General Science

Science
 Is a systematic study that is concerned with facts and principles, and methods
that could be observed in our natural or physical and social environment. It
comes from the Latin word scire that means to know.

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
PHYSICAL SCIENCES
 Physics: The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them.
Physicists study such subjects as gravity, light and time Albert Einstein, a
famous physicist, developed the theory of Relativity
 Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, properties,
reactions, and the structure of matter. The chemist Louis Pasteur, for
example discovered pasteurization which is the process of heating liquids
such as milk and orange juice to kill harmful germs.
 Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the Earth’s atmosphere

EARTH SCIENCES
 Geology: The science of the orgin, history, and structure of the Earth, and
the physical, chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is
experiencing.
 Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean
 Paleontology: The science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric of
geologic periods.
 Meteorology: The science that deals with the atmosphere and it’s
phenomena, such as weather and climate.

LIFE SCIENCES (BIOLOGY)

 Botany: The study of plants
 Zoology: The science that covers animals and animals life.
 Genetics: The study of Heredity
 Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness,
disease, and injury

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

 is the logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to

explain different phenomena in nature. A thing observed by the senses is
called a phenomenon, a scientifically tested observation is called a fact. The
scientific method has six basic steps, namely:
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a. Identify and clearly state the problem.
b. Gather information pertinent to the problem.
C. Formulate hypothesis.
d. Test the hypothesis.
Controlled experiment experiment.
1) Trials - number of times experiment is repeated.
2) Controls - factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment
3) Variables - factors that change during the experiment.
e. Draw a generalization or conclusion.
1) Conclusion - a statement about the result of the experiment.
2) Law - a statement which describes what happens but does not explain the
cause of the occurrence.
3) Theory - hypothesis that can be explained from observations.
f. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations.

MEASUREMENT
Quantity Unit
Length Meters (m)
Mass Kilograms (k)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric Current Amperes (amp)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Amount of Substance Moles
Luminous intensity/ light Candelas
International System (SI) of Measurement
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TEMPERATURE
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is the
scale based on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of
water. Invented in 1742 by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is
sometimes called the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree interval
between the defined points. The following formula can be used to convert a
temperature from its representation on the Fahrenheit (F) scale to the Celsius
(C) value: C = 5/9(F - 32). The Celsius scale is in general use wherever metric
units have become accepted, and it is used in scientific work everywhere.
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature
measurement in the International System (SI) of measurement. It is defined as
1/ 273.16 of the triple point (equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous
phases) of pure water. The Kelvin (symbol K without the degree sign) is also the
fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale, an absolute temperature scale named for
the British physicist William Thomson, Baron Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is related
to the Celsius scale. The difference between the freezing and boiling points of
water is 100 degrees in each, so that the Kelvin has the same magnitude as the
degree Celsius. To convert Celsius to Kelvin: K = ___°C + 273
VOLUME
 refers to the amount of space that an object occupies. It is often used
to signify more accurate measurements.

 VOLUME OF A REGULAR SOLID

A regular solid is one having length, width, and thickness or height and
gach can be measured in a single straight line. Tomeasure the volume, we
use a standard unit of measurement which is the meter. The volume of a
regular solid is obtained by multiplying its length, width and thickness. The
volume is expressed in cubic units ( ex. Cubic meter, cubic cm, etc)
 VOLUME OF A LIQUID
Liquid volume is also measured in cubic meters but the use of liter (L) is
widely accepted. Graduated cylinder is used to measure the volume of
liquid. In reading the measurement of the volume of clear liquid, read the
lower meniscus. For colored liquids, read the upper meniscus.
 VOLUME OF AN IRREGULAR SOLID
An irregular solid is one where a dimension cannot be measured in a single
Straight line. The displacement method is used to determine the volume of
irregular solids.
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DENSITY
- is the mass of the object per unit volume. Substances differ in their
densities. Each substance has a specific density. All materials with a density
les than 1 g/cc (density of water) will float on water, and all those with
density greater than I g/cc will sink. D= Mass/ Volume (g/cc)

FORCE
normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull anything that
changes the speed and direction of moving objects or that which causes a
stationary object to start moving in a straight line

MEASURING FORCE
 Gravitational force is the pull that the earth exerts on all objects and is
measured by the weight of an object. Some instruments for measuring
weight are: the bathroom scale and the balance (or kilohan) you often
see in the market.

TYPES OF FORCES
Gravitational force-downward force that the earth exerts on objects
a. Inertia - tendency of an object to remain at rest or maintain its motion
unless disturbed by a force
b. Friction- resists / opposes the relative sliding movement of two surfaces
in contact with one another.
c. Centripetal force-drive a thing inward toward a center or rotation. It
keeps an object moving in a circular path.
d. Force of Gravity- that which is acting on an object which enables it to
exert an equal and opposite force on its support.

Nuclear Force- the strongest known force which holds together the protons
and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Electromagnetic Force- binds electrons to the atomic nucleus, atoms in the
molecules, ions in solid matter, and molecules into liquids and solids.

WORK
In science, work is done only when the force applied to an object actually
moves the object in the direction of the force. This is represented as:
WORK = force x displacement

Force- anything that causes motion or a change in motion

Displacement - the distance and direction through hich an object is moved

CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF WORK

W=Fxd
(Newton) (meter) = Newton-meter or joule
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ENERGY
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial (en meaning in and
ergon, meaning work). Anything that is able to do work possess energy.
Energy is the ability to do work or the ability to exert force on an object and
make it move.

