a community are denied, they no longer elicit
compassion or other moral responses.

Solution: For the individual to discover the “true” and “authentic” part of himself/herself to realize his/her
potentials, there is a need to abolish repressive social constraints. What does being authentic mean then?
Brené Brown in her book: The Gifts of Imperfection states that “Authenticity is the daily practice of letting
go of who we think we are supposed to be and embracing who we actually are.” Choosing authenticity
means:
• cultivating the ability to be imperfect
• allowing ourselves to be vulnerable, and
• setting boundaries.
The concept of social constraints enters when society sets its own standards on how you should look,
behave and sometimes even feel. Being authentic means letting go of these standards to follow your
passion regardless of who you disappoint and how you may be perceived by others. “When we are being
authentic, we are being vulnerable; we are showing all parts of us, the good with the bad. When we do
this, we allow for more intimate and honest relationships, and we allow for true acceptance and
unconditional love.( The Center for Growth)”
Self as Necessary Fiction
Some modern philosophers do not believe that the self is a solid or
metaphysical entity having a continuous identity given that there is nothing in the
self that persists or endures through time. For instance, it possible for individuals
to remember something they have not experienced or the possibility the individuals
have the tendency to acquire amnesia and experience psychological disorientation
due to brain injury.
Self for Nietzsche is the sum of individual’s action, thoughts and feelings and is nothing more than
a metaphor –a representation of something abstract. Nietzsche contends that all belief systems are
‘necessary fictions.’ Necessary fictions are beliefs that cannot be proven to be true and sometimes can
be proven false, but are, nonetheless, necessary to sustain life. They are fictions because they cannot
be proven. They are necessary because without them we would be rudderless in a world of chaos. Thus,
they are convictions that satisfy the need for stability.
Tenbusch (2015) states that necessary fictions
….are necessary because people need some sense of certainty in a world of constant change.
Necessary fictions create meaning out of the chaos of lived experiences. They are formulations
about what feelings and behaviors mean at a given time. One’s experiences can be organized into
a coherent and inclusive story, but that story cannot be proven. Hence it is illusory and temporary.
Did you know that the quote “That which does not kill us makes us stronger” is associated with
Nietzsche?
Post-Modern view of the Self
The self is a narrative, a text written and rewritten. The self is a story and therefore dynamic, bound
to change every now and then. Self in post modernity PDEV is complicated
1013- by the
Understanding electronic mediated
Self Module 8 | 64 virtual
interaction of cyber self in cyberspace. This means that our identity is now created not merely by our
physical interaction with other people but is complicated our interactions in the digital world.
Nicola Green states:
"Every little piece of information that you post on the internet - the messages you write, the website
you visit, the files you download, the e-mail addresses you contact, the books, tapes, CDs, and
airplane tickets you order on the Internet, and the credit card numbers you give - all become the
raw data from which someone out there can piece together an identity, a virtual version of who you
are."
This is called digital footprints. Your digital footprint is the “data that’s created through your activities
and communication online. This can include more passive activities, such as if a website collects your IP
address, as well as more active digital activities, such as sharing images on social media” (Athanasiadis,
2018)
The following are manifestations of the self in post modernity:
1. Information technology “dislocates” the self, thus, the self is said to be “digitalized” in
cyberspace
We are not able to present and express ourselves online.
2. Global migration produced multicultural identities
It has produced a mixture of cultures that may be a combination of country of origin and the
new country where one resides. We can expect for example a Filipino migrant who is living
in Canada combine the staple food, rice, or a variety of pansit with other cuisines there.
3. Post-modern selves are “protean selves”
A protean self refers to a “mutable form of human personality that changes fluidly from
situation to situation (IGI Global)”. *
*In other resources such as that of David (2004), it is also called “pluralized” self. This implies that
because post-modernity, we are able to create different versions of our selves particularly if we are
dealing with various social media sites. For example, if you have a Twitter or Instagram account, you
would probably agree that what you post in those accounts are quite different in Facebook. The same
concept can be likened to what Anderson (1997) mentioned as multiphrenia.
Rewriting the Self as an Artistic Creation
One thing is needful. -- To "give style" to one’s character-- a great and rare art! It is practiced by those
who survey all the strengths and weaknesses of their nature and then fit them into an artistic plan until
every one of them appears as art and reason and even weaknesses delight the eye. Here a large mass
of second nature has been added; there a piece of original nature has been removed -- both times through
long practice and daily work at it. Here the ugly that could not be removed is concealed; there it has been
reinterpreted and made sublime…
-Nietzsche, Gay Science
Nietzsche contends that the unity of the self is not pre-given but accomplished through conscious
effort. Individuals therefore must fashion, care for and cultivate themselves in order to transform self
through beautiful work of art.
Concealing the “ugly” does not refer to rewriting the narrative (as that would be impossible) but
rather redescribing one’s self by reinterpreting the past. For example, one might have experienced having
a failing grade in his academic history. This event might be used by someone to describe himself as a
student, probably thinking that he might not be able to do well in schooling particularly in a certain program
to a point that he/she would label him/herself as inferior to his colleagues. But one might also get the idea
that the failure was the event, a turning point that have led him to where is right now –say a wake-up call
to pursue something that he is passionate about. Life is about creating ourself even if it means re-
interpreting our experiences. As Nietzsche would put it: There are no facts, only interpretations.
Self Creation and Collective Identity
The self is a "body moving in space" and time (Kempen, 1998). The self is unthinkable apart from
its physical body. It is through the body that the self takes different spatial positions and expressions in
social interaction. This implies that an individual's identity is largely associated with its position in space
and its corresponding historical dimension. Simply put, the identity is influenced by the community from it
belongs and its collective memory. Collective memoryPDEV 1013-
refers to Understanding the of
the shared pool Selfmemories,
Module 8 | knowledge
65
and information of a social group that is significantly associated with the group's identity. (Roediger and
Abel, 2015)
What we mean to say here is that an essential aspect of self-creation is formed within “imagined
communities”. Imagined communities is a term coined by Benedict Anderson (1983) Anderson famously
defines the nation as imagined “because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most
of their fellow‐members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of
their communion” (p. 6). The nation is defined as a community because “regardless of the actual
inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal
comradeship” (p. 7). “Therefore, the concept of imagined community assumes that nations, national
identities, and nationalism are socially constructed; “imagined” in this context then does not mean false,
but instead points to the socio‐cognitive element in the construction of the nation (Jones, 2007)” It is an
idea that is being recognized by a group of people paving the way for its existence.

How are Filipinos such as the OFWs and immigrants able to create Filipino communities even if
they are from other countries? What makes them a community? What is the basis of membership?
What does being a Filipino mean?

MEAD'S THEORY OF THEN

SELF

ARTICLE READING!

Victor of Aveyron: A feral child who supposedly lived in the French wilderness until
he was 12
Jun 21, 2017 Domagoj Valjak

“Feral child” is a term used to describe youngsters who grew up isolated from human communities and have
never been accustomed to fundamental conventions such as language, education and rules for socially acceptable
behavior. Throughout history, cases of feral children have been documented. In many such instances, the children
were raised by wild animals, people believed. However, in recent times, the authenticity of many of these cases
has been challenged.

An illustration of Victor of Aveyron

Stories of feral children appear in folklore and fiction. In 1894, Rudyard Kipling published a famous collection
of stories named The Jungle Book. It follows the adventures of Mowgli, a feral child raised by wolves who learns
the languages of various wild animals and establishes personal connections with them. By the end, Mowgli learns
to abide by conventions and becomes a functioning member of civilized society. The Jungle Book popularized the
motif of feral children in literature and pop culture, and Mowgli became a beloved children’s character known for his
compassion, kindness, and adaptiveness.
In reality, “feral children” rarely integrated fully into society. The lack of proper care, emotional stimulation,
and education hindered their social progress and delayed their mental development. Feral children often became
the subjects of scientific studies and debates that stigmatized them and turned them into lab subjects, used to prove
scientific theories.
Such was the case of Victor of Aveyron, a French feral boy who lived in the woods of the Aveyron region in
the late 1790s and was allegedly raised by wolves. Victor had reportedly been sighted by local villagers as early as
1794, and in 1797, he was caught by local hunters and brought to a town. A young widow cared for him there for
several months, but he managed to escape and return to the woods. He voluntarily emerged from the woods in
1800.
The boy was then around 12 years old and couldn’t speak any language. The physicians who first examined
him thought that he might have been deaf and mute. After he was examined at the National Institute of the Deaf in
Paris, it was determined that he was completely healthy but had never come into contact with any language. He
was comfortable being naked and had no problem with roaming around in cold weather, which led the researchers
of the time to conclude that he was well accustomed to the harsh conditions of the wilderness.
When Victor of Aveyron was found, the Enlightenment movement was in full swing; many prominent
scientists of the time believed that the ability to learn PDEV
and 1013-
abideUnderstanding the Self
by conventions Module
is the only 8feature
| 66 which
differentiates humans from animals. Several researchers, including a famous instructor of the deaf named Roch-
Ambroise Cucurron Sicard, attempted to teach Victor French and the basics of communication to prove that the
development of one’s language and social abilities depends on one’s surroundings.
Although Victor showed some signs of progress, he was aggressive, hyperactive, and uninterested in
learning. This eventually led researchers to the conclusion that he would never be able to adapt to any social
convention, so they mostly gave up on his future. He was left to roam the corridors of the National Institute of the
Deaf and become a kind of local attraction.
Fortunately, he was adopted by a medical student named Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, who arranged for him
to move into his own home. Itard was the one who gave him the name “Victor”; up to that point, he was known only
as the “Wolf Child.” Under Itard’s close supervision, Victor managed to learn several phrases and accept some
social conventions, but never became a fully functional member of society. Still, he received proper care and led a
peaceful life until 1828, when he died of pneumonia at an estimated age of 40.
Although Itard failed in his efforts to educate Victor, he is praised for founding an oral education
program for the deaf and introducing new methods of pedagogy that include the use of behavior
modification with severely impaired children
Valjak, D (2017), Victor of Aveyron: A feral child who supposedly lived in the French wilderness until he
was 1, The Vintage News, https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/06/21/victor-of-aveyron-a-feral-
child-who-supposedly-lived-in-the-french-wilderness-until-he-was-12/
END OF ARTICLE
MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SELF
According to Mead, the self emerges from social interaction. This lies contradictory to the argument
of biological determinism “because it holds that the self is neither initially there at birth nor necessarily at
the beginning of a social interaction, but is constructed, and re-constructed in the process of social
experience and activity” (Villafuerte, etal 2018). This means to say, Mead contends that the self is not
inborn and that the self is developed as one ages and accumulate more experiences.
In the perspective of Mead, Victor had not developed normally according to his age. He had not
developed his “self” because of his isolation from the world. It was also mentioned in the article because
of Victor’s isolation, there was already a lack of proper care, emotional stimulation, and
education that hindered his social progress and delayed their mental development.

Three Stages of Development according to Mead

The self is learned during childhood which comes in three stages of development:
As our self gradually develops, we internalize the expectations of more and more people. Our ability
to take the role of others eventually extends to being able to take the role of “the group as a
whole.” Existence of the community, therefore, comes before individual consciousness.
Phases of Self according to Mead
For Mead, all human experience internal conversation. This conversation involves
the I and me which he called the phases of self.
The “me” refer the organized set of attitudes and expectation of others which one assumes. It
represents learned behaviors, attitudes and expectations of others and society that arouse from the social
interactions of the individual. It is the socialized aspect of the individual. Because of this, the “me” is said
to be the mechanism by which community exercises control over the conduct of its individual members.
The “I” is the response to the “me” or the person’s individuality. It is the active, spontaneous,
creative part of the self. It is the part of you that’s acting being spontaneous and doing things on your own.
Because of this the “I” is said to be the subject while the “me” is the object. Object
Let’s try to relate it to grammar. As a basic rule: The subject is the person or thing doing something.
The object is having something done to it.(IELTS) In formulating sentences, we usually use the term “I”
when we are the doer of the action and use “me” when we are the receiver. We say I like you, to mean
that “I” is the doer of the action like. We do not say me likes you. We say “You like me”, to mean that “me”
is the receiver of the action like. In the context of Mead, the “me” is the object? Object of what? Receiver
of what? The receiver of norms society, thus it is the me that adheres to the expectations of other people.
Let’s suppose that you would like to watch your favourite series in Netflix but you have other
PDEV 1013-
assessments due in the said week. The “me” is that aspect of youUnderstanding
that wouldthe
tellSelf
youModule 8 |your
to read 67 lesson
and answer the learning tasks given by your teacher. These are the expectations of society from you given
your role as a student. Your “I” is that aspect of you that will tell what you will do.
Remember: “The action of the 'I' is revealed only in the action itself; specific prediction of the action of 'I' is not
possible. The individual is determined to respond but the specific character of the response is not fully
determined. The individual's response are conditioned but not determined by the situation in which he
acts.(SociologyGuide)”

Cooley's Looking Glass Self

 The concept of looking-glass self states that part of how we see ourselves comes from our
perception of how others see us (Cooley, 1902). Charles Horton Cooley contends proposed that the self
is developed as a result of perceptions of other people’s opinion. “People are the way they are at least
partly because of other people’s reactions to them and to what they do. They are constantly picking up
feedback and incorporating it into their sense of self (Corpuz, Estoque and Tabotabo (2019). For
instance, if parents praise a child for being diligent in terms of doing his or her chores, then the child
might think that he is responsible.
It generally involves three process:

This implies that our view of our selves comes from the contemplation of personal qualities and
impressions of how others perceive us. This means that we are not what others think we are, it is what
we believe others see us. REMEMBER:
• Development of the self does not depend on accurate evaluations.
• Although the self-concept begins in childhood, its development is an ongoing, lifelong process
There are certain things we have to watch out for that are related to this concept.
Labeling Bias
The labeling bias occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us
are affected by that labeling (Fox & Stinnett, 1996). Labeling can be beneficial or
detrimental.
A typical example of labelling bias is when a teacher perceives a certain class, say
Class A, as a “bunch of troublemakers”. When this happens, the teacher’s behaviour
towards the students in that certain class changes and may be made to think that any
behavior (even those that are neutral) may be misinterpreted as a result of their
misdemeanour. A likely scenario can also be seen if a teacher will view one her
classes, Class B, as a “model class”. Let’s imagine a situation: A student got absent
one day in both classes. The teacher might think that the one who got absent in Class
A is uninterested with schooling, not motivated and more likely wont be successful in
life. The student in Class B might make the teacher think that the child might not be
feeling well or have some sort of a problem. As you can see from this example, the
teacher’s perception affected her attitude towards his or her student.

Because of labelling bias, people’s behavior or reaction towards us also change. This is
called self-fulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief that comes true because
we are acting as if it is already true.
For example, a student might think that he will not be able to do well in an
examination. Since he already has this expectation, the student might not review
since he might think that his efforts will all go to waste. When the examination results
were released, he found himself getting a failing score.
If we are repeatedly labelled and evaluated by others, then self-labeling may occur. Self-
labeling happens when we adopt what others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept. The
effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem appear to depend very much on the nature
of the labels. Labels used in relation to diagnosis of psychological disorders can be
detrimental to people who then internalizePDEV 1013-
them.Understanding
A particular the Self (Moses,
study Module 8 2009)
| 68 found
that adolescents who self-labelled according to diagnoses they had received were found to
have higher levels of self-stigma in their self-concepts along with higher levels of
depression compared with those who described their challenges in non-psychological
terms.
For this part, I think it’s important to be guided by the words of Yehuda Berg:
“Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. We can choose to
use this force constructively with words of encouragement, or destructively using words of
despair. Words have energy and power with the ability to help, to heal, to hinder, to hurt,
to harm, to humiliate and to humble.”
SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY
We constantly evaluate ourselves, and others, in domains like attractiveness, intelligence, skills
and success through social comparison. Social comparison theory is the idea that individuals determine
their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others (Psychology Today) These
comparisons can be with people who we know and interact with or even those whom we read about or
watch on television or online. However, the most meaningful comparisons we make tend to be with those
we see as similar to ourselves (Festinger, 1954.) “Later research has shown that people who regularly
compare themselves to others may find motivation to improve, but may also experience feelings of deep
dissatisfaction, guilt, or remorse, and engage in destructive behaviors like lying or disordered eating
(PsychologyToday)”
Here’s an article from Psychology Today to help us better understand Social Comparison:

THE BENEFITS OF COMPARISON

When individuals compare themselves to others as a way of measuring their personal
development or to motivate themselves to improve and, in the process, develop a more positive
self-image, comparisons can be beneficial. It takes discipline, however, to avoid the pitfalls of
negative comparison. In large part, how we react to comparisons depends on who we compare
ourselves to: When we just want to feel better about ourselves, we tend to engage in
comparisons to people worse off than we are, although this can become an unhealthy habit.
When we want to improve, though, we may compare ourselves to people roughly similar to us
but higher achieving in one trait or another.

How can comparison help you?

Social comparison can be highly beneficial when people use social networks to push themselves. In a
study, friendly competition was highly effective in pushing people to exercise more, as peers pushed each
other to keep up and do more. In such a "social ratchet effect," each person’s activity generates more
activity among others. Social networks in which people simply offered each other positive encouragement
were far less helpful.

Is it better to compare yourself to those doing better or worse than you are?
People generally engage in either upward or downward comparisons. In upward comparisons, we
compare ourselves with those we believe are better than us in some way; in downward comparisons, we
do the opposite. Research, unsurprisingly, finds that downward comparisons make us feel better about
ourselves, but that there are dangers to each approach—insecurity and jealousy, or overconfidence and
arrogance.

Can envy ever be a positive emotion?

Envy is usually an unpleasant feeling that can lead to brooding, resentment, or even violence. Some
psychologists, however, have suggested that people can experience “benign” envy, in which they use
envious feelings as motivation to improve themselves. Benign envy could lead someone, for example,
to try to emulate the best qualities of a person who has what they want.
THE DANGERS OF COMPARISON
Theodore Roosevelt called comparison “the thief of joy,” and he may have been right. Social
comparison can motivate people to improve, but it can also promote judgmental, biased, and overly
competitive or superior attitudes. Most people have the social skills and impulse control to keep their
standards for social comparison to themselves, and not to act on any envy or resentment spurred by
comparison-making. But their true feelings may manifest PDEV 1013-
in other Understanding the Self Module 8 | 69
ways.
Why can comparisons make people feel bad?
Comparisons are likelier to make us feel bad when we make the error of only comparing ourselves to
paragons of certain traits. For example, many people believe they have a less active social life than
others. But when making such comparisons, people tend to compare themselves only to the most social
people they know. Understanding this bias can help us make more realistic and motivating comparisons.
Is social media harmful to self-esteem?
Constantly checking social-media feeds full of images from parties, concerts, or other aspirational events
can diminish self-esteem and contribute to depression. But some studies have found that such risks
primarily affect those high in the trait of neuroticism, and others suggest that social-media use can
reinforce self-esteem; for example, when people review their own images of good times with friends.
 How can I stop comparing myself to others?
To be less vulnerable to painful comparisons, notice the people or events that prompt the behavior.
Commit to being deeply grateful for what’s good in your own life. And remember that the human
propensity to want what others have is such a waste of time, unless what you see and “covet” in another
is something of deep worth, such as their generosity or kindness.

What does it mean to be Filipino?

“In most dictionaries, the term “Filipino” is defines as belonging or relating to the Philippines, or to
its people and culture. In the context of citizenship, “Filipino” simply means membership in a nation-
state. In the constitution a citizen is someone who legally resides in a country. Anthropologically,
however, it is different. To belong to a people is not necessarily implying a legal association to a
country’s cherished values. To belong and relate to a culture means to adopt, accept and treasure its
entire way of life. Therefore, in order to be called Filipino, you have to belong to the Filipino people and
adopt to their culture. In this perspective, the self must be embedded in the culture”. (Corpuz, Estoque
& Tabotabo, 2019)

What is anthropology?
It is a study of all aspects of human condition. This includes human history, the present human
condition and even the future possibilities. (Kottak, 2009) It explores the interconnectedness and
interdependence of human cultural experiences in all places and age. (Havilland, et.al, 2014)
The key difference between the two social sciences is that sociology concentrates on society while
anthropology focuses on culture.
In the perspective of anthropology, the self is both a biological and a cultural entity. The traditional
anthropological understanding of the self is that the self is an animal species which underwent the process
of biological evolution and has shared characteristics with other living animals, the hominids, in particular.
Since the self has better development in terms of the brain and adaptation in the environment for survival,
the self develops a culture resulting in behavioural changes.
It is said that the self is a living animal but superior to other animals in the following factors:
• Physical aspect – Humans are the only animal with a larger brain capacity making him/her a rational
animal; the only animal that can stand straight allowing him/her to have better mobility in doing things
etc.
• Social aspect – Humans uses language and symbol in dynamic, complicated yet systematic manner
allowing him/her to communicate, and preserve history, knowledge, culture etc; can operate with others
in a systematic manner in larger cooperation and invests new things for survival

What is culture?
Cultures are those complex structures of knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, law, language,
traditional practices, and all other aspects needed by humans to function in a society. The way you dress,
the way and the food you prepare, the things your value, the language you speak, the way we celebrate
Christmas, everything else around us and everything we do (and even avoid) is culture.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 70
Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define
their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples,
mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so
forth.
Non‐material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture,
including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. For instance,
the non‐material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship,
morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics,
issues, and events.
 Characteristics of Culture
• Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious. We
learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The process of learning culture is known as
enculturation. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we
fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.
o
▪ Enculturation is the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary
transmission, cultural transmission is done through observation, use of language, adaption to
environment, rituals, and formal and informal education.
• Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in
socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture,
that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any
society are discussed in detail below.
• Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary
cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use.
Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component of
culture.
• Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being interconnected.
All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn
about all of its parts, not only a few.
• Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in
contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they
would have problems adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one
component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

What is identity?
Identity refers to “who a person is” or the qualities and traits an individual that make him or her
different from others. We can distinguish a person according to their geographical context or based on
where they come from. It can be a membership in a particular group or institution (such as being a
Louisian). It can also refer to how one person sees and expresses himself
Cultural identity refers to the identity or feeling of belongings to a certain cultural group. It is an
individual’s perception about himself or herself anchored on race, gender, nationality, religion, ethnicity
and language that eventually influences his behavior. One may identify himself or herself as Filipino
because he or she embodies Filipino cultural ways and traditions to which he or she has been exposed
while growing up. While being a Filipino, one may also identify as a Catholic because it is his or her
religious background. He or she may likewise identify himself or herself as Ybanag. The cultural categories
that shape one’s overall cultural identity prove that one’s cultural identity is multidimensional.

How do you identify yourself in terms of your own culture?

In Anthropology, self-awareness is that which permits one to assume responsibility for one’s own
conduct, to learn how to react to others, and to assume a variety of roles (Haviland, 2003). Self-awareness
allows us to distinguish ourselves from others. It has been observed that the child starts to conceptualize
self-awareness at age two. However, studies also show that self-awareness is conceptualize much
earlier by children sleeping with parent’s and are exposed to variety of stimuli like touch and the like.
PDEV 1013-
Stimulation is maximized when the child is in close contact with Understanding
the mother orthe Self and
carer Module
all 8the
| 71
other
members of the family. This develops the neural circuitry or hard wiring of the brain faster than with
children with less stimulation. This is particularly advantageous for us Filipinos because most of the time
our cultural practice is to sleep with our parents until at least school age.
Following the faster process of enculturation and self-awareness is the importance of attachment
of positive values to one’s self. The child must be able to get the culturally correct values necessary for
adult life. What the child observes from what the adults are doing or thinking will more likely be adapted
and imitated by the child, however, he will later develop his own identity.
The identity is further intensified by a practice common to all cultures – the naming ritual. Naming
individualizes a person. It gives a person his/her own unique traits, experience, personality and identity.
 The person’s name is also a symbol of one’s status in the c ommunity that can either give the person
honor or stigma. This is fairly demonstrated among families of politicians and famous businessmen. It is
important to remember however, that a person’s name is at the same time a project in progress –an identity
you wish to establish in the community. For example, you are now at the process of adding the titles like
CPA, RN, Engr, Atty, Ar, LPT, RPsy, or Honorable and many others, who knows what the future holds?
Do you know why you were given the name you currently have right now? If not, you can ask
your parents about it! It might reveal some expectations they have for you as their child.

