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UNIT-I

 Lord William Bentinck:

Introduction:
British rule over India started as a trading unit, when East India Company received a
Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600. Within a time period of
nearly three centuries, the British turned from a trading power to one of the most
powerful countries in the world.
Even after being a small island country, Britain was able to establish one of the
largest empires in the world. The extent of the empire can be depicted by the phrase
that "the empire on which the Sun never sets”.
Britain was able to achieve this tremendous feat on the backdrop of the strong and
efficient bureaucracy that it established in its colonies. In India, the British were able
to establish this control through Governor-General & Viceroys.
Background:
i. Governor-General of Bengal (1773-1833): When East India Company came
to India, it controlled Bengal through a post named as "Governor of Bengal"
(first Governor of Bengal: Robert Clive).
Other Presidencies, Bombay and Madras, had their own Governor.
However, after the passing of Regulating Act 1773, the post of Governor of
Bengal was converted into "Governor-General of Bengal" (first Governor-
General of Bengal was Warren Hastings).
Through this Act Governor of Bombay and Madras worked under the
Governor-General of Bengal.
ii. Governor-General of India (1833-58): By Charter Act of 1833, the post
name of Governor-General of Bengal again converted into "Governor-General
of India" (first Governor-General of India was William Bentinck.)
This post was mainly for administrative purposes and reported to the Court of
Directors of the East India Company.
iii. Viceroy (1858-1947): After the revolt of 1857, the company rule was
abolished and India came under the direct control of the British crown.
Government of India Act 1858 passed which changed the name of post-
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Governor General of India by Viceroy of India. The Viceroy was appointed

directly by the British government. The first Viceroy of India was Lord
Canning.

Who was Lord William Bentinck:

In 1803, he was named the Governor of Madras. He later served as Governor-General

of India from 1828-1835. He is credited with reforms in educational, social and
judicial spheres during his tenure as Governor-General of British India. He was
influenced by Jeremy Bentham’s and James Mill’s utilitarian principles.

Reforms:

1. Abolition of Sati: Sati, the age-old custom of burning widows alive on their
husband's funeral pyres, was practiced in India since ancient times. This
inhumane social practice was widespread in northern India, particularly in Bengal.
Bentinck was deeply troubled when he learned of 800 cases of sati in a single
year, all of which occurred in Bengal. He was determined to put an end to this
practice, which he saw as an affront to natural justice. As a result, he became a
crusader against it, issuing Regulation XVII on December 4, 1829, outlawing the
practice of Sati. Those who engaged in sati were sentenced as accomplices to the
crime by law courts. The Regulation was extended to the presidencies of Madras
and Bombay in 1830.

2. Female Infanticide: Female infanticide or the practice of killing female children at

the time of their birth had prevailed among some of the Rajput clans and other
castes because of paucity of youngmen who died in large numbers in warfare and
because of the difficulties of earning a livelihood in unfertile areas, and in parts of
Western and Central India because of the prevalence of the evil custom of dowry
in a virulent form. Regulations prohibiting infanticide had been passed in 1795
and 1802, but they were sternly enforced only by Bentinck. Bentinck took
effective steps to prevent the ritual of child sacrifice on Bengal's Saugar Island.
He not only prohibited female infanticide but also made it a punishable offence.
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3. Introduction to English Education: Lord Willaim Bentinck's administration was

marked by the introduction of English education. He formed a committee, chaired
by Lord Macaulay, to make recommendations for the advancement of education.
In his report, Macaulay emphasized the promotion of European literature and
science to the people of India through the English medium. William Bentinck
wholeheartedly accepted this recommendation. In 1835, the government passed a
resolution making English the official and literacy language of India. He passed
the English Education Act 1835 that replaced Persian with English in the higher
courts. He also advocated for Indians to be educated in the western style so that
more Indians could be employed in the administration. In the same year, William
Bentinck established the Calcutta Medical College and it became the first
western medical school in all of Asia where people could be admitted irrespective
of caste or creed.

4. Suppression of Thugs: The most admirable measure taken by Bentinck, which

contributed to the material well-being of the people, was the suppression of the
'thugs.' They were a family of robbers. They moved around in small groups of
fifty to a hundred people, posing as commercial gangs or pilgrims and strangling
and robbing peaceful travelers. They became more numerous in central and
northern India during the 18th century when anarchy reigned following the
disintegration of the Mughal Empire. Colonel Sleeman organized a systematic
campaign against the thugs beginning in 1830. Over the course of five years,
nearly 2000 of them were apprehended. The majority of them were exterminated,
while the remainder were transported to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

5. Financial Reforms: When Bentinck took over as Governor-General in 1828,

the East India company's financial situation was dire. The exchequer was
extremely weak. The state budget had a one-million-rupee deficit. It became
necessary for the Governor-General to take effective measures to improve the
financial situation. To accomplish this, he implemented the following measures:
 He reduced all officers' salaries and allowances;
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 He reduced the number of officers on the payroll;

 He abolished the double battalion system in the military department.

At the time of his departure, the treasury had a surplus of Rs.1.5 million as a
result of his financial reforms.

6. Administrative Reforms: Administrative reforms implemented by Bentinck

demonstrate his political maturity and wisdom.
In the judicial department, he abolished Cornwallis' provisions for courts of
appeal. They were largely to blame for the massive backlog of cases. The
Directors readily accepted this step because it reduced their expenditure.
Another good measure implemented by Bentinck was the use of local languages
in lower courts and English in higher courts in place of Persian.
Even in terms of revenue, Bentinck made a name for himself. He began the
revenue settlements of the North West Province, which were overseen by
R.M.bird.
This agreement was made for a period of 30 years and was made with either the
tillers of the soil or the landowners.
7. Other Reforms:
 He also tried to control, with Ram Mohan Roy’s advocacy, practices like
polygamy, child marriages and caste rigidity.
 He reformed the military by banning flogging as a punishment in the
British Indian army.
 The Charter Act of 1833 was passed in his tenure. This Act marks the
centralisation in India’s administration and also made provisions for the
inclusion of Indians in government service. This also made Bentinck the
first Governor-General of India.

Conclusion: Bentinck was described as a "straightforward, homely, upright, benevolent,

and sensible man." His social reforms, such as the abolition of Sati and the prohibition of
child sacrifice, wiped out long-standing evils in Hindu society. It's encouraging to see
that "Bentinck acted where others had talked." He was willing to jeopardize his own
position in order to enforce the regulations prohibiting Sati. Such bravery and
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forthrightness were uncommon among administrators at the time. His educational

reforms ushered in a new era in India.

 Lord Warren Hastings:

i. Warren Hastings (1732 – 1818) became the first Governor of the Presidency of
Fort William (Bengal) in 1772 and the first Governor-General of Bengal in 1774
till he resigned in 1785.
ii. He started his career as a writer (clerk) in the East India Company at Calcutta in
1750.
iii. In 1758, he became the British resident at Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal,
after Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab after the Battle of Plassey.
iv. During his term, the First Anglo-Maratha war and the second Anglo-Mysore war
were fought.
v. The Regulating Act of 1773 was passed during his term.
vi. He supported Sir William Jones in the formation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
in 1785.
vii. Lord Warren Hastings was an imperial administrator who worked for the East
India Company in India. Warren Hasting’s time period was From 1772 to 1785,
he served as Governor of Bengal, where he instituted many substantial changes in
administration as well as an entirely new and streamlined model of the legal
system. Being the first governor-general of Bengal, Hastings was in charge of
establishing British control over the country’s first major province.
viii. During Warren Hasting’s time period he pioneered solutions to issues including
how massive Indian populations would be managed by a select group of
foreigners and exactly how the British, now a major Indian power, would
accommodate into the system of the state of 18th-century India. These alternatives
would have a significant impact on Britain’s potential position in India. Warren
Hastings’ working life is also significant in bringing to the attention of the British
public at home other issues caused by their new India.

Abolition of the Dual System

1. Hastings abolished the Dual System that had been established by Robert Clive. In the
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Dual System, the company had Diwani rights (rights to collect revenue) and the Nizam or
Indian chiefs had the administrative authority.

2. The Nawab’s annual allowance of Rs.32 lakh was reduced to Rs.16 lakh.

3. The annual tribute paid to the Mughal Emperor was also stopped.

Revenue Reforms

1. For revenue collection, a Board of Revenue was set up at Calcutta.

2. Treasury was moved from Murshidabad to Calcutta. Calcutta became Bengal’s capital in
1772.

3. British collectors were appointed for each district and an Accountant General was also
appointed.

4. Unreasonable fines were done away with and restrictions were placed on the raising of
rent.

Judicial Reforms

1. The judicial powers of the Zamindars were abolished.

2. Civil and criminal courts were established. Two appellate courts were established at
Calcutta, one for civil (Sadar Diwani Adalat) and one for criminal (Sadar Nizamat
Adalat) cases.

3. The criminal court was to have an Indian judge.

4. Muslims were to be tried according to their law in the Koran and Hindus, according to
Hindu laws. A code of Hindu Law, prepared by Hindu Pandits was translated into
English.

5. He also came down heavily on the dacoits in Bengal.

Trade Regulations

1. Hastings abolished the system of dastaks which were misused by company officials and
traders earlier.
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2. He enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5% for Indian and foreign goods.

3. Private trade by company officials was restricted.

Conclusion: Lord Warren Hastings introduced numerous systems to uplift the

administrative structure and introduced judicial reforms. After visiting India he realized
the inefficiency of the dual administration of Bengal. He abolished the dual system and
transferred the tax-collecting authority to the Company. A Revenue Board was also
established in Calcutta. Trade regulations were also imposed. The first and second Anglo-
Mysore wars were also fought during his time period.

 Lord Robert Clive:

Robert Clive was born in England on September 29, 1725. He joined the British East
India Company in 1744 and served as a clerk at Fort St. George in Madras for the
following two years. Clive eventually quit his clerical job and enlisted in the British
army. He established British sovereignty in India by defeating the united troops of the
Mughal emperor, Nawab of Awadh, and Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Buxar.
Following his victory at the Battle of Buxar, Robert Clive was named Governor and
Commander-in-Chief of the British territories in Bengal by London officials.
Dual System: The Mughal emperor awarded the English Diwani authority over Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa. Their Nizamat privileges, on the other hand, remained with the Nawab.
Consequently, the English agreed to pay the Nawab a certain sum each year to cover his
expenses. This arrangement is known as the “Dual Government in Bengal.”
Treaty of Allahabad: On August 16, 1765, Robert Clive met with the then-Nawab of
Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula, and signed the Treaty of Allahabad with him.
 Shuja-ud-possessions Daula’s were guaranteed under specified terms and circumstances
under this treaty. They were as follows:
1. The Nawab was ordered to hand up the regions of Allahabad and Kara to Mughal ruler
Shah Alam II.
2. The firm was to get an Rs. 50 lakh war indemnity.
3. Balwant Singh, the Zamindar of Banaras, was to be awarded complete ownership of his
estate.
The Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula, consented to the Treaty of Allahabad’s
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stipulations.
 Nawab decided to pay the Company for troop maintenance. He also entered into an
arrangement with the British East India Company. The Nawab agreed to offer military
support to the Company in times of need, and the Company decided to send troops to the
Nawab to protect its borders.
 The Company and the Nawab formed a good connection due to this deal.
 Awadh was designated as the company’s buffer state.

