Igcse Paper 6 Notes.: 1.measurements and Observations. 1.1 Variables

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IGCSE PAPER 6 NOTES.

1.MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS.
1.1 Variables.
(a)Independent variable.
 Is a factor that changes in an investigation.

 It is the changed variable.
 Also described as the input variable.
(b)Dependent variable.
 It is the factor that changes as a result of the independent variable.

 It is the measured variable.
(c)Controlled variable.
 In an experiment, the dependent variable may be affected by other variable, for example
an enzyme controlled reaction is affected by more than one variable.
 Only one variable should be considered as the independent variable in an investigation
and other variable should be kept constant i.e. standardized.
1.2Examples of variables and standardizing methods.
 Temperature- thermostatically controlled water bath.

 PH-Buffer solution of known concentration.
 Light intensity.-Heat-shielded lamp set at constant distance/power.
 Wind speed-Fan set at constant distance and power.
 Humidity-solid anhydrous calcium chloride.
 Other standardized variables include.
 Mass.
 Concentration.
 Volume.
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 Source.
 Age/size/length.
 Storage conditions.
1.3Dependent variables must be measured by proper instruments.
 Temperature-thermometer.
 Colour- colorimeter
 Ph.- indicator/pH meter.
 Mass- balance.
 Time- clock/stop watch.
 Length-ruler.
 Volume-beaker/ measuring cylinder/burette/pipette
NB: Read from the bottom of the meniscus.
1.4Quality of measurements.
(a)Accuracy-closeness to true value.
 Accuracy is improved by using better instruments.
(b)Precision-closeness to repeated reading.
 It is improved by controlling all variables.
(c)Reliability-Confidence in results.
 It is improved by repeating and taking the mean.
2.PRESENTATION OF DATA OBSERVATION.
2.1Drawing a table of results.
 Draw a table with neat, ruled pencil lines.

 Give each column suitable heading (Quantity /SI unit).
 Arrange columns in order: independent and dependent variable.
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 Round data to some number of decimal places to maintain consistency.
2.2Plotting graphs.
 Types of graphs.
 Line graph.
 Histogram-in this graph bars touch.
 Bar chart- in this graph bars do not touch
 Independent variable on the x-axis and dependent variable on the y-axis.
 Use linear scale with sensible intervals e.g. 1s,2s,5s,10s..
 Use as much space of the graph as possible.
 Label each axis as fully, according to variable column heading.
NB: Include units for each variable.
 For line graphs:
 Plot points with x or a dot encircled.
 Join successive points with straight line.
 If there is a clear relation ,a line of best fit can be drawn but draw this if asked to
do so.
 Don’t not extent the line beyond the plotted points i.e. extrapolation.
2.3Making biological drawings.
 Use most of the space available to make drawing large enough to show essential features.
 Draw clear, single line with sharp HB pencil(keep clean eraser.)
 Show overall shape and ensure proportions are correct.
 Do not shade or colour.
 Label using accurate , straight, horizontal, non-intersecting ruled line.NB:Label the
diagram only when asked to do so.
2.4Mathematical skills.
 Mean= sum of data ÷ number of data.

 %change=(Final- Initial)/Initial ×100.
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 Magnification=Image size/Actual size.

NB: When calculating magnification make sure that the units are the same.
 1cm=10mm
 1mm=1000micrometers(µm)
3.ANALYSIS,CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION.
3.1 Describing and Interpreting Data.
 Describe the overall trend.

 Comment on changes in gradient.
 Quote figures to support the claim .
NB: Figures must have units.
 Draw a conclusion by connecting it to description using theoretical reasoning.
3.2Sources of error in an investigation.
 Inaccurate measuring instrument.

 Difficulties in controlling standardized variables and dependent variable.
 Anomalous readings( owing to inadequate technique).
 Inadequate range of concentrations and intervals.
 Uncontrolled variables.
4.DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT.
 Find the variable which is to be changed( from the question) and mention how you
are going to change it(eg to change temperature, use thermostatically controlled
water bath).
 There should be at least five different values of the independent variable ,the values
should be spaced at equal interval.
 List all variables that you should have to keep constant throughout the experiment(
e.g. Room temperature, volume of water, insect species).
 Mention how long your experiment will last.
 Say how you will measure the dependent variable.
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 Finally: say repeat the experiment to have at least three readings for each value of
the independent variable and calculate the mean to improve reliability.
NB: Accuracy is improved by using better measuring instruments.
 You can mention a control ( e.g.: use of boiled enzyme in an experiment to test for
enzyme activity)
NB:Control sample is a standardized one with the effect of independent variable removed.

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IGCSE PAPER 6 NOTES.

 Is a factor that changes in an investigation.

 It is the factor that changes as a result of the independent variable.

1.2Examples of variables and standardizing methods.

 Temperature- thermostatically controlled water bath.

1.3Dependent variables must be measured by proper instruments.

(a)Accuracy-closeness to true value.

 Accuracy is improved by using better instruments.

(b)Precision-closeness to repeated reading.

 It is improved by controlling all variables.

 It is improved by repeating and taking the mean.

2.PRESENTATION OF DATA OBSERVATION.

2.1Drawing a table of results.

 Draw a table with neat, ruled pencil lines.

 Round data to some number of decimal places to maintain consistency.

2.3Making biological drawings.

 Mean= sum of data ÷ number of data.

 Magnification=Image size/Actual size.

3.ANALYSIS,CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION.

3.1 Describing and Interpreting Data.

 Describe the overall trend.

3.2Sources of error in an investigation.

 Inaccurate measuring instrument.

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