MOI and PERSONNE

According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi.
• MOI refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic identity. Moi is a person’s basic
identity, his biological givenness. It is stable and static.
• PERSONNE refers to what to what is means to live in a particular institution, family, religion, nationality
and how to behave. It is culturally specific. This refers to certain behaviors that are dependent on the
circumstances and contexts.
The self (especially the personne) morphs according to different circumstances and contexts. For example, Rico,
a certain Filipino who is currently living in the Philippines, has the tendency to be disobedient to local policies. He
would usually spit anywhere he likes or would even cross highways even if the pedestrian signals are still on red
(moi). Then, Rico went to Singapore to work. It was noticeable that while he was there, Rico was no longer doing
the behaviors he usually did in the Philippines. He was not spitting on the streets and he was even more
compliant and obedient to traffic rules there (personne)
THE SELF AND THE BEHAVIORAL ENVIRONMENT
Behavioral environment model emphasizes the importance of perception in human geography, the
significance of subjective experience and the potential of man as an active agent in the environment. This
suggests that our worldview towards the different orientations affects our values and therefore our
behaviour.
• Object orientation positions the self in relation to the surroundings. The self should be able to act
responsively to the cultural objects around.
o
▪
▪ T’boli, an indigenous group in South Cotabato, respects the trees, lakes, falls and animals in the forests.
• Spatial orientation provides the self with personal space in relation to other people or things.
o
▪
▪ Individualistic society where independence is of utmost importance, personal space is emphasized.
• Temporal orientation endows the self with sense of time.
o
▪
▪ In Filipino philosophy, time is spherical where life events are repeated but may not necessarily be the
same (this will be elaborated further in the next module)
• Normative orientation provides the self with the grasp of accepted norms in the community.
o
▪
▪ Being on time is a generally accepted norm in the society. In communities where punctuality is
considered a value, being on time is already a charitable gesture.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 72
CULTURAL DEGRADATION
Cultural degradation or more horribly cultural genocide means the loss of a particular culture due
to assimilation or loss of interest. Assimilation happens when a dominant culture overshadows an inferior
culture. For instance, some culture of the Tagalogs or even those coming from Urban Manila is largely
influencing the culture of the Ybanags. You might notice that many children are no longer speaking their
own dialect, or performing other religious and celebratory rituals commonly performed by the folks.
In a larger scale, culture is also lost through violent, genocide, inability to respect traditions,
religions, beliefs and the cultural community’s sense of pride, which are largely the result of globalization.
For many decades, the Moros of Mindanao, for example are continuously striving for the recognition of
their cultural identity and self-realization. However, history tells us that both the Moros and the dominant
culture living in Mindanao are constantly victimized by the unending violence perpetrated by various
groups, In the end many of the cultural landmarks, which are part of the identity of the people are either
prejudiced or lost forever.(Villafuerte, 2018)
Another classic example is the Bikini Atoll.
In the late 1940s the US government wanted the island for use as a nuclear test site and relocated
the island’s population. The government made the decision, the move was to a totally new environment,
it occurred in a very short period of time, and the Bikinians had no choice in the immediate or subsequent
attempts to ameliorate the ensuing problems.
The result was a substantial loss of the original culture, serious demoralization among the people,
and a great deal of stress with which individuals continue to cope with varying success.

Module 3: Eastern & Western Thoughts and Psychological Perspective of the

Self
The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the
most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern vs. Western dichotomy wherein Eastern
represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America.
Besides a general observation of cultural/artistic/principal differences showing the distinction between
western and eastern concepts of ‘self’, in this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that
greatly influenced the mindset of each nation or culture.

Are we all different and independent, or are all people part of one whole?

THE NATURE OF THE SELF

Ashley has been watching the news and the way everyone is at each other's throats, and though it's painful and
sad to watch, she also thinks it's inevitable. After all, people are all independent and very different from one another.
Her friend Tan isn't so sure though. He believes that everyone is connected to each other and to the world. To Tan,
we are all one, so no one should be fighting.
Ashley and Tan are thinking about the nature of the self. When philosophers talk about the nature of the self, what
they are really asking is:

In Western philosophy, people tend to think like Ashley people are separate and unique from each other. What one
person does or experiences is completely independent of other people and the world at large. In the western
understanding of the self there is a heavy emphasis on your recognition that you are a separate entity that even
you belong to a certain group of people what is important for them is for you to realize that you have your own
identity. That you have the capacity to make choices hence what is important is for you to become a unique person.
However, in Eastern philosophy, the self is often treated as an illusion. That is, the idea that people are separate
entities from each other and the world is not considered a reality in Eastern thought.

There are many differences between individualistic and collective cultures. In general, individualistic
cultures emphasize individual actions. In this culture, people are1013-
PDEV encouraged to prioritize
Understanding their
the Self own needs
Module 8 | 73 and their
independence over the group’s needs. In collective cultures, people are encouraged to prioritize the needs and
harmony of the group over their own success. These core differences in values impact the ways these cultures
communicate, celebrate, and cultivate the economy.

WESTERN

The concept of the psyche is a western' model of the soul. Western traditions are always preoccupied by
the duality of the body and soul.
 Plato started with the idea that the soul inhabited the world of ideas, while the body descended to the
world of the sensible. The ideal self is there up above the heavens while the bodily self, or the soul
imprisoned in a finite material body, by which we know today is only thrown into the oblivion of
remembering what the soul used to know while still living in the world of ideas.
Even Aristotle did not solve this problem of duality. He proposed the hylemorphic theory, meaning that
the human person is composed of matter or the body and form or the soul. Matter is changeable while
the form remains. This means that the body will grow and eventually die and decompose and will be
transformed into something else. The form however remains unchanged. But unlike Plato, Aristotle
asserted that the body is equally important as the soul, because the former will give the latter the
knowledge it ought to have through senses.
This is very much similar to the duality of body and soul of Descartes. The body is the one gathering
information through the senses, although he never always trusted the information coming from the
senses. It is the reason that processes all information and makes sense with experiences of the body.
In an attempt to solve the issue of duality, Descartes proposed that the body and the soul fused in one
very important part of the brain – the pineal gland.

Still, the western concept of the self is very much anchored on the individuality of the psyche. The
individual self is always in a struggle to reconcile the connection between the ideal self or perfect soul and
the limited self or sinful body. This dichotomy drives us in the understanding of the self as lifetime toil
for self-perfection. What is important in this concept of the self is the development of the self from
conception to death.
This will normally be in order to correspond with some determined ideal, depending on the social and
historical conditions under which a person lives. Once an individual has reached a sufficiently high level
of consciousness and self-knowledge, he or she has the capacity both for self-analysis and observation,
and for understanding the actions of others. Motivated by the wish for acceptance and authority in a peer
group, an individual develops personal qualities by self-perfecting.
In other words, from the moment of conception, the self is molded and prepared to live a good and
happy life.
A daughter, for example will be provided with the best possible upbringing by the parents. She will
be sent to the best school in town in view of bestowing on her the necessary knowledge and skills
to be independent and successful professional in adult years. She is expected to compete with
other professionals in her field and become the best in her line of work. She will eventually find a
partner and raise children the way she was raised. This is such an example of an ideal self that
manifests the perfection of the soul.

When, on the contrary, the self did not have the opportunity to be raised, and to grow, and to die a good
and happy life, the self becomes a waste as it did not live the ideals of the soul. The lone purpose of the
self, therefore is:
To live according to the ideals of the soul.
The Greeks call this aréte -the ultimate goodness, perfection, excellence. All of life’s directions, in as much
as the western individualistic self is concerned, are geared towards self-perfection.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 74

EASTERN
Although the self in the eastern perspective also wants to attain perfection in meditation and
enlightenment, there has never been an issue of dualism. Easterners do not have the notion of the
separation of the body and soul.
It is always one self.
A. The Atman - An Indian philosophy which is considered to be the seat of consciousness.
The atman may have different levels of consciousness but there is always one self. Even death is
considered to be just another level of consciousness but the atman continues to exist because it is not
 dependent on the body. This in fact is also the concept of the non-self in Buddhism. In this concept the
self is considered as nothing but an evolution and transformation of inner consciousness.
B. The Confucian – A philosophy from China that emphasized the relational self and the social
understanding of the self.
Scholars read Confucius’ philosophy in two ways.

1. The ideal moral self is always able to forego individual interest in view of prioritizing the social interest.
In a way, the self is the ideal of a selfless person who is willing to forget about his self-interest in favor of the interest
of the community. In this conception, there is still the individual self and the self is mutually exclusive as the social
self. However, the individual self is subsumed in the interest of the social self.

2. The individual self and the social self are not mutually exclusive but are metaphysically and
profoundly related.
The individual character of the ideal self cannot be separated from the social character of the self.
It means that the self is constructively connected with the pursuit of the social self.
Let us take as an example many family dynamics in which, when in dire poverty one or the other sibling
will be asked to stop going to school so that the family will be able to send the rest of the children to school
to continue with their education. Here, the self is willing to sacrifice and may forget to assert self-interest
in order to pursue the resolve of the whole family. The same self-sacrifice may be manifested in groups,
communities and nation.

Features of Individualism Features of Collectivism

• “I” identity
• Promotes individual goals, initiative and • Each person is encouraged to be an
achievement. active player in society, to do what is best
for society as a whole rather than in
• Individual rights are seen as being the themselves.
most important. Rules attempt to ensure
self-importance and individualism. • The rights of families, communities, and
the collective supersede those of the:
• Independence is valued; there is much individual
less of a drive to help other citizens or
communities than' in collectivism. • Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
selflessness.
• Relying or being dependent on others is
frequently seen as shameful. • Working with others and cooperating is
the norm; everyone supports each other.
• People are encouraged to do things on
their own; to rely on themselves people • as a community, family or nation more
strive for their own successes than as an individual

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 75

Social construction is a shared assumption or perception of the people in society. The western social
construct of the self can be characterized in three ways.

1. Individualistic self - At a very young age, the child is already taught to pursue what is best for self. Thus,
later in adult life, the measure of a successful life is when the self is able to fulfil the life-goals set for and
by the self.
The individualistic self is always conceived as the autonomous bounded entity. For one to be autonomous,
one must be able to show independence.
2. Self-sufficiency - This construct presumes that a successful self must be able to supply one’s needs
without external assistance.
Being self-sufficient also implies confidence in one’s capacity to provide what the self needs from one’s
own resources and authority. Therefore, it is important for the self to establish one’s power and accumulate
the needed knowledge and resources so that one will be able to provide one’s needs.

3. The self being rational - In the western practice, there is no time for the self to be weak and emotional.
The self must not waste resources on meditation and other metaphysical cognitions but to be constantly
rational and reasonable.
The self masters the causal relationships of things. Everything must be explained by logic and reason.
Phenomenon outside the logical realm are simply discredited and rejected. This explains the western
logical positivist movement. It contends that what is rational and reasonable are only those which can
be logically viable. The successful self therefore, is grounded on one’s investment on reason and
logical thinking.

It also necessarily follows that. when the self adapts the rational-logical conception of things, one must be
scientific. The self marvels at the safety measures of scientific procedures. Scientific researches ascertain
the cause and effect relationship of things and phenomena. Safety is derived from the mastery of the
phenomena concerning the self.
This brings about the ideals of self-efficacy in which everything can be explained by science, and
everything can be provided for by science. The successful self embraces the scientific conception of things
that affect one’s growth, psycho-physical development, intellectual capacity, interaction with others and
involvement in societal institutions and infrastructures.
Self-Efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation. Psychologist Albert
Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel.

Eastern social infrastructures are mostly seen as contrary to the western individualistic construct.
The eastern social construct is primarily viewed as collectivistic and is always grounded on nature. There
were many eastern traditions that flourished in the history of thought that were firmly based on how the
self relates to others, to the Divine Being and to nature.

Confucius or Kung Fu Zi ascertained the ancient Chinese civilization by establishing social order. The
society will be led by wise leaders who guaranteed peace, prosperity and harmony. Here in the Confucian
system we can immediately notice the primacy of the society over the individual person. In fact, Confucius
believed that the threat to social order is only caused by the unchecked selfish desires of individuals.
The self therefore in the Confucian system is:
A person within the society who exhibits refinement and compassion.
Junzi - It is the new self formed in the right education under the virtuous teacher as the role
model.
Central in the educational formation of junzi are humanistic learning, refined personal manners and the
capacity to govern the community wisely and with compassion. In principle, the new self of junzi the sage
king brings to life the virtues of the ancestors to the new order of society. The self therefore is the
transmitter of the ancient virtues to the new world.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 76
Li – It is a refined manner of spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols in honoring the
ancestors.
To carry out the transmission, one must have the correct procedures and protocol, In Chinese
philosophy, religious rituals are of great importance. The word li originally means sacrifice. Li is both the
restraining and the refinement of the self. The virtuous self must be able to practice the correct
customary procedures and protocols governing all of life.

Ren – It is the character of the self that sincerely shows compassion for others.
 The self must embody human-heartedness by prioritizing the self-interest of others. The sage king - jenzi
- is characterized by his practice of ren in putting others first before the self.

Although Confucius was not given the opportunity to become the leader of China, his principles of jenzi, li
and ren became influential all throughout China even unto many other modern civilizations of the world.
To conclude, we commonly hear the dichotomy between the east and the west. The eastern
traditions are known for their communal and spiritual constructs. On the other hand, the western
traditions developed a construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational and scientific. In this
chapter we were able to distinguish between the individualistic and collective self. We clarified the
many western constructs of the self vis-a-vis the relational and spiritual construct of the east.

We may only have one physical body but at times, it may feel like having several selves all at once. In our
own little corner, this might not be bothersome. But, to be asked in public “Who are you?” could be stressful. This
question seems to force us to come up with an interesting answer that we might begin to feel unsatisfied with right
after saying it.
If a picture, still and stagnant, paints a thousand words what more a moving living, complex, dynamic,
breathing human being? We may be able to figure out who we are to a certain aspects but no answer might be
enough to really articulate who we really are. Questioning who we are and engaging in self-reflection to figure out
and understand why we behave in a certain way is normal and is actually beneficial in increasing self-awareness.
Most of the time, we are too hard on ourselves because of the many expectations we have. We always want
to be stable, in control and pleasing to others. As mentioned by Weiten (2014), “possible selves are developed from
past experiences, current behavior and future expectations.
Who we are, though not easily changed, might be likened to liquid, able to take many forms, depending on
the factors and context affecting it.

SELF/SELF-CONCEPT

According to Carl Rogers, the self or our self-concept “is an organized, consistent of perceptions of and beliefs
about oneself”. These perceptions and beliefs that comprise our self-concepts are called self-schemas. Self-
schemas are formed by numerous factors that may be aware or unaware of, some of which are: (1) past
experiences, (2) personality traits, (3) abilities, (4) physical features, (5) values, (6) goals, (7) social roles, (8) own
observations and (9) feedback from others.

Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

CARL ROGERS
“Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize -
i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness' we can. Like a flower that
will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people
will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough. (McLeod, 2014)”
o Real self – includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in
awareness by the individual. It is the part of ourselves where we feel, think, look and act involving our
self-image. PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 77

o Ideal self – revolves around ambitions in life and is dynamic, the idealized image that we have
developed over time (what we admire in others, what our society promotes, what we think in our best
interest)
 Who is your ideal and real self?
Our notion of both selves are results of our self-schemas. Our ideal self is essential in guiding and
motivating us to behave in a way that would lead us to the best version of who we want to be – a guide to
the real self to continue improving.
How aligned is you ideal self from your real self?

When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment or there is a
small gap between our real and ideal self. This gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a sense of self-
actualization or fulfilment leading to a high self-esteem.
However, when we are disappointed or frustrated about ourselves, it is said that there is
incongruence or misalignment or disparity or a huge gap between our real and ideal self. This results to
us being distressed, anxious, leading to a low self-esteem or self-worth and be defensive in our actions.
In cases where in the gap between the real and ideal self is immense, this may cause instability to one’s
psychological well-being.
PDEVwith
Summary: If the way that I am (real self) is aligned 1013-the
Understanding the Self
way that I want to Module 8 |self),
be (ideal 78 then I
will feel a sense of mental well-being or peace of mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with hot I want
to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result in mental distress or anxiety. The greater the level
of incongruence between the ideal self and the real self, the greater the resulting distress.
If the level of incongruence is too much to handle, causing a person’s self-worth to be questionable,
it is best to seek help through counselling or seeking advice from people who can help.
Experiencing incongruence may happen from time to time, most especially in cases or contexts
that are new or extreme. In circumstances like these, we need to reflect, evaluate our behaviour, and be
reminded of our ideal self to put us back on track. We have to learn to separate behaviors from the totality
of one’s being. We may have behaved badly but it does not mean that we are automatically a bad
person. Changing our way of thing may take a bit of getting used to since most of us may have been
exposed to people who might be given us negative labels such as “bad, stupid, weak, fat, ugly etc.”
Negative labels could come from a single failure or blunder. Sadly, a single unintentional mistake is used
to judge a person holistically. We might have been victim of this or we might also be guilty of doing this to
other people.
Whether we feel it or not, we have to understand and accept that we are very capable to help
ourselves and attain the ideal self we intend to become. Ideal does not always have to mean perfect. Life
may be imperfect but we can work with that and use it to our advantage. We need to decide and choose
to stop comparing ourselves with other people especially to those we see on social media.
The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change.
~Carl Rogers
A similar concept
KAREN HORNEY believed that everyone experiences basic anxiety through which we experience conflict
and strive to cope and employ tension reduction approaches.
Because people feel inferior, they develop an idealized self-image – an imaginary picture of the self as the
possessor of unlimited powers and superlative qualities. The actual self – the person one is in everyday life
– is often despised because it fails to fulfil the requirement of the idealized image. Underlying both the
idealized and actual self is the real self, which is revealed only as a person begins to shed the various
techniques developed to deal with basic anxiety and to find ways of resolving conflicts.
Multiple versus Unified Selves
KENNETH GERGEN, in the view of postmodern psychology contends that man has an identity that shifts
and morphs in different social situations and in response to different stimuli. Having a flexible sense of self
in different context is more socially adaptable than force oneself to stick to one concept.
Multiple selves are the capacities we carry within us from multiple relationships. These are not
‘discovered’ but ’created’ in our relationships with our people
Unified selves, as pointed out in Traditional psychology, emphasizes that well-being comes when our
personality dynamics are congruent, cohesive and consistent.

True versus False Selves

DONALD WINNICOTT believes that a person is in his true self if he has a sense of integrity and of
connected wholeness. When the person has to comply with external rules, such as being polite or
otherwise following social codes, then a false self is used.

Healthy false self is functional both for the person and for society then it is considered healthy.
Unhealthy false self fits in but through a feeling of forced compliance rather than loving adaptation.

False selves can lead towards narcissistic personality (Kohut, 1971)

To supplement the topic on True or False Selves, here is a video from SchoolofLife:

THE SCORPION AND THE OLD MAN

by: Author Unknown,PDEV 1013-
Source Understanding the Self Module 8 | 79
Unknown
There was this old man who saw a scorpion floundering around in the water.
He decided to save it by stretching out his finger, but the scorpion stung him.
The man still tried to get the scorpion out of the water, but the scorpion stung him again.
A man nearby told him to stop saving the scorpion that kept stinging him.
But the man said: "It is the nature of the scorpion to sting. It is my nature to love.
Why should I give up my nature to love just because it is the nature of the scorpion to sting?"
 Lesson:
Don't give up loving.
Don't give up your goodness.
Even if people around you sting.

Global versus Differentiated Needs

Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth
•
o Global Self-esteem (a.k.a Trait self-esteem) is a personality variable that represents the way people
generally feel about themselves. It is relatively enduring across time and situations.
o State Self-esteem (a.k.a Feelings of self-worth) refers to temporary feelings or momentary emotional
reactions to positive and negative events when we feel good or bad about ourselves during certain
situations or experiences.
o Domain Specific Self-esteem (a.k.a Self evaluations) is focused on how people evaluate their various
abilities and attributes.

Module 4: The Physical Self

INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICAL SELF

Our physical self is mostly represented by our face. It gives other people a first impression about who we are and
what we are. How we look give initial clues about our attitudes and the cosmetics put onto our faces may give hints
about our economic status in life. It is undeniable to most of us that we give too much attention to our faces than
any other part of our body from the time we wake up to the moment before we sleep. Our face is the primary part
of our body that we protect in times of danger. We do not want any scars inflicted on any part of our face and
admittedly, many of us are willing to spend money to make it pleasing to other people. We maintain a face value
because we consider our face as our initial asset. Before other people can discover our true attitude and capabilities,
they first rely on what they can physically see. The way we take care of ourselves, especially our faces, represents
the kind of personality we have. It is no wonder that people spend significant amounts of money just to make
themselves beautiful,
In this module, you are going to learn about how your physical self play a role in defining who you are. This will also
help you learn about the physical self from various sources of information. We will talk about the physical self in a
way that we will see how our perception of our body affects how we think of ourselves.
Now let’s begin by how taking a look at the different conceptualizations of the physical self:
Through the years, the concept of physical self has gained a considerable attention in the fields of Psychology,
Sociology, and Anthropology, including religious and biological or health studies. These disciplines agree on the
premise that the physical self is an important component in the study of the person's self and identity.

Sanjay Singh, the physical self refers to the body, a marvelous container and complex, finely timed machine
with which we interface with our environment and fellow beings. The Physical Self is the concrete dimension,
the tangible aspect of a person that can be directly observed and examined.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 80

 As with William James “The self is the sum total of all that man call his, which includes his body, family
and reputation, also his clothes and his house….”
Such body, family, clothes, and the like are also described by Russell W. Belk as part of our Extended Self.
But what do we mean by physical self? The concrete or tangible aspect or dimension of the person which
is primarily observed and examined through the body is known as the physical self.
James considered body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance of
personality. However, James considered body as subservient to the mind e.g., mental concentration can be
so tightly focused… as not only to banish ordinary sensations, but even the severest pain. (James, 1890,
Vol. 1, p.49). A simple example could be the numerous reports of soldiers in the battle or a boxer in the ring
who suffer severe wounds but were not notice of them until the intensity of the fighting abates. For James,
the body is an expressive tool of indwelling consciousness and good physical health. It is an element of
spiritual hygiene of supreme significance (James, 1899. p. 103).

Sigmund Freud's construction of self and personality makes the physical body the core of human
experience. Freud was of the view that the ego is first and foremost a body ego. However, in spite of Freud's
recognition of the centrality of body, his own writings on therapy rarely discussed it.

Erikson, on the other hand, mentioned that experience is anchored in the ground-plan of body. According
to him the role of bodily organs is especially important in early developmental stages of a person's life. Later
in life, the development of physical as well as intellectual skills help determine whether an individual will
achieve a sense of competency and ability to choose demanding roles in a complex society.
For example, healthy children derive a sense of competence as their bodies become larger, stronger, faster,
and more capable of learning complex skills. However, as a stage theorist Erikson is aware of the constant
interaction of the body, psychological processes and social forces. He acknowledges the classical Freudian
view of fundamental biological drives but insists that these drives are socially modifiable.

Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) placed the body at the center of human existence, as a way
of experiencing the world. Such ideas make clear to us the fact that the body is the way through which we
make sense of the world and our environment. We experience life through our bodies and senses (sight,
smell, touch, etc.), allowing us to interpret the world around us. However, the body is not merely an object
in the world but we are also our bodies in that the body is the vehicle for our expression in the world. The
body is the sight for the articulation of all our identifications of gender, class, sexuality, race, ethnicity and
religion.

The emergence of "body culture".

From the late 1970s to 1980s, Humanities and Sociology developed a new and broader interest in the body.
Sociologists, historians, philosophers, and anthropologists, including scholars from sport studies and medical
studies spoke about this interest on the body which was then called then called "body culure". The sociologists,
Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens, agree in saying that the body is the only fix-point of “self-identity”.
Studies also show that one of the visible and deeper changes in relation to the modern body concerns the dress
reform and the appearance of the naked body. The change from noble pale skin to suntanned skin as a "sportive"
distinction was not only linked to sport, but had a strong impact on society as a whole. The change of appreciated
body color reversed the social-bodily distinctions between people and classes, and nudism became a radical
expression of this body-cultural change

Do you consider yourself beautiful? PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 81
What is your concept of beauty?
What is the society's concept of beauty?
Do these perceptions really matter?

Well dressed, elegant, good-looking, attractive! These are the words we usually associate with beauty. As
Kenny and Nichols describe, they are the determining factors shaping beauty. "Attractive children, and
adults are treated more favorably by others in the society.

Some people as you would agree are lucky to possess features that stick to the standardized ideals of beauty
though nature bestows less-than-perfect physical attributes upon others such as slightly misshapen noses,
protuberant chins, breasts that appear too large or too small. For the most part, people have learned to live with
these inadequacies. But in some cases, there are people who are dissatisfied with their physical characteristics that
they seek to alter them through surgical means. The process appears trouble-free, yet there are many unseen
pitfalls.

THE MALE IDEAL “Adonis” body built”

"muscular wash-board abs, powerful legs, chiseled features.

6-pack or ripped abs shoved in the face of men via famous sportsmen and male
fitness models, which for many is impossible to achieve without illegal steroids.”

THE FEMALE IDEAL

"coca-cola contoured figure”

Life today sees image upon image of fashionably clad women, perfect skin,
tiny waists, ample breasts, fashionably protruding behinds (of Kardashian and
Beyonce fame) all with a weight of no greater than 59kg.

Needless to say, this pursuit of perfection puts a huge strain on both genders but “females in particular receive a
massive amount of societal pressure to conform to conventional beauty standards.”
People do set unrealistic images of beauty, genetically impossible for many of us to emulate. Yet we are told that
these unattainable bodies are normal, desirable, and achievable. When we don't measure up to this satisfaction,
we develop a strong sense of dissatisfaction.

What do we exactly mean by body image?

Now, let’s talk about "body image" and "identity". Popular interest in body image issues has grown dramatically in
recent years, due to an emphasis on individual limitless capacities of modern medicine.
Society shapes us in many ways, possibly more than we realize from our interactions to our personal development
through to other's perception of our bodies as a reflection of self-worth. We are social beings. Genetically, we rely
on one another for the survival of humanity. That primal connection makes our interactions physiologically and
psychologically important. So it is not surprising that how society perceives our bodies.
Body image is both internal (personal) and external (society)
The inner beauty which refers to the inner qualities of the person and the external beauty which refers to the
physical characteristics of the person. External beauty focuses on the physical features of the body commonly
defined as "a combination of qualities, which includes shape, color, or form that pleases the aesthetic senses,
especially the sight."
Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings that result from
that perception. These feelings can be positive, negative or both, and are influenced by individual and environmental
factors. (Psych alive by Collin Mc Shirley)
Body image lies at the heart of adolescence. In this concept, we think of how attractive our body is. It is the mental
representation of one's own body, or somebody’s own impression of how his or her body looks which is a very
important aspect of identity.
This includes:
• How we perceive our bodies visually

• How we feel about our physical appearance

• How we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies
• Our sense of how other people view our bodies
Body image is determined by 4 factors:
1. How you SEE your body is your perceptual body image. This is not always a correct representation of
how you actually look. For example, a person may perceive themselves as overweight when they are actually
underweight.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 82

2. The way you FEEL about your body is your affective body image. This relates to the amount of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction you feel about your shape, weight, and individual body parts.