Reforms in Civils Services: Bribery and corruption were common among the British East
India Company personnel in the middle of the 18th century. After realizing this, Robert
Clive instituted several administrative changes. The following are some of the most
significant civic reforms.
 The Company’s servants were requested to sign a contract prohibiting them from taking
presents.
 He made the payment of internal duties obligatory and prohibited the Company’s
servants from engaging in private trade practices.
 Robert Clive founded the Society of Commerce in August 1765, and it was awarded the
monopoly of trade in salt, betel nut, and tobacco. The earnings from these deals were
divided among the Company’s servants according to their grades.
 However, this resulted in a spike in the price of necessities, making life harder for
Bengalis. In 1767, the organization was terminated by Clive.

Reforms in Military: Military officers in Bengal were paid twice as much in Bhatta, or
field allowances, as their Madras counterparts. As a result, in 1763, the Court of Directors
issued an order reducing the double Bhatta that Bengal military commanders were
receiving. The order, however, was not carried out.
In 1765, Clive stated that only military officers serving outside the borders of Bengal and
Bihar would be paid double: Bhatta. This was put into effect on January 1, 1766. Despite
protests from the White Brigades, he carried out the command.
Conclusion: Clive’s political manoeuvrings revealed his foresight. He arranged
agreements that gave the Company full benefits with no risk or additional obligations. On
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August 16, 1765, Clive signed the Treaty of Allahabad with Shuja-ud-Daula, the then-
Nawab of Awadh. The Mughal emperor gave the English Diwani control over Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa. The Nawab, on the other hand, kept their Nizamat rights. For over 200
years, Robert Clive’s legacy in India was British control.
 Lord Wellesley:
Large-scale expansion of British rule in India occurred during the Governor-Generalship
of Lord Wellesley who came to India in 1798 at a time when the British were locked in a
life and death struggle with France all over the world.
Underlying factors of Wellesley’s policy of expansion
 Wellesley wanted to expand the British dominions in India to such an extent that it
should become the sovereign power in India.
 His expansionist mind would not remain content with the British remaining one of the
powers in India, as such, he set himself to the task of converting India into an empire of
Britain.
 Another aim, which was ancillary to his main objective, was the removal of French
influence from India and to make the possibility of French territorial expansion of India
impossible.
Forces of Wellesley’s policy of expansion
 Under him the British East India Company adopted a non-interventionist policy of
subsidiary alliance, assumption of the territories of previously subordinated rulers and
outright wars.
 Under the Subsidiary Alliance System used by Lord Wellesley, every ruler in India had
to accept to pay a subsidy to the British for the maintenance of the British army. In
return, the British would protect them from their enemies which gave British enormous
expansion.
 The system was extremely advantageous to the British. They could now maintain a large
army at the cost of the Indian states.
 The system of subsidiary alliance enabled them to fight wars far away from their own
territories since any war would occur in the territories either of the British ally or of the
British enemy.
 They controlled the defence and foreign relations of the protected ally, and had a
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powerful force stationed at the very heart of his lands, and could, therefore, at a time of
their choosing, overthrow him and annex his territories by declaring him to be
‘inefficient’.
Wellesley’s Administrative Plans
To attain his political goals, Wellesley depended on three methods:
 outright wars
 the Subsidiary Alliances system
 Assumptions of formerly subjugated rulers’ regions
Lord Wellesley pioneered the notion of a subsidiary alliance.
The ruler of the allying Indian State was required under the subsidiary alliance system to
accept the permanent stationing of a British military within his territory and pay a
payment for its maintenance.
Alliance of Subsidiaries
The Indian states effectively gave away their sovereignty by forming a Subsidiary
Alliance.
 The right to defend oneself
 Resolving issues with its neighbours
 Its autonomy
 Keeping diplomatic connections intact
 Hiring international specialists

Conclusion: The Policy of Subsidiary Alliance was in reality, a document of losing

sovereignty which meant the state did not have the rights of self defence, of maintaining
diplomatic relations, of employing foreign experts, and of settling its disputes with its
neighbours. The system of Subsidiary Alliances was, in the words of a British writer, “a
system of fattening allies as we fatten oxen, till they were worthy of being devoured”.
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UNIT-II

 Revolt of 1857- nature, cause and result

Introduction:
The Revolt of 1857 has been regarded as the ‘First War of Independence’ by the
nationalist historians like V.D. Savarkar. On the other hand, it was a mere ‘Sepoy
mutiny’ according to European historians.
Whatever may have been the nature of the Revolt, it proved to be inspirational force
for the subsequent efforts at national liberation. The rebellion of 1857 had a wider
socio-economic background and it was not a mere manifestation of discontentment
among the Indian soldiers in the British Army.
The capture of Delhi and proclamation of Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of Hindustan
gave a political meaning to the revolt and provided a rallying point for the rebels by
recalling the part glory of the imperial city. Within a month of capture of Delhi, the
Revolt spread to different parts of the country: Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Banaras,
Allahabad, Jagdishpur and Jhansi. South India remained quiet and Punjab and Bengal
were marginally affected.
The Revolt:
It was the first expression of organised resistance against the British East India
Company
It began as a revolt of the sepoys of the British East India Company’s army but
eventually secured the participation of the masses.
The revolt is known by several names: the Sepoy Mutiny (by the British
Historians), the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion (by the Indian Historians), the
Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the First War of Independence (by
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar).
Nature of the Revolt:
1. Historians have held divergent view about the nature of the outbreak of 1857, British
historians like Kaye, Malleson, Trevelyan, Lawrence, Holmes have painted it as ‘a
mutiny’ confined to the army which did not command the support of the people at
large. A similar view was held by many contemporary Indians like Munshi Jiwan Lal,
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Moinuddin, Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan among many others.
2. Others described it as a "Religious war against the Christians" or "a racial struggle for
supremacy between the Black and the White."
3. Still others described "a struggled between Oriental and Occidental civilisation and
culture".
4. A few described it the result of "Hindu-Muslim conspiracy to overthrow the British
rule".
5. Some Indian nationalists have called it a wellplanned national struggle and as "the
first war of Indian independence".
6. Unquestionably, the Revolt began as a military rising, but it was not everywhere
confined to the army. (a) Even the army as a whole did not join the revolt and a
considerable section fought on the side of the government. (b) In fact the rebels came
from almost every section of the population. In Oudh it enjoyed the support of the
masses and so also in some districts of Bihar. (c) In the trials of 1858-59, thousands
of civilians, along with the soldiers were held guilty of rebellion and punished.
7. Nor was it a war of races, a struggle between the White and the Black. True, all the
Whites in India, whatever their nationality were ranged on one side, but not all the
Blacks. In the British war-camps Indians served as cooks and looked after the
comforts of the soldiers.
8. Some English historian led by T.R. Holmes popularised the view that the Revolt of
1857 was a conflict between civilisation and barbarism. (a) The explanation smacks
of narrow racialism. During the rebellion both the Europeans and the Indians were
guilty of excesses. (b) If the Indians were guilty of the murder of European women
and in some cases children in Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow, the record of the British
was equally tarnished by dark deeds which were no less and barbaric that those of the
Indians.
9. Early national leaders, looking for ideals to arouse national consciousness among the
people, reinterpreted the uprising of 1857 as a people’s revolt and its leaders as
national heroes gifted with the vision of a free India. Later national leaders further
developed the theme of the popular character of the Revolt and cited it as a shining
example of the perfect accord and harmony between the Hindus and the Muslims.
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10. R.C. Majumdar gave his analysis of the revolt of 1857 in his book entitled "The
Sepoy Mutiny" and the Revolt of 1857. (a) The main trust of Majumdar’s argument is
the uprising of 1857 was not a war of independence.(b) He maintains that the Revolt
took different aspects at different places. In some regions it was a mutiny of sepoys
joined later by disgruntled elements eager to take advantage of anarchy. (c) In other
area, the mutiny of sepoys was followed by a general revolt in which apart from the
soldiers, civilians, particularly the dispossessed rulers of Indian states, landlords,
tenants and others took part. (d) In still other parts of the country the civil population
sympathised with the rebels, but kept themselves within bounds of law and did not
take part in overt acts of rebellion.
11. Dr. S.N. Sen believes that the rising of 1857 was a war of independence. He contends
that revolutions are mostly the work of a minority, with or without the active
sympathy of the masses. Such was the case with the American Revolution of 1775-83
and the French Revolution.
12. Unfortunately in India the majority of the people remained disinterested and even
apathetic. The Rebellion of 1857 cannot be invested with a national character. (a)
However, it was not merely a military and even apathetic. The Rebellion of 1857
cannot be invested with a national character.
13. The Marxist interpretation of the Revolt of 1857 as the struggle of the soldier-peasant
democratic combine against foreign as well as feudal bondage which failed because
of feudal betrayal goes off the mark.
14. Rationalist historians on the other hand shifting their focus to oppressive polices of
the British have looked upon in the part of national struggle, but absence of general
plan, lack of sentiments among its leaders are some of arguments that go against the
interpretation.

Causes of the Revolt:

 Political Cause:

British policy of expansion: The political causes of the revolt were the British policy of
expansion through the Doctrine of Lapse and direct annexation.

A large number of Indian rulers and chiefs were dislodged, thus arousing fear in the
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minds of other ruling families who apprehended a similar fate.

o Rani Lakshmi Bai’s adopted son was not permitted to sit on the throne of Jhansi.

o Satara, Nagpur and Jhansi were annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse.

o Jaitpur, Sambalpur and Udaipur were also annexed.

o The annexation of Awadh by Lord Dalhousie on the pretext of maladministration

left thousands of nobles, officials, retainers and soldiers jobless. This measure
converted Awadh, a loyal state, into a hotbed of discontent and intrigue.

Doctrine of lapse: The notable British technique called the Doctrine of Lapse was first
perpetrated by Lord Dalhousie in the late 1840s. It involved the British prohibiting a
Hindu ruler without a natural heir from adopting a successor and, after the ruler died or
abdicated, annexing his land. To those problems added the growing discontent of the
Brahmans, many of whom had been dispossessed of their revenues or had lost lucrative
positions.

 Social and Religious Cause

The rapidly spreading Western Civilisation in India was alarming concerns all over the
country.
An act in 1850 changed the Hindu law of inheritance enabling a Hindu who had
converted into Christianity to inherit his ancestral properties.

o The people were convinced that the Government was planning to convert
Indians to Christianity.

The abolition of practices like sati and female infanticide, and the legislation
legalizing widow remarriage, were believed as threats to the established social structure.

Introducing western methods of education was directly challenging the orthodoxy for
Hindus as well as Muslims

Even the introduction of the railways and telegraph was viewed with suspicion.

 Economic Cause
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In rural areas, peasants and zamindars were infuriated by the heavy taxes on land and
the stringent methods of revenue collection followed by the Company.

o Many among these groups were unable to meet the heavy revenue demands and
repay their loans to money lenders, eventually losing the lands that they had held
for generations.

Large numbers of sepoys belonged to the peasantry class and had family ties in
villages, so the grievances of the peasants also affected them.

After the Industrial Revolution in England, there was an influx of British manufactured
goods into India, which ruined industries, particularly the textile industry of India.

o Indian handicraft industries had to compete with cheap machine- made goods
from Britain.

 Military Causes

The Revolt of 1857 began as a sepoy mutiny:

o Indian sepoys formed more than 87% of the British troops in India but were
considered inferior to British soldiers.

o An Indian sepoy was paid less than a European sepoy of the same rank.

They were required to serve in areas far away from their homes.

o In 1856 Lord Canning issued the General Services Enlistment Act which required
that the sepoys must be ready to serve even in British land across the sea.

 Immediate Cause

The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges.

o A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new enfield rifles were greased with the
fat of cows and pigs.

o Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the paper on the cartridges.

o Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them.