FORMS OF ENERGY
a. Mechanical Energy
 kinetic energy-energy possessed by an object or a body in motion
 potential energy-energy possessed by a body because of its position
or state
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy - total energy coming from the
attractive and repulsive forces of all the particles or molecules in a body
c. Heat Energy- energy which flows from one body to another due to a
temperature difference between them, and the flow is always from the hotter
to the colder body
d. Electrical Energy - electricity is the energy of electrons flowing through
conductors, like copper wires and aluminum wires.
e. Chemical Energy - energy stored in matter due to forces of attraction and
to the arrangement of subatomic particles in atoms and of atoms in the
molecules of substances.
f. Radiant Energy - energy of the electromagnetic waves, radio waves,
infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, x rays and gamma rays.
g. Nuclear Energy - energy released from nuclear fusion or fission of atomic
nuclei of heavy element or light element.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Conduction
The molecules in a material are always moving. When one part of a material is
heated, the molecules in that part move faster and collide with other
molecules. As this goes on, heat is conducted from molecule to molecule until
the heat is spread throughout the material. This is conduction. A conductor is
the material through which heat passes easily. An insulator is a material that
conducts heat poorly.
Convection
The movement of a gas or liquid brought about by temperature differences
creates a convection current. Heat is transferred by Convection when a gas or
liquid moves from one place to another.
Radiation
Heat transfer when heat is given of in all directions around them is radiation.
The sun and other hot objects radiates energy.
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ENERGY RESOURCES
a. Fossil Fuels
1. Coal-being mined formed from trees and other vegetation buried in
swamps crated by the encroaching sea
2. Petroleum a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid hydrocarbons.
3. Natural Gas-composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. It is 50 to 94%
methane and other hydrocarbons.
b. Hydroelectric Power- pertains to the production of electricity by means of
generators driven by water turbines.
c. Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy inside the earth, energy of steam
from beneath the earth's surface
d. Wind Energy-energy harnessed through the windmill
e. Solar Energy- energy from the sun, radiant energy. The visible light is
harnessed to produce the electricity by means of so-called solar cells or
photovoltaic cells, which generate electricity when exposed to sunlight

Earth’s Structure

THE CORE - The inner part of the earth is the core. This part of the earth is
about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the earth's surface. The core is a dense
ball of the elements iron and nickel. It is divided into two layers, the inner core
and the outer core. The inner core - the center of earth - is solid and about 780
miles (1,250 km) thick. The outer core is so hot that the metal is always
molten, but the inner core pressures are so great that it cannot melt, even
though temperatures there reach 6700ºF (3700ºC). The outer core is about
1370 miles (2,200 km) thick. Because the earth rotates, the outer core spins
around the inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism
THE MANTLE - The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins about 6 miles
(10 km) below the oceanic crust and about 19 miles (30 km) below the
continental crust (see The Crust). The mantle is to divide into the inner mantle
and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick and makes up
nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total volume
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THE CRUST - The crust lies above the mantle and is the earth's hard outer
shell, the surface on which we are living. In relation with the other layers the
crust is much thinner. It floats upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust is
made up of solid material but these material is not everywhere the same.
There is an Oceanic crust and a Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7
miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The Continental
crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles (30 km) thick. It is
mainly made up of light material, like granite.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
The shield volcano: This is a broad, shallow volcanic cone, which
areas because the running lava, which is fluid and
hot, cools slowly.
The dome volcano: This one has a steep, convex slope from thick,
fast- cooling lava
The ash-cinder Throws out - besides lava - much ash into the air.
volcano: Through this the volcanic cone is built up from
alternate layers of ash and cinder.
The composite These are also built up from alternate layers of
volcano: lava and ash but, besides its main crater, it has
many little craters on its slope.
The caldera volcano: An older volcano with a large crater which can be
62 miles(100km) wide. In this crater many little
new craters are formed.

EARTHQUAKES
An Earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused by sudden
movements in the earth's crust. The biggest earthquakes are set off by the
movement of tectonic plates. Some plates slide past each other gently, but
others can cause a heavy pressure on the rocks, so they finally crack and slide
past each other. By this, vibrations or shock waves are caused, which go
through the ground. It is these vibrations or seismic waves which cause an
earthquake. The closer to the source of the earthquake (the focus or
hypocenter), the more damage occurs. Earthquakes are classified according
to the depth of the focus.

0-43 miles (0-70 km) below shallow earthquakes

ground:
43-186 miles (70-300 km) below intermediate earthquakes
ground:
deeper than 186 miles (300 km) deep earthquakes
below ground:
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ROCKS
Rocks are classified in three types based on how they are formed.
a. Igneous rocks are formed when molten rock (magma) from within Earth
cools and solidifies. There are two types: intrusive igneous rocks solidify
beneath Earth's surface; extrusive igneous rocks solidify at the surface.
Examples: Granite, basalt, obsidian
b. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (bits of rock plus material
such as shells and sand) gets packed together. They can take millions of
years to form. Most rocks that you see on the ground are sedimentary.
Examples: Limestone, sandstone, shale
c. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks that have been
transformed by heat, pressure or both. Metamorphic rocks are usually
formed deep within Earth, during a process such as mountain building.
Examples: Schist, marble, slate
Further complications within the rock cycle include (1) weathering of
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks (in addition to igneous rocks), and (2)
metamorphism of igneous rocks and repeated metamorphism of
metamorphic rocks.