3. The way you THINK about your body is your cognitive body image. This can lead to preoccupation
with body shape and weight.
 4. BEHAVIORS in which you engage as a result of your body image encompass your behavioral body
image. When a person is dissatisfied with the way he/she looks, they may isolate themselves because they
feel bad about their appearance.

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Now that you have your “body image cheat sheet,” does it give you a better understanding of how you perceive
your own body and thoughts? How does the four aspects resonate with you?
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How we look at our bodies has possibly never held as much societal importance or reflected so significantly on our
perceived self-worth. Each one, male or female, strives to acquire the body of his/her dream. We are in a culture
in which beauty is judged by numbers. As commonly observed, attraction to another person’s body increases
if that body is symmetrical and in proportionate, we are more likely to notice it and find it beautiful. We even
perceive proportional bodies to be healthier.

Take a minute to ponder the following questions.

This is not part of the learning task

Look at yourself in front of a mirror and answer the following questions:

1. Which part of your body are you most proud of?
2. Which part of your body are you not happy about? Why?
3. What is your ideal body? Describe the body you want to have.
4. Do you really need another body to be happy? Why? Why not?

The promise of an “aesthetic capital”

The presence of aesthetically based cultural goods and their ever- increasing influence in modern society poses a
new conceptual opportunity to Sociology. A new term “aesthetic capital”, is introduced. Such concept covers the
privileges and wealth people receive from aesthetic traits, such as their face, hair, body, clothes, grooming habits
and other markers of beauty.
For Samantha Lovascio, visually appealing traits greatly impact our lives, in matters of modest importance (friend
selection) to great importance (friend selection) (e.g. getting a job career mobility). Thus, the promise of an aesthetic
capital concept lies in enabling Sociology to better understand inequality and the socially based forms of wealth
available to modern society. It seems such attraction to “body image” and “aesthetic capital” is increasingly
becoming today's preoccupation, especially of young people as it gradually becomes the basis upon which one's
identity and self-esteem are built.

ADDITIONAL READ:
AESTHETIC CAPITAL
Authored by: Sylvia Holla , Giselinde Kuipers
ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF ART AND CULTURE

People are also inclined to associate ‘good looks’ with other positive qualities, from moral goodness to economic
success.
Social psychologists call this the ‘halo effect’: the assumption that persons with visible desirable traits also have
other, maybe less visible, positive qualities (Nisbett and Wilson 1977; Kaplan 1978). In present-day societies,
research has shown that people who are deemed more attractive tend to have higher wages, more durable
relationships, higher grades and better assessments (Andreoni and Petrie 2008). Thus, physical attractiveness
comes with many rewards, also in fields that at first glance have nothing to do with physical appearance.

Beauty comes with benefits. There are the obvious perks, such as sexual attractiveness and a desire on
the part of others to seek out the company of good-looking people.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 83
The Role of Culture in our Understanding of "Body Image" and "Self-esteem"
What is culture?
It is commonly defined as the shared patterns of thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, and habits in both material and
symbolic realms.

"Culture includes language, technology, economic, political and educational systems, religious and aesthetic
patterns, social structures and so on. It is widely recognized by social scientists that the self is shaped, in part,
through interaction with groups."(Harry Triandis).
Through culture, society shapes us in many ways. As mentioned earlier, body image is both internal (personal) and
external (society). These include how we perceive our bodies visually, how we feel about our physical appearance,
how we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies, and our sense of how other people view our bodies.
What do you think are characteristics that Filipinos find to be attractive? Are they similar with other the American’s
perception of beauty?
Try to watch this video to see the various beauty standards different cultures hold.
As/Is (2014), Beauty Standards Around The World,

We are all body-builders

“Drawing on contemporary culture, our bodies are not only biological but also cultural in that we say, we all shape
and manipulate our bodies. We are all body-builders as we build and style our bodies on a daily basis. We decide
how to dress and style our bodies, we decide how much hair we want on our bodies, and we shave, wax, etc. We
manipulate our bodies' weight through diet and exercise and we even modify our bodies to extreme levels and
introduce mechanical agents into our bodies merging flesh and technology. The body is enthralled to cultural
regimes, telling us how we should look - especially how we should dress and what our bodies weight (fat levels)
should be".
What happens when your body doesn’t look like how it's supposed to look like, or feel how it's supposed to feel, or
do what it’s supposed to do?
Who or what defines the ideals behind these expectations?
How can we challenge them and live more peacefully in our bodies?
De Mello (2014). In the ‘Encyclopedia of Body Adornment', De Mello explores these questions as she says:
All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet their cultural standards of beauty,
as well as their religious. In addition, people modify and adorn their bodies as part of the complex or process of
creating and recreating their personal and social identities.

Body adornment refers to the practice of physically enhancing the body by styling and decorating the hair, painting
and embellishing the fingernails, wearing makeup, painting the body, wearing jewelry, and the use of clothing Body
adornments are by definition temporary.

Body modification, on the other hand, refers to the physical alteration of the body through the use of surgery,
tattooing piercing, scarification, branding, genital mutilation, implants, and other practices. Body modifications can
be permanent or temporary, although most are permanent and alter the body forever" (Margo de Mello, 2014).
A particular practice related to body modification is Female Genital Mutilization (FGM). Here are some key
facts regarding FGM provided by the World Health Organization (2020).
• Female genital mutilation (FGM) involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other
injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons.
• The practice has no health benefits for girls and women.
• FGM can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, as well as complications
in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths.
• More than 200 million girls and women alive today have been cut in 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East
and Asia where FGM is concentrated.
• FGM is mostly carried out on young girls between infancy and age 15.
• FGM is a violation of the human rights of girls and women.
• WHO is opposed to all forms of FGM, and is opposed to health care providers performing FGM
(medicalization of FGM).
• Treatment of health complications of FGM in 27 high prevalence countries costs 1.4 billion USD per year.

What is Pop culture?

Audrey Tramel (2013) mentions that the predominance of "pop culture” in today’s society definitely has some
effects such as the way teenagers think of themselves, how they associate with others, and how they express
characteristics of their maturation.

Pop culture or popular culture from a common understanding PDEVis1013- Understanding

a culture the Self Module
widely accepted 8 | 84 by the
and patronized
public as in pop music which is very appealing to the youth. Pop culture influences how teens define themselves as
in the case of a recent famous K-pop group, named "Momoland" which gained the admiration of millions of Filipino
teenagers.
Its influence on them goes to the point of imitating the way they dress and style their bodies, the way they talk and
express themselves. It influences the way they define themselves. Indeed, an important characteristic of every
teenagers’ maturation is his/her self-definition.

Self-definition refers to the way a person sees himself. For teens, that image is influenced to a large extent
by personal choices, which are, in turn, influenced by the images and associations teens glean from pop
culture on a daily basis.
Recent researchers agree that pop culture has some impact on teenagers’ self- definition. Pop culture can provide
benchmarks which become the teenagers’ basis of their self-definition. In this way, they see themselves adopting
certain characteristics from the various celebrities and other models they see in pop culture. Lastly, self-definition
can be intrinsically tied into self-esteem and confidence, two critical components of a healthy disposition throughout
maturation and into adulthood.
Pop culture icons tend to extend their visibility beyond culture and into brands, which they sell via advertisements
or products carrying their name.
Teenagers who see, for instance, Liza Soberano or James Reid using beauty products like Vicky Belo's kojic soap,
may then be influenced to patronize that label. Beyond fostering a certain degree of commercialism, these brands
have associations in and of themselves that tie into self- definition or social groups within a teenager’s life. Often,
celebrity brands tie into an acceptance level among teenagers, such that some teenagers feel they must own a
particular brand in order to be accepted. These sentiments can distract teenagers from key aspects of their
development.
So then, in our hyper-mediated society, we are constantly beset with media images especially advertisements
representing appropriate bodies or skin, so that we internalize these and either attempt to conform to them or resist
them. The media creates ideals, in the form of celebrities and models, for men and women to admire. These give
us pressure to conform to expectations. Images in the media often make us worry about our own appearance,
defining what body is attractive and which one is not, seeing being fat as unattractive, etc.
It seems contemporary culture is obsessed with the body. At any moment, we are likely to be told, from a variety of
media, how the body should act and should look; also telling us how we should dress, what our weight should be,
how we should spend our leisure and even how our bodies should age. Through media, campaign on the use of
certain beauty products, has the goal of improving the look of the spokes model in order to improve his/her
appearance to perfection using those cosmetics. As a result, most women are dissatisfied with their appearance
which, Annie Lennox says, is the "stuff that fuels the fashion and beauty industries". This results in women feeling
insecure about their own appearance and then conforming to the media's perception of beauty by buying beauty
products such as make-up, creams, and hair dyes. "Beauty has become a currency system and it assigns
hierarchical value to women, encouraging escalating consumerism.

Media and Self-Esteem

Genesis M. Javellana (2014) mentions that the media plays a large role in how teenagers view themselves by
shaping images or what teenagers are supposed to be or do. Research findings revealed that:

Internet- is the most frequently used media with the respondents using it often.
Magazines-have the strongest negative relationship with the weight of the respondents, and, proposed that
measures such as media awareness seminars and screening and balancing or commercials and
advertisements on television and magazines are needed to balance the effects of media on adolescents.

Findings from further studies, showed that teenagers:

• Imagine themselves being the actor/actress in a movie they have watched.

• They copy an actor's/actress' clothes, hairstyle, and/or lines in the movie because it would make
them look cool or feel good.
• They like a movie because the actor/s and or actress/ es clothes, in that movie look exceptionally
good.
• They immediately try any new product that they saw in a commercial.
• They use the product endorsed by their favorite actor/actress.
• They feel upset after seeing handsome/beautiful personalities on or internet.
• They spend more than nine hours in a week online, searching tips, advice and/or procedures from
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 85
the internet that would improve their outward appearance.
• They edit their solo pictures to make them look better before posting them online.
• They feel handsome/beautiful when their solo picture gets a lot of likes.
• Similarly, teenagers follow a lot of beauty, fashion and/or fitness advice that they rea ad from
magazines.
• They also feel unhappy about their weight after seeing a model from a magazine.

The impact of Media on the Self-esteem of the Adolescent

In the concepts of physical changes in the body and identity of the adolescent, Davies& Furnham, found out that
the average teenager is sensitive to, and critical of, his/her physical self. Constant exposure to cultural standards
of beauty in evaluating own body image (via media and social networks) may produce non-normative shit in the
form of dieting practices which may lead to eating disorders as a result of body image dissatisfaction, the feeling of
discrepancy between actual and ideal body image.

Researchers have found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong predictor of depression, exercise dependence,
eating disorders and steroid use among young people in the US (Stice and Withenton, 2002).

• Boys body image is generally more positive than girls, and boys are much more likely to welcome weight
gain. Simmons and Blyth's "Cultural ldeal Hypothesis" indicate that puberty brings boys closer to their ideal
body while girls shift further from theirs. A Cultural ideal is that male bodies be big and strong while ideal
female bodies in Western (and Asian) culture is slim.
The Cultural Ideal Hypothesis predicts that, since the cultural ideal for the female body is being slim, adolescent
girls should more likely to express body dissatisfaction and resort to dieting.

• Caufmann and Steinberg say that girls in western cultures are more concerned about appearance and
express more worry and concern about how other people respond to them than in other cultures. If body
shape is far from dominant cultural ideal of slimness, teens are more likely to develop low self-esteem and
negative body image.
• Strikingly, today, girls exposed to images of Barbie dolls reported lower body esteem and a greater desire
for a thinner body shape. Clearly, the body-image expectations of pre-teens can be distorted with their ‘If
Barbie and Ken Were Real’ thinking. Barbie's neck would be too long and thin to support the weight of her
head, and her upper body proportions would make it difficult for her to walk upright. In Ken's case, his huge
barrel chest and enormously thick neck would nearly preclude him from wearing a shirt. Ken would be 7 feet
2 inches tall while Barbie would be 5 feet 2 inches. (Brownell and Napolitano, 1995).

Certainly, the exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women posed a great impact on their self-esteem. It
increased body dissatisfaction, negative mood states, and eating disorder symptoms and decreased self-esteem.
"Exposure to thin-ideal media images may contribute to the development of eating disorders by causing body
dissatisfaction, negative moods, low self-esteem, and eating disorders symptoms among women" (Hawkins, et. al.,
2010). Miller also speaks of the disturbing problem of very young girls dieting and having negative thoughts about
their body.

Who's to blame for our body perceptions, be it good or bad?

Society gives us a number of reference points that shape our perceptions whether positive or negative. When it
comes to our bodies there are a number of sources that affect us more than the others.
The Media
The images of perfection we see in print, film, and television projects an unrealistic version of reality that we
are continually told is attainable - if we work out, eat less, and lather our bodies in transformative, firming
and tightening creams.
The media are powerful tools that reinforces cultural beliefs and values, and while they may not be fully
responsible for determining the standards tor physical attractiveness, they make escaping the barrage of
images and attitudes almost impossible.
Prejudice – Size
Intolerance of body diversity has a lot to do with prejudice of size and shape in our culture. Being
thin, toned, and muscular has become associated with the hard-working, successful, popular, beautiful,
strong, and the disciplined. Being fat is associated with lazy, ugly, weak, and lacking in will-power.
With this prejudice, fat is not a description like tall or redhead - it's an indication of moral character and we
are conditioned to think that fat is bad.
Those closest to us - family and friends PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 86
We learn from other people, particularly those closest to us about the things that are considered important.
Friendships are particularly important in body image development because we place high value in them,
spends lots of time with our friends and develop shared experiences, values, and beliefs.
Classrooms, university dorms, and common rooms are often filled with negative body talk: "I wish I had her
stomach" "I hate my thighs," "I feel fat." Listening to this tends to reinforce the need to focus on appearance
and make comparisons between us and other people's bodies.

But the impact of media and society in general, are not all bad.
As with most things, with the bad comes the potential for good. If not for this awakening, we would not have initiatives
like Live Life, Get Active; where awakening ourselves to a healthy and fulfilled life is at the core of what we do.
Live Life Get Active is a social initiative built to create a fitter, healthier, and happier lifestyle. We approach health
and well-being from a fun and socially engaging perspective and the importance we put on a healthy lifestyle.
People nowadays exposed themselves to biking, yoga, Zumba, sports and other wellness activities.

Self-esteem, sometimes referred to as self-worth or self-respect, is an important part of success.

Too little self-esteem can leave people feeling defeated or depressed. It can also lead people to make bad choices,
fall into destructive relationships, or fail to live up to their full potential.
Too much self-esteem, however, as exhibited in narcissistic personality disorder, can certainly be irritating to
others and can even damage personal relationships". (Kendra Cherry)

The Concept of Self-esteem

Self-esteem levels at the extreme high and low ends of the spectrum can be harmful, so ideally, it's best to strike a
balance somewhere in the middle. A realistic yet positive view of yourself is generally considered the ideal. But
what exactly is self-esteem? Where does it come from and what influence does it really have on our lives?
In Psychology, the term self-esteem is used to describe a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value.
In other words, it is how much you appreciate and like yourself. Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait
which tends to be stable and enduring. Self-esteem can involve a variety of beliefs about yourself, such as the
appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.
Why is Self-esteem important?
Self-esteem can play a significant role in one’s motivation and success throughout life. Low self-esteem may hold
you back from succeeding at school or work because you don't believe yourself to be capable of success. By
contrast, having a healthy self-esteem can help you achieve because you navigate life with a positive, assertive
attitude and believe you can accomplish your goals.
Maslow suggested that people need both esteem from other people as well as inner self-respect. Both of these
needs must be fulfilled in order for an individual to grow as a person and achieve self-actualization. Self-esteem is
one of the basic human motivations.
Those who consistently receive overly critical or negative assessments from caregivers, family members, and
friends, for example, will likely experience problems with low self-esteem. Additionally, your inner thinking, age, any
potential illnesses, disabilities, or physical limitations, and your job can affect your self-esteem.

“Possessing little self-regard can lead people to become depressed, to fall short of their potential, or to tolerate
abusive situations and relationships. Too much self-love, on the other hand, results in an irritating sense of
entitlement and an inability to learn from failures. It can also be a sign of clinical narcissism which is a personality
disorder.”

So how can we build a strong, positive body image?

Positive body image involves understanding that healthy attractive bodies come in many shapes and sizes, and
that physical appearance says very little about our character or value as a person. How we get to this point of
acceptance often depends on our individual development and self-acceptance. To get too that all important point
of balance, there are a few steps we can take:
a. Talk back to the media and speak our dissatisfaction with the focus on appearance;
b. De-emphasize numbers as pounds, kilograms or inches, feet and meters on the scale; they don't tell
us anything meaningful about the body as a whole or our health;
c. Stop comparing ourselves with others and remember that each one is unique;
d. We need to appreciate and enjoy our bodies in the uniqueness of what we have;
e. Spend time with people who have a healthy relationship with food, activity, and their bodies;
f. Question the degree to which self-esteem depends on our appearance because basing our happiness
on how we look is likely to lead us to failure and frustration, and may therefore prevent us from finding true
happiness;
g. Broaden our perspective about health and beauty by reading about body image cultural variances, or
media influence and check out a local art gallery paying particular attention to fine art collections that show
a variety of body types throughout the ages and in different cultures;
h. Recognize that size prejudice is a form of discrimination, as shape and size are not indicators of
character, morality, intelligence, or success;
i. Approach health and well-being from a firm and socially engaging perspective; and put importance on
a healthy lifestyle and; PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 87
j. Keep in mind that the body, in whatever shape or size, is good and sacred, having been created in the
image and likeness of god. Such body deserves love and respect.

We will have a positive body image when we have a realistic perception of our bodies, when we enjoy, accept and
celebrate who or what and how we are, and let go of negative societal or media perpetuated conditioning.

IT PAYS TO READ!
Clothing and Self-Image
By: Jill L Ferguson
Your style and the clothes you choose reflect and affect your mood, health, and overall confidence. Scientists
 call this phenomenon "enclothed cognition.” Adam Hajo and Adam D. Galinsky, both professors at the Kellogg
School of Management at Northwestern University wrote in the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology that
enclothed cognition "involves the co- occurrence of two independent factors the symbolic meaning of the clothes
and the physical experience of wearing them.”
It was further asserted that when we put on a piece of clothing we cannot help but adopt some of the
characteristics associated with it unconsciously. The Business Insider says that clothes don't just affect your
confidence level, they can affect your success, as clothing significantly influences how others perceive you and
how they respond to you.
Understanding the psychological dynamics of why the right-for-us clothing can contribute to our confidence, raise
our self-esteem, and help propel us in the workplace has become big business. So the next time you reach for
those yoga pants or for that fiery red dress, ask yourself how will that clothing item make you feel and what is it
saying to the world around you today?

Sexual Self
Sexuality is one of the fundamental drives behind everyone’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. It defines the
means of biological reproduction, describes psychological and sociological representations of self, and orients a
person’s attraction to others. Further, it shapes the brain and body to be pleasure-seeking. Yet, as important as
sexuality is to being human, it is often viewed as a sensitive topic for personal or scientific inquiry.

This module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame or
sensitivity, using science as a lens, we examine fundamental aspects of human sexuality— including gender, sexual
orientation, fantasies, behaviors, paraphilia, and sexual consent.
Sexuality is commonly defined as “the ways people experience and express themselves as sexual beings”
(King, 2014, p. 373).
The World Health Organization (WHO) provides a working definition of the term “sexuality” that encompasses
or specifies much more.
Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex, gender identities and roles,
sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in
thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships. While sexuality
can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed (WHO, 2006a as cited in
“Defining Sexual Health”, 2018, para. 6).
Sex influences the way we dress, talk and behave. In many ways, sex defines who we are. It is so important
that the eminent neuropsychologist Karl Pribram (1958) described sex as one of four basic human drive states.
Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to Pribram, feeding, fighting,
fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these drives are so closely
associated with our psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study, understand, and
discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for three of the four drives (Malacane &
Beckmeyer, 2016).
Ignorance about sex and sexuality is deadly and may cause serious problems. Sex education may not yet
have been implemented in the country in a full blast but it doesn’t mean that learning cannot take place. If more
Filipinos would continue to learn, whether formally or informally, about proper sex education, than it may be indirectly
passed on to young children through teaching proper hygiene or through being discerning of a child’s actions,
reactions, questions, or comments about sex. Sex education is not to promote sexual intercourse but to promote
good sexual health and safety from sexual violence. “Withholding information about sex and sexuality will not
keep children safe; it will only keep them ignorant” (Hauser, 2013, para. 2).

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 88

As one grows up, one experiences many changes. There are changes in the body; in the way one behaves
and the way others expect one to be. There are also changes in interests and preoccupations. All of this is normal.
It is part of growing up, but growing up is not easy. This is a time when one has many questions and hardly any
answers. It is difficult to talk about the things upper-most in your mind. Why is my body changing? Why do I get an
erection? Why do I feel attracted to the opposite sex? Many older people are not willing to discuss these issues
openly. As a result, your friends (peer group), TV, films, magazines and imagination become your sources of
information.

In order to deal with the confusion, we need to know the facts of growing up, distinguish between myths and realities
and come to terms with change. This module deals with these issues.
“It’s natural for everyone to become more sexually aware, but it doesn’t mean you are ready to have sex”
(Cole, 2009, p. 11).
Puberty could have been less stressful if only we were properly oriented of what to expect physically and
emotionally. Just by reading few books on sexuality, we would be comforted to know how normal the things and
feelings we thought were abnormal. Though puberty is normal, it is not a one size fits all experience. It could
manifest in varying rates and specific ages. Every individual “develops and reacts in different ways” due to factors
like stress, weight, nutrition, hormonal activity, and inherent characteristics” (Cole, 2009, p. 4).
People have been scientifically investigating sex for only about 125 years. The first scientific investigations
of sex employed the case study method of research. Using this method, the English physician Henry Havelock Ellis
(1859-1939) examined diverse topics within sexuality. From 1897 to 1923, his findings were published in a seven-
volume set of books titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex. Among his most noteworthy findings is that transgender
people are distinct from homosexual people. Ellis’s studies led him to be an advocate of equal rights for women
and comprehensive human sexuality education in public schools.
Using case studies, the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is credited with being the first
scientist to link sex to healthy development and to recognize humans as being sexual throughout their lifespans,
including childhood (Freud, 1905).
Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape
our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us
must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during
a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud’s stages are called the stages of psychosexual
development. According to Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body,
called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
As we develop from infancy to childhood, our sexual or libidinal energies focus on different parts of the
bodies (erogenous zones). The primary goal of the individual at each stage is to maximize the gratification of
needs associated with the center of libidinal pleasure, in a way that conforms or is acceptable to reality. If that
balance is not attained, however –if needs are not gratified or is over gratified at a certain stage – the individual’s
libidinal energies remain stuck, or fixated to a particular needs characteristic of that stage.

Erogenous
Stage Age Gratifying Activity Fixation
Zone
Nursing-eating, Gossiping and talking too much,
0-18
Oral Mouth sucking, biting overeating, smoking, nail biting,
months
swallong (feeding) chewing on gums, sarcasm
Anal Expulsive:-excessively sloppy,
disorganized, reckless, careless,
18 months-
Anal Anus Bowel movement defiantAnal Retentive:-very careful,
3years
stingy, obstinate, meticulous,
conforming, passive-aggressive
Masturbation and Anxiety and guilt feelings about sex,
Genital and narcissistic personality,
Phallic 4-5 years Genital fondling*Oedipus interpersonal problems, problems
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 89
Complex*Electra with authority of the same-sex parent,
Complex uncertainty in gender identity
Learning and social
Latency 6-11 years None None
adjustment
Masturbation and
11 to
Genital Genital Heterosexual Normal
adulthood
Relationship

While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the
contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud’s psychosexual
stages as a legitimate explanation for how one’s personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud’s
theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood.
According to Freud, each of these stages could be passed through in a healthy or unhealthy manner. In
unhealthy manners, people might develop psychological problems, such as frigidity, impotence, or anal-
retentiveness.

Applying for a scholarship or filling out a job application requires your name, address, and birth-date.
Additionally, applications usually ask for your sex or gender. It’s common for us to use the terms “sex” and “gender”
interchangeably. However, in modern usage, these terms are distinct from one another.
Sex describes means of biological reproduction. Sex includes sexual organs, such as ovaries— defining
what it is to be a female—or testes—defining what it is to be a male. Interestingly, biological sex is not as easily
defined or determined as you might expect (see the section on variations in sex, below). By contrast, the
term gender describes psychological (gender identity) and sociological (gender role) representations of
biological sex. At an early age, we begin learning cultural norms for what is considered masculine and feminine.
For example, children may associate long hair or dresses with femininity. Later in life, as adults, we often conform
to these norms by behaving in gender-specific ways: as men, we build houses; as women, we bake cookies
(Marshall, 1989; Money et al., 1955; Weinraub et al., 1984).
Because cultures change over time, so too do ideas about gender. For example, European and American
cultures today associate pink with femininity and blue with masculinity. However, less than a century ago, these
same cultures were swaddling baby boys in pink, because of its masculine associations with “blood and war,” and
dressing little girls in blue, because of its feminine associations with the Virgin Mary (Kimmel, 1996).