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Lord Canning tried to make amends for the error and the offending cartridges were
withdrawn but the damage had already been done. There was unrest in several places.

In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a sepoy in Barrackpore, had refused to use the
cartridge and attacked his senior officers.

o He was hanged to death on 8th April.

o On 9th May, 85 soldiers in Meerut refused to use the new rifle and were sentenced
to ten years’ imprisonment.

Failure:

Limited uprising: although the revolt was fairly widespread, a large part of the
country remained unaffected by it. The revolt was mainly confined to the Doab
region. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as
well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion. The southern
provinces did not take part in it.

No effective leadership: the rebels lacked an effective leader. Although Nana Saheb,
Tantia Tope and Rani Lakshmi Bai were brave leaders, they could not offer effective
leadership to the movement as a whole.

Limited resources: the rebels lacked resources in terms of men and money. The
English, on the other hand, received a steady supply of men, money and arms in
India.

No participation of the middle class: The English educated middle class, the rich
merchants, traders and zamindars of Bengal helped the British to suppress the revolt.

Result:

End of company rule: the great uprising of 1857 was an important landmark in the
history of modern India.

o The revolt marked the end of the East India Company’s rule in India.

Direct rule of the British Crown: India now came under the direct rule of the
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British Crown.

o This was announced by Lord Canning at a Durbar in Allahabad in a proclamation

issued on 1 November 1858 in the name of the Queen.

o The Indian administration was taken over by Queen Victoria, which, in effect, meant
the British Parliament.

o The India office was created to handle the governance and the administration of the
country.

Religious tolerance: it was promised and due attention was paid to the customs and
traditions of India.

Administrative change: the Governor General’s office was replaced by that of the
Viceroy.

o The rights of Indian rulers were recognised.

o The Doctrine of Lapse was abolished.

o The right to adopt sons as legal heirs was accepted.

Military reorganisation: the ratio of British officers to Indian soldiers increased but
the armoury remained in the hands of the English. It was arranged to end the
dominance of the Bengal army.

Conclusion: The revolt of 1857 was an unprecedented event in the history of British rule
in India. It united, though in a limited way, many sections of Indian society for a common
cause.Though the revolt failed to achieve the desired goal, it sowed the seeds of Indian
nationalism.

 Brahmo Samaj:
Brahmo Samaj was a monotheistic section of Hinduism founded by Raja Ram
Mohun Roy in 1828. Brahmo Samaj Movement is one of the significant reform
movements in India that aims to bring a renaissance to Bengal by fighting against
the prevailing evil practices in the society, particularly the practice of Sati and the
caste system, and emphasising the educational, religious, and social reform.
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Brahmo Samaj was the first intellectual movement to eradicate bad practices of
society successfully. Brahmo Samaj is one of the most powerful socio-religious
movements in India. It was launched in Bengal in 1828. Brahmo Samaj played an
important role in stamping out the dowry and caste systems, aiming to encourage
women’s empowerment. With its success in achieving its objectives, it became a
pioneer contributor to Bengal Renaissance.

The major objectives of Brahmo Samaj are as follows-

 Opposition to idolatry.

 Abolishing practice of sati.

 Stopping child marriage and polygamy.

 We are raising voices against the degraded states of widows.

 Propagation of western and modern thoughts in society.

 It aims at purifying the concept of Hinduism and preaching monotheism.

 Focusing on mediation, prayers, and reading of the scriptures.

Principles of Brahmo Samaj

Brahmo Samaj focused on reforming the Hindu Society by fighting against the
religious and social evils that were a part of one’s daily life. The principles of
Brahmo Samaj are-

 Totalitarianism- Totalitarianism was one of the major evils in society, which is

why Brahmo Samaj was completely against all forms of Totalitarianism. It fought
against the irrational practice of discrimination against people based on colour,
caste, religion, creed, and race since this practice separated people into the lower
and upper classes.

 God- The Hindus at that time believed in rebirth, avatars, idol-worship,

reincarnation, and polytheism. It worked against the existing idea of an Infinite
Singularity and considered the idea as undefinable, limitless, imperceivable, and
indivisible.
 19

 Superstition- Superstitions and dogmas prevailed in society, and Brahmo Samaj

condemned them. Also, the women were forced to burn alive because of the
superstitions of Sati. This practice of Sati became the primary reason for the
foundation of Brahmo Samaj. This also created a wave of opposition against the
inconsiderableness of priests, Unscientific rituals, and places of worship.

 Scripture- There was a belief that the prophets, scriptures, and mediators existed
between the human soul and Brahmans. But, Brahmo Samaj doesn’t believe in the
idea of a mediator and also condemns the doctrine of Karma and rebirth,
depending on personal preference.

 Knowledge- It believes that one of the major reasons for the existence of social
and religious beliefs is illiteracy. So, it embraces the truth, free will, and
knowledge. Brahmo Samaj also opposes the idea of forcing religious beliefs and
sectarianism.

 Liberation- People believed in the concept of Mukthi, but Brahmo Samaj doesn’t
follow such thinking but believes that the soul is immortal and poised to become a
part of Brahman. The concept of heaven and hell was also not supported by the
Brahmo Samaj.

 Love- According to the Brahmo Samaj, all the creations must be respected and
treated equally, but it doesn’t want its followers to worship anyone.

 Indian Renaissance:
The Indian Renaissance refers to the socio-cultural, religious, and intellectual awakening
that took place in India during the 19th century. This period witnessed a revival of Indian
culture, traditions, and knowledge systems, which played a crucial role in shaping the
national identity.
Spread of Western Education
The introduction of Western education and English led to the rediscovery of ancient
Indian texts, history, and philosophies.
This created pride in Indian cultural heritage and shaped a distinct Indian identity. E.g.
 20

Veda Vyasa’s works published, Asiatic Society founded.

Social Reforms
Movements to eradicate social evils like sati, child marriage, caste discrimination
instilled humanism and patriotism. E.g. Raja Ram Mohan Roy fought against sati,
Iswarchandra Vidyasagar against child marriage.
Religious Reforms
Reformers reinterpreted Hinduism, emphasizing Vedantic monotheism to promote
harmony. E.g. Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda. This nurtured religious
unity and nationalist feelings.
Cultural Renaissance
Promotion of regional languages, art forms, and music boosted cultural pride. E.g.
Kalighat paintings, Bangla literature by Bankim Chandra.
Conclusion: The Indian Renaissance of the 19th century played a pivotal role in the
emergence of national identity by promoting socio-cultural, religious, and educational
reforms. The collective efforts of reformers, writers, and thinkers during this period laid
the foundation for a united and self-aware India, which eventually led to the struggle for
independence and the formation of a modern Indian nation.

 Arya Samaj:
Intro- Arya Samaj is a Hindu monotheistic socio-religious movement established by
Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 in Bombay, India. It supports the practices and
principles based on the authority of Vedas and its importance in the Hindu religion to
bring back the true spirit of Hinduism among the masses based on 2 basic tenets-
Monotheism and Infallible authority of the Vedas. Arya Samaj successfully brought
educational, spiritual, religious, and social changes to British India.
Arya Samaj became a catalyst for change, that challenged prevailing social practices and
advocating for the empowerment of individuals through self-improvement and education.
Arya Samaj- Arya Samaj was the first reform movement that practiced proselytization.
Arya Samaj’s followers believed in God’s extreme superiority and condemned idol
worship. According to the Arya Samaj, Vedas are the ultimate source of knowledge, and
every Hindu must read and recite Vedas.
 21

Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj on April in 1875. He established
the Arya Samaj based on 2 basic tenets and these were:
 Monotheism
 Infallible authority of the Vedas.
Dayananda Saraswati was against the role of the priest in Hinduism. He also warned
society against the contributions made to the priests. He emphasized the concept of One
God and condemned the practice of idol worship.
He was strongly against the diversification of castes. He thought caste assortment was
one of the major reasons for conversing the lower castes to Islam and Christianity at that
time.
Dayananda Saraswati was the founder of the Vedic schools to educate all the castes’
males and females. They give free shelter, clothes, food, literature, Knowledge of Vedas,
and other ancient writings. He pushed society against the evil of untouchability and
inequalities of caste.
Dayananda Saraswati established the Dayanand Anglo Vedic Trust and Management
Society in Lahore in 1886 to stop the division of samaj and make the operations of the
samaj a success. He worked for the better status of women and the protection of widows.
Dayananda Saraswati focused on humanity and assisted the victims because of artificial
and natural disasters. He was a famous novelist. His notable work included Satyartha
Prakash, Rig Veda Bhashyam, Rig Veda Bhashyam, and much more. Along with
Sanskrit, his books were published in foreign languages like English, French, Arabic,
Swahili, German, and Chinese.
Features of Arya Samaj
Arya Samaj was a socio-religious reform sabha that Swami Dayananda Saraswati
founded to bring back the idea of Vedas in the Hindu religion. The key features of the
Arya Samaj are as follows-
 Arya Samaj believes that the Veda is not liable to mislead or deceive and thus regarded as
the Knowledge’s ultimate source and spreads the truth. It must be read and recited by an
Aryan.
 The founder was of the thought that Puranas (the post-Vedic texts) were the major
reasons that led to the heresy of the Vedas. So, the samaj was against these post-Vedic
 22

tests.
 Arya Samaj believes God is the supreme power and the primary source of all Knowledge.
 It states that God is one and doesn’t hold a physical existence. With this thought, Arya
Samaj opposed Idol worship of God and was against the idea of reincarnation.
 The founder of Arya Samaj does not believe in the concept of destiny Niyati (fate). It
supported the concept of Soul transmigration and Karma.
 It strongly condemns the domination of Brahmins over the spiritual and social life of
Hindus. It doesn’t believe that Brahmins are the connectors between the almighty and
humans.
 It supports the idea of the Four Varna System, which works based on merit instead of
birth.
 It believes in equality in the position of a man concerning the social lives and spirituality
of Hindus.
 Just like other social reforms, Arya Samaj enhanced female education system in India.
Worked for widow remarriages and fought for the practice of Sati, child marriage and
polygamy.
 Arya Samaj believed in women’s equality and advocated gender equality against women.
 It supported spreading the Sanskrit and Hindi languages among the masses by providing
good education. It worked phenomenally for educating people, especially women.
 It was strongly against the cruel practices of Animal sacrifices, feeding the dead through
sraddhas, religious pilgrimages, sorcery and charms, and other prevailing sins.
o As per Dayananda Saraswati, all these evil practices prevailing in the society were
because of the lack of understanding of Vedic Knowledge. So, if there was a need
to educate man, for this, Arya Samaj established the Vedic Schools in India.
Principles of Arya Samaj
Arya Samaj was established to bring Vedic Knowledge to the masses. It has the
following guiding principles:
 Almighty God creates the Universe. He is Immortal and omnipotent. Thus, It the God
alone that deserves to be worshipped.
 God creates all Knowledge.
 The genuine scriptures of wisdom are the Vedas.
 23

 A true Arya must always be ready to reject the lies and embrace the truth.
 Dharma must be the guiding concept for the activities. This means that one should
carefully consider what is evil and what is wrong.
 Arya Samaj aims to promote every individual’s social and physical well-being.
 Every individual needs to be treated with respect, justice, and compassion.
 A person must accept Knowledge and avoid ignorance.
 Every person must take care of their welfare. But, he must consider the welfare of others
as well.
 Rather than thinking about an individual’s well-being, one must think about the collective
well-being of humanity.