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 90

An explanation of the diversity of human sexuality and sexual orientation
Sex and gender are important aspects of a person’s identity. However, they do not tell us about a person’s
sexual orientation (Rule & Ambady, 2008). Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual attraction to others.
Within the context of sexual orientation, sexual attraction refers to a person’s capacity to arouse the sexual interest
of another, or, conversely, the sexual interest one person feels toward another.
We live in an era when sex, gender, and sexual orientation are controversial religious and political issues.
Some nations have laws against homosexuality, while others have laws protecting same-sex marriages. At a time
when there seems to be little agreement among religious and political groups, it makes sense to wonder, “What is
normal?” and, “Who decides?”
The international scientific and medical communities (e.g., World Health Organization, World Medical
Association, World Psychiatric Association, Association for Psychological Science) view variations of sex, gender,
and sexual orientation as normal. Furthermore, variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation occur naturally
throughout the animal kingdom. More than 500 animal species have homosexual or bisexual orientations (Lehrer,
2006). More than 65,000 animal species are intersex—born with either an absence or some combination of male
and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes (Jarne & Auld, 2006). In humans, intersex
individuals make up about two percent—more than 150 million people—of the world’s population (Blackless et al.,
2000). There are dozens of intersex conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome
(Lee et al., 2006). The term “syndrome” can be misleading; although intersex individuals may have physical
limitations (e.g., about a third of Turner’s individuals have heart defects; Matura et al., 2007), they otherwise lead
relatively normal intellectual, personal, and social lives. In any case, intersex individuals demonstrate the diverse
variations of biological sex.
Just as biological sex varies more widely than is commonly thought, so too
does gender. Cisgender individuals’ gender identities correspond with their birth
sexes, whereas transgender individuals’ gender identities do not correspond with their birth sexes. Because
gender is so deeply ingrained culturally, rates of transgender individuals vary widely around the world.

Sexual orientation is as diverse as gender identity. Instead of thinking of sexual orientation as being two
categories—homosexual and heterosexual—Kinsey argued that it’s a continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin,
1948). He measured orientation on a continuum, using a 7-point Likert scale called the Heterosexual-Homosexual
Rating Scale, in which 0 is exclusively heterosexual, 3 is bisexual, and 6 is exclusively homosexual. Later
researchers using this method have found 18% to 39% of Europeans and Americans identifying as somewhere
between heterosexual and homosexual (Lucas et al., 2017; YouGov.com, 2015). Of the 39 countries covered by a
global survey, only 17 countries had majorities that accepted homosexuality, with the Philippines ranking at number
10 among the 17 (https://globalnation.inquirer.net/).

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 91

CIRCLES OF SEXUALITY
Adapted from Life Planning Education, a comprehensive sex education curriculum. Washington, DC: Advocates for
Youth, 2007.
Sexuality is much more than sexual feelings or sexual intercourse. It is an important part of who a person is
and what she/he will become. It includes all the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors associated with being female or
male, being attractive and being in love, as well as being in relationships that include sexual intimacy and sensual
and sexual activity. It also includes enjoyment of the world as we know it through the five senses: taste, touch,
smell, hearing, and sight.

Circle #1—Sensuality
Sensuality is awareness and feeling about your own body and other people's bodies, especially the body of a sexual
partner. Sensuality enables us to feel good about how our bodies look and feel and what they can do. Sensuality
also allows us to enjoy the pleasure our bodies can give us and others. This part of our sexuality affects our behavior
in several ways.
• Body image—Feeling attractive and proud of one's own body and the way it functions influences many
aspects of life. Adolescents often choose media personalities as the standard for how they should look, so
they are often disappointed by what they see in the mirror. They may be especially dissatisfied when the
mainstream media does not portray or does not positively portray physical characteristics the teens see in
the mirror, such as color of skin, type or hair, shape of eyes, height, or body shape.
• Experiencing pleasure—Sensuality allows a person to experience pleasure when certain parts of the body
are touched. People also experience sensual pleasure from taste, touch, sight, hearing, and smell as part
of being alive.
• Satisfying skin hunger—The need to be touched and held by others in loving, caring ways is often referred
to as skin hunger. Adolescents typically receive considerably less touch from their parents than do younger
children. Many teens satisfy their skin hunger through close physical contact with peers. Sexual intercourse
may sometimes result from a teen's need to be held, rather than from sexual desire.
• Feeling physical attraction for another person—The center of sensuality and attraction to others is not in
the genitals (despite all the jokes). The center of sensuality and attraction to others is in the brain, humans'
most important "sex organ." The unexplained mechanism responsible for sexual attraction rests in the brain,
not in the genitalia.
• Fantasy—The brain also gives people the capacity to have fantasies the
about
PDEV 1013- Understanding Self sexual
Module 8behaviors
| 92 and
experiences. Adolescents often need help understanding that sexual fantasy is normal and that one does
not have to act upon sexual fantasies.

Circle #2—Sexual Intimacy

Sexual intimacy is the ability to be emotionally close to another human being and to accept closeness in return.
Several aspects of intimacy include
• Sharing—Sharing intimacy is what makes personal relationships rich. While sensuality is about physical
closeness, intimacy focuses on emotional closeness.
 • Caring—Caring about others means feeling their joy and their pain. It means being open to emotions that
may not be comfortable or convenient. Nevertheless, an intimate relationship is possible only when we care.
• Liking or loving another person—Having emotional attachment or connection to others is a manifestation of
intimacy.\
• Emotional risk-taking—To have true intimacy with others, a person must open up and share feelings and
personal information. Sharing personal thoughts and feelings with someone else is risky, because the other
person may not feel the same way. But it is not possible to be really close with another person without being
honest and open with her/him.
• Vulnerability—To have intimacy means that we share and care, like or love, and take emotional risks. That
makes us vulnerable—the person with whom we share, about whom we care, and whom we like or love,
has the power to hurt us emotionally. Intimacy requires vulnerability, on the part of each person in the
relationship.

Circle #3—Sexual Identity

Sexual identity is a person's understanding of who she/he is sexually, including the sense of being male or of being
female. Sexual identity consists of three "interlocking pieces" that, together, affect how each person sees
him/herself. Each "piece" is important.
• Gender identity—Knowing whether one is male or female. Most young children determine their own gender
identity by age two. Sometime, a person's biological gender is not the same as his/her gender identity—this
is called being transgender.
• Gender role—Identifying actions and/or behaviors for each gender. Some things are determined by the way
male and female bodies are built or function. For example, only women menstruate and only men produce
sperm. Other gender roles are culturally determined. In some countries like the Philippines, it is considered
appropriate for only women to wear dresses to work in the business world. In other cultures, men may wear
skirt-like outfits everywhere.
There are many "rules" about what men and women can/should do that have nothing to do with the way their bodies
are built or function. This aspect of sexuality is especially important for young adolescents to understand, since
peer, parent, and cultural pressures to be "masculine" or "feminine" increase during the adolescent years. Both
young men and young women need help sorting out how perceptions about gender roles affect whether they feel
encouraged or discouraged in their choices about relationships, leisure activities, education, and career.
Gender bias means holding stereotyped opinions about people according to their gender. Gender bias might
include believing that women are less intelligent or less capable than men, that men suffer from "testosterone
poisoning," that men cannot raise children without the help of women, that women cannot be analytical, that men
cannot be sensitive. Many times, people hold fast to these stereotyped opinions without giving rational thought to
the subject of gender.
• Sexual orientation—Whether a person's primary attraction is to people of the other gender (heterosexuality)
or to the same gender (homosexuality) or to both genders (bisexuality) defines his/her sexual orientation.
Sexual orientation begins to emerge by adolescence although many gay and lesbian youth say they knew
they felt same sex attraction by age 10 or 11. Between three and 10—percent of the general population is
probably exclusively homosexual in orientation. Perhaps another 10 percent of the general population feel
attracted to both genders.
Heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth can all experience same-gender sexual attraction and/or activity
around puberty. Such behavior, including sexual play with samegender peers, crushes on same-gender adults, or
sexual fantasies about same-gender people are normal for pre-teens and young teens and are not necessarily
related to sexual orientation.
Negative social messages and homophobic culture in the society can mean that young adolescents who are
experiencing sexual attraction to and romantic feelings for someone of their own gender need support so they can
clarify their feelings and accept their sexuality.

Circle #4—Reproduction and Sexual Health

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 93
These are a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors and attitudes that make sexual relationships healthy
and enjoyable.
• Factual information about reproduction—Is necessary so youth will understand how male and female
reproductive systems function and how conception and/or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have
inadequate information about their own and/or their partner's body. Teens need this information so they can
make informed decisions about sexual expression and protect their health. Youth need to understand
anatomy and physiology because every adolescent needs the knowledge and understanding to help him/her
appreciate the ways in which his/her body functions.
 • Feelings and attitudes—Are wide-ranging when it comes to sexual expression and reproduction and to
sexual health-related topics such as STD infection, HIV and AIDS, contraceptive use, abortion, pregnancy,
and childbirth.
• Sexual intercourse—Is one of the most common behaviors among humans. Sexual intercourse is a behavior
that may produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in females and in males. Sexual
intercourse may also result in pregnancy and/or STDs. In programs for youth, discussion of sexual
intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse. However, youth
need accurate health information about sexual intercourse—vaginal, oral, and anal.
• Reproductive and sexual anatomy—The male and female body and the ways in which they actually function
is a part of sexual health. Youth can learn to protect their reproductive and sexual health. This means that
teens need information about all the effective methods of contraception currently available, how they work,
where to obtain them, their effectiveness, and their side effects. This means that youth also need to know
how to use latex condoms to prevent STD infection. Even if youth are not currently engaging in sexual
intercourse, they probably will do so at some point in the future. They must know how to prevent pregnancy
and/or disease.

Finally, youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that
particular community and/or culture) may be ineffective in preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the
method, even increase susceptibility to STDs. The leader will need to determine what those traditional methods
are, their effectiveness, and their side effects before he/she can discuss traditional methods of contraception in a
culturally appropriate and informative way.

• Sexual reproduction—The actual processes of conception, pregnancy, delivery, and recovery following
childbirth are important parts of sexuality. Youth need information about sexual reproduction—the process
whereby two different individuals each contribute half of the genetic material to their child. The child is,
therefore, not identical to either parent. [Asexual reproduction is a process whereby simple one-celled
organisms reproduce by splitting, creating two separate one-celled organisms identical to the original
[female] organism before it split.] Too many programs focus exclusively on sexual reproduction when
providing sexuality education and ignore all the other aspects of human sexuality.

Circle #5—Sexualization
Sexualization is that aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence, manipulate, or control other
people. Often called the "shadowy" side of human sexuality, sexualization spans behaviors that range from the
relatively harmless to the sadistically violent, cruel, and criminal. These sexual behaviors include flirting, seduction,
withholding sex from an intimate partner to punish her/him or to get something, sexual harassment, sexual abuse,
and rape. Teens need to know that no one has the right to exploit them sexually and that they do not have the right
to exploit anyone else sexually.
• Flirting—Is a relatively harmless sexualization behavior. Nevertheless, upon occasion it is an attempt to
manipulate someone else, and it can cause the person manipulated to feel hurt, humiliation, and shame.
• Seduction—Is the act of enticing someone to engage in sexual activity. The act of seduction implies
manipulation that at times may prove harmful for the one who is seduced.
• Sexual harassment—Is an illegal behavior. Sexual harassment means harassing someone else because of
her/his gender. It could mean making personal, embarrassing remarks about someone's appearance,
especially characteristics associated with sexual maturity, such as the size of a woman's breasts or of a
man's testicles and penis. It could mean unwanted touching, such as hugging a subordinate or patting
someone's bottom. It could mean demands by a teacher, supervisor, or other person in authority for sexual
intercourse in exchange for grades, promotion, hiring, raises, etc. All these behaviors are manipulative. The
Philippine laws of the {provide protection against sexual harassment. Youth should know that they have the
right to file a complaint with appropriate authorities if they are sexually harassed and that others may
complain of their behavior if they sexually harass someone else.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 94
• Rape—Means coercing or forcing someone else to have genital contact with another. Sexual assault can
include forced petting as well as forced sexual intercourse. Force, in the case of rape, can include use of
overpowering strength, threats, and/or implied threats that arouse fear in the person raped. Youth need to
know that rape is always illegal and always cruel. Youth should know that they are legally entitled to the
protection of the criminal justice system if they are the victims of rape and that they may be prosecuted if
they force anyone else to have genital contact with them for any reason. Refusing to accept no and forcing
the other person to have sexual intercourse always means rape.
• Incest—Means forcing sexual contact on any minor who is related to the perpetrator by birth or marriage.
Incest is always illegal and is extremely cruel because it betrays the trust that children and youth give to
 their families. Moreover, because the older person knows that incest is illegal and tries to hide the crime,
he/she often blames the child/youth. The triple burden of forced sexual contact, betrayed trust, and self-
blame makes incest particularly damaging to survivors of incest.
•
•
•
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
• As we develop from infancy to childhood, our sexual or libidinal energies focus on different parts of the bodies
• (erogenous zones). The primary goal of the individual at each stage is to maximize the gratification of
needs associated with the center of libidinal pleasure, in a way that conforms or is acceptable to reality. If
that balance is not attained, however –if needs are not gratified or is over gratified at a certain stage – the
individual’s libidinal energies remain stuck, or fixated to a particular needs characteristic of that stage.
•
•
PSYCHOSEXUAL EROGENOUS FIXATION CONFLICTS RESULTS
STAGE ZONE
Oral stage Mouth Oral Frustration – fed on a Schedule-fed: tight lipped people who eat
incorporativ minimal schedule to only for nourishment
e meet nutritional
requirements

Oral Overindulgence – fed Demand-fed: gives rise to oral pleasures

aggressive at any time the child (Gossiping and talking too much, overeating,
wants smoking, nail biting, chewing on gums,
sarcasm)
Child is self-absorbed and egoistical

Anal Stage Anus Anal- Frustration – parents Controlling: stringent, selective of your
Retentive demand exacting friends, orderly, tidy
control of bowel habits
Anal- Overindulgence – Uncontrolled: gullible, lax, disorganized,
Expulsive parents allow child careless, messy
freedom or is lenient in Generous
bowel

Phallic stage Genitals Oedipus & Heterosexualizing Boys will grow up seeking a woman like his
Electra interactions. mother.
Complex Jealousy develops. Girl will grow up wanting to have a male
Problems with parent- child.
identification. Homosexuality if identifications are reversed.
Anxiety and guilt feelings about sex, and
narcissistic personality, interpersonal
problems, problems with authority of the
same-sex parent, uncertainty in gender
identity

Latency None None Repression of oedipal Reality principle and learning of skills.
attachment Establishing Gender identity
Reduction of sexuality
in a child.

Genital Whole Mating, Sexual instincts and Sublimate sexual energy into emotional
Body Dating And conflicts reappear commitment to sports, music, band,
(Genitals) Social Death instincts academics etc.
Interaction reappear
Life instincts Hostility, rebelliousness or juvenile
PDEV 1013-Deliquency
Understanding the Self Module 8 | 95
Vows to celibacy, Attraction to mystical
philosophies, gangs, religions, lake and
other etc.
• Here is an interesting article about love!
•
• February 14, 2017
•
• Love, Actually: The science behind lust, attraction, and
companionship
•
• by Katherine Wu
figures by Tito
Adhikary

•
• In 1993, Haddaway asked the world, “What is Love?” I’m not sure if he ever got his answer – but today, you

can have yours. Sort of.

• Scientists in fields ranging from anthropology to neuroscience have been asking this same question (albeit less
eloquently) for decades. It turns out the science behind love is both simpler and more complex than we might think.
•
• Google the phrase “biology of love” and you’ll get answers that run the gamut of accuracy. Needless to say, the
scientific basis of love is often sensationalized, and as with most science, we don’t know enough to draw firm
conclusions about every piece of the puzzle. What we do know, however, is that much of love can be explained by
chemistry. So, if there’s really a “formula” for love, what is it, and what does it mean?
•
• Total Eclipse of the Brain
•
• Think of the last time you ran into someone you find attractive. You may have stammered, your palms may have
sweated; you may have said something incredibly asinine and tripped spectacularly while trying to saunter away (or
is that just me?). And chances are, your heart was thudding in your chest. It’s no surprise that, for centuries, people
thought love (and most other emotions, for that matter) arose from the heart. As it turns out, love is all about the
brain – which, in turn, makes the rest of your body go haywire.
•
• According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers, romantic love can be broken down into three
categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Each category is characterized by its own set of hormones stemming
from the brain (Table 1).
•
•
•

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 96

•
•
•
• Table 1: Love can be distilled into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Though there are overlaps and
subtleties to each, each type is characterized by its own set of hormones. Testosterone and estrogen drive lust;
dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin create attraction; and oxytocin and vasopressin mediate attachment.
•
• Let’s Get Chemical
•
• Lust is driven by the desire for sexual gratification. The evolutionary basis for this stems from our need to reproduce,
a need shared among all living things. Through reproduction, organisms pass on their genes, and thus contribute to
the perpetuation of their species.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 97

• The hypothalamus of the brain plays a big role in this, stimulating the production of the sex hormones testosterone
and estrogen from the testes and ovaries (Figure 1). While these chemicals are often stereotyped as being “male”
and “female,” respectively, both play a role in men and women. As it turns out, testosterone increases libido in just
about everyone. The effects are less pronounced with estrogen, but some women report being more sexually
motivated around the time they ovulate, when estrogen levels are highest.
•

•
•
• Figure 1: A: The testes and ovaries secrete the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, driving sexual desire. B and
C: Dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin are all made in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that controls many
vital functions as well as emotion. D: Several of the regions of the brain that affect love. Lust and attraction shut off
the prefrontal cortex of the brain, which includes rational behavior.
•
• Love is its Own Reward
•
• Meanwhile, attraction seems to be a distinct, though closely related, phenomenon. While we can certainly lust for
someone we are attracted to, and vice versa, one can happen without the other. Attraction involves the brain
pathways that control “reward” behavior (Figure 1), which partly explains why the first few weeks or months of a
relationship can be so exhilarating and even all-consuming.
•
• Dopamine, produced by the hypothalamus, is a particularly well-publicized player in the brain’s reward pathway –
it’s released when we do things that feel good to us. In this case, these things include spending time with loved ones
and having sex. High levels of dopamine and a related hormone, norepinephrine, are released during attraction.
These chemicals make us giddy, energetic, and euphoric, even leading to decreased appetite and insomnia – which
means you actually can be so “in love” that you can’t eat and can’t sleep. In fact, norepinephrine, also known as
noradrenalin, may sound familiar because it plays a large role in the fight or flight response, which kicks into high
gear when we’re stressed and keeps us alert. Brain scans of people in love have actually shown that the primary
“reward” centers of the brain, including the ventral tegmental area and the caudate nucleus, fire like crazy when
people are shown a photo of someone they are intensely attracted to, compared to when they are shown someone
they feel neutral towards (like an old high school acquaintance).
•
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• Finally, attraction seems to lead to a reduction in serotonin, a hormone that’s known to be involved in appetite and
mood. Interestingly, people who suffer from obsessive-compulsive disorder also have low levels of serotonin,
leading scientists to speculate that this is what underlies the overpowering infatuation that characterizes the
beginning stages of love.
•
• The Friend Zone
•
• Last but not least, attachment is the predominant factor in long-term relationships. While lust and attraction are
pretty much exclusive to romantic entanglements, attachment mediates friendships, parent-infant bonding, social
cordiality, and many other intimacies as well. The two primary hormones here appear to be oxytocin and
 vasopressin (Figure 1).
•
• Oxytocin is often nicknamed “cuddle hormone” for this reason. Like dopamine, oxytocin is produced by the
hypothalamus and released in large quantities during sex, breastfeeding, and childbirth. This may seem like a very
strange assortment of activities – not all of which are necessarily enjoyable – but the common factor here is that all
of these events are precursors to bonding. It also makes it pretty clear why having separate areas for attachment,
lust, and attraction is important: we are attached to our immediate family, but those other emotions have no
business there (and let’s just say people who have muddled this up don’t have the best track record).

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• Love Hurts
•
• This all paints quite the rosy picture of love: hormones are released, making us feel good, rewarded, and close to our
romantic partners. But that can’t be the whole story: love is often accompanied by jealousy, erratic behavior, and
irrationality, along with a host of other less-than-positive emotions and moods. It seems that our friendly cohort of
hormones is also responsible for the downsides of love.
•
• Dopamine, for instance, is the hormone responsible for the vast majority of the brain’s reward pathway – and that means
controlling both the good and the bad. We experience surges of dopamine for our virtues and our vices. In fact, the
dopamine pathway is particularly well studied when it comes to addiction. The same regions that light up when we’re
feeling attraction light up when drug addicts take cocaine and when we binge eat sweets. For example, cocaine maintains
dopamine signaling for much longer than usual, leading to a temporary “high.” In a way, attraction is much like an
addiction to another human being. Similarly, the same brain regions light up when we become addicted to material goods
as when we become emotionally dependent on our partners (Figure 2). And addicts going into withdrawal are not unlike
love-struck people craving the company of someone they cannot see.
•

•
•
• Figure 2: Dopamine, which runs the reward pathways in our brain, is great in moderate doses, helping us enjoy food,
exciting events, and relationships. However, we can push the dopamine pathway too far when we become addicted to
food or drugs. Similarly, too much dopamine in a relationship can underlie unhealthy emotional dependence on our
partners. And while healthy levels of oxytocin help us bond and feel warm and fuzzy towards our companions, elevated
oxytocin can also fuel prejudice.
•
• The story is somewhat similar for oxytocin: too much of a good thing can be bad. Recent studies on party drugs such as
MDMA and GHB shows that oxytocin may be the hormone behind the feel-good, sociable effects these chemicals produce.
These positive feelings are taken to an extreme in this case, causing the user to dissociate from his or her environment
and act wildly and recklessly. Furthermore, oxytocin’s role as a “bonding” hormone appears to help reinforce the positive
feelings we already feel towards the people we love. That is, as we become more attached to our families, friends, and
significant others, oxytocin is working in the background, reminding us why we like these people and increasing our
affection for them. While this may be a good things for monogamy, such associations are not always positive. For
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 100
 example, oxytocin has also been suggested to play a role in ethnocentrism, increasing our love for people in our already-
established cultural groups and making those unlike us seem more foreign (Figure 2). Thus, like dopamine, oxytocin can
be a bit of a double-edged sword.
•
• And finally, what would love be without embarrassment? Sexual arousal (but not necessarily attachment) appears to
turn off regions in our brain that regulate critical thinking, self-awareness, and rational behavior, including parts of the
prefrontal cortex (Figure 2). In sh
•
• ort, love makes us dumb. Have you ever done something when you were in love that you later regretted? Maybe not.
I’d ask a certain star-crossed Shakespearean couple, but it’s a little late for them.
•
• So, in short, there is sort of a “formula” for love. However, it’s a work in progress, and there are many questions left
unanswered. And, as we’ve realized by now, it’s not just the hormone side of the equation that’s complicated. Love can
be both the best and worst thing for you – it can be the thing that gets us up in the morning, or what makes us never
want to wake up again. I’m not sure I could define “love” for you if I kept you here for another ten thousand pages.
•
• In the end, everyone is capable of defining love for themselves. And, for better or for worse, if it’s all hormones, maybe
each of us can have “chemistry” with just about anyone. But whether or not it goes further is still up to the rest of you.

SEXUAL HEALTH

BIOLOGY OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR

The change from child to adult is an especially dangerous time for adolescents in our society. From their earliest years,
children watch television shows and movies that insist that "sex appeal" is a personal quality that people need to develop
to the fullest (focusas.com/SexualBehavior-Range.html, 2008). While adolescents and their parents generally agree
about many issues and aspects of life, they hold strikingly different views on sex. Parents, based on their perspective
from greater experience, urge caution and restraint.
Adolescents, experiencing strong sexual desire for the first time and eager for all pleasures life can offer, are frequently
tempted to throw caution to the wind and indulge (Tria, et al., 2012). TV, movies, and music are not the only influences
the Internet provides teens with seemingly unlimited access to information on sex as well as a steady supply of people
willing to talk about sex with them. Teens may feel safe because they can remain anonymous while looking for
information on sex. Sexual predators know this and manipulate young people into online relationships and, later, set up
a time and place to meet. (commercialexploitation.org/factsheets/ccfc-factsmarketingsex.pdf, 2008).

What about sexual orientation and coming out during the adolescence?
Adolescence is a period when people separate from their parents and families begin to develop autonomy. Adolescent
can be a period of experimentation and many youth may question their sexual feelings. Becoming aware of sexual
feelings is a normal developmental task of adolescence. Sometimes adolescent have same sex feelings or experiences
that cause confusion about their sexual orientation. This confusion appears to decline over time, with different outcomes
for different individuals. Some adolescents desire and engage in same sex behaviour but do not identify as lesbian, gay
or bisexual, sometimes because of the stigma associated with a non-hetero sexual orientation.
Some adolescents experience continuing feelings of same-sex attraction but do not engage in any sexual activity or may
engage in heterosexual behavior for varying lengths of time. Because of the stigma associated with same-sex
attractions, many youths experience same-sex attraction or many years before becoming sexually active with partners
of the same sex or disclosing their attractions to others. For some young people, this process of exploring same-sex
attractions leads to a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity. For some, acknowledging this identity can bring an end to
confusion. When these young people receive the support of parents and others, they are often able to live satisfying and
healthy lives and move through the usual process of adolescent development. The younger a person is when she or he
acknowledges a non-heterosexual identity, the fewer internal and external resources she or he is likely to have.
Therefore, youths who come out early are particularly in need of support from parents and others. Young people who
identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual may be more likely to face certain problems, including being bullied and having
negative experiences in school. These experiences are associated with negative outcomes, such as suicidal thoughts,
and high-risk activities, such as unprotected sex and alcohol and drug use. On the other hand, many lesbian, gay, and
bisexual youths appear to experience no greater level of health or mental health risks. Where problems occur, they are
closely associate with experience of bias and discrimination in their environments. Support from important people in
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 101
teen’s life can provide a very helpful counterpart to bias and discrimination.

Below is the sexual response cycle. This cycle is applicable not only to teens but to adults as well.

Sexual Health (Sexually Transmitted Diseases Infections and Teenage Pregnancy)

The factual information about reproduction is necessary so youth will understand how male and female reproductive
systems function and how conception and or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have inadequate information about
their own and/or their partner's body Teens need this information so they can make informed decisions about sexual
expression and protect their health. Youth need to understand anatomy and physiology because every adolescent needs
the knowledge and understanding to help him/her appreciate the ways in which his her body
functions (advocatesforyouth.org/publications/Ipe/index.htm, 2008).