 Ram Krishna Mission:

Ramakrishna mission was one of the most important social reform organization in the 20th
century. The mission is named after and inspired by the Indian saint Ramakrishna
Paramahamsa and founded by Ramakrishna's chief disciple Swami Vivekananda on 1 May
1897.
A) Motives of the organization
The organization chiefly propagates to the Hindu philosophy of Vedanta-Advaita Vedanta
and four yogic ideals-jnana, bhakti, karma, and Raja Yoga.
B) Principles of the organization
• Entirely holy and humanitarian and has no connection with any politics.
• "Renunciation and survice" -the work of the mission strive to practice and preach these.
• The service actions are based on the message of "Jiva is Shiva" from Ramakrishna and
Vivekananda's message of "Daridra Narayana" to specify that service to poor is service to
God.
• The Principles of Upanishads and Yoga in Bhagavad Gita explained in the light of
Ramakrishna's Life and Teachings is the main source of inspiration for the Mission.
B) Principles of the organization
• Entirely holy and humanitarian and has no connection with any politics.
• "Renunciation and service" -the work of the mission strive to practice and preach these.
 24

• The service actions are based on the message of "Jiva is Shiva" from Ramakrishna and
Vivekanand message of "Daridra Narayana" to specify that service to poor is service to God.
• The Principles of Upanishads and Yoga in Bhagavad Gita explained in the light of
Ramakrishna's Life Teachings is the main source of inspiration for the Mission.
• The service activities are rendered looking upon all like a real manifestation of the Divine.
The Motto of the organization is Atmano Mokshartham Jagad-hitaya Cha. It means 'for one's
own salvation, and for the good of the world'.
C) Area of Social Activities
The principal workers of the mission are the monks. The mission's actions cover the
following areas:
• schooling
• wellbeing and health care
• Cultural activities
• Rural support
• Tribal welfare
• Youth movement etc.
D) The important social activities
• Hospitals, charitable dispensaries, maternity clinics, tuberculosis clinics, and mobile
dispensaries.
• Training centres for nurses.
• Orphanages and homes for the elderly are included in the mission's field of activities, along
with rural and tribal welfare work.
• Renowned educational institutions in India, haying its own university, colleges, vocational
training centres, high schools and primary schools, teacher-training institutes, as well as
schools for the visually handicapped.
• Disaster relief operations during scarcity, epidemic, fire, flood, earthquake, storm and
communal disturbances.
• The installation of photovoltaic (PV) lighting systems in the Sundarbans region of West
Bengal. The PV lighting was used to supply electricity to the people who were depending on
kerosene and diesel.
 25

Ramakrishna mission was a part of religious and holy teaching. At the same time, the
organization carries out extensive educational and charitable work in India. This aspect is the
important feature of many other Hindu movements. The mission bases its work on the
principles of karma yoga, the code of unselfish work done with dedication to God.

 Prarthna Samaj:
 The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1876
with the objective of rational worship and social reform.
 The two great members of this Samaj were R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev
Govind Ranade.

o They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dining,
inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and
depressed classes.
 The four point social agenda of Prarthana Samaj were

o Disapproval of caste system

o Women education
o Widow remarriage
o Raising the age of marriage for both males and females
 Mahavdev Govind Ranade was the founder of the Widow Remarriage Association
(1861) and the Deccan Education Society.

o He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well.

o To Ranade, religious reform was inseparable from social reform.
o He also believed that if religious ideas were rigid there would be no success in
social, economic and political spheres.
o Although Prarthana Samaj was powerfully influenced by the ideas of Brahmo
Samaj, it did not insist upon a rigid exclusion of idol worship and a definite break
from the caste system.
 26

 Theosophical Society:

 A group of westerners led by Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel M.S.

Olcott, who was inspired by Indian thought and culture, founded the Theosophical
Society in New York City, United States in 1875.

o In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to Adyar, on the outskirts of

Madras (at that time) in India.

 The society believed that a special relationship could be established between a

person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revelation, etc.

 It accepted the Hindu beliefs in reincarnation and karma, and drew inspiration
from the philosophy of the Upanishads and samkhya, yoga and Vedanta
schools of thought.

 It aimed to work for universal brotherhood of humanity without distinction of

race, creed, sex, caste or colour.

 The society also sought to investigate the unexplained laws of nature and the
powers latent in man.

 The Theosophical Movement came to be allied with the Hindu renaissance.

o It opposed child marriage and advocated the abolition of caste

discrimination, uplift of outcastes, improvement in the condition of
widows.

 In India, the movement became somewhat popular with the election of Annie
Besant (1847-1933) as its president after the death of Olcott in 1907.

o Annie Besant had come to India in 1893.

 27

o She laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Benaras in

1898 where both Hindu religion and Western scientific subjects were
taught.

o The college became the nucleus for the formation of Banaras Hindu
University in 1916.

o Annie Besant also did much for the cause of the education of
women.

 Significance:

o The Theosophical Society provided a common denominator for the

various sects and fulfilled the urge of educated Hindus.

o However, to an average Indian the Theosophist philosophy seemed to

be vague and lacking a positive programme,to that extent its impact
was limited to a small segment of the westernised class.

o As religious revivalists, the Theosophists did not attain much

success, but as a movement of westerners glorifying Indian
religious and philosophical traditions, it gave much needed self-
respect to the Indians fighting British colonial rule.

o Viewed from another angle, the Theosophists also had the effect of
giving a false sense of pride to the Indians in their outdated and
sometimes backward looking traditions and philosophy.
 28

UNIT-III

 INDIAN NATIONALISM

Introduction:

Nationalism is a complex and multidimensional idea that has influenced politics and
human history for a long time. It can be characterized as a strong sense of allegiance
and dedication to one’s country or nation, which is frequently exemplified by a shared
culture, language, religion, and history. The desire for independence, sovereignty, and
self-determination is frequently linked to nationalism.
Nationalism can take many different forms, from the preservation of culture and
languages to political and economic independence. It can either be a unifying force
that brings people together around common values and aims or a dividing factor that
pits various groups against one another in the name of advancing their own interests.
A sense of identification and belonging is one of the main forces behind
nationalism.... Read more at: https://www.studyiq.com/articles/rise-of-nationalism-in-
india/

Indian Nationalism:

Indian Nationalism arose to meet the challenge of foreign domination. The very
nature of the British rule facilitated the growth of national sentiment among the
Indian people. It was the British rule and its consequences, direct and indirect, which
supplied the necessary conditions, materials, moral and intellectual conditions for the
rise of a national movement in India.
British rule over India has been in place for a very long period. They subjected
Indians to various forms of torture and also stole their possessions and riches for their
own purposes. Despite their poor living conditions, the Indians were not tolerant and
frequently battled for their freedom. Before 1885, every battle or uprising they
organised ended in failure, if not in totality. By 1900, Indians’ feeling of nationalism
was thriving, and they banded together to defend their rights.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Surendra Nath Banarjee are regarded as the founders of
nationalism.
 29

Causes for rise in Nationalism:

Western education: The primary reason Macaulay established a western educational

system in India was to produce a class of educated Indians who could assist their colonial
overlords in the management of the “natives.” This strategy kind of backfired since it
gave rise to a group of Indians who were exposed to the liberal and radical ideas of
European authors who promoted liberty, equality, democracy, and reason. Indians from
various places and religions were also brought together by the English language.

Vernacular languages: Vernacular languages saw a comeback in the 19th century as well.
This aided in spreading among the general public the notions of liberty and rational
thought.

End of the old social order: The previous socioeconomic structure of the nation came to
an end under British imperialism. This angered a lot of Indians.

Infrastructure: The British attempt to develop roads, railroads and telegraphic networks in
India was intended to increase communication between sites and the convenience of
transit of their troops in order to quash any insurrection. However, the infrastructure
eventually allowed Indians to contact individuals from other cultures and groups, which
heightened their fury. As a result, the concept of nationalism spurred Indians to embrace
the Indian National Movement.

Socio-religious reform movements: The 19th-century socio-religious reform movements

made a significant contribution to India’s rise of nationalism. These movements aimed to
dispel the then-dominant superstition and social ills while also spreading the message of
peace, reason, and patriotism among the populace. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotiba Phule, and others were notable reformers. These were the
reformers who made the effort to eradicate prejudices and put notions of logic, scientific
thought, and patriotism in the consciousness of the Indians. The battle for women’s rights
and freedom was a key component of India’s National Movement. As a result, many
women emerged to become independence fighters in India.

Economic policies of the British: Indians, particularly farmers, experienced significant

poverty and debt as a result of the British empire’s repressive economic policies. Famines
 30

that killed thousands of people frequently occurred. This fostered the roots of a desire for
freedom from foreign domination and produced a painful sense of suppression as a result.

Political unity: Most of India was united under a unified political system during the
British rule. All regions adopted a single, integrated administrative structure. Due to this
aspect, Indians began to experience a sense of “oneness” and nationalism.

Communications network: In the nation, the British constructed a network of roads,

trains, post offices, and telegraph lines. As a result, there were more people moving about
the country and more information was being exchanged. All of this has hastened India’s
national movement’s growth.

Growth of the modern press: The Indian press expanded during this time, both in English
and in the country’s indigenous tongues. This was a significant element that contributed
to the spread of information.

Lord Lytton’s policies: From 1876 to 1880, Lord Lytton served as the Viceroy of India.
South India experienced a famine in 1876 that resulted in the deaths of about 10 million
people. His trading practises came under fire for escalating the famine. Additionally, he
organised the great Delhi Durbar in 1877, spending a considerable sum of money at a
time when many people were starving to death.

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878, which Lytton also approved, gave the government the
right to seize publications that published “seditious material.” He also enacted the Arms
Act of 1878, which made it illegal for Indians to possess any form of weapon without a
permit. Englishmen were excluded under the law.

Legacy of the Revolt of 1857: There was intense racial hostility between the British and
Indians following the Revolt of 1857 and the British’s harsh suppression of it.

Ilbert Bill controversy: In 1883, the then Viceroy Lord Ripon and Sir Courtenay Ilbert,
the legal adviser to the Council of India, proposed the Ilbert Bill, which gave Indian
judges the authority to hear complaints against Europeans. However, there was a
significant backlash against this measure from British citizens in Britain and India. The
 31

arguments raised in opposition to this law revealed the English’s pervasive racial
prejudice against Indians. Additionally, this made educated Indians aware of the true
nature of British colonialism.

National movements outside the country: The French Revolution, the American War of
Independence, and other international national movements were among the many that
influenced Indian nationalists

Impact of Rise of Nationalism in India

India was significantly impacted by the emergence of nationalism in that nation. In 1947,
an independent Indian state was created as a result, ending British authority in India.
Given that many of the important players in Indian politics were also nationalist leaders,
the nationalist movement also had a significant impact on how the political landscape of
the nation was shaped.

Indian society was significantly impacted by the nationalism movement. It was crucial in
advancing social transformation and spreading knowledge about topics like caste
prejudice and gender inequity. Many of the most prominent nationalist leaders were also
social reformers who fought for the rights of underrepresented groups of people.

In contemporary India, the nationalist movement’s legacy is still evident. The democratic
and secularist ideals, which were supported by the nationalist movement, are the
cornerstones of the nation’s political structure. Many of the recent social and economic
improvements that have occurred in the nation were also made possible by the
movement.

Conclusion:

India’s rise to nationalism has been a complicated and intricate one. India has been the
centre of a wide variety of nationalist groups, each with its own distinct set of objectives
and ideas, from the early 20th century to the present.

While the Indian nationalist movement was crucial in winning independence from British
control and influencing the nation’s politics and history, it has also had its fair share of
difficulties and controversies. Hindu nationalism and cultural nationalism have been
 32

more popular in recent years, which have exacerbated polarisation and tensions amongst
various ethnicities.

In the end, how the nation’s leaders and population choose to deal with these issues will
determine the course of nationalism in India. We must all fight to create a society that is
more diverse, tolerant, and democratic while also recognising the depth and complexity
of Indian culture.

 INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

Introduction: The evolution of national consciousness was a consequence of many
factors and obviously the INC was an embodiment of that national awakening. There
is considerable difference of opinion among scholars about the origin of the INC as a
distinct institution. It has been said that the great darbar of 1877 originated this idea.
Foundation of INC
A national party called the Indian National Congress was formed on December 28th,
1885. A British government employee named Allan Octavian Hume founded the
party. A total of 72 delegates from all of India’s provinces and presidencies joined
forces to form the party. From December 28 to December 30, 1885, they all gathered
in Bombay. Hume played a key role in forming the party when he served as its first
general secretary. The party was founded specifically to unite all of the educated
populace and have an impact on politics.
Some Key People forming a part of initial INC were Dadabhai Naoroji, Dinshaw
Edulji Wacha, Surendranath Banerjee, Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta W. C.
Bonnerjee, S. Ramaswami Mudaliar, S. Subramania Iyer, and Romesh Chunder Dutt
Formation of INC:
1. The Marxist historians think that it was the creation of the capitalist classes, to
protect and safeguard their rights and vested interests.
2. Theosophists had given a different theory. Mrs Besant in her book "How India
wrought for freedom" gives credit to her fellow theosophists for having
conceived and providing the idea of an-India political organisation for the
good of the Indians. She says that seventeen Indians who had attended the
 33

theosophical convention of Adyar near Madras, in 1884, (met in the house of

Dewan Bahadur Raghunath Rao and) conceived the idea of a political
National Movement. She describes the meeting as the precursor of the
Congress.
3. W.C. Banerjee says that the INC as an all-India political organisation owed its
origin to scheming brain of Lord Dufferin who convinced Hume that his
proposal to setup all-India organisation to remove the social evils of Indian
society should be replaced by an all-India political organisation which would
evince to the government.
4. R.P. Dutt wrote that Dufferin and Hume hatched a plan of the INC, at Simla,
in 1885. Both aimed at isolating the “extremists” from the “loyalists” to make
the proposed Congress a rallying centre for loyalists and thus secure a basis of
support for the government.
5. The most accepted theory is that of safety valve. Hume was fully convinced
that due to the policies of Britain, the Indian situation had turned explosive
and one of the main aims of Hume in helping to found the INC was to provide
an outlet ‘safety valve’ to the increasing popular discontent against the British
rule. Otherwise, the Indian national movement would have grown violent and
brought troubles to the British as well as the Indians. British economic
interests would also have been seriously jeopardised because of the impending
chaos.
6. But more than that, it was the urge of the politically conscious Indians to work
for the political and economic advancement of their country which promoted
the founding of the Congress in 1885.

Objectives of INC:

1. A Pan India Organization: To establish a democratic, nationalist movement by

forming a pan India organization.
2. Anti-colonialism: Promote amicable ties among nationalist political activists
from diverse country sections by developing and propagating an anti-colonial
nationalist ideology.
 34

3. Inculcating Nationalism: Develop and consolidate national unity among all

people, regardless of religion, caste, or province.
4. Politicize & politically educate people: Congress wanted to raise awareness of
exploitative colonial policies and Indian political rights. To that purpose,
Congress pushed for more Indian representation in councils, as well as the
Indianization of the civil service.
5. Forward-looking political and economic programme: Formulate and propose
public demands to the government to unite the people around a shared
economic and political agenda.
6. In the presidential adress of the first session of Indian National Congress held
at Mumbai in December, 1885. W.C. Banerjee declared the following as the
aim of the Indian National Congress:
i. To promote and consolidate the feeling of National unity
ii. To formulate popular demands and present them before the
government.
iii. To bring together leaders from different parts of the country.
iv. To train and organise public opinion in the country.

Nature of INC:
1. The INC was the first national political movement in India, and its principal
objective was to increase Indian participation in political affairs.
2. It later upgraded its goal to complete independence. It became a significant
political force in the nation after gaining independence.
3. The INC was a moderate organisation in its early years, limiting its strategies
to constitutional debate and tactics.
4. Its demands were restricted to raising the proportion of Indians serving in the
military and administration and were still loyal to British throne.
5. The party's demands and methods eventually became increasingly severe
demanding complete expulsion of British rule from India.Their main aim was
to secure complete Swaraj or self-rule.Thus, the party was divided
into moderates and extremists, respectively.
 35

6. Provincial conferences, organisations, media, and literature joined the Indian

National Congress in nationalist activity.

Major Policies adopted by INC initially:

The Indian National Congress (INC) passed various resolutions at its annual
meetings between 1885 and 1905. Civil rights, executive branch, constitutional, and
economic issues were among the modest requests of Congress throughout the
resolution.

1. Civil Rights: Parliamentarians have acknowledged the importance of freedom

of expression and the press, as well as the right to organize queues, meetings,
and other comparable rights.

2. Executive Branch: Parliamentary leaders pressed the administration to end

certain administrative practices and develop public-benefit programs. They
value the appointment of Native Americans to government positions. There
have been specific plans to establish an agricultural bank to assist farmers.
Parliamentary leaders also spoke out against the government’s discriminatory
legislation.

3. Constitution: Early legislative leaders’ modest constitutional goals

strengthened the Legislative Council’s power. India’s elected representatives
should be included. It’s worth noting that the British Indian government paid
little attention to the parliamentary requests listed above.

4. Economy: On the economic front, Congress slammed the British

government’s actions, which resulted in soaring property prices and other
economic woes for Indians. Parliament has also made specific proposals for
the country’s and people’s economic development. The introduction of
modern industries and the Indianization of governmental services were among
them. According to Congress, salt taxes should be abolished, especially for
low-income people.

Conclusion: This was followed by advent of Gandhian Era with his return in 1915.
 36

Gandhi joined the Indian National Congress (INC) and was introduced to Indian
issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gokhale. The major incidents
during the Gandhian Era shaped the struggle for Indian independence.
 37

UNIT-IV

 Role of Gandhi in National Movement

Introduction: Mahatma Gandhi played a pivotal role in the Indian independence
movement against British colonial rule. He emerged as a leading figure in the Indian
National Congress in the 1920s and became known for his principles of nonviolent
civil disobedience.
Gandhi led many successful campaigns, including the Salt March in 1930.
He was an anti-colonialist, non-violent freedom fighter who led the country towards
freedom without picking up any weapon. He believed in the power of Truth or Satya.
Thus, he named his movement Satyagraha. He demanded a greater voice for Indians
in the British government and administration. He led peaceful campaigns to expand
women’s rights, ease poverty, end untouchability, build ethnic and religious amity,
and achieve Swaraj.
Ideologies:
 Non-violence:
o Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence, also known as "ahimsa," was at
the core of his political and social beliefs. He believed that violence only
begets more violence, and that non-violent resistance was a more
effective way of bringing about change in society.
o Gandhi's non-violent approach influenced many other civil rights and
liberation movements around the world.
 Satyagraha:
o Satyagraha, which means "truth force" or "soul force," was a method of
non-violent resistance that Gandhi developed and used extensively in
India's independence struggle.
o It involved the use of civil disobedience, strikes, boycotts, and other
non-violent means to challenge unjust laws and oppressive policies.
o Satyagraha aimed at converting the oppressor through persuasion and
appeals to their conscience rather than through force or coercion.
 Sarvodaya and Trusteeship: Gandhi accepted metaphysical idealism as the
basis of his ideals hence he believed in the supremacy of ethical values and
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Sarvodaya. The philosophy of Sarvodaya is based on the concept of unity of

existence. It implied a permanent fight against cruelty to human beings and
animals.

Movements:

1. Champaran Satyagraha

Gandhi’s first civil disobedience movement was the Champaran satyagraha.

Gandhi travelled to Champaran, Bihar, after being persuaded by Rajkumar
Shukla, an indigo farmer, to explore the plight of the farmers there. Europeans
compelled cultivators in the Champaran district of Bihar to grow indigo, a blue
dye, which caused them tremendous agony. They couldn’t cultivate the food they
needed, and their indigo payments were insufficient.

Result of Champaran Satyagraha: The government subsequently appointed a

commission to investigate the cultivators’ claims. Gandhi accepted to serve on the
committee after being asked. As a result, the Champaran Agrarian Bill was passed
within a few months. The cultivators and land tenants were greatly relieved.

2. Rowlatt Satyagraha:

In March 1919, the Rowlatt Act, also known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary
Crimes Act of 1919, was approved. With this bill, the Imperial Legislative
Council gave the British government the authority to arrest anyone accused of
terrorism. It also authorised Britishers to detain people for up to two years without
trial. In addition, the police have been given permission to search any location
without a warrant. In April 1919, Gandhi launched a nationwide Satyagraha
movement against the act. It received a massive response with people already
suffering from poor socio-economic conditions, coming out in support from all
across the country. In March 1922, the Rowlatt Act and 22 other acts were
repealed by the government.

Conclusion: Mahatma Gandhi's contribution to the Indian freedom struggle was

immense. His philosophy of non-violence and civil disobedience, his tactics of non-
 39

cooperation and civil disobedience, and his leadership united the Indian masses and
forced the British to confront the demands of the Indian people. Gandhi's legacy
continues to inspire people all over the world to fight for justice and freedom.

 Non-Cooperation Movement - Khilafat Movement

Introduction:
1. During 1919-22, the British were opposed through two mass movements—the
Khilafat and Non-Cooperation. Though the two movements emerged from separate
issues, they adopted a common programme of action—that of non-violent non-
cooperation.
2. The Khilafat issue was not directly linked to Indian politics but it provided the
immediate background to the movement and gave an added advantage of cementing
Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.
3. The background to the two movements was provided by a series of events after the
First World War which belied all hopes of the Government’s generosity towards the
Indian subjects.
Khilafat Issue:
The Khilafat issue paved the way for the consolidation of the emergence of a radical
nationalist trend among the younger generation of Muslims and the section
of traditional Muslim scholars who were becoming increasingly critical of the British
rule. This time, they were angered by the treatment meted out to Turkey by the
British
after the First World War.
2. The Muslims in India, as the Muslims all over the world, regarded the sultan of
Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa, so naturally their sympathies were with
Turkey.
3. When the war ended, the British took a stern attitude towards Turkey and the
Khalifa removed from power after the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918.
4. In India, Ali Brothers (Mohammad Ali Jauhar and Shaukat Ali) along with some
other Muslim leaders joined hands a created an All India Khilafat Committee, at
Lucknow in 1919 with Seth Chotani as President. It had two main demands, which
were never accepted:
 40