Sexual intercourse
Sexual intercourse is one of the most common behaviors among humans Sexual intercourse is a behavior that may
produce sexual pleasure that often culminates in orgasm in females and in males. Sexual intercourse may also result in
pregnancy and or STDs. ln programs for youth, discussion of sexual intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of
male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse. However, youth need accurate health information about sexual intercourse—
vaginal, oral, and anal.

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS HAVING SEX

· all teens are having sex
· having sex makes you matured and an adult
· something is wrong with an older teen (17-1() who is not having sex
· a girl can’t get pregnant when she is menstruating
· a girl can’t get pregnant if it’s her first time
· you are a virgin can't have sexual intercourse --- oral sex doesn't count
· oral sex is not sex

Premarital Sex
Is sexual activity practiced by people who are unmarried. It can be any sexual relations a person has prior to marriage.
The alternative terms for premarital sex have been suggested, including non-marital sex (which overlaps with adultery),
youthful sex, adolescent and young adult sex.
A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in
predominantly Muslim nations", such as Indonesia. Jordan, Pakistan and Egypt, each having over disapproval, while
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 102
people in Western European countries were the most accepting with Spain, Germany and France expressing less than
10% disapproval. People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals to tak precautions to
protect themselves against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS. There is also a risk of an unplanned
pregnancy in heterosexual relationships
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE HAVING PREMARITAL SEX
· Having poorly educated parents
· Unsupportive family relationships
· Lack of Parental supervision
· Friends who are sexually active
· Poor school grades poor academic performance
· Poor spiritual exercises (not hearing mass, lack of church involvement
· Engaged in risky leisure activities

Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections

These are also known as Venereal Diseases (VD). They are passed through sexual contact or genital through vaginal
intercourse, oral sex and anal sex. The term STI evolved from "venereal disease" to "sexually transmitted disease", then
"sexually transmitted infection" which has a broader range of meaning: that it can be passed without disease. (You don't
have to be ill to infect others)
HIV/AIDS
HIV is "Human Immunodeficiency Virus". This is a retrovirus-genetic info @RNA than DNA. HIV is the virus that causes
AIDS and it is preventable and manageable but no curable. AIDS is "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome". Since this
is a syndrome, there are several manifestations of the breakdown in body's immune system and have developed in
people who have been infected by HIV.

How do people get AIDS? AIDS is developed through:

• Bodily fluids (blood products--transfusions, semen and vaginal fluids)

• Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse (sharing needles and use of unsterilized blades)
• Sexual intercourse (unprotected vaginal, oral and anal sex)
HIV/AIDS Situationer:
In the Philippines, here is the number of HIV/AIDS cases reported:
2000 1 case in every 3 days
2009 2 cases in each day
2010 5 cases in each day
2012 1 in every 3 hours (8 cases in each day)
2014 17 cases in each day
2015 22 cases in each day

Around the World, there are 448 million new infections of curable sexually transmitted infections which occur yearly.

Teenage Pregnancy
This is pregnancy in human females under the age of 20 at the time that the pregnancy ends. Pregnant teenagers face
many of the same obstetrics issues as other women. There are, however, additional medical concerns for mothers aged
below 15 years old. For mothers aged 15-19, risks are associated more with socio-economic factors than with the
biological effects of age. In teenage pregnancy, there are risks of low birth weight, premature labor, anemia, and pre-
eclampsia are connected to the biological age itself, as it was observed in teen births. Every day in developing countries,
20,000 girls under age 18 give birth.
This amounts to 73 million births a year. And if all pregnancies are included, the number of adolescent pregnancies is
much higher
THINK ABOUT THESE:
· Having SEX isn't always a healthy choice. Impulsive decisions can lead to lifelong problems:
serious disease and infertility
· Abstinence is an OPTION. Choosing not to engage in sexual contact with another person can be
a very powerful personal choice.

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Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy
Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy. It is unclear
if a single intervention is most effective. In the United States free access to a long acting form of reversible birth control
along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of abortions by more than
75%.

Education
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The
curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of
reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health care system guarantees confidentiality and a
non-judgmental approach.

Abstinence only education

Some schools provide abstinence-only sex education. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only
sex education. It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world, and does not decrease
rates of unplanned pregnancy when compared to comprehensive sex education.
RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD
In Philippine education, the concept of Family Planning is a mandatory topic in the curriculum. Family Planning, also
called Responsible Parenthood, is as old as humankind. It is a simple way of regulating and spacing the births of children.
It is giving birth according to the health and economic conditions of the family, giving birth of the mother according to her
right age. Conception is not left to chance. Benefits derived from Family Planning are identified as follows:
1. For the family to promote healthy, happy family.
2. For the mother - she can recover her health and strength after delivery.
3. For the child - a better chance of growing healthy and well cared.
Family Planning Methods / Methods of Contraception
Youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that particular
community and/or culture) may be ineffective in preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the method, even
increase susceptibility to STDs. It should be determined what the traditional methods are, their effectiveness, and their
side effects and know traditional methods of contraception in a culturally appropriate and informative way,
(advocatesforyouth.org publications/Ipe/index.htm, 2008).
A concept linked to family planning is contraception, also known as birth control and fertility control. This is a method or
device used to prevent pregnancy. It is also defined as a deliberate prevention of conception or impregnation. Family
planning methods and/or contraception methods are presented as follows:
1. Natural Birth Control employs natural control methods that people do to help prevent an unintended pregnancy
are without the use of modern/artificial ways of contraception. These require commitment when you make the
decision, discipline and self-control for it to be effective. These include abstinence, fertility awareness methods,
the rhythm, calendar or standard days method, intercourse and continued breastfeeding, all requiring discipline
and responsibility which the Catholic Church approves.
2. Artificial Birth Control employs artificial control methods to help prevent unintended pregnancy use
modern/contemporary measures such as contraceptive or birth control pills, diaphragm, male and female
condoms, spermicide, cervical cap, today sponge, birth control patch, birth control shot, birth control implant,
intrauterine device (IUD), tubal ligation/vasectomy, tubal implants and emergency contraception pill.

The best way to avoid these infections is prevention. “Prevention is better than cure”.
Money and Well-being
MATERIAL SELF
A man’s self is the sum total of what he can call his (James, 1980)

CHAPTER X, The Consciousness of Self (A) THE EMPIRICAL SELF OR ME, The Principles of Psychology
(JAMES, 1890)

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 The body is the innermost part of the material Self in each of us; and certain
parts of the body seem more intimately ours than the rest.

The clothes come next. The old saying that the human person is composed of
three parts - soul, body and clothes - is more than a joke. We so appropriate
our clothes and identify ourselves with them that there are few of us who, if
asked to choose between having a beautiful body clad in raiment perpetually
shabby and unclean, and having an ugly and blemished form always spotlessly
attired, would not hesitate a moment before making a decisive reply.

Next, our immediate family is a part of ourselves. Our father and mother, our
wife and babes, are bone of our bone and flesh of our flesh. When they die, a
part of our very selves is gone. If they do anything wrong, it is our shame. If
they are insulted, our anger flashes forth as readily as if we stood in their place.

Our home comes next. Its scenes are part of our life; its aspects awaken the
tenderest feelings of affection; and we do not easily forgive the stranger who,
in visiting it, finds fault with its arrangements or treats it with contempt. All these
different things are the objects of instinctive preferences coupled with the most
important practical interests of life. We all have a blind impulse to watch over
our body, to deck it with clothing of [p. 293] an ornamental sort, to cherish
parents, wife and babes, and to find for ourselves a home of our own which we
may live in and 'improve.'

EVIDENCES BEHIND THE IDEA THAT MONEY TRULY CAN CHANGE

PEOPLE
Lifted from Understanding the Self by Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, R. and
Borja, E. (2018)
Psychologists who study the impact of wealth and inequality on human
behavior have found that money can powerfully influence our thoughts and
actions in ways that we’re often not aware of, no matter what our circumstances are (Greogoire, 2014)
Curtis (2017) manifested that cash can have serious bearing on one’s belief regarding the way a person views
himself/herself. The following are evidences of such idea.

A. Social and Business Value

By recognizing a task’s social value, a person sees it as a worthy investment of time and a part of his/her social
duty, and he/she is usually happy to help out. When money is offered as the motivation, however, people then sat
thinking less of the social aspect and more about the business value.
For example, if a relative asked you to baby-sit their kids or tend the elderly for few hours, you may be more
motivated to do so when you will receive more in exchange of your service. You may even be more enthusiastic the next
time around. However, if you will be paid less or think that you will not gain from the activity, then you are more likely to
give alibis and excuses.
B. Self Sufficiency and Service
Those who are conscious of money typical strive to be more self-sufficient than those for whom money isn’t a
priority. In a research that was conducted, it was found that when given a very difficult and even impossible task, with
instructions that help was available, it was the money-related group that seems the most intent on getting the job done
alone, even when it was not possible to finish the task solo. It only means that money-conscious individuals are more
self-sufficient than their peers, particularly when money is made the focus.
C. Self-view
The wealthiest people are those with the deepest sense of class essentialism – the idea that differences between
classes are based upon identity and genetics, rather than circumstance. Poor people tend to believe that social class
was not related to genes, that essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone can be poor. Rich people were more likely to
believe that wealth was part of genes and identity, that they were entitled to wealth based upon their personal
circumstances and actions. Wealthy people also believe that more or less, life is fair and people mostly get what they
deserve.
D. Ethics PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 105
 Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class were most likely to engage in unethical behavior,
particularly when a symbol of wealth is introduced. That is, people who have more tendencies to break the law. e.g.
cutting off a pedestrian when in a luxury car.
Piff (2012) also found in his research a phenomenon he labelled as self-interest maximization. It is the idea that
suggests that those who have the most money or occupy higher classes are more likely to take a “what’s in it for me?”
attitude. They actively work toward the most benefit for themselves.
E. Addiction
Many addictions begin because a person gets a positive response from a certain type of behaviour. Whether it’s
a happy feeling that one gets from shopping or a thrill that comes from gambling, actively seeking out that behaviour
again and again for the same outcome can trigger addiction.
Behavioral or process addiction – a compulsive behavior not motivated by dependency on an addictive
substance, but rather by the process that leads to a seemingly positive outcome.

IMPULSIVE BUYING COMPULSIVE BUYING

This refers to a sudden and powerful urge in the This is characterized by an excessive preoccupation
consumer to buy immediately. It occurs when desire or poor impulse control with shopping, with adverse
for a product or brand outweighs one's willpower to consequences, like marital conflict and financial
resist. problems.

MONEY AND WELL-BEING

Materialism as a philosophy is held by those who maintain that existence is explainable solely in material terms,
with no accounting of spirit or consciousness. Individuals who hold to this belief see the universe as a huge device held
together by pieces of matter functioning in subjection to naturalistic laws.
(https://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/materialism.htm)
Cycle of work and spend - work more to buy more. The level of consumption is set mainly by people’s choices about
how much to work, and therefore how much income to earn

CORRELATES OF MATERIALISM
Lifted from Understanding the Self: Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018)
1. Materialism and happiness reportedly do not go well together as it was shown that people who value possessions
and material wealth over other more significant life goals are said to be less happy and are more prone to depression.
2. Materialism and self-esteem show an inverted relationship.
3. Materialism and financial stability show an inverted relationship.
4. Materialism and well-being manifest opposite relationship as individuals practicing this principle tend to isolate
themselves from the significant others as they continue try to derive gratification from amassing objects rather than
interacting with the people around them.
5. Materialism and self-concept prove how insecurity motivates people to work so hard for material possessions as the
same wealth becomes their source of security.
6. Materialism and lack of engagement mean losing one’s ability to empathize with others as they become callous to
other people’s needs.

ACCORDING TO GREGOIRE (2017) MATERIALISM MAKES PEOPLE UNHAPPY FOR THE FOLLOWING
REASONS:
1. Consumer culture may be harming individual well-being.
Allegedly those who pursue more wealth and greater material possessions are less satisfied as they experience
less positive emotions.
2. Materialistic values are linked to Type-A behavior.
Those who are highly ambitious are highly competitive and materialistic. These are traits of a Type-A personality.
3. Money really cannot buy you happiness.
Several studies have shown that wealthy people are highly susceptible to depression.
Researches have also shown that money is not exactly what brings about the dissatisfaction and the unhappiness but
the extreme desire to earn more.
4. Materialism could ruin your relationship.
Materialistic values result to low-quality relationships and disconnectedness.
5. Consumer cultures may breed narcissistic personalities.
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 106
 Narcissist are highly arrogant as they are deeply concerned with inadequacy. They work a lot for power and
prestige to cover up their perceived emptiness and low self-worth. All these sentiments demand validation form others
through praises, compliments and approval.
6. Consumerism is fuelled by insecurity.
Research shows that those who are extremely doubtful of their self-worth are highly insecure and thus have the
tendency to be more materialistic.
Consumerism capitalizes on insecurity so their products and services will sell and be highly demanded.
Consumption and the Extended Self
THE ART OF BUYING: COMING TO TERMS WITH MONEY AND MATERIALISM
Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of Happiness Studies 420-
429
ABSTRACT. Money and possessions hold strong attractions, but being driven to acquire them in order to enhance one’s
social standing is associated with lowered well-being. Literatures on money and happiness, materialism, and cultural
mediators are reviewed. Consumer well-being is associated with being neither very tight nor very loose with money, with
having relatively low financial aspirations, and with being low in materialism. Price-related behaviors – whether to spend
low, spend high, or attempt to maximize value – are ways of responding to economic outlay vis-a-vis material wants,
and these “strategies” offer a window into broader consumer lifestyles: the Value Seeker type is tight with money and
materialistic; the Big Spender is loose with money and materialistic; the Non-Spender is tight with money and not
materialistic; and the Experiencer is loose with money and not materialistic. Each of these types is described in terms
of the potentials for well-being as well as the risks. Intrinsic motivation emerges as a key to well-being.

TIGHT WITH MONEY LOOSE WITH MONEY

Value seeker Big spender
Bargain hunter Exhibitionist
Hold possessions Replace possessions
HIGH MATERIALISM
Enjoy price comparison shopping Price-quality schema
Cool involvement Trend conscious
Save-to-spend Debt prone
Non-spender
Experiencer
Saver
Spend for recreation, self-
LOW MATERIALISM Ascetic lifestyle
development and services
Price averse
Generous
Quality less important

Here is an excerpt from Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of
Happiness Studies 420-429

Value Seeker: Tight with Money and Materialistic

Given the combination of high materialism and tight with money, we might expect the Value Seeker to be
especially unhappy – anxious about money, other directed, dissatisfied, and in conflict between material desires and
reluctance to spend.

• Value Seekers enjoy price comparison shopping, through which they derive knowledge and hedonic benefits
(Mamorstein et al., 1992).

• This is a “smart shopper” who can outwit the retailer and thus save money by paying less than the going price (Mano
and Elliott, 1997).

• Good value can be thought of as the lowest price for a given level of quality (Bei and Heslin, 1997). Bargain hunters
can ply their skills at virtually all points along the quality continuum, even for luxury goods.

• Instead of the “hot” materialism of “I must have it now”, they can wait for the synchrony of the right product at the right
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 107
price. The pleasure of delayed acquisition is sweetened by the triumph of the good buy.

• A preference for saving for expensive purchases (“save-to-spend”), rather than borrowing, is also a form of delayed
gratification.

• The Value Seeker should be debt averse. Debt is a form of loss of control over money. Not only has one not held on
to money (as the tight-with-money prefer to do), not only has one spent what one has, one has also spent what one
does not have. Furthermore, paying interest on a loan is a “waste” of money for which one gets nothing (no thing) in
return.

• Many traits of the Value Seeker can support well-being: this is a competent consumer, who enjoys shopping, enjoys
saving money, and enjoys possessions.

• Yet being tight with money and materialistic are both associated with lowered well-being. The risks to well-being for
this type come from being extreme in these traits plus having strong financial aspirations. The Value Seeker could
become a fretful individual, who feels poor, agonizes over purchases, and is a compulsive bargain hunter.

Big Spender: Loose with Money and Materialistic

The Big Spender enjoys spending money and displaying high status possessions. The price-seeking Big Spender
feels successful with conspicuously expensive purchases. They have attraction to spending, the belief that expensive
things are better, and prestige-seeking, with its overtones of competitiveness.

• The Big Spender is concerned with consuming in a showy manner. Thus, possessions that hold value may be of less
interest, and money would flow into renewable possessions, like cars, and into replacing outdated possessions, such as
furniture. The Big Spender wants the latest and the best.

• The Big Spender lifestyle is especially treacherous for those with limited means. Low inhibitions about spending can
lead to buying on credit, and debt in itself is detrimental to well-being (Ahuvia and Friedman, 1998). If living within one’s
means requires buying a used car, the trend-conscious Big Spender may instead lease an outsized sport utility vehicle,
even if it means stretching credit to the limit.

• The Big Spender illustrates what is wrong with consumer culture: in the elusive quest for the “good life”, the driven
consumer overworks (Schor, 1992), overspends (Schor, 1998), and goes into debt in order to own too many possessions
(Dominguez and Robin, 1992).

• Making one’s possessions visible to others and being fashionable both be speak sociability. In its positive aspect, we
can find in the Big Spender a healthy extraversion, even though the need for admiration hints at the social anxiety and
competitiveness that motivate materialism.

• Being overly loose with money and highly materialistic, however, are both risk factors for well-being. So is strong
financial motivation, particularly for these ends, and it is likely that the Big Spender will need lots of money to support a
lifestyle of free spending and endless material wants or else he will be at risk for compulsive spending, social anxiety,
guilt, low self-esteem, and dissatisfaction with life.

Non-Spender: Tight with Money and Not Materialistic

The Non-Spender is unmoved by the temptations of materialism.

• There is anxiety over parting with money and the fear over being cheated, and on the other hand there is the enjoyment
of holding money, tracking it, and perhaps watching it grow.

• The Non-Spender is probably ill-at-ease in the marketplace and relatively unskilled. He or she suspects that prices do
not reflect quality, and this suspicion strengthens the resolve to buy “low” and spend as little as possible (Rao and
Sieben, 1992).

• Not spending is an adaptation to being poor, a strategy for survival in constrained circumstances. In less constrained
circumstances, such self-restraint can be a route to financial independence and may even be the road to riches. The
“millionaire next door” (Stanley and Danko, 1996) lives modestly whileUnderstanding
PDEV 1013- amassing a fortune through8scrimping,
the Self Module | 108 saving
and investing.

• The Non-Spender, free from the lures of consumer culture and free from the needs for social approval that induce
consumer conformity, may be particularly individualistic, self-reliant, and self-controlled.

• The Non-Spender is also prone to the drawbacks of being overly tight with money – worried, suspicious, stingy,
withholding. Although low materialism is mostly a positive force for well-being, one can imagine that a life of severe
material denial would be bleak and unstimulating with little to nourish growth. If the motive to hoard money supercedes
other life values, there would be little to counter the barrenness.

The Experiencer: Loose with Money and Not Materialistic

The Experiencer is someone who is relaxed about spending money and lacks material motives, and so likely to
spend on the transitory intangibles that enhance life.

• Spending for experience can take various forms.

Activities is one category. Examples include recreation, travel, self-improvement workshops,
entertainment.
Another category is service, the willingness to pay to have someone tend to one’s needs. Dining at good
restaurants and shopping at boutiques and specialty stores can provide the personal attention and pleasant
surroundings that are hard to come by in serve-yourself supermarkets and in stark, impersonal discount stores.
• When money is spent on material objects, the value for the Experiencer lies more in using the possessions than in
showcasing them (Holt, 1995).

• It seems that of all the types, the Experiencer, who spends for personal growth and pleasure and is low in materialism,
is the most attuned to intrinsic motivation and is therefore the most likely to enjoy wellbeing. Yet for the Experiencer,
too, there are risk factors, and one lies in the motive when spending for experience. Just as objects can satisfy intrinsic
or extrinsic motives, so can experiences.
Tourism is one such example: it can be a way of authentically participating in the spirit of other cultures, or it can
be a source of ego gratification, especially when the tourist destination has been fashioned so as to flatter the tourist
(MacCannell, 2002). Is the motive for travel to savor the experience or to boast about having been to the in-spots and
thereby enhance one’s social standing? When experiences are valued as status symbols (and certainly one can spend
conspicuously for experiences as well as for things), the Experiencer has moved toward the Big Spender type.
• A risk factor is being overly loose with money. A lack of concern about spending, or a lack of self-control, can eventuate
in the money problems and debt associated with compulsive spending. When a large inflow of money is required in
order to feed the stream of spending, the pressure to acquire more money, which can strengthen financial drives, can
have negative consequences for well-being.

Let us consider how the same consumer choice may be assessed in the four money worlds. Given a choice between
replacing old, shabby furniture and going on vacation, the Value Seeker might shop around for furniture sales or else
refurbish the old furniture, the Big Spender might upgrade and update the furniture in the latest style, the Non-Spender
might neither go on a vacation nor do anything about the furniture, and the Experiencer is likely to opt for the vacation
and make do with the shabby furniture for a while longer.

VARIOUS WAY TO APPRECIATE OUR OWN UNIQUENESS AND BE GENUINELY JOYOUS ABOUT IT.
Lifted from Understanding the Self: Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018)
1. Learn to share your blessings no matter how simple it is.
2. Improve your self-esteem and self-worth by engaging in worthwhile activities.
3. Learn to communicate and relate with people around you.
4. Take time to appreciate the beauty of life and God’s creations.
5. Be grateful to those who compliment you by returning the favour.
6. Focus on your strengths and not on your flaws.
7. Stop projecting on media accounts about what you have and others do not.
8. Learn to let go of things that are not significantly needed,
9. Develop a mantra to counter the negativities entering your thoughts.
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 10. Stop brewing on negativities and on hurtful past. Focus on the future and what you can do to be productive and
happy.

SHAPING THE WAY WE SEE OURSELVES: The Roles of Consumer Culture on Our Sense of Self and Identity
Lifted from Understanding the Self by Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, R. and Borja, E. (2018)

POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF

If possessions are viewed as part of the self, it follows that an unintentional loss of possessions should be regarded
as loss or lessening of self
Example: In situations that deliberately such as mental hospitals, prisons, concentration camps or military training
camps, the firsts step in receiving members is to systematically deprive them of all personal possessions including
clothing, money or even names. Their bodies may be standardized to some degree (e.g. military haircuts, standard
wardrobe) and their behaviors and conversations may be strictly prohibited. The result of this systematic substitution of
standardize “identity kits” for former possessions is an elimination of uniqueness (Snyder and Fromkin, 1981) and a
corresponding and often traumatic lessening of the individual’s sense of self.
Another instance of non-voluntary loss of possession that bring about a diminished sense of self is when possessions
are lost due to theft or casualty. Rosenblatt, Walsh and Jackson (1976) suggest that a process of grief and mourning
may follow the discovery of theft just as one might grieve and mourn the death of a loved one who had been part of
one’s life.
• Handbag snatching can produce not only a financial but also emotional, long term effects on victims.

• Losing photographs of loved ones that are often carried in a purse may cause victims sense of security impaired
• Those who lost possessions to a natural disasters went through a process of grief similar to that of losing a loved
one.
SPECIAL CASES OF EXTENDED SELF

1. Collections (I shop, therefore, I am)

a. Humans and animals once primarily assemble collections of necessities for future security, but today humans
more often assemble collection of non-necessities for distinction and self-definition. The cultivation of a collection is a
purposeful self-defining act. Collecting has become a significant activity in our consumer society as it has become more
widely affordable through the discretionary time and money available to the general population rather than just to the
wealthy elite (Mason, 1981)

b. Many collectors who are inhibited and uncomfortable in social interaction, surround themselves with favoured
objects upon which they project human-like qualities. They practically talk to these objects; they find comfort in being
with them and regard them as friends (Goldberg & Lewis, 1978). Note that not all collectors are inhibited and
uncomfortable in social interaction.

c. Collections may be seen as transition objects or security blankets for adults.

2. Pets
a. Pets are regarded as family members (Cain, 1985; Friedman & Thomas, 1985 etc).

b. It is significant that we name our pets, feed them, sleep and play with them, and mourn their death (Hickrod
& Schmitt 1982; Meer 1984)

c. In some cases, the mourning that comes with the death of the pet is similar to the loss of a home or the loss
of a limb (Carmack, 1985; Cowles; 1985 & Keddie 1977)
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 d. Pets are so instrumental to self-identity that they are often useful as transition objects (surrogate parents) for
children and as surrogate children for adults (Levinson, 1972; Robin & Bensel, 1985)

3. Body Parts
a. In psychology, cathexis is defined as the process of allocation of mental or emotional energy to a person,
object, or idea. Body cathexis is defined as the degree of satisfaction reported by an individual for the parts of his body.
(Jourard and Secord, 1955). This refers to the feelings (positive or negative) one feels towards his own body. When a
body a body is highly cathected, there is greater use of grooming products to care for this part of the body.
b. Since we are permanently attached to out body parts, these body parts are expected to be more strongly
cathected than material possessions that can be more easily acquired and discarded. And since body parts are normally
central to conceptions of self, the loss of body parts is tantamount to losing one’s identity and one’s very being. Indeed,
the loss of limb is often viewed by those from whom it has been severed in just this way.
Finals Week 1 & 2
Spiritual Self
In search of his true identity, man can never do away from considering his spiritual well-being. For
one thing, he is composed of both body and soul. The body points to his relationship with the material world
and the soul his relationship with the spiritual world, which is the transcendental dimension of life. Man's
spirituality is the focus of our discussion in this section.
In the search for meaning in life, one of the major concerns is the development of a balanced spirituality
of the human being which integrates well with his/her psychological maturation. This psycho-spiritual
integration or development can be of help in bringing about social transformation since it exposes the individual
to different situations or cases that awaken in him/her the desire to make a difference in his/her life as he/she
searches for the meaning of his/her life.
Such integration leads to a better understanding of oneself with the questions: Who am I? What are my
big aims in life? How clear are they? How truly Christian am I? It seeks answers to the basic existential
questions in life. It leads to self-introspection, a journey into the core of the human being.
We are not human beings having a spiritual experience. We are spiritual beings having a human experience.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
SPIRITUAL SELF
Spiritual self is who we are at our core. It is more permanent than the other selves -material self and social self. The
spiritual self is our subjective and most intimate self. It is the aspect of self which develops a certain level of
spirituality which is deemed as man's way of seeking as well as expressing the meaning and purpose of his life.
It speaks of the quality of one's relationships - with God, self, others, institutions and God's entire creation,
marked by respect, forgiveness, generous service and prayer. It is showing great refinement or high level of Christian
maturity and concern with the higher things in life such as the Sacred or the Divine. This spirituality is specified more
concretely in deepening the faith. Spirituality leads man to a deeper communion with the Divine. It is a path of direct
and personal connection with the Divine. It embraces all faiths, social and political ideologies. It aids persons in
spiritual, emotional or physical distress, crisis or discomfort as well as those seeking to make a significant change in
their lives through self-awareness. This can be a healing process that leads to personal development.