(a) Caliph Sultan must retain sufficient territories so that he is able to defend the
Islamic Faith.
(b) The places which are called Jazirat-ularab, including the Arabia, Syria, Iraq and
Palestine must remain under Muslim suzerainty.
Congress stand on Khilafat Issue:
It was quite clear that the support of the Congress was essential for the Khilafat
movement to succeed. However, although Gandhi was in favour of launching
Satyagraha and non-cooperation against the Government on the Khilafat issue, the
Congress was not united on this form of political action.
Later, however, Gandhi was able to them get the approval of the Congress for his
programme of political action and the Congress felt inclined to support a non-
cooperation programme on the Khilafat question because:
(a) It was felt that this was a golden opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity and
to bring Muslim masses into the national movement; now different sections of society
—Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, peasants, artisans, capitalists, tribals, women,
students—could come into the national movement by fighting for their own rights and
realising that the colonial rule was opposed to them;
(b) The Congress was losing faith in constitutional struggle, especially after the
Punjab incidents and the blatantly partisan Hunter Commission Report;
(c) The Congress was aware that the masses were eager to give expression to their
discontent.
Non-Cooperation Movement:
The Non-cooperation Movement was launched on 5th September 1920 by the Indian
National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. In September
1920, in Congress session in Calcutta, the party introduced the Non-Cooperation
programme. The period of the non-cooperation movement is taken as September 1920
to February 1922. It signified a new chapter in the history of the Indian freedom
struggle.
Mahatma Gandhi was the main force behind the non-cooperation movement. In
March 1920, he issued a manifesto declaring a doctrine of the non-violent non-
cooperation movement. Gandhi, through this manifesto, wanted people to:
 41

1. Adopt swadeshi principles

2. Adopt swadeshi habits including hand spinning & weaving
3. Work for the eradication of untouchability from society
Gandhi travelled across the nation in 1921 explaining the tenets of the movement.
Causes of NCM:
The causes of the Non-Cooperation Movement were multifaceted. The impact of
the First World War, the Rowlatt Act, the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and the
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms provided the immediate context for the movement.
 Simmering dissent: The economic exploitation of India by the British colonial
rulers had already impoverished the masses. The economic and political situation
of the country during and after the First World War was further aggravated by
rising high inflation, heavy taxation and forced cultivation of cash crops.
 First World War: The British government backtracked on its promises to
consider nationalist demands in exchange for Indian support in the War, which
shattered the political optimism of the War years.
 Montagu-Chelmsford reforms: The reforms introduced by the British
government through the Montagu-Chelmsford in the form of the Government of
India Act 1919 fell short of Indian aspirations for self-governance and responsible
government.The vast majority of leaders called it "disappointing and
unsatisfactory."
 Rowlatt Act: It was passed in 1919 that allowed for the arrest and detention of
Indians without trial. Its primary goal was to imprison nationalists without
allowing them to defend themselves. This had infuriated the nationalists and other
leaders. Gandhi decided to use Satyagraha to oppose it.
 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar, in
which British troops opened fire on a peaceful gathering of Indians, killing
hundreds, shocked and enraged the Indian population.
 Khilafat Movement: The Khilafat Movement was a parallel movement initiated
by Indian Muslims to protest against the dismantling of the Ottoman
Caliphate by the British after the First World War. Gandhi supported the Khilafat
cause and advocated for non-cooperation.
 42

Features of NCM:
 Surrender of titles and honorary positions.
 Resignation of membership from the local bodies.
 Boycott ofForeign goods; Elections held in accordance with the provisions of the
1919 Act; Courts, Government functions and legal practise; government schools
and colleges.
o Thousands of volunteers went from house to house, trying to persuade people
of the importance of adopting Swadeshi. The foreign-made clothing was
gathered and set ablaze.
 Boycott of legislative councils (There were differences over boycott of councils).
 The boycott movement against liquor and toddy shops
 People were asked to withdraw their children from government-controlled or
aided schools and college
 National schools, colleges, and private panchayat courts were established. Kashi
Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, and Jamia Millia Islamia were established.
 Popularising Swadeshi goods and Khadi.
 Maintenance of Hindu-Muslim unity and practice of strict nonviolence.
 Promotion of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo Andolan by Congress volunteers.
 Tilak Swaraj Fund was announced by Gandhi, which aimed at collecting Rs 1
crore to aid constructive work
 The INC also demanded Swarajya or self-government.
Withdrawal of NCM:
Gandhiji called off the movement in February 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura
incident. In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station
killing 22 policemen during a clash between the police and protesters of the
movement.
Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the
government through ahimsa. Several leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were
against the suspension of the movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.
Significance of the NCM:
Though the non-cooperation movement did not succeed and was suddenly called off,
 43

it had a significant impact on the Indian freedom struggle. It played a significant role
in generating and spreading anti-imperialist consciousness among Indian people.
 Hindu-Muslim unity: Gandhi opined that the realisation of Swarajya lies in the
proper resolution of the Mahomedan question. This effort led to
an unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity, reflected in the ensuing mass
mobilisations against colonial rule. It also paved the way for Gandhi to become
the main protagonist of secularism.
 Issue of social justice: The non-cooperation movement introduced the issue
of caste discrimination and untouchabilityto national politics and made
Gandhi an important leader for social justice.
 Mass participation: The Khilafat and NCM witnessed extensive participation
from the Indian masses from all walks of life, including peasants, workers,
students, teachers, women and professionals. The long-standing grievances of
the working masses against the British, as well as the Indian masters, were given
an outlet through this movement. Gandhi’s emphasis on non-violence introduced
women in large numbers into the freedom struggle. Thus, it proved to be a mass
mobilisation in the true sense.
 National consciousness: The most significant success of the movement was the
creation of political and social consciousness and nationalism in Indians.
 Inspiration for subsequent movements: The success and impact of these
movements paved the way for subsequent movements such as the Civil
Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement.

Conclusion: While the Non-Cooperation Movement garnered substantial support,

especially in urban areas, it did not have universal backing across India. The rural
population had limited awareness of these movements and often remained detached.
Furthermore, There were differences in strategies, ideologies, and priorities that
led to fragmentation and weakened the overall effectiveness of the movements.
However, the success and impact of this movement paved the way for subsequent
movements such as the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement.

 Civil Disobedience Movement

 44

Introduction: In the year 1930, under the leadership of M.K. Gandhi, the Civil
Disobedience Movement began. Civil Disobedience Movement was a milestone
movement in the Indian Nationalist Movement. It is associated with paving the trail
for freedom in India as it got circulated to urban areas and noticed the participation of
women and individuals from the lower castes. The movement was initiated under the
stewardship of Mahatma Gandhi. The Civil Disobedience Movement was founded in
1930, and it began with the prominent Dandi March when Mahatma Gandhi left the
Sabarmati Ashram of Ahmedabad on foot. The Civil Disobedience Movement in
India was a time when people decided not to follow some rules made by the
government on purpose and without causing any harm.
Causes:
o Salt Tax: The British salt tax was a severe burden on the Indian population,
particularly the poor. The British monopoly over the production and sale of salt
was seen as a stark example of their exploitative economic policies.
o Simon Commission: The commission, sent to India in 1928 to recommend
constitutional reforms, was boycotted and widely criticized by Indians for its all-
British composition.
o Demand for Purna Swaraj: The Indian National Congress's declaration of Purna
Swaraj, or total self-rule, on 26th January 1930, was a critical precursor to the
Civil Disobedience Movement.
o Repression by British Government: The harsh and repressive measures taken by
the British government, including the Rowlatt Act, further fuelled the Indian
populace's anger and frustration.
Features:
o Mass Participation: The movement witnessed participation from a vast section
of society, making it a mass movement in the truest sense. Peasants said no to
paying revenue and Chowkidari taxes, and village officials resigned from their
posts. Forest people violated forest laws in many places; they started
entering Reserved Forests to collect wood and graze cattle. Foreign clothes were
boycotted, and there were protests against the liquor shops.
o Non-Violent Nature: True to Gandhi's philosophy of Satyagraha, the movement
 45

maintained a non-violent approach throughout, advocating peaceful methods to

protest against British rule.
o Wide-ranging Boycotts: The movement saw widespread boycotts of British
goods, services, and institutions. There was an extensive campaign to promote
Swadeshi (indigenous) goods.
o Inclusion of Women: The Civil Disobedience Movement was notable for the
active participation of women, a feature not prevalent in previous movements.
o Global Impact: The movement had a profound impact globally. The peaceful
method of protest resonated with global audiences, bringing international
attention to India's fight for independence.
o Salt Satyagraha: The Salt Satyagraha was a massive civil disobedience action
led by Mahatma Gandhi in response to the British government’s salt tax in India.
On March 12, 1930, Gandhi led a large group of people from Sabarmati Ashram
to Dandi, a Gujarat coastal village, to break the salt prohibition by manufacturing
salt from seawater. The Salt March started with only 80 people, but as more
people joined it for the 390-kilometer journey, it expanded to a force of 50,000
people. The nonviolent aspect of the Salt March gained national and worldwide
acclaim, as did its nonviolent nature. It received a lot of press attention and
brought the Indian Independence Movement to the notice of the rest of the globe.
o Demands:
1. Reduction of the rupee-Sterling ratio;
2. The salt tax should be nullified, along with the government salt
monopoly;
3. Decrease of salaries of the highest grade services by half;
4. Safeguard Indian textiles and coastal shipping;
5. Reduction of Military expenditure by 50%, to begin with;
6. Lowering Land revenue by half and making it a subject of legislative
control;
7. All Political prisoners should be terminated.

Withdrawal of CDM:
 46

The civil disobedience movement came to end because of the Gandhi-Irwin pact. It
was signed by Mahatma Gandhi and the then Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin on 5 March
1931.

Following were the provisions of the Gandhi-Irwin pact:

 Stopping of the civil disobedience movement by the Indian National Congress.

 Participation of Indian National Congress in the Round Table Conference.

 Withdrawal of all laws issued by the British Government forcing checks on the
exercises of the Indian National Congress.

 The release of prisoners arrested during civil disobedience movement.

 Removal of salt tax.

Conclusion: The CDM had several limitations such as, Dalits’ participation in the Civil
Disobedience movement was limited, except in Maharashtra. Muslim political
organizations in India were also Lukewarm in responding to the Civil Disobedience
Movement. ongress was very close to Hindu Mahasabha. Hindus Mahasabha strongly
opposed the compromise efforts between Congress and the Muslim League. United
struggle was not there. There was a contrast between the demands of industrialists and
the working class and the rich and poor peasants

 Quit India Movement

Introduction: Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan also known as August Kranti Maidan
is the place where the quit India movement was launched by Mahatma Gandhi. He
along with other leaders gathered here on August 8 and 9, 1942.
The outcome of the movement was that Congress was declared an unlawful
association and its offices all over the country were raided. The leaders were arrested
and there rose a chaotic moment with this incident.
Background:
 In 8th August 1942, Mahatma Gandhi called to end British rule and launched the
Quit India Movement at the session of the All-India Congress Committee in
Mumbai.
 47

 Gandhiji gave the call “Do or Die” in his speech delivered at the Gowalia Tank
Maidan, now popularly known as August Kranti Maidan.
 The Quit India Resolution was passed by the Congress Working Committee on 8
August 1942 in Bombay. Gandhi was named the movement’s leader.
 The resolution stated the provisions of the movement as:
1. An immediate end to British rule over India.
2. Declaration of the commitment of free India to defend itself against all kinds
of imperialism and fascism.
3. Formation of a provisional government of India after British withdrawal.
4. Sanctioning a civil disobedience movement against British rule.
Causes:
 Failure of Cripps Mission: The immediate cause for the movement was the
collapse of Cripps Mission.
Under Stafford Cripps, the mission was sent to resolve the Indian question
of a new constitution and self-government.
It failed because it offered India not complete freedom but the Dominion
Status to India, along with the partition.
 Indian Involvement in World War II without prior consultation:
The British assumption of unconditional support from India to the British
in World War II was not taken well by the Indian National Congress.
 Prevalence of anti-British Sentiment:
The anti-British sentiments and demand for full-independence had gained
popularity among indian masses.
 Centralisation of Many Small Movements:
The two decades of mass movement which were being conducted on a much
more radical tone under the leadership of the various associated and affiliated
bodies of the Congress, like All India Kisan Sabha, Forward Bloc etc. had
already prepared the ground for the movement.
 Shortage of Essential Commodities:
The economy was also in shatters as a result of World War II. The war-
time difficulties such as high prices of essential commodities fostered
 48

resentment against the British government.