The Concept of Spirituality

Religion and spirituality are often mistakenly understood as synonymous terms. Although they have
many similarities and there is a relationship between the two, there are differences between religion and
spirituality.
Religion: By definition, religion is a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs,
and practices; the service and worship of God or the supernatural.
Spirituality: Spirituality, on the other hand, connotes an experience of connection to something larger
than you; living everyday life in a reverent and sacred manner. Or as Christina Puchalski, MD (leader in trying
to incorporate spirituality into healthcare), puts it, “Spirituality is the aspect of humanity that refers to the way
individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the
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moment, to self, to others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred."
Religion vs. Spirituality: What Is the Difference?
from Brady(2020)

RELIGION SPIRITUALITY

Subjective Experience. Spirituality is an inward journey

Objective Experience. There is usually a greater focus on
the externals (Houses of worship, books of scripture, that involves a shift in awareness rather than some form of
eternal rituals and observances) external activity. As such, spirituality is much more about
inner understanding than outer worship.

Formless. Spirituality though, breaks free from the

Organization. It is a structured, frequently rule-based
restrictions and rigid structure sometimes associated with
construct that to some degree governs the behavior of its
traditional religion. The spiritual aspirant recognizes that he
members. Moral rules, laws, and doctrines, as well as
or she is on a “pathless path” of self-discovery. They are
specific codes and criteria, create the organized structure
following not a set of external rules, but their own inner call
that contains the religion’s specific belief system.
to spirit.

Evolutionary Approach. Spirituality often favors an

Traditional Approach. Religions are by nature often
evolutionary mentality. This refers to both a more flexible
deeply rooted in tradition, ritual, creed, and doctrine.
and adaptive mindset toward core teachings of the great
Religious institutions conservatively guard their practices
wisdom traditions but also reflects the understanding that
and values, holding rigidly to the past and the original
spiritual growth is an evolutionary process. Spirituality
interpretations of the founder’s teachings.
embraces change and the evolution of consciousness.

Exclusive. Traditional religious beliefs, sometimes based Inclusive. Spirituality makes no such distinctions. Instead,
upon rigid interpretations of key teachings, can create an it favors an inclusive approach. In the recognition that pure
exclusive worldview that isolates those who may not share spirit is a unifying force, no one is left out. You are part of
their views or interpretations. Sadly, this religious “in-group” the universal hologram, all gods and goddesses in disguise.
mentality can be used to justify the exclusion of minorities In other words, from a spiritual perspective, no one has a
or those deemed unworthy of God’s favor. monopoly on the truth. All are welcome in God’s eyes.

Spiritual Experience. Spirituality doesn’t dismiss faith;

Belief. At its core, religion is about faith. That is to say, however, it often leans more heavily on direct experience of
belief in something based upon unconditional acceptance the soul or divinity. Spiritual practices such as meditation,
of the religion’s teachings. Through religion, you are taught yoga, silence, and contemplation allow you to make
to have faith in God or the scriptures as being the infallible conscious contact with more expanded states of
and ultimate truth of reality. Acceptance and surrender to consciousness, thus helping to experientially validate the
the divine are taught as the path that leads to ultimate teachings rather than accepting them on faith alone. You
salvation. know something because you have tasted the experience
yourself and have allowed it to resonate, as opposed to
taking the word of another.

As Giovanni (n.d) would present it:

Religion asks you to believe. Spirituality asks you to look.
Religion has dogmas. Spirituality has wisdom teachings.
Religion wants obedience. Spirituality wants experimentation.
Religion speaks of sin and hell. Spirituality speaks of karma.
Religion wants to comfort you. Spirituality wants to liberate you.
Religion is external. Spirituality is internal.
Religion is the form. Spirituality is the essence.
Religion wants to convert you. Spirituality wants to inspire you.
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 Religion is an institution. Spirituality is a journey.
Spirituality in Higher Education
The study reported in the book Cultivating the Spirit: How College Can Enhance Students' Inner Lives
authored by Dr. Helen Astin, Dr. Alexander Astin, and Dr. Jennifer Lindholm of UCLA surveyed (in 2004) more
than 112,000 freshmen as they enrolled in 236 public and private (religiously affiliated and non-religiously
affiliated) colleges and universities, and then followed up (in 2007) 14,527 of these students (at 136
institutions) as they were completing their junior year. Here are the findings:

• They found religious engagement among students declines somewhat during college, but their spirituality shows
substantial growth. Students become more caring, more tolerant, more connected with others, and more
actively engaged in a spiritual quest.
• Also found spiritual growth enhances academic performance, psychological well-being, leadership development,
and satisfaction with college.
• The study also identified a number of college activities that contribute to students' spiritual growth. Some of
these--study abroad, interdisciplinary studies, and service learning--appear to be effective because they expose
students to new and diverse people, cultures, and ideas.
• Spiritual development is also enhanced if students engage in "inner work" through activities such
as meditation or self-reflection, or if their professors actively encourage them to explore questions of meaning
and purpose.
• Spiritual development is impeded when students engage in activities that distract them from the ordinary
experience of campus life--activities such as watching television and playing video games.
Spiritual Questions to Ponder

1. Who are the most important people in my life?

2. Where would I like to be in 10 years?
3. How can I avoid a stagnant life?
4. What qualities must I possess to be a good person?
5. Do things happen for a reason?
6. What are the values that guide my life?
7. When do I feel the most alive or real?
8. What gifts can I give of myself to the world?
9. How would I like others to see me?
10. What are my beliefs on life purpose?
Here's a graphic organizer for a simple summary:

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 The interconnection of two important terms in our discussion needs to be considered, which is that of
the spirit and the soul. Though these are sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinctions which
need to be recognized.
As mentioned by L. Mercado (1994), "the spirit in the Hebrew language is ruach or pneuma in Greek
which means breath (esp. the breath of life). The spirit is described as the disposition of an individual, a person's
habitual attitudes, as man's supernatural power which comes from God. It is the part of us through which all life
and power of God flow. It is the "life-giving part of man" (Jas. 2:26).
Soul on the other hand, is in Hebrew, nephesh or in Greek, psyche, originally meaning 'throat' or 'neck',
which means 'human life, the animating principle of human nature.’ Here, the Hebrew concept of man is
holistic, not a trichotomy of body (Mesh), soul, and spirit, but one totality. However, the Hebrew sees the distinction
between the natural and the supernatural, in respect to the soul and spirit.
Both soul and spirit mean life. But soul (nephesh-psyche) stands for natural man, while spirit is the
ethical factor which adds the new dimension of relationship with God. Spirit enables man to serve God and to
participate in the supernatural order.
Dy (2020) simplifies this by stating that:
While the soul is the source of our expression through our humanity, it has its limitations and the
only way we can experience God is through our spirit. The soul is merely a channel.
The body is the outer level, followed by the soul and the spirit is the core. The expression of love
to God paved the way through the soul. We first magnify God’s power and grace, and then we express
and experience it fully through our spirit.
The function of the spirit is spiritual. The spirit is the only way to connect with God, and we can
only use the spirit if we believe in God and receive Him through our Lord Jesus Christ’s salvation.
The Spirit gives life; the flesh counts for nothing. The words I have spoken to you—they are full of
the Spirit and life. (John 6:63)
The term used by the Filipinos for spirit is a loan word, "espirito" or "espiritu", which is in Visayan
term, "ginhawa" in Tagalog, "hininga" and in Ilocano, "anges". The concept of soul is very familiar to the
Filipinos. It is the person's emotional and moral nature, where the most private thoughts and feelings are
hidden. In some systems of religious belief, the soul is the spiritual part of a human being that is believed to
continue to exist after the body dies. The soul is also regarded as subject to future reward and punishment.
The Bible further speaks of the soul as the innermost aspect of the person which signifies the spiritual principle
in him, "the breath of life". It is because of this spiritual soul that the body becomes alive.
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How is the soul perceived by our ancestors?
Below is a translated excerpt from one of the historians of the Philippines, Michael Charlestone Chua:
The ancient Filipinos also had a belief in the soul. For our ancestors, man was made up of two parts —
external and internal. The outer is the body while the inner also has two parts — the life force called "ginahawa"
which carries the intestine or liver, and the "kalulwa" which carries the brain which gives life, mind and human
initiative. They believe that souls come out of the body even though they are still alive in the holes of the
human body and in the hands and feet so they protect it by wearing gold. The release of the soul is reflected
in the instructions of our elders, do not sleep hungry and the soul may come out, look for food and be locked
in a pot.

The Soul according to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines

Gaverza (2017) summarized how the soul is viewed in various groups in the Philippines. Below is the list.

IFUGAO – ‘LINNAWA’
The soul (linnawa) of a child floats around in the heavens, awaiting its entry into the human world. During sexual
intercourse the soul/spirit enters the female through the male, resulting in pregnancy. If a woman cannot conceive,
shamans conduct sacrifices to see if the couple is compatible. If they are, shamans offer other sacrifices to enhance
fertility.
The soul is believed to continue in existence in the world of its ancestors. In time the soul of the new-dead
becomes one of the callading or ancestral spirits. The callading are considered man’s benefactors.
In some sources (The Soul Book) the Ifugao believe there are two souls, one in the eyes and one in the breath.
Illness is the withdrawal of the soul in the eyes. Death is the withdrawal of the soul in the breath.

IBALOI
The Ibaloi afterlife is populated by ancestral spirits, and explains animal sacrifices. In that spiritual world, when
the soul arrives with physical treasures, it receives a great welcome. An empty-handed soul finds himself the object of
scorn. He is unwelcome and unaccepted in his new world and this feeling of insecurity may cause the spirit to bring evil,
disease and even death among his relatives. In the light of all those beliefs, relatives of the dead person bring donation
of cash or animals.

ISNEG – ‘KADUWA’
The Isneg believed that dead exist in other world, the Aglalanawan, where the earthly tasks of planting,
harvesting and communal living are functions common to them. The kaduwa, soul, is believed to cross the pond in a
ferry piloted by the spirit, Kutaw(A psychopomp). In a bid to please kutaw, who could facilitate the spirit’s entry to
aglalanawan, the appropriate customary death rituals would be the key.

KANKANA-EY – ‘AB-ABIIK’
Ab-Abiik is the spiritual self as oppsed to the physical self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to inanimate
objects such as mountains, trees or rivers. It can also mean ‘inspiration’ in some contexts.

BIKOL
No one should miss their dinner and go to bed hungry or their spirit will roam for food. If a pot of food is covered
while the spirit is eating inside, the person who is sleeping will now wake up until the lid is lifted.

TAGALOG – ‘KALULUWA AND KAKAMBAL’

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 The Tagalog soul, the kaluluwa can leave the body involuntarily. The kaluluwa refers more to the soul of the
deceased. The soul of a living person is called kakambal (meaning twin or double). The kakambal may travel around at
night and some particularly bad encounters are the cause of nightmares (bangungut). The kakambal becomes a
kaluluwa after death.

ILOKANO – ‘KARARUA, KARKARMA, ANIWAAS AND ARARIA’

The first soul of the Ilokanos is called the kararua, or the soul proper. This is the term used for the equivalent of
the Christian soul that can only leave after death. The Ilokano have a four soul system. In addition to the kararua there
are three other souls.

• Karkarma is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is frightened, or may be
stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner becomes insane, sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure back a
lost karkarma. Karkarma stands for natural vigor, mind and reason.
• Aniwaas is the name of the third soul. It can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body.
If one wakes up while the aniwaas is visiting these places, they may lose the aniwaas and become insane.
• Araria is the name of the fourth soul. This is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that visits relatives and
friends in the earthworld asking them to pray for it or perform a duty it failed to do in life. Its presence can be
heralded by the howling of dogs. This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical objects usually relating
to what it did in life.

IBANAG – ‘IKARURUWA’
The Ibanag have a distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikaruruwa). Ikarurua means ‘a companion of the
body’. Mekararuanan (me + kararua – to be rid of the soul) is a phenomenon where the soul can leave the body but it
is without sense. The ritual Mangagaggako invites the soul to return to the body
The Ibanag believe that the soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color and the souls of dead
babies can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to the man, but
the body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences material wants and needs.
MANGYAN – ‘KARADUWA’
The Hanunoo Mangyan believe in a plurality of souls. Karaduwa tawu/tawo (human soul), karaduwa
manok (Chicken soul) Karaduwa Baboy (pig soul) karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). An
individual may possess 2-5 other souls. These other souls are explanations for miraculous recoveries from near fatal
experiences, their dream life or natural reactions to startling sounds or movement.
A soul can also separate itself from the physical body. If a person is scared, his soul leaves his body causing
sickness. When a person dreams the karaduwa walks around. The dream that a person has is caused by this walk.

BISAYA – ‘DUNGAN’
A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. engkantu). Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded by
old Tan Mulong whose spirit dog has one mammary gland and two genitals. Sickness is the temporary loss of the soul,
permanent loss is death. The soul can be lured back by a skillful shaman. The dungan is ethereal, something not
weighed down by the world. Before it inhabits a human body it inhabits a region above the earth with other dungan. The
dungan then takes interest in the unborn being, usually a relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows proportionately with the person’s body.
Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug or the unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak one by
proximity. There are many rituals performed to protect and nurture the dungan.
Dungan also has a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan means that the person has a greater
capacity to dominate others to their line of thought. People living together may lead to a spiritual competition between
the two dungan leading to the weaker becoming sick.
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with the air toward the upper regions. There
it waits until it finds another body to enter.
ILONGGO – ‘DUNGAN’
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 The Ilonggo soul, the dungan is not seen by the human eye. Sometimes it goes out of the body and takes on
visible forms as insects or small animals. A dungan may leave the body voluntarily while the person is sleeping. If one
sees themselves in their dreams it means their dungan has left their physical body. A slumbering person should be
waken gently to give the soul a chance to return to the body. Whatever happens to the dungan also happens to the
physical body. The dungan also withdraws from the body if said body is badly treated

SULOD – ‘UMALAGAD’
Dying among the Sulod is said to be like passing through a narrow door. The experience is horrible, as if the
person has to pull hard to get in the door. Once one departs they simply disappear. No trace of them is left behind.
This soul is watched over by three brother gods Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes. Mangganghaw
keeps track over man’s affairs immediately after marriage. He keeps track of pregnancy. He is also the first to come to
the house of a laboring mother, peeps in the house and sees the child being born, after which he reports to Manglaegas.
Manglaegas, after being reported to by Mangganghaw, enters the house to look for the child to make sure the child was
born alive, then reports to Patag’aes who waits until midnight then enters the house to have a conversation with the
infant. If Patag’aes discovers anyone eavesdropping on their conversation, he chokes the child to death. The
conversation is on how long the child wants to live and how the child will eventually die. The child gets to choose. After
the child has chosen, Patag’aes takes out his measuring stick and computes the child’s life span, and then he departs.\

TAGBANWA – ‘KIYARALUWA’ AND OTHERS

A Tagbanwa has one ‘true soul’ the kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given to each infant
by the god Magindusa as the nose of the child emerges from the vulva.
The secondary souls are located in the extremities of both hands and feet and in the head just below the air
whorl (puyo). The souls of the feet protect one while walking and from injuries to the feet, the same functions to those in
the hands. The secondary soul located by the puyo is not fixed in young children and may cause illness if not properly
aligned, some shamans specialize in realigning the soul to its proper place. This soul is said to have a material form like
a round white stone.

BUKIDNON – ‘MAKATU’ AND ‘PIPITU HA MAKATU’

The makatu, their world for soul, exists before a child’s birth but it is separate from the body. There is a ritual in
which a miniature cradle is hung over the pregnant mother in a place where the mother sleeps. The small cradle is where
the soul of the unborn baby will sleep before it joins the infant at birth. The makatu is breathed into man at birth by Miyaw-
Biyaw. If all are present in an individual, they are healthy, if one or more wanders away from the body then Illness,
irritability and sadness follow. If all makatu leave the body at the same time, the individual dies.
The Bukidnon also believe in seven souls called the ‘pipitu ha makatu’. One jumps off the cliff, one swims in
the water, one puts its hand in snake holes, one sits under a tree, one is always walking around, one is awake in the
day and one is awake at night.
BAGOBO – ‘GIMOKUD’
There are two souls called gimokud. Right hand gimokud is the good soul that manifests as a shadow on the
right hand side of the path while the left hand gimokud is the bad soul that manifests as a shadow on the left side of the
path.
The right hand is associated with life, health, activity and joy, remaining in the body throughout life. When death
causes the right hand gimokud to leave the body, it gives notice by visiting in the form of an insect.
The left hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain and illness. The left hand soul also leaves the body at night and
risks various dangers, if it visits the sea the sleeping person feels shivers, the behavior it engages in leaves a physical
effect on the body. After death the gimokud becomes a busaw (digging up dead bodies).
When the throbbing of the skull cap stops, the soul exits through what used to be the fontanel.
All larger animals have two souls each while smaller birds bees and insects only have one soul. Inanimate objects
have a single soul which goes to the underworld so they can serve their owners.

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 The Practice of Religion
Researches speak of religion as the people's way of connecting themselves to God as they search for
meaning in life. Religion is also popularly understood as "belief and behaviors related to supernatural beings and
powers.” Still others define religion as "an organized system of ideas about the spiritual sphere, along with
ceremonial practices, or way of relating with the supernatural or the divine.” It can be simplified as the bond
between God and man”
Characteristics of Religion
• A belief in anthropomorphic* supernatural being
o *having human characteristics.
• A focus on the sacred supernatural
• The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as physical beings and
objects
o Some religious traditions consider geographic places to be spiritually sacred.
• The performance of ritual activities
• The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
• Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a community; provide
explanation for unknown and a sense of control for individuals

THE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Stability and cohesion - shared religion binds people closely together.

1.
• Religion forms a balance and cohesive moral community. It is a means of protecting individuals from
anomie, alienation and the threats of disruptive mass movements and so maximizes the individual's potential
for happiness.
• Shared religious experiences provide the social cement for group unity and consensus
Social identity - shared religion gives people an identity and social membership
• This is achieved through special naming ceremonies, in christening and baptism in the Christian church. For
Durkheim, group solidarity is affirmed and heightened during collective ceremony and ritual
• Religion represents the necessary power of the social group over the otherwise isolated, anomic individual
• Religion serves to integrate the person into the society. It is functionally useful for people to grow up
identifying with a particular place or nation, to strengthen a person's sense of national commitment,
especially if either religion or nation come under threat
Collective conscience - religion unites people in moral ways
1.
• The group affirms its belief in the central values through its commitment to the religious system. These
sentiments produce "value consensus”.
• Religion thereby generates and maintains the collective conscience. This was observable in its effects and
was open to scientific study just as other social effects could be studied and analyzed, by collecting relevant
statistics, through careful observation and recording or other experimental methods.
• Durkheim saw society as a moral community, whose members were socialized into accepting appropriate
patterns of behavior over time. This is an unending process since people are always being integrated into
new groups, adopting new norms, absorbing new values and adapting new patterns of behaviour.
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• An orderly social life is only possible when people share moral values, in this way, society becomes
embedded in the individual.
Socialization and social control - religion represents the value system of the society
1.
• It is a conservative force which contributes to moral and wider social order and stability.
• Many cultural norms are given sacred legitimacy by religious beliefs, eg, the Ten Commandments provide a
prescription for an orderly lifestyle. By promoting such values through family, school and church, the process
of socialization occurs.
• Appropriate modes of thinking and behaving are controlled in ways which will promote the good, orderly
society.
Meaning and purpose - religion gives meaning and purpose to people's lives
•
o In the face of death, disease and the hazards of everyday living, people are vulnerable to all kinds of
disasters beyond their control. Religious beliefs offer people comfort in times of crisis
o It is the institution which gives people the strength to continue and promotes the long-term maintenance of
society as a result
Haviland, et.al (2007) has this to say about religion the benefits of religion:
"Therefore, the practice of religion is beneficial to individuals, families, states, and the nation. It improves
health, learning, economic well-being, self-control, self-esteem, and empathy. It reduces the incidence
of social pathologies, such as out-of-wedlock births, crime, delinquency, drug and alcohol addiction,
health problems, anxieties, and prejudices, Furthermore, religion creates a moral community to which
people experience a sense of belonging. It provides rites of passage as in the case of sacraments in
Christianity It provides emotional support. It serves as a means to provide answers to ultimate questions
in life. It shapes the people's views of the universe. Finally, it can be a powerful agent of social change"
Techniques of Religion
The practice of religion pertains to the general acts followed by the laity in accordance with the
religious requirements. This, points to the overt conduct of the laity or believers performing the beliefs and
feelings.

1. Prayer - This is the communication to the Supernatural Being through speech or thoughts. It simply means
conversation with the Almighty.
2. Divination - It is the elevation of a person's weak state to GOD. It is a process of which a man strive to
perfect his imperfection (Bernardo, 2016)
3. Ceremony - This refers to a number of interconnected rituals done at specific time and place. Examples of
these are Holy Mass, solemnizing marriage, priest's ordination and tedium.
4. Sacrifice - This is expressing reverence to GOD or any perceived spirits or supernatural powers. For
instance, abstinence and fasting. For the Catholic, abstinence is not eating meat on Lenten season and
Good Friday during Holy Week. Fasting is having one full meal a day and small meals the rest of the day.
Fasting is simply a sacrifice.
5. Reverence - This pertains to the feeling of awe coupled with love and admiration a person offers to the
Almighty or Supernatural Power.

6. Duty - This tries to please the Almighty by reverent act. For instance, it is the duty of anyone to follow
GOD's Ten Commandments.
7. Rituals - This is a means of sanctification. Sanctification involves act of purification, supplication and
thanksgiving (Schmidt, et al. 2005) In a simple way rituals are expected means of performing religious acts.
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 For instance, praying, making the sign of the cross, processions, way of the cross on Lenten Season - for
the Catholics.
8. Sacred Objects - These are objects attributed to the Supernatural Power such as the Bible, rosaries, prayer
books and crucifix. To the Catholic, the bread and wine sanctified during Holy Mass is a very sacred
symbolism of the life of Jesus Christ
9. Taboo - This pertains to negative presentation of propitiatory devices or action wherein a person should
refrain from certain act not in conformity with the desire of the Almighty. It refers to the thou shall not"
behavior. For instance, one must not practice incest (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).

Common Elements of Religion

One of the hallmarks of religion is a belief in supernatural beings and forces. They can take a variety
forms, not all of which are found in every religion. Other categories of religion is animism and animatism.

ANIMATISM

A belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings is referred to as animatism. For those
who hold this belief, the power is usually impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither good
nor evil, but it is powerful and dangerous if misused. It is something like electricity or "the force" in the Star
Wars movies.
ANIMISM
A belief that natural objects are animated by spirits is animism. The term comes from the Latin word
for soul (anima). This belief can take diverse forms. Things in nature may all have within them different spirits-
-each rock, tree, and cloud may have its own unique spirit. Alternatively, all things in nature may be thought
of as having the same spirit. This latter version of animism was characteristic of many Native American
cultures. In both forms of animism, the spirits are thought of as having identifiable personalities and other
characteristics such as gender. A belief in a powerful, mature, protective "mother nature" is an example. The
spirits may be benevolent, malevolent, or neutral. They can be lovable, terrifying, or even mischievous. They
can interact with humans and can be pleased or irritated by human actions. Therefore, people must be
concerned about them and will try to avoid displeasing them.
Initially, animatism and animism may seem to be the same thing. In fact both beliefs are often
found in the same culture.