Features:

1. Government servants: do not resign your job but proclaim loyalty to the INC.

2. Soldiers: be with the army but refrain from firing on compatriots.

3. Peasants: pay the agreed-upon rent if the landlords/Zamindars are anti-

government; if they are pro-government, do not pay the rent.

4. Students: can leave studies if they are confident enough.

5. Princes: support the people and accept the sovereignty of them.

6. People of the princely states: support the ruler only if he is anti-government;

declare themselves as part of the Indian nation.

Demands:

 The demand was to end the British rule in India with immediate effect to get
the cooperation of Indians in World War-II against fascism.

 There was a demand to form a provisional government after the withdrawal of

the Britishers.

What were the Phases of Movement?

 First Phase:

o First Phase, urban revolt, marked by strikes, boy cott and picketing (protesting),
which were quickly suppressed.

o There were strikes and demonstrations all over the country and workers
provided the support by not working in the factories.

o Gandhiji was soon imprisoned at Aga Khan Palace in Pune and almost all
leaders were arrested.

 Second Phase:
 49

o The focus shifted to the countryside, which witnessed a major peasant

rebellion, marked by destruction of communication systems, such as railway
tracks and stations, telegraph wires and poles, attacks on government buildings
or any other visible symbol of colonial authority.

 Third Phase:

o The last phase witnessed the formation of national governments or parallel

governments in isolated pockets (Ballia, Tamluk, Satara etc.)

Result:

o Over 100000 people were arrested in connection with this movement. The
government resorted to violence in order to quell the agitation. They were mass
floggings and lathi charges. Even women and children were not spared. About
10000 people died in police firing in total.

o INC was banned.

o Change in the political scenario. Organisations such as Rashtriya Swayam Sevak

Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League gained popularity, as most of the
prominent leaders of the Indian National Congress were behind bars. The
prevailing political situation of violence, unrest and arrests enabled these other
parties to gain prominence.

o The Quit India Movement ignited the desire for complete freedom among Indians.
Furthermore, Britain’s changing power equation in world politics post World War
II and the increased cost of managing India eventually led to the complete
freedom of India on August 15, 1947.

Conclusion:

The movement placed the demand for complete independence at the top agenda of the
freedom movement. This movement eventually paved the way for Indian
Independence and the Indian Independence Act was passed by the British
Parliament on July 5, 1947.
 50

UNIT-V

 Judicial System of the East India Company:

Introduction: The Judicial System in India was neither adopted proper procedures nor had the
proper organisation of the law court from the ancient India to Mughal India. The process of
litigation in Hindu was served either by the caste elder or village Panchayats or zamindars
whereas for Muslim Qazi supervise the litigation issues. If there were a discrepancy, the Rajas
and Badshahs were considered as the fountainhead of the justice.
The beginning of Indian codified common law is traced back to 1726 when a Mayor’s
Court in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta was established by the East India Company. This
was the first sign of Company’s transformation from a trading company to a ruling power
with the added flavour of new elements of the Judiciary.
Phases:
First Phase
 The British corporation was entrusted with the administration of these three Indian
colonies. They devised a basic legal system for the administration of these settlements, in
which they handled their mutual conflicts
 The administration of law and justice was committed to non-legal and non-professional
Englishmen, who belonged to the traders’ community and had little understanding of the
law and its processes, which was a significant aspect of this system
 In reality, they were required to carry out their judicial powers by the English Law, but in
practice, they judged cases based on their common sense and views of fairness. In the
Presidency Towns, the court was fully reliant on and submissive to the Executive, which
was the highest administrative power in British-controlled India. This job continued for
around 150 years
Second Phase (1773 regulating act)
 The formation of the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William (Calcutta) under the
1773 regulating act adopted by the British Parliament, which is regarded as a watershed
moment in the development of legal institutions in India, begins the second phase of the
Indian Judicial System’s history
 It was an English Law Court, with professional English justices who were well-versed in
the law and judicial procedure. An English Bench was also there to help the Court in the
 51

administration of justice. The model for this court was taken from the English Court of
Westminster
 As a result, the executive government’s powers were severely constrained, resulting in
antagonism and frequent disputes between the Supreme Court and the Supreme Council.
 The disputes between these two primary institutions of the Company’s governance in
India were finally settled following the Settlement Act of 1781, which made the Council
independent of the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction
 Settlement Act of 1781- The British Parliament approved the Act of Settlement 1781 on
July 5, 1781, to correct the flaws in the 1773 regulating act. The Act of Settlement’s main
purpose was to define the relationship between the Supreme Court and the Governor-
General in Council
Third Phase
 The Company took over the administration of justice in Bengal by implementing the
‘Adalat System’ in the mofussils. This is the third phase in the growth of the Indian
Judicial System or Anglo-Indian legal history. The Adalats were first manned by the
Company’s British executive civil officials who lacked legal expertise
 They saw the judicial activity as a secondary role of lower importance because they were
essentially executive officials of the Company’s government. However, throughout time,
the administrative and judicial duties in civil issues were separated, while the
administration of criminal justice remained in the hands of the government
 As a result, the Collector-Magistrate played a crucial role in the Indian Government’s
civil administration as well as the criminal justice system
 The Adalat System was eventually expanded to include the Company’s newly acquired
areas in India
Fourth Phase
 With the formation of High Courts under the High Courts Act of 1861, the next chapter
of India’s legal history is distinguished by the unification of the dual system of courts that
existed in the Presidency cities and countryside into a single one
 The judicial system in Presidency cities was mostly based on English law with a
distinctly British flavour, whilst the Adalat system in Mofussil lands outside of
Presidency towns was based on traditional Hindu and Muslim laws
 52

 The High Court was established in an attempt to streamline the legal system by removing
the Supreme Court and the Sadar Adalats of Presidency Towns. As a result, as Dr. M. P.
Jain correctly points out
 These High Courts are, without a doubt, the forerunners of India’s contemporary legal
and judicial system. Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay were the first to create High Courts,
which were eventually expanded to other Northern and Western Provinces
Fifth Phase
 The advent of the ‘Privy Council’ as India’s highest court of appeal marks yet another
significant step forward in the Indian judicial system. Privy Council encouraged the
creation of uniform laws in India and encouraged courts to uphold high judicial standards
in carrying out their duties as justice dispensers
 Privy Council is one of the main identifiers of this phase
 After the establishment of the First Law Commission in 1833, which began the process of
codifying Indian laws to guarantee uniformity and clarity in the administration of justice,
the proliferation of laws became increasingly visible. The work of codifying India’s
principal laws was taken on by the Second and Third Law Commissions.

Various Reforms:

1. Judicial Plan of 1772: The Judicial plan of 1772 developed by Warren Hastings
introduced the concept of Adalat System. The Judicial plan of 1772 divided the areas of
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa into several districts. As per the Judicial plan of 1772 the
divided districts were appointed with a collector in charge of the administration work.
The company servants were appointed as Collectors.
The Collectors were granted the power to collect revenue and were also empowered the
authority to serve as justice in courts and grant justice. The 1772 Plan was drafted by
Warren Hastings and he was a able administrator the plan of 1772 introduced the Adalat
system and the judicial powers were being separated from the Zamindars.
Small Cause Courts:
The small cause courts were located in every village or pergunnah and dealt with small
or petty cases. The courts had a jurisdictional capacity to handle cases up to the value of
Rs:10. These courts were headed by the head of the village or the head farmer of the
 53

respective village.
Mofussil Diwani Adalat Courts:
The Mofussil Diwani Adalat Courts were to established in each & every district and
handled importantly revenue and civil cases. These courts particularly addressed matters
like marriages disputes, inheritance and disputes relating to partition, castes disputes,
debt issues and disputes related to loans &their repayment, contracts disagreements,
property and partnership disputes.
These courts were equipped with the jurisdictional authority to handle cases of having
value up to Rs 500 and in such cases, appeals were not allowed. Collector of the district
presided as the judge of this court and he was assisted by native law officers such as the
Kazis and Pundits. The Kazis and Pundits used to assist the judge or the collector when
they did not have knowledge about the personal laws of the Hindus and Muslims.
Mofussil Nizamat Adalat Courts:
These Mofussil Nizamat Adalat Courts were also called as Fauzdari Adalat's. These
courts were established in each and every district but dealt exclusively in criminal cases.
The Mofussil Nizamat Adalat Courts did not have the jurisdictional power to grant death
sentences or equipped with the power to forfeit accused property. In the earlier
mentioned instances, they required the approval of Sadar Diwani Adalat courts for final
orders.
These Mofussil Nizamat Adalat Courts were presided only by the Muslim law officers.
The Moulvi as a law officer used to expound the law, while the Kazi as a law officer and
the Mufti as a law officer used to give Fatwa and render the judgment accordingly. But
alongside these officers of law, collectors played the role of a supervisor. He made sure
that all the necessary witnesses were being heard and all the cases were tried regularly
and that the judgments were impartial.
Sadar Diwani Adalat Courts:
Sadar Diwani Adalat Courts were considered to be the apex court to address all civil
disputes in the province. These courts were equipped with the authority to have original
as well as appellate jurisdiction. These Courts heard appeals from Mofussil Diwani
Adalat Courts. These courts were equipped with the authority to hear matters involving
dispute of over Rs 500.
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These Courts levied a charge of five percent of the amount of dispute on the concerned
petition or appeal. Adar Diwani Adalat Courts were presided by the governor and his
council. Sadar Diwani Adalat Court was established in the presidency town of Calcutta.
The Court had its first trial on 17th March, 1773.
Sadar Nizamat Adalat Courts:
Sadar Nizamat Adalat Court was the apex court for providing justice in criminal cases in
the province. These Courts have the authority to deal in both original as well as appellate
jurisdiction.
These Courts have the final authority to decide over cases of death sentence and
forfeiture of property. In cases of death sentence, the death warrant was drafted by the
Sadar Nizamat Adalat Court and it was to be signed by the Nawab as the head of the
Nizamat providing his approval.
2. Reforms under Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793 AD)
Lord Cornwallis was Governor General from the year 1786 to 1793 and his most noted
work was in the field of criminal judicature. He introduced changes in the judicial
system in three years – 1787, 1790 and 1793. These were known as Judicial Plan of
1787, 1790 and 1793 respectively.
Judicial Plan of 1787
1. Reorganisation of districts
The number of districts in Calcutta were reduced from 36 to 23.
2. Appointment of collector
A collector was appointed in each district. He was an Englishman. Collector was
assigned with two tasks – to collect revenue and to decide cases arising out of revenue
matter.
He also presided over the mofussil diwani adalat (district level civil court) as a judge. In
mofussil diwani adalat, he would decide civil cases and cases of zamindars. Appeals
from the mofussil diwani adalat lay to the Sadr Diwani Adalat when the matters
exceeded Rs.1000/-. The Sadr Diwani Adalat was presided was the Governor General.
He also presided over the Magistrate’s Court as a Magistrate, where he was empowered
to try and punish cases of petty crimes and offence upto Rs. 200. Offences having value
of more than Rs.200 would be sent to the Sadr Nizamat Adalat by the Magistrate.
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3. Establishment of Mal Adalats