CRITERIA ANIMISM ANIMATISM

the belief that spirits exist in natural belief that there is power in all forces
Definition objects around you

does not speak of individual spiritual

Characteristics speaks of individual spiritual beings
beings

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 speaks of a supernatural force that exists
Supernatural does not speak of a singular supernatural
everywhere in both inanimate and
Force force but various spiritual beings
animated

Supernatural force does not have a

Personality Supernatural forces have personalities
particular personality

SUPERNATURAL CREATURES IN PHILIPPINE FOLKLORE

Supernatural forces range from impersonal spirits to gods and can be all powerful or annoying
creatures that possess humans
The Philippine folklore is rich with mythical and supernatural creatures. It is not as popular as those in
Western cultures since it is mostly composed of fragmented tales of horror and wonder. Nevertheless, it has
influenced the lives of Filipinos that certain customs are being practiced so to appease these beings and to
prevent them from terrorizing people. So which supernatural creatures Filipinos are most afraid of? What are
their equivalents to other cultures? And how evil are they?
Many Filipino customs are influenced by their beliefs in various supernatural creatures. Say avoiding
too much noise when near old trees so as not to disturb these unearthly beings, or beeping the vehicle when
crossing bridges at nights as a permission from them. It may seem peculiar but these habits and more have
become part of the way of life for many Filipinos, even for those living in the urban areas.
Let’s review!
Aswangs are the most feared mythical creature by the Filipinos. They are Filipino ghouls and shapeshifters.
They are human-like by day but transform into monsters at night. They can change from human to an animal
form like bat, bird, pig, cat, or black dog. The transformation can happen through their own will or through the
use of foul concocted oil. They also have the ability to steal cadavers secretly and replace them with the trunk
of a banana tree carved in the cadaver’s likeness.
The tiyanak is another popular name in the Philippine folklore. Also known as impakto, it is a baby who died
before receiving baptism rites. After its death, it goes into the Limbo, a certain place in Hell where unbaptized
dead people fall into, and then transforms into an evil spirit. It returns to the mortal world as a goblin or a
vampire-like creature, bound to eat living victims. A tiyanak can also be the offspring of a mortal woman and
a demon, or an aborted fetus which comes to take vengeance on its mother.
The tikbalang (also tigbalang, tigbalan, tikbalan, or demon horse) is a half-man and half-horse creature. It has
the head and feet of a horse, and the body of a human. It usually appears on the night of full moon looking for
a female prey and usually rapes the victim in order to bear its offspring. Tikbalangs are playful creatures and
they usually make people imagine things that are not real, sometimes to the point that they become crazy.
The Manananggal is a special type of aswang who has the ability to fly after separating itself from the lower
half of its body. It resembles the Western vampire in being an evil, man-eating monster or witch. Its name is
taken from the Filipino word “tanggal” which means to “to separate” or “to remove.” Most manananggals, like
most aswangs, are females. It appears in human form during the day. At night, it finds an isolated place where
she will leave her lower torso. It separates itself by will and its upper body flies, using bat-like wings, to hunt
for victims.
Kapre is the Filipino equivalent of bigfoot from the West. It is a tree demon with more human characteristics.
It is described as a dirty, dark giant (around 7 to 9 ft tall) who hides and lives within and atop large trees,
particularly old trees such as balete (or banyan), acacia, or mango trees. This creature loves to smoke huge
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rolls of cigars or tobaccos. Unlike other supernatural beings, the kapre does not harm human; instead, it is a
“friendly” creature who loves to fool around. It may make contact with people to offer friendship, or if it is
attracted to a woman. It also play pranks to people and scares away little children playing at night. It is said
that if you are stuck in a place and keep going around in circles, a kapre must have been playing with you. To
escape the spell, you must wear your shirt inside-out.
Engkantos, or engkantadas (when referring to female creatures), are nature fairies and spirits. They are said
to be angels who revolted with Lucifer against the Lord. When the angels of God drove them out of heaven,
some fell on earth. Those who fell in the forest or thick woods and lived in trees are the engkantos. Hence
they will possess some extraordinary powers but are limited. They are fair skinned, blond, with blue or green
eyes, and far shorter or much taller than the average human. They are mostly beautiful, with so much grace
and charm that they attract many people. The dwelling place of the engkanto may look like a large rock or
trees but to their human friends, their house can appear as beautiful palaces. They also like to live in large
trees like the balete where they can also put their belongings.
A nuno or nuno sa punso is a dwarf-like creature or goblin in Philippine folklore which lives in an anthill or termite
mound. The term “nuno sa punso” means ancestor or grandparent of the anthill. It is described as a small old
man with a long beard. It is ill-tempered and easily gets angered. If someone disturbs, especially kicks, his
mound, the nuno would put curse on that person. In effect, the offender would have swollen foot or pain on
any part of his body, experience vomiting blood, urinate black liquid, inflict illness, and have excessive hair
growth on the back.
RITUALS
Rituals are 'patterned forms of behavior that have something to do with the supernatural realm'. They
are performed in a repetitive nature. They can be religious or secular. "People worldwide engage in religious
ritual require a considerable amount of time or personal sacrifice. A good example is the case of the Vegans
of Phuket, Thailand who perform various acts of self-torture, including bathing in hot oil, fire walking, and
piercing themselves with sharp implements during their annual vegetarian festival. "Life cycle rituals", often
referred to as 'rites of passage, mark a status change from one important life stage to another. The Christian
sacraments are examples of this. Many religions encourage rituals of pilgrimage, a round trip to a place
considered sacred for the purpose of religious devotion or ritual" (Sosis, 2010).
In many cases, sacrifice as the offering of something to the supernatural beings is performed to please
or to express gratitude to such deities. An example of this is the offering ritual called 'harang'. practiced by the
Visayan fishing villages. Such ritual is described as "a process of purification (tuob), invocation (pagtawag),
entreaty (pangamuyo), offering (bayad), feast (kan-on), encompassing almost every aspect of the community's
existence including good or bad harvest, the operation of fishing boats and cases of illnesses" (Kawada, M.,
1956). Kanyaw in the Cordillera, which is performed as an expression of thanksgiving to their deities as well
as a means to appease them is also noteworthy. This is also an expression of solidarity among the members
of the community. Similarly, the Buklog of the Subanens in Aurora, Zamboanga is performed in their fiesta to
honor the spirits and plea for favors. It is also a symbol of the Subanens' relationship with their fellowmen, and
a spiritual journey to their Creator. Rituals in this sense have the function of uniting the people. They allay fear
of crisis as they prompt collective action.
MAGIC
Magic is commonly referred to as "tricks" and "illusions" that make impossible things seem to happen,
usually performed as entertainment. Stein and Stein (2011), describe it as a special talent or skill; an act that
makes impossible things happen through some sort of trickery or deception, and thereby manipulating not the
supernatural world, but rather human perception. However, magic, as anthropologists use the term, refers to
activities, usually rituals, by which a person can compel the supernatural to behave in certain ways. It is seen
as the ability which gives somebody control over the forces of nature. It is used in many cultures for healing,
keeping away evil, seeking the truth, and for vengeful purposes. It is an attempt to make supernatural forces
act in specific ways for good or evil purposes by recourse to certain specified formulas.
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 Stein & Stein (2011), state that magic answers our need to have some control of our lives and also of
others with the ability to control the supernatural forces. Haviland (2007), also explains that like religion, magic
tries to explain the unexplainable and provides comfort and a coherent view of the world. It also reduces stress,
reinforcing group norms and identity, providing sanctions for individual behavior and providing a sense of the
world. It leads to avoidance or healing of illness. In the area of entertainment, magic captivates the audience
with expert showmanship. It promotes and advances the art of staged magic. Magic exists in all cultures.

WITCHCRAFT
Witchcraft, commonly understood as 'kulam', refers to the idea that certain people have an inborn power
to harness spirits or energies for specific purposes. "It is an explanation of events based on the belief that
certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm, including sickness and death"
(Microsoft Encarta 2009). Here, it is closely understood closely with sorcery. Witchcraft is widely considered
evil. Like sorcery, it is seen as magic or special power that is worked for illegal or antisocial ends. For example,
magic that is worked to kill someone for vengeful purposes is bad. The witch or sorcerer tends to steal food
remnants, hair, nail clippings, or clothes from the victim and use these objects to inflict harm upon the victim.
As stated by Stein & Stein (2011), "Although magic is used for variety of reasons to increase success and
control the uncertainties of life, magic can also be used in antisocial ways to interfere with the economic
activities of others and to bring about illness and even death. Anything that disrupts the life and happiness of
someone is evil. The use of magic in this way in abominable. But why do people still practice witchcraft?
Haviland (2007), mentions that witchcraft serves a number of functions in society. Just like religion and
magic, he says that witchcraft provides explanations of the inexplicable, like illness, or natural disasters, as
well as allows a community to come together, focus their energies on something (ridding themselves of bad
witchcraft and to reassert their communal identity. It is also a way for people to explain a personal misfortune
without having to shoulder any blame to themselves. Finally, it provides an outlet for feelings of hostility and
frustration without disturbing the norms of the larger group

WHAT THE BIBLE SAYS ABOUT MAGIC, RITUAL AND WITCHCRAFT

As Filipinos of today, predominantly Christians, we have the Bible as our guide in the practice of our
religion. Specifically, the Book of Deuteronomy states:
"Don't sacrifice your children in the fires on your altars, and do not let your people practice fortune-telling, or use sorcery, or
interpret omens, or engage in witchcraft, or cast spells, or function as mediums or psychics, or call forth the spirits of the
dead. Anyone who does these thing is detestable to the Lord. It is because the other nation have done these detestable
things that the Lord your God will drive them out ahead of you but you must be blameless before the Lord your God" (Dr.18
10-13).

For us Christians, God alone is worthy of adoration, for He alone, is the ONE, TRUE GOD. Such acts
contrary to this, such as ascribing power to amulets, magic and others mentioned above, are considered
idolatrous and therefore, unacceptable. It is a violation to the very first commandment of God, "I am the Lord,
your God who brought you out of Egypt where you were slaves; worship no god but Me" (Ex. 20:2-3). This is further
made clear in Jesus Christ's declaration of the "Great Commandment of Love when He said:
"The most important one is this: Listen, Israel! The Lord our God is the only Lord. Love the Lord your God with all your heart,
with all your soul, with all your mind and with all your strength. The second most important commandment is this: Love your
neighbor as you love yourself. There is no other commandment more important than these two" (Mark 12:29-31).

In conclusion, submission to practices such as magic, kulam, and others of their kind may not lead us
to the "ONE, TRUE GOD", the source of all power. Much discernment must be done to examine or evaluate
our practices whether or not they lead us closer to the One, True God. There are indeed Filipino traditional
religious practices (popular/folk religiosity) which are not helpful to our true worship of GOD, practices which
need to be purified, and this calls for a genuine, meaningful Christian evangelization. Without careful
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examination, our practices may lead us away from the ultimate source of happiness, our ultimate end. Such
ultimate end is God Himself, our union with Him. Failure to examine the things that we do, the way we live our
lives, results to the loss of meaning in life. Jesus Christ Himself gave us a clear guide when He spoke about
the commandment of love - love of God and love of neighbor.

The Concept of Loob

In the contemporary Filipino understanding of self, we have the concept of loob and personhood. LOOB,
the inner self or inner being, is the core of one's personhood and where the true worth of the person lies. It is
what makes one what he is and who he is as a person. It is a term used to describe a person in relationship
with others. Contemporary psychology has defined the person by his relationship with others and such is done
by describing what sort of loob he has such as magandang loob or mabuting loob and masamang loob. A
person is said to be of magandang loob/mabuting loob if he relates well and positively with others. He is not
only well-intentioned but be also promotes the well-being of others, especially those in need. They are called
people of goodwill. On the contrary, a person is said to be of masamang loob if he is of bad character. He
correlates negatively with others. This LOOB is manifested through external behavior, and behavior in an
authentic person stems from the loob.
According to Mercado (1994). "a purified kalooban is supported by prayer. This loob that has been
continually purified and strengthened acquires commitment to the cause of the individual. This happens
through forms of sacrifices which include prayers, abstinence from certain kinds of food, or comforts, and
sexual abstinence. Constant prayer and religious exercises are ways to purify the loob. One of the most
popular sacrifices done by some Filipino Catholics is the penitensia during Good Friday. The penitents reenact
the suffering of Jesus Christ, from the flagellation to the crucifixion. Penitents whip themselves on the back,
using whips made of bamboo or paddles to draw blood. To complete the rites, some devotees willingly allow
themselves to be nailed to the cross, reenacting Jesus crucifixion. Despite the pain, loss of blood, the penitent
emerges a "new man" whose loob has been renewed, ready to face squarely the challenges of this world.
Prayer and ritual can be a source of power".
Covar, in Mercado's book, The Filipino Mind' says that "the use of amulet (anting-anting) may also be
a source of power. Those who use the anting-anting believe that the words of Christ and the things used in
Catholic liturgy are a strong source of power. While Scriptures say that the Word of God is efficacious (Heb
4:12; 1Th.2:13 f.), meaning, *has the power to produce a desired result, their belief extends to other rituals
and liturgical language in the Catholic rite. The efficacy of the anting-anting depends upon the proper execution
of certain rituals and the following of strict rules." Holy Week is supposedly the best time for obtaining, testing
and recharging the powers of anting-antings".

God's Kagandahang-loob
The Filipino concept and value, kagandahang-loob (kindness, generosity, benevolence, helpfulness)
can be a very appropriate description of who God is for Filipinos. It connotes all that is good in a person which
is the ideal among Filipinos. It is a quality of BEING which has its roots in the very heart of a person and which
is given expression in the totality of one's life of interrelationship. This reminds us of Jesus in whom words and
deeds are true manifestations of His kagandahang-loob. This is why God's saving activity is described as
kagandahang-loob.
Loob and Prayer
Prayer is said to be the first expression of man's interior truth". Interior truth refers to the core of one's
personhood, his loob, which is closely related to man's spirit. It the ultimate organizing center of human reality.
It is also the very zone of creaturehood which is the bedrock layer of ideas, feelings and behaviors.

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 Prayer then is the Christian's acknowledgment and awareness of the true nature of the look and the
richness or weakness of this loob as exposed by the light of faith. This look is made "in the image and likeness
of God, hence, it is constituted by being related to God.
With this, payer becomes an active receptiveness, an active listening to what God is revealing through
one's loob. It is the recognition, acknowledgment, acceptance of this relates to God of our loob in an explicit
manner. Christian prayer is our conscious personal communion with God, our Father, in Christ Jesus. It is the
fruit of the Holy Spirit working in our hearts, enabling us to turn to God and with confidence, to call Him our
Father. This prayer is always a free gift of God, which leads us back to Him, pagbabalik loob (conversion)
when astray, restoring the original goodness of one's kalooban.
How does this concept of loob and prayer help us find meaning in life?

Logotherapy: Finding and Creating Meaning

Viktor Frankl's refers Human spirit in Logotherapy as that which is uniquely human. Logotherapy is
based on the premise that the human is person motivated by a "will to meaning an inner pull to find meaning
in life. Here is a list of tenets or doctrine that represents basic principles of logotherapy.
• Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
• People's main motivation for living is their will to find meaning in Life
• People have freedom to find meaning in what they do, and what they experience or at least in the stand they take
when faced with certain situation of unchangeable suffering (Frankl,1959, Retrieved)

According to Frankl, the main motivation why men continue to live is the will to meaning A person must
see meaning in his life. This meaning is unique for every individual and it gives a talk that wily an individual
alone can do at a given moment. This may vary from time to time, as well as from person to person. It is this
kind of significance that gives his own will to meaning. According to Logotherapy, we can discover this meaning
in life in three different ways

1. By creating a work or doing a deed

Whenever we find value in who we are through the things we do, then we create meaning in our lives. It can
be a scientist who has discovered a cure for cancer or a book vendor whose reason for selling is to spread
learning or it can also be a father taking care of his son.

2. By experiencing something or encountering someone

Finding meaning in life can also happen when one experiences positive things like goodness, truth, beauty
and especially being loved. Where love means that one is accepted for his uniqueness or that his present and
that change lives other potentialities are encouraged to the fulfilment of becoming the best person he can be.
It can also be just by experiencing nature and culture where there is human flourishing

3. By the attitude people take toward unavoidable suffering

The third emphasizes that even in suffering one can find meaning in life where cm turn ones predicament
into triumph. Suffering costs to be suffering at the moment it finds a meaning, such as the meuning of a
sacrifice. A good example of this would be NickVujicic who was born without limbs but has now become an
international inspirational speaker. For Vujicic, he chose to be worthy of his suffering and meet the challenge
that was given him
One big emphasis from all these three is that a person can always find meaning in every situation one
finds oneself.

Finals Week 3 1013-

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4 the Self Module 8 | 125
 Introduction to the Digital Self
The concept of the digital self originated from the phenomenon Russell Belk (1988) call as ‘extended
self’. He believed our possessions are a main contributor to and reflection of our identities. Then, external
objects, such as clothes, jewellery and cars etc. that he believed we used and considered as part of ourselves.
Nowadays however, it isn’t merely the tangible belongings that researchers consider as part of our
extended self. Our digital possessions such as photos, videos, statuses, texts, and emails are now seen to be
significantly important to shaping our digital self. Think about it, could you live without your smartphone or
laptop?

The immense progress of technology in the field of communications has greatly influenced the lifestyle,
work, habits and the overall experiences of people all over the world. The digital, mobile, and social media
have become an indispensable part of everyday life. Also, the internet is also playing an ever more important
role in our lives. With the world’s internet users spending an average of 6 hours and 43 minutes online each
day, the typical user now spends more than 40 percent of their waking life (Kemp, 2020 on Digital 2020
Report.) This constant rise in the use of digital communication has irrefutably re-defined and expanded the
concept of the digital self of individuals. Online activities are no longer separable from our real lives, but an
integral part of it (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015)

Online Identity
Identity has many definitions, but we can simplify it into a few words: you are who you are and what you
do. Simply put, your identity is the sum of your characteristics, including your birthplace and birthday, the
schools you attended, your shoe size, and so on. Some of those characteristics never change, such as your
birthday, and some change over time, such as your hair color.

Similarly, when you are using the Internet, your online identity is the sum of your characteristics and
interactions online. Because you interact differently with each website you visit, each of those websites will
have a different picture of who you are and what you do. For example, the way you project yourself in Facebook
may be entirely different than how you express yourself in Twitter. Your audiences therefore in these two sites
may have an idea about who you are. Sometimes the different representations of you are referred to as partial
identities, because none of them has the full and true picture of who you are. Let’s just say that these partial
identities reflect tidbits about an individual's personality and identity.

Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the characteristics you
represent online differ from the characteristics you represent in the physical world. Every website you interact
with has its own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees you and your characteristics differently.
For example, shopping sites like Shopee, Lazada and Zalora has established a partial identity for you based
on the products you prefer and buy, whether it’s you on your phone or someone else using your
account. Google Finance has established a partial identity for you based on the stocks you are following,
whether you actually own those stocks or not. Spotify gives you a recommendation on the songs and playlists
you like. Neither one has your full identity, even if they were to put together your partial identities.

The result is that you have one true identity and many partial identities. Some of the information
associated with a partial identity is under your control;PDEV
other information
1013- maythe
Understanding beSelf
outModule
of your8 |control
126 or even
 completely invisible to you. Regardless of what you can and cannot control, they all contribute to “who you are
and what you do.”

Evonomie (2018) mentions that online identity is likened to an investment. “You start out with a small amount of
capital, and the way you use it over time determines how much you end up with later on. The difference is, it’s actually
a lot easier to control your online identity than it is to predict the stock or real estate markets”. Evonomie sites the
following elements of the digital self.

Concept Recall:
A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet. It includes the websites you visit, emails
you send, comments on social media, and information you submit to online services. As we have mentioned,
anything you do online, whether it is merely searching or actual interaction with other people or companies,
they form part of your online identity.

Learn more about Digital Footprint!

WATCH: Four Reasons to Care About Your Digital Footprint by Internet Society
SUMMARY:
• The digital self is the persona you use when you’re online.
• Online Identity is the sum of your characteristics and your interactions.
• Partial Identity is a subset of characteristics that make up your identity.
• A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet.

Self-presentation Online
Magalona, Sadsad and Cruz (2018) stated that the digital self is a decoy that we use to conceal our
real self. As we share ourselves to the world we try to hide our true self to cover up the issues that we have
about ourselves and show the world that we are fine and perfect. As we show the significant others our cover
through the digital self we, on the other hand, expect affirmation and acceptance. The digital world has made
thing happen more swiftly which includes finding a partner or losing one through dating sites and the social
media, customize a character and joining gaming tournaments worldwide; filter or edit an image according to
the physical features desired; or maybe store and transfer loads of file using our hand held gadgets.

The Dramaturgy of the Self

All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances
and one man in his time plays many parts."
~William Shakespeare

Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective that focuses on the management of everyday life proposed by
Erving Goffman. Goffman compares the human world to a theatre and drew comparisons between humans in
everyday life and the actors that played roles on-stage.
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 As in theatrical performances, social interaction also has the front stage, back stage, and off-stage
regions. At the front, factors like the performer's consciousness that there is an audience and their expectations
of him/her influence or impact the performance. As for the back stage region, this is where the performer can
relax and be himself/herself, away from the prying eyes of the crowd. Someone is then considered off-stage
if he/she gets to meet members of the audience completely independent or separate from the performance.

In the context of social media, the front stage region is when people's carefully-constructed digital selves
engage in online activities, such as publicly commenting on posts, choosing which "selfie" to upload, or even
deciding on what thoughts to publish. On the other hand, the back stage region is when someone simply logs
out and momentarily abstains from social media use. Off-stage, finally, is when people actually meet up with
people they only know on the internet, or at least those they perform to online through various cues and
expressions.
Furthermore, Goffman added that people, when engaged in social interactions, internalize what he calls
impression management: a process wherein each attempts to manufacture and present one’s self positively
to avoid embarrassment (Crossman, 2018). He also stated that people often give out expressions or cues that
aid in the formation of an identity for others to confirm or deny later on (Rosenfeld, 2015). As examples, when
a user posts something on social media in broken English or uploads a picture of a newly purchased designer
bag, others may accuse them of being a try-hard or social-climber, respectively; but reactions can also be of
the exact opposite.

SUMMARY:
According to Goffman, every individual is engaged in impression management by his conscious
decision to present himself in a certain way and his continuous performance to ensure that a particular image
of himself is established. This implies that individuals wear masks, play roles and present themselves in the
ways they see themselves or in the ways they desire to be seen by others (Goffman, 1959).

Impression Management in Social Media

Impression management refers to “conscious or unconscious attempts to influence images during

interaction” (Gilmore, Stevens, Harrell-Cook & Ferris, 1999). It is how people attempt to manage or control the
perceptions which others form of them. Individuals manage their impressions when they wish to present a
favourable image of themselves to others. Thus, the concept of impression management is based on the
assumption that individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and therefore act accordingly.

The opportunity to manage impressions has been greatly influence by new communication
technologies. In the Internet era, people can make and remake themselves, choosing the details of their online
impression. Adolescents now can manage the impression they make through social media in many ways.
These impression management opportunities come with the visual anonymity of the social media, providing
users much greater degrees of freedom. People can manipulate various characteristics online to present
themselves as more humorous, friendlier, or more likable than in daily life.

The following are impression management strategies:

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 128
• Through ingratiation, people try to elicit the affection of others by conforming to others' opinions, by doing favours, or
by praising others' achievements.
• Through intimidation, people try to elicit fear in others by projecting both the capacity and inclination to deliver negative
outcomes. Typically, this strategy is used in relationships that are non-voluntary rather than in freely formed
relationships among peers.
• Through self-promotion, people try to elicit the respect of others by highlighting their prior successes and excusing
previous failures.
• Through supplication, people try to elicit the nurturance of others through self-deprecation and entreaties for help. This
is the last resort and is typically used by low-power persons who have little else going for them.
Download this presentation for examples from movies!

Impression_Management.pptx
Our strategies in impression management change depending on who we are interacting with or what
personal information we need to be providing to present ourselves in a way that will be acceptable to others.
Thus, we can select only what we want to present and impress to others, what we view beneficial to our
personality, especially when we create a digital self. We carefully choose representation or expression of one’s
real world to the online world.

SUMMARY:
Impression Management refers to conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them.
• Why: individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and therefore act accordingly
• How: with the use of controlling information, photos, and videos and present them in a proper way in social media.
Impression Management strategies:
• Self-Promotion -individuals point out their abilities or accomplishments in order to be seen as competent by observers
• Ingratiation -individuals do favors or use flattery to elicit an attribution of likability from observers
• Exemplification -people self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of duty in order to gain the attribution of
dedication from observers
• Intimidation -where people signal their power or potential to punish in order to be seen as dangerous by observers
• Supplication -where individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being
needy from observers.

The Impact of Digital Advancements to Identity

1. Disconnectedness
The increasing use of gadgets and presence in the social media results in being disconnected from the
people around us. As we rush to check and connect to the online world we neglect to interact face to face with
those who demand attention from us. Often, we prefer to stay stuck on the social media creating recent posts
or stalking on someone else account for hours while being mentally insensitive to the happenings around us.
Such reality is what disconnects us from our relationships.

2. Developing and Nurturing Virtual Relationship

The progressive development in the features of social networking sites allows individuals to gain
thousands of friends and even millions of followers. This eventually leads to creating virtual relationships which
satisfies the need for relationships and intimacy. However as this can provide positive impact on the individual
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 129
 the same can also cause inability to maintain face to face relationships which demands more personal
adjustments and understanding of human differences. Hence, it can be concluded that relationships have
become superficial as we tend to nurture the relationship only within the confines of the digital environment
which demands simple duties such as "liking' or sharing a friend's recent online post

3. Online Recklessness
The online world has provided its users the opportunity to express themselves by communicating their
thoughts and responses whether in the form of an emoticon, emoji, animated gif, meme or through traditional
words. These are ways to express positive or negative feedback on a recent post seen on a random feed in a
social networking site.
The digital world provides us with the chance of expressing our thoughts and viewpoints from the
confines and comforts of our room but do we really use this freedom with a sense of responsibility? If we state
an unconventional response that can trigger public outrage or collective reaction from all of those who can see
our raw reactions, are we willing to stand for the consequences? We are all liable for our acts but many have
revealed the tendency is to be reckless and irresponsible. They cannot regulate and monitor on their
expression of emotions. After the damage has been done through the posting of opinions or personal reactions
online, the next step is to delete the same. This is definitely a manifestation of extreme recklessness which
does not in any way help in the development of maturity among individuals.

BUT remember, class, that whatever you post online is there forever. You may have deleted a post but
people out there have a receipt of what you posted. Receipts are evidences or proof often in the form of
screenshots or saved snapshots. Case in point: Liza Soberano on rape comment

4. Distorted Identity Formation

The digital world offers the opportunity to create several identities according to our hearts' desire. An
individual can change his citizenship, gender, looks, character, and status in the online world. The desire to
be someone else or to create an ideal self in this realm can be achieved instantly through the advance features
offered in the social networking sites as enhanced by open sourced applications. The identity that we desire
to project Online may either reflect our true self or our ideal self. However as we work for affirmation from our
Online friends and acquaintances, we tend not to be truthful to ourselves. Indeed, nobody wanted to be
rejected, everyone desires to be loved and accepted but as the Online world offers varied ways to enhance
our image then that becomes our tool to create a 'new identity that will guarantee acceptance by the valued
online friends, followers and acquaintances despite the deviation from what is real.