 Mal Adalats were revenue courts in each district which exclusively dealt with revenue
matters.
 This court was presided by the Collector who decided cases related to revenue as he was
an in charge of revenue matters.
 Appeal from the Mal adalat lay to the Board of Revenue in Calcutta and then to the
Governor General-in-council.
4. Establishment of Registrar Courts
An assistant officer of the collector was appointed who was known as the Registrar. He
was appointed in each district who presided over the Registrar’s court which decided
civil cases upto the value of Rs.200/-
But the decree passed by the Registrar was not final until it was signed by the Mofussil
Diwani Adalat i.e. the Collector.
Judicial Plan of 1790
1. Reorganisation districts into divisions
The districts were divided into four divisions – Murshidabad, Calcutta, Dacca, and
Patna.
2. Moffusil Faujdari Courts were abolished
Mofussil Faujdari Courts were the district level criminal courts. They were abolished and
replaced with Court of Circuits.
3. Establishment of Court of Circuits
A court of Circuit was Established at each of the four divisions. It was presided by 2
servants of the company and they were assisted by Muslim law officers – Qazi and
muftis. It was not a stationary court. Instead it was a moving court which moved from
district to district in their respective division to try criminal cases. They visited each
district of their division twice annually.
4. Increase in Salaries
The salaries of all Judges of all court were fixed and increased to control corruption that
was prevalent in the current system of justice.
5. Collector to make a report of the working of courts
Collector to make a report of the working of courts he was incharge of i.e. the
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Magistrate, Mal Adalat and Mofussil Diwani Adalat; and send it to the British
Parliament of England bi-annually and annually.
6. The Post of Nawab was abolished
The post of Nawab, who used to preside over Sadr Nizamat Adalat was abolished as he
did not carry out criminal justice properly and it was now presided by the Governor
General-in-council instead.
7. Court Fees
Court fees was introduced to reduce the burden on courts. Court fees was only charged
for pleaders of the court and for calling the witnesses of the case.
8. Questionnaire sent to the Magistrates
A questionnaire was sent to the magistrates asking for their opinions on the prevailing
criminal judicial system.
Defects of the Judicial Plan of 1790
The magistrates’ opinions in the questionnaire sent to them revealed the evils of the
criminal justice system. This made Cornwallis realize that certain vital changes were
required in the system of criminal justice.
Two important sources of these evils were-(i) defects in the constitution of the criminal
courts (ii) the gross defects in the Muslim law of Crimes.
Cornwallis resolved to abolish the authority of Nawab over the criminal judicature and to
transfer the administration of criminal justice from Muslim Law officers to the
Company’s legal servants.
Court of Circuits were moving courts which were overburdened with cases, which
caused them delay in moving from one district to another and could not visit some
districts twice annually due to the delay.
There was a lot of collective power of administration and judiciary vested with the
collector which made him abuse his power.
Judicial Plan of 1793
1. Separation of Executive and the Judiciary
The powers vested in the collector were administrative and judicial as he was also in
charge of collection of revenue and for deciding cases arising out of revenue matter.
Now, the collector was only responsible for the collection of revenue.
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2. Mal Adalats were abolished

Revenue courts which exclusively tried cases arising out of revenue matters and presided
by the Collector as Judge, was now abolished.
All powers and pending suits of the Revenue courts were now transferred to Mofussil
Diwani Adalats and thus not tried by the collector.
3. Executive subjected judicial control
The Governor General and his council were now subject to judicial control. Any wrong
acts committed by them while carrying out their functions and outside of it could be
heard or tried and punished by the Diwani Adalats. Suits against the Government by
private individuals could be brought forward and were tried by the Diwani Courts.
4. Indian natives had to sign a bond with the British Subjects agreeing to go to court
British could recover claims from Indian natives and vice versa by signing a bond with
each other agreeing to go to court.
5. Establishment of Provincial Courts of Appeal at the four divisions
Earlier the appeal from the Mofussil Diwani Adalats lay to the Sadr Diwani Adalat
situated at Calcutta. But this process for time consuming and expensive so provincial
courts of appeal were established at each division i.e. Patna, Calcutta Murshidabad and
Dacca. Appeals from the Mofussil Adalat now lay to the provincial court of appeal
which were to be heard within three months of filing them. These courts were presided
by three covenant English servants of the company. Quorum was of two servants. It was
an open court and could try revenue, civil and criminal cases. They could also try cases
referred to them by the Sadr Diwani Adalats.
Cases valued more than Rs. 5000 were referred to the King-in-council.
6. Native Officers given important posts
Native officers were appointed by the Governor General-in-council.Native officers were
made Munsiffs of the Munsiff courts at district level. This court could try cases upto
Rs.50. Zamindars, Tehsildars, etc appointed as Munsiffs.
Personal Laws of Hindus and Muslims were applicable in cases relating to marriage,
inheritance, caste, religious usages and institutions. These personal laws were interpreted
by the native officers who were appointed to assist the court to expound the personal law
7.Sadr Diwani Adalat
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It was highest court of appeal in India. It was presided over by the Governor General and
the Council who were the Judges of the Sadr Diwani Adalat. Their function was to
supervise the lower courts and to hear appeals from the provincial courts of appeal when
the sum of the matter of the case was more than Rs.1000.
Further an appeal from the Sadr Diwani Adalat lay to the King-in-council, when the sum
of the matter of the case was more than Rs.5000.
8. Reforms in criminal judicature
The court of circuit was merged with the provincial court of appeal. The power of the
collector as a magistrate was taken away and was vested in the judges of the diwani
adalats instead.
9. Uniform pattern of Regulations
Until now, any new regulation that was issued did not follow an uniform pattern. This
was changed by making it a rule that any new regulation that would be made would have
a title to explain the nature of the subject matter and contain a preamble which would
state the purpose for enacting the regulation.
10. Reforms in Muslim Personal Law
The Sadr Nizamat Adalat was directed to to follow the muslim personal law to try and
punish criminal cases, but with some modifications. The relatives of murder victims did
not have a provision to pardon the murderer. The cruel and inhuman punishments such
as cutting off limbs of the offender were replaced with punishment of imprisonment and
hard labour for 14 years.
11. Court Fees abolished
Court fees which was imposed in the judicial plan of 1787 was abolished. The court fee
was abolished so that the people could easily reach to the court for securing justice.
12. Legal Profession recognised for the first time in India
The legal profession was recognised in India for the first time. The pleaders of the case
had to have prior legal knowledge to be eligible to be a pleader of the court.
Defects of the judicial plan of 1790
The provisions of multiple levels of appeals made the judicial machinery complicated
and slow moving. Thus, large number of cases remained pending in the courts for long
period.
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The Indians were totally excluded from the judiciary except at very low level of munsif.
Cornwallis was of a belief that the Indians were unworthy of holding any position of
responsibility because of their character. This distrust shown towards the Indians
generated the dissatisfaction among the native people as well as made the system less
efficient as the English servants did not know and understand the customs, usages, etc. of
the people; therefore Europeans could not understand nor provide solutions the problems
of the natives.
Cornwallis did everything on procedural side but he could not reform the substantive
part of law mainly the criminal law which was based on Muslim law and had many
defects.

3. Judicial Reforms by William Bentinck:

 William Bentinck came in India as Governor-General of Bengal in July, 1828 and
continued upto March, 1835. He introduced radical changes in the sphere of finance,
justice and education. He fully re-organised the entire judicial system. Bentinck
adopted the policy of Indianisation of the judiciary.
 Under William Bentinck, the four Circuit Courts were abolished and transferred the
functions of the abolished court to the collectors under the supervision of the
commissioner of revenue and circuit. The reason for this was that the Judges of these
Courts were entrusted with multifarious functions of supervising the executive and
revenue officers, performing magisterial functions as also the duties of police. This
resulted into heavy accumulation of arrears of work in these Courts thereby causing
delay in gaol deliveries. For the same reason the Judges of the Circuit could hardly
find time to acquaint themselves with the local languages and customs.
In order to improve this situation, Bentinck divided the entire territory of Bengal into
twenty divisions each having a Commissioner of Revenue and Circuit. These
Commissioners were to conduct sessions of gaol delivery in their division atleast
twice a year. They were also to exercise supervisory powers over the Collector of
revenue and supervise the functions of the police in their division. These
Commissioners were under the control of Sadar Nizamat Adalat for their judicial
functions and under the Sadar Board of Revenue for their revenue duties. Their orders
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were final and conclusive not being subject to revision by the Sadar Nizamat Adalat.
The most significant aspect of this new arrangement was that the Commissioners of
Circuit were empowered to seek assistance of local respectable natives by utilizing
their services either in the form of Panchayats or as assessors.
 Appointment of District and Sessions Judges — In 1831, a District and Sessions
Court was established in each district which was empowered to hear and decide civil
and criminal cases, Regulation VII of 1831 authorised the Governor General in
Council to empower the judges of the District Diwani Adalat not being magistrate, to
hold criminal sessions whenever the pressure of work on the Commissioner was too
heavy. The judges so authorised were to try all cases committed before them by the
magistrates in their respective jurisdictions and to hold gaol deliveries at least once a
month. In course of time, a District and Sessions Court was set up in each district to
relieve the Commissioners of their heavy work load. This Court was to decide both,
civil and criminal cases. The system continues even to this day.
 Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar Nizamat Adalat were established at Allahabad, to
supervise the administration of justice in North-West Provinces. It had the same
powers as that of the Sadar Nizamat Adalat of Calcutta.
 Abolition of Provincial Court of Appeal – The Provincial Courts of Appeal were
abolished in 1833. As regards the appeals, the decision of the Zila or City Diwani
Adalat was final in suits which came in appeal from the Court of Munsif or Sadar
Ameen. In all cases which were originally determined by the Principal Sadar Ameen,
an appeal could be taken to the Sadar Diwani Adalat at Calcutta. It must be noted that
all British subjects, European and American foreigners were excluded from the
jurisdiction of native judges of all categories.
 He made the Persian and a Vernacular language for the court proceeding in lower
court and made English language as official language for Supreme Court proceeding.
 To Enlarge Representation on Bentinck favoured the inclusion of native Indians to
judicial posts. In 1832, the Sadar Ameens, who were Indian law officers, could award
punishment of imprisonment with hard labour and corporal punishments upon the
persons accused of theft. The Commissioners of Circuits could, take assistance from
the native law officers by employing them as jurors or assessors. One important
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change introduced by Lord Bentinck was that non-Muslims could seek exemption
from being tried in accordance with the Mohammedan law of crimes. In such cases
Fatwa was dispensed with. The Sadar Nizamat Adalat was not bound to ask for a
Fatwa from the Muftis. Thus, it would be seen that the Muslim law of crime ceased to
be applicable to all the natives alike.
 Abolition of Corporal Punishment – Bentinck abolished the corporal punishment in
1834 and introduced the Jury system in 1832.
 Regulation V of 1832 provided that the English officials of the civil courts could seek
assistance of respectable native gentleman in deciding civil cases either by referring
the suit to a ‘Panchayat to find the facts and report to the court or deputing two or
more of such natives as ‘Assessors’ or by employing them as ‘Jury’ to attend the
Court during trial and give their verdict. Thus, this marks the beginning of Jury
system in India. However, the final decision was always vested with the Judge of the
court in all cases.
 During his reign, Law commission was set up by Macaulay which codified the Indian
laws. On the basis of this commission, a civil Procedure Code of 1859, an Indian
Penal Code of 1860, and a Criminal Procedure Code of 1861 were prepared.

Conclusion: We can conclude that during the British era, India went through a whole lot of
experimentation and learning. Many judicial mechanisms were established and many were
scrapped then replaced with other mechanisms. The British rule had many positive effects on
our legal system as the idea of a fair and impartial system where the judicial body must be
separate from the other organs of the state came to India via the British.
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