5. A Significant Portion of Our lives is Being Broadcasted (OverSharing)

The online world gives its users the chance to have that 'celebrity feel'. We pose everything from food
to travel to relationship status and minor or major events in our life. If analyzed well, it shows that every detail
of what we post online is for public consumption. Without considering the risks and the hazard online world
has evidently become an outlet for most of us. This is called oversharing.

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 Oversharing happens when people share too much personal information to the public or a stranger. It
is a big problem on social media sites, which make "putting yourself online" easy. The following are examples
of oversharing:
• Posting intimate details about your relationships, friendships, family matters, or personal drama including heated
arguments with significant others
• Using social media as a soapbox or a way to vent your emotions.
• Posting photos or videos of things meant to be private including embarrassing photos or videos of yourself or others.
• Regularly posting your meals.
• "Checking In" to everywhere you go.
• Posting about whatever you are doing at a given moment, multiple times a day.
• Sharing too much info about and photos of your children.

Bu why do we overshare?
Social Media Encourages It
Social media sites invite users to share everything about their personal lives. It's easy to post a status
update, a photo, an event, or a "check-in" with the click of a button. Unfortunately, this can lead to FOMO, or
fear of missing out. FOMO, according to JWTIntelligence, is “the uneasy and sometimes all-consuming
feeling that you’re missing out — that your peers are doing, in the know about, or in possession of more or
something better than you.”
Are you experiencing FOMO? Here are the signs:
•
o You’re always on your phone, checking your Facebook or other social media notifications, and texting friends, even when you’re at
a party, supposedly having a great time.
o When you’re at home, you’re still constantly checking Twitter, Facebook, and text messages.
o You have a hard time making a buying decision because something better might come along.
o You don’t want to commit to making plans until you’ve heard from everyone and can pick the most exciting option.
o You think other people are having a better time, buying better things, or living happier lives based on their profile page or tweets.
o You feel anxious and inadequate after reading your friends’ Facebook updates.

To Vent Emotions And Stress

•
o It is likely that we have seen someone's angry Facebook or Twitter rant at least once. Because social media gives
everyone a voice and a platform to express it, it can be tempting to "air your dirty laundry" there.

Venting anger was found to relax people (in the short-run). In a study by Martin, Coyier, Van Sistine, &
Schroeder (2013), 100 percent of frequent internet ranters reported feeling calm and relaxed after posting on
a rant-site like justrage.com. They concluded that benefits are only short-term and, in the long run, people who
rant online (or in person) suffer for it. In fact, in this same study, they found that frequent ranters were angrier
than the average person and expressed their anger in a more negative way than the average person. So, even
though it relaxes people in the short-run, it’s bad for you in the long-run.

For Attention
•

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o Getting likes, comments, shares, and that little boost of attention can give them the feeling of being famous. This can
lead to a desire to post things they know will get them noticed, even if they're "too much."

In an article published by the Association for Psychological Science (2016), they presented that:
The same brain circuits that are activated by eating chocolate and winning money are activated when teenagers see large
numbers of “likes” on their own photos or the photos of peers in a social network, according to findings from a study in which
researchers scanned teens’ brains while they used social media.

6. Digital Self-Harm
Almost of similar degree to mutilating oneself we show how sad and problematic we are through the
online space. Studies have revealed that around 6 adolescents between the ages of 12 to 17 years are
practicing this so called digital self-harm," and they are done through the use of smartphones. According to
criminologist and cyberbullying researchers Justin W. Patchin, Ph.D., and Sameer Hinduja, Ph.D., digital self-
harm entails the “anonymous online posting, sending, or otherwise sharing of hurtful content about oneself.”
This implies that people tend to demean themselves on public as they tend to validate their insecurities and
weaknesses among their online friends and followers.
Patchin and Hinduja (2017) note in their study that “…many who had participated in digital self-harm
were looking for a response,” What kind of response exactly? The youth in Patchin and Hinduja’s survey
reported several different kinds. These included wanting others’ pity, wanting “to be validated that someone
did actually care about me,” and attempting to elicit others’ help (e.g., hoping that another person might come
to the assistance of or defend the target of the harmful statement—the individual who made the statement to
begin with).

The loneliness, emptiness and anxiety digital technology produce results in the declining mental health
and the increasing rate of adolescent suicide. As the online world has provided a means for these individuals
to express themselves, it also allows the chance to post bad self-impressions about one's looks and traits
which later validates insecurities and low self-concept.

7. Contribute to a Declining Mental Health

Severe exposure and engagement in the digital world can result to extreme loneliness and anxiety
especially among teens. The inability to gain attention from the significant others results to sadness and
frustration. This is contributing a lot to a declining mental health as the individual is unable to overcome stress.
Crimes arise due to this reality as they develop angst and heighten emotional issues which they cannot resolve
in a more mature manner.
According to the Royal Society for Public Health, YouTube tops the table as the most positive,
with Instagram and Snapchat coming out as the most detrimental to young people’s mental health and
wellbeing. Based on the ratings young people gave to each platform for each of the health and wellbeing-
related issues, the five most popular platforms were given a net average score which were used to establish
the league table rankings:

1.
1. YouTube (most positive)
2. Twitter
3. Facebook
4. Snapchat
5. Instagram (most negative)
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8. Self-Obsession
Constant exposure to the online world has evidently increased the incidence of narcissism. Many have
become self-obsessed and self-absorbed as facilitated and promoted by the social media. As social
networking sites allow escape from the daily woes of life, expectations consequently arise. Users expect that
there will be following and responses to their posts whether it is an image, a quote, an emotional post evident
through likes' 'shares' and 'tweets.' Individuals who submit themselves to the mentality propagated by these
social networking sites have become preoccupied by trying to produce their best photos and images, detailed
account of their most recent activities as well as the best image of the cup of coffee they have bought from
that high-end café with a location posted on their Facebook, Instagram or Twitter accounts. All of these
accounts have to do with themselves, what they are doing now, who they are with and what they feel now.
Individuals have become so engrossed with themselves.

The digital world has inspired individuals to be so amazed about the “me, myself and I” craze

Consequently the development of the social media has brought forth the introduction of intangible elements which
become an extension of ourselves. Those are what we post online and what we keep offline which become part of our
digital possessions. Photos, emails, SMS, videos and the like have become vital reflections of our digital self.

Reasons for Engaging in the Digital Hype

REASONS FOR ENGAGING IN THE DIGITAL HYPE
By Magalona, Sadsad, Cruz (2018)

The digital world offers a unique experience which makes great impact on the way individuals express
themselves as largely the same sentiment is driven by the following basic reasons:

1. Every individual desires to meet the expectation of the significant others in his/her life. Many would not readily post
their photos online but will edit or filter the same to ensure that they look a lot better in their digital images. The use of
several online applications (Apps) facilitates this need;
2. Online posting of objects as well as current statuses is expected to receive responses and reactions from their
followers as in the form of ‘likes’ and ‘shares.’ These are gestures that boost their ego and self esteem
3. As Abraham Maslow had stated in the 'Hierarchy of Needs' (1943), each has the need to 'belong.' Everyone desires to
blend in.' And so when everyone on the social media poses photos of his/her food then all others follow the trend.
Uploading of these images creates a feeling of being part of the hype.
4. The digital web provides individual with much more freedom to express themselves in varied forms. Whether verbally
or non-verbally these digital platforms create an avenue to communicate and express ideas and views just about
everything.
5. The digital world allow the individual to achieve his or her ‘ideal self’ whether it is physical such as those provided by
online applications to improve their images physically. And it could also be emotionally as platform users can express
themselves by 'Vlogging' or even Blogging.' Whichever manner results in an emotional experience that makes one feel
good about his or her self.

Online Disinhibition
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 ONLINE DISINHIBITION: THE CAUSES
By: Palean, Nazario, Valero and Descartin (2018)

The online disinhibition effect describes the loosening of social restrictions and inhibitions that are normally
present in face-to-face interactions that takes place in interactions on the Internet. John Suler posits six factors
that often cause online disinhibition. They are as follows

1. DISSOCIATIVE ANONYMITY ("People Don't Know Me")

This is the confidence you feel every time you anonymously engage in online activities. Because you
can easily disassociate your online identities from your offline ones, you can be relatively carefree (or
careless, even) in your virtual behavior, resulting in a more unfiltered, even harmful, you. Arguing online
in the comments sections, for example, emboldens you to use profanities and even hate slurs because
none of them really knows you personally.
#ANONYMITY - the act of communicating wherein the sender does not openly reveal his/her identity

2. INVISIBILITY ("People Can't See Me")

In this factor, you can sometimes intentionally misrepresent yourself to come across as an entirely
different person. Unlike in real conversations, invisibility enables you to alter your virtual avatar's
personality and even appearance, sometimes to lure attractive people into taking notice of you, or just
to generally avoid scrutiny when you participate online. In hiding your true physical and personal
attributes away, you are effectively freeing yourself up from the baggage of having to present yourself
as you truly are.
#PSEUDONYMITY - same as anonymity, but the sender takes on alternate personas

3. ASYNCHRONICITY ("See You When I See You")

Time is a very important element in face to face communications. This is why meetings at work are
scheduled based on the attendees availability. Conversely, you have the luxury of time delay in the
virtual world. Every time you send an e-mail or even a message on Facebook, time is on your side. You
can compose, structure, and edit it in a span of several minutes, sometimes an hour or even more.
Even your posts in online forums can be made to read smarter than they are originally, thanks to web
references you can access in an instant. Another plus is that you do not even need to be physically
present in your virtual engagements. In effect, this makes you more relaxed in dealing with people
online with the pressures of real world communication removed completely

4. SOLIPSISTIC INTROJECTION ("It's All in The Mind")

We essentially communicate online through typewritten words. Verbal cues, though ever-present are
not the accepted norm in interacting virtually. In this regard, you unconsciously recite in your head both
the messages you send and those deployed your way. You play casting director for these voices,
imagining how the pitch or intonation would be if spoken out loud. Ultimately, you think of your voice
when you read the messages. And because the words are filtered through you, you feel less intimidated
in communicating thinking it is all happening in your own personal psychic domain. This is why
acquaintances are sometimes very talkative to each other virtually but do not actually speak let alone
interact much in real life.

PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 134

5. DISSOCIATIVE IMAGINATION ("It's All a Play")
Simply put, this is the faulty belief that online interaction is a game, and whose rules you can easily
break with no perceived implications. Buoyed by the assumption that your real-life identity and digital
avatars are separate entities and that the cyberspace is but an outlet for escape (like movies), you
sometimes resort to doing unspeakable things you normally wouldn't in real life. This notion often
rationalizes criminal behavior online, particularly identity theft or even sexual harassment

6. MINIMIZATION OF STATUS AND AUTHORITY ("Your Rules Don't Work Online")

Have you ever stumbled upon one of your professors Facebook profiles and it suddenly occurred to you how
powerless he/she seems to look? If yes, then this is because the internet, more than just providing users a
disinhibited space, levels the playing field, with no one personality having unanimous clout over others.
Perhaps your professor, or even a politician for that matter, is influential outside the realm of the cyberspace,
but within it, he/she, along with the great many, still belong under the same classification: user. Take notice
how ordinary individuals suddenly have the guts to engage influential people in arguments on social media.
Online, people are perceived to

Finals Weeks 5-6

Well-being
INTRODUCTION

WELL-BEING
Well-being is the experience of health, happiness, and prosperity. It
includes having good mental health, high life satisfaction, a sense of
meaning or purpose, and ability to manage stress. More generally, well-
being is just feeling well.
CAN YOU ACTUALLY IMPROVE WELL-BEING?
Increasing your well-being is simple; there are tons of skills you can build. But
increasing your well-being is not always easy: Figuring out what parts of well-being are most
important for you and figuring out how, exactly, to build well-being skills usually require some
extra help.

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO IMPROVE WELL-BEING?

Usually, when people start consistently using science-based techniques for enhancing
well-being or emotional wellness, they begin to feel better pretty quickly. In the studies I've
conducted and read, most people show significant improvements within five weeks.

But you have to stick to it. If you are feeling better after five weeks, you can't just stop there.

Why? Well, you probably already know that if you stop eating healthy and go back to eating
junk food, then you'll end up back where you started. It turns out that the exact same thing is
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 135
true for different types of well-being. If you want to maintain the benefits you gain, you'll have
to continue to engage in well-being-boosting practices to maintain your skills. So it's really
helpful to have strategies and tools that help you stick to your long-term goals — for example,
a happiness and well-being plan or a well-being boosting activity that you can continue to use
throughout your life.

Here's what you need to know:

WHERE DOES WELL-BEING COME FROM?

Well-being emerges from your thoughts, actions, and experiences — most of which
you have control over. For example, when we think positive, we tend to have greater
emotional well-being. When we pursue meaningful relationships, we tend to have better social
well-being. And when we lose our job — or just hate it — we tend to have lower workplace
well-being. These examples start to reveal how broad well-being is, and how many different
types of well-being there are.

Because well-being is such a broad experience, let's break it down into its different types.

5 MAJOR TYPES OF WELL-BEING

EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING. The ability to practice stress-management and relaxation
techniques, be resilient, boost self-love, and generate the emotions that lead to good feelings.
PHYSICAL WELL-BEING. The ability to improve the functioning of your body
through healthy living and good exercise habits.
SOCIAL WELL-BEING. The ability to communicate, develop meaningful relationships with
others, and maintain a support network that helps you overcome loneliness.
WORKPLACE WELL-BEING. The ability to pursue your interests, values, and life purpose in order to
gain meaning, happiness, and enrichment professionally.
SOCIETAL WELL-BEING. The ability to actively participate in a thriving community, culture,
and environment.

To build your overall well-being, you have to make sure all of these types are
functioning to an extent.

Think of it like this: Imagine you are in a car. Your engine works great, and maybe your
transmission works pretty well, too, but your brakes don't work. Because your brakes don't
work, it doesn't really matter how well your engine works; you're still going to have trouble
going about your life.
The same is true for your well-being. If everything else in your life is going great, but you feel
lonely, or you're eating unhealthfully, other areas of your life will be affected, and you likely
won't feel as well as you want to.

Because each part of well-being is important to your overall sense of well-being, let's
talk about how to build PDEV
each1013-
type of well-being:
Understanding the Self Module 8 | 136
 EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING. To develop emotional well-being, we need to build emotional
skills — skills like positivity, emotion regulation, and mindfulness, for example. Often, we need to
build a
variety of these skills to cope with the wide variety of situations we encounter in our lives. When
we have built these emotional well-being skills, we can better cope with stress, handle our
emotions in the face of challenges, and quickly recover from disappointments. As a result, we
can enjoy our lives a bit more, be happier and pursue our goals a bit more effectively.
Here are some of the skills that research suggests contribute
to emotional well-being:
-HappinessSkills
-MindfulnessSkills
-Positive ThinkingSkills
-ResilienceSkills

PHYSICAL WELL-BEING. To develop our physical well-being, we need to know what a

healthy diet and exercise routine looks like, so that we can implement effective strategies in
our daily lives. When we improve our physical well-being, not only do we feel better, our
newfound health can also help prevent many diseases, heal our guts, boost our emotional
well-being, and limit the number of health challenges we have to deal with in our lives.
•
Here are some of the things that can help you boost your
physical well-being:
• Eating for Health
• Detoxing Your Body
• Correcting Nutritional Deficiencies
• Removing Plastic From Your Home

Unfortunately, it's possible to eat healthy but still be unhealthy. We can accidentally miss
important foods or nutrients. Or we can overburden ourselves with toxins from plastic or
processed food. As a result, we may need to eat additional foods, detox our bodies, or prevent
these toxins from entering our bodies again. This is why it's essential to learn about health, so
that we can make the right changes — those that lead to long-term health and well-being.

SOCIAL WELL-BEING. To develop social well-being,we need to build our social skills, like
gratitude, kindness, and communication. Social skills make it easier for us to have
positive interactions with others, helping us to feel less lonely, angry, or disconnected. When
we have developed our social well-being, we feel more meaningfully connected to others.
Here are some of the skills that research suggests contribute to better social well-being:
PDEV 1013- Understanding the Self Module 8 | 137
• Practicing gratitude (for example with a gratitude journal?
• Building Meaningful Social Connections
• Managing Your Relationship with Technology

It's important to know that building social well-being is one the best ways to build emotional
well-being. When we feel socially connected, we also tend to just feel better, have more
positive emotions, and we are able to cope better with challenges. This is why it's essential to
build our social well-being.

WORKPLACE WELL-BEING. To develop our workplace well-being, we need to build skills

that help us pursue what really matters to us. This can include building professional skills
which help us to meet our life goalsand help us manifest things, but it also includes things like
living our values and maintaining work-life balance. These skills let us enjoy our work more,
helping us to stay focused, motivated, and successful at work. When we have developed
workplace well-being, our work, and therefore each day, feels more meaningful.
Here are some of the key skills you need for workplace well-being:
• Maintaining Work-Life Balance
• Finding Your Purpose
Because we spend so much time at work, building our workplace well-being has a big
impact on our overall well-being.

SOCIETAL WELL-BEING. To develop societal well-being, we need to build skills that make
us feel interconnected with all things. We need to know how to support our environment, build
stronger local communities, and foster a culture of compassion, fairness, and kindness. These
skills help us feel like we're part of a thriving community that really supports one another and
the world at large. When we cultivate societal well-being, we feel like we are a part of
something bigger than just ourselves and live happily.
Although each of us only makes up a tiny fraction of a society, it takes all of us to create
societal well-being. If each of us did one kind act for someone else in our community, then
we would live in a very kind community. Or if all of us decide we are going to recycle, then
suddenly we create a world with significantly less waste. In order to live in a healthy society,
we too need to contribute to making a healthy society.

Here are some of the skills you can build for greater societal well-being:
• Living Your Values
• Creating a Plastic-Free Home
• Making Positive Impacts in Other People's Lives
• Kindness
There Is No Magic About Building Well-Being
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 Keep in mind, it takes time and effort to build any new skill set —
that includes well-being skills. It's important to be realistic with
yourself about what you can reasonably accomplish in a given
amount of time. Having unrealistic expectations can lead you to
give up before you've reached your well-being goals.
So it's key to create a realistic plan for your well-being, stick to it,
and take small actions every day that add up to big improvements up over time.
GROWING YOUR WELL-BEING IS A LIFELONG PURSUIT, BUT IT IS TOTALLY WORTH
IT.
Theories of well-being
THEORIES OF WELL-BEING

HEDONISTIC THEORY-this theory pertains to experiences of pleasure and pain. In other words, our lives go best
when they have the greatest amount of happiness. An example to this as cited in the works of Jeremy Bentham
(1789), suggests that the value of experience depends on their duration and the intensity of pleasure or pain present in
them.
In the study of Ryan and Deci (2001), Pavot and Diener (2008), and Ryan et al., (2008) as cited by Gomez-
Lopez, Viejo and Ortega-Ruiz (2019), the hedonic view reflects the notion of well-being as an outcome, consisting of an
internal state of pleasure or happiness, and focuses on subjective well-being. Deci and Ryan (2008) defined hedonistic
well-being in terms of experiencing high levels of positive affect, low levels of negative affect, and a high degree of
satisfaction with life. On the other hand, according to the eudaimonic view, well-being consists of more than just
happiness. This theory considers that not all desires – outcomes that a person might value – would lead to well-being
when they are achieved (Ryan and Deci, 2001). According to Deci and Ryan (2008) as cited by Gomez-Lopez, Viejo
and Ortega-Ruiz (2019), well-being is not an outcome or final state, but a process of fulfilling human potentials.

DESIRE FULFILLMENT THEORY is a theory of welfare which help to determine what is good or bad for us in life.
This holds the idea on well-being which is attributed in desire-satisfaction. The theory tells us that one’s life goes well to
the extent that a person gets what they want. This theory suggests that the higher the number of satisfied desires, the
higher the well-being. However, other versions of this theory identified some problems because not all desires are good:
some desires may even have terrible consequences for the agent.

OBJECTIVE LIST THEORY state that a person's well-being depends on a list of factors. This theory holds that a
plurality of basic objective goods directly benefits people. This list may also include subjective factors like a pleasure-
pain-balance or desire-satisfaction besides factors that are independent of the subject's attitudes, like friendship or
having virtues (Haybron, 2020). Some examples of these objective goods include loving relationships, meaningful
knowledge, autonomy, achievement, and pleasure.

SOCIAL WELL-BEING THEORY

encompasses the extent to which individuals feel they make valued social contributions. It is perceived that
social contributions as meaningful and intelligible, experience a sense of social belonging, maintain positive attitudes
toward others, and believe in the potential for society to evolve positively. An individual who contributes to the
development of his or her community has the feeling of worthiness and maintain positive attitude towards his
attainment of one’s purpose and meaning of existence.

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 The PERMA model is a framework developed to help us understand the building blocks of well-being. The PERMA
model is an evidence-based model of well-being developed by Martin Seligman. Seligman is commonly known as the
founder of Positive Psychology, and he introduced the PERMA model in his 2012 book, “Flourish”

Scientific approaches in the study of well being

There are three subdisciplines in the field of psychology related to the study of psychological aspect of well-
being. These include:

1. Developmental psychology-this field tries to understand the psychological well-being of a person by analyzing the
pattern of growth across the lifespan.
2. Personality psychology- a field of psychology which tries to explain the psychological well-being of an individual by
applying Maslow's concept of self-actualization. Other concepts also try to explain the relationship of well-being such as
Rogers' concept of the fully functioning person, Jung's concept of individuation, and Allport's concept of maturity to
account for psychological well-being.
3. Clinical psychology which studies well-being based on biological, psychological and social needs being met. It is
an integration of science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving
psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.

Self-care
Taking Care of the Self: The Need for Self-Care and Compassion

Generally speaking, self-care is engaging in activities and behaviors that have a positive effect on
one's mental and physical health (Greene, 2017). She adds that there's a bit of "reverse golden rule" aspect
to the practice; that is to treat yourself as compassionately as you treat others. So basically, self-care
involves any activity that a person will engage in to reach optimal physical or mental health. It can look
different to anyone, so it is important to find activities that are going to be effective for you. This includes:
• activities that are going to make you feel mentally well in a long term such as:
-getting enough sleep
-eating a healthy diet
-getting exercise
-practicing mindfulness
• activities you naturally find relaxing or pleasurable:
-taking yourself to the movie
-having night in with tea and a good book
-watching Netflix at home with family

Furthermore, it is also a good idea to consider social activities you enjoy with the people you care about.
Having the support of other people in your life can go a long way.
Why is self-care necessary?

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 1. It increases sense of self-love, allowing appreciation and acceptance of who a person is.
2. It promotes feelings of calm and relaxation, serving as a way to refocus and come back to daily life
refreshed and ready to take on anything.\
3. It improves both physical and mental health by reducing the effects of prolonged stress on mind and body.
Ways to engage in self-care:
· Physical self-care: eating well, exercising regularly, prioritizing sleep and taking care of health.
· Emotional self-care: managing anxiety, anger, sadness, and other emotions. Setting boundaries with
people who are not positive or supportive. Spending time alone to rest and recharge. Maintaining a bullet
journal.
· Spiritual self-care: volunteering, connecting with nature, meditation, mindfulness.

To take care of the self is also to delve into compassion, for the self needs to seek its deeper meaning.
Everyone has had that share of loving-kindness; meaning wishing happiness for another person. Compassion
is wishing for that person to be free from suffering (Germer, 2009). Compassion literally means "to suffer
together." Among emotion researchers, compassion is defined as the feeling that arises when you are
confronted with another's suffering and feel motivated to relieve that suffering (Greater Good Science Center,
2017).
Compassion is not the same as empathy or altruism, though the concepts are related. While empathy
refers more generally to our ability to take the perspective of and feel the emotions of another person,
compassion is when those feelings and thoughts include the desire to help. Altruism, in turn, is the kind,
selfless behavior often prompted by feelings of compassion, though one can feel compassion without acting
on it, and altruism isn't always motivated by compassion (Greater Good Science Center, 2017).

There are various forms of compassion and why they are so important. Paul Ekman (2010) enumerates:

FAMILIAL COMPASSION is the seed of compassion, planted through the caregiver-offspring bond. It raises
very interesting questions about people who were brought up without a single caregiver, or were brought up
with a parent who had a very distant attachment. What is their capacity for compassion? Without the seed, the
flower won't grow.
GLOBAL COMPASSION was exemplified by the response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. People around
the world extended assistance to the strangers, or different races and skin colors. Now, that not everyone has
it, a lot of people acted, and a lot of people didn't. How does one cultivate global compassion? Consider the
survival of children and grandchildren, because planet earth won't survive without global compassion.
SENTIENT COMPASSION is when one extends feelings of compassion towards cockroaches, toward any
living being. When people got sentient, they also got global; sentient is the highest moral virtue
HEROIC COMPASSION is like altruism with a risk. It has two forms: Immediate Heroic Compassion is when,
without thought, one jumps onto the MRT tracks to rescue someone. It is impulsive. Considered Heroic
Compassion isn't done impulsively; it is done with thought, and it can be maintained for many years.
The most significant contribution of self-compassion is the attention given to the "self," which is always
associated with the body, and the bodies are built for survival.
Self is needed to make progress on the path of self-compassion. People can cultivate a kind, gentle attitude,
not rejecting, not overly prizing, toward the self until it no longer suffers and has no reason to assert itself. The
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more compassion one gives to the suffering "self," the more flexible it becomes. Compassion from others or
from within oneself helps him/her accept himself in his/her discomfort (Germer, 2009).

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