Welding Technology

ME692

Dr. Virkeshwar Kumar

NL1-115R, Manufacturing Science Lab
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 0512-259-2334
 Discharge
Conductor Air Conductor

Power source

✓ Decrease in the gap between conductors: no current flow

✓ If we apply more energy between two conductors:
Thermionic emission
✓ Further decrease in the gap as well as apply high energy…
air ionized
✓Thermionic emission is the liberation of electrons from an
electrode by its temperature.
 Discharge
Conductor Air Conductor

Power source

✓ More electrons will interact with air, so gas atoms and

molecules will become ionized.
✓ Ionized: gas atoms or molecules lose electrons during the
process, so then they become positive ions. This process
creates more energy carriers (electrons, ions). It conducts
energy and charges.
✓ This process is known as discharge.
 Discharge
✓ Discharge example: lightning. Thunderbolt
✓ When the carrier passes through the gas medium, three types
of discharge:
✓ A. Momentary (0.01s): Spark and lightning
✓ B. Townsend discharge, glow discharge, and arc discharge
✓ Townsend discharge: photovoltaic effects (high
voltage and low current)
✓ Glow discharge: house lighting (medium V and
normal current)
✓ Arc discharge: low voltage and high current
 Discharge
Electric discharge: Avalanche of ions & electrons

https://www.plasma-universe.com/electric-glow-discharge/
 ARC
✓ Arc: A sustained electric discharge in a gas: movement of
free electrons and ions of atoms and molecules in between a
potential difference.

✓A welding arc is a gaseous electrical conductor that changes

electrical energy into heat.
✓It involves electrical discharges formed and sustained by the
development of conductive charge carriers in a gaseous
medium.
 ARC Welding
✓Path of electron and ion is decided by polarity.
✓The electron moves from the cathode to the anode.
✓Positive ions: anode to cathode.
✓Negative ions: cathode to anode
✓IN DCEN: Electrons move to WP, and ions move to the
electrode.
✓Energy transfer by the motion of energy carriers (electrons
and ions).
 ARC Welding
✓Electrons are much smaller than +ve ions but have higher kinetic
energy (higher velocities)
✓Electron has less mass and number is very high
✓Even ions are heavy; during the collisions between ions and
electrons carry more heat.
 ARC Welding
✓Arc consists of thermally emitted electrons and positive ions
from the electrode and workpiece.
✓Electrons and ions are accelerated by the potential field (voltage)
between the source and the work. Heat is produced when
electrons and ions collide with the oppositely charged element.
 Electric Arc: Arc Electrical Features

__
Potential
Cathode
drop zone
Arc
l
Column
Anode
+ drop zone

Cathode drop zone: the gaseous region which has a positive space
charge, so a voltage drop is necessary as the electrons are to be
pulled across this region.
 Electric Arc: Arc Electrical Features
Arc Column: This is the
Potential visible portion of the arc
Cathode
drop zone consisting of plasma
Arc where the voltage drop
l
Column
is not sharp.
Anode
drop zone

✓Arc consists of thermally emitted electrons and positive

ions from the electrode and workpiece.
 Electric Arc: Arc Electrical Features
Arc Column: This is the
Potential visible portion of the arc
Cathode
drop zone consisting of plasma
Arc where the voltage drop
l
Column
is not sharp.
Anode
drop zone

✓A plasma is the ionized state of a gas, comprised of a balance

of negative electrons and positive ions to maintain charge
neutrality.
 Electric Arc: Arc Electrical Features

Potential
Cathode
drop zone
Arc
l
Column
Anode
drop zone

✓Anode zone: This is the area in the anode surface where

electrons are absorbed. This area is larger than the cathode
spot and where a sharp drop in the voltage takes place.
 ARC Welding
✓IN DCEN: Wp has maximum temperature compared to
electrode
✓IN DCEP: Electrode has maximum temperature for
consumable electrodes.
ARC Welding
 ARC Welding
✓Ions have heavy wt, so Bombardments of ions clean the
surfaces.
✓Al has oxide formation, so it needs both cleanings as
well as heating, so AC,
 Electric Arc: Current Mode

DCSP (DCEN) DCRP (DCEP) AC

▪ No Surface cleaning ▪ Strong cleaning ▪ Cleaning every half
▪ Deep weld action cycle
▪ 70% heat at work ▪ Shallow weld ▪ Sallow weld
▪ 30% heat at ▪ 30% heat at work ▪ 50% heat at work
electrode ▪ 70% heat at electrode ▪ 50% heat at electrode
▪ Filler metal ▪ Filler deposition rate ▪ Good Electrode
deposition rate is low is high current capacity
ARC Welding
 Constant-Current Power Sources
OCV
✓It is well suited for manual
operation. It is widely used
in SMAW.
✓Arc voltage depends on the
arc gap or arc length.
✓CC shows a small variation
in current due to a steep SCC

decrease in the V-I dI/dV should minimum (ignore sign)

relationship. V α arc length, V α –I
✓CC sources are sometimes called “drooping sources’’ or “droopers”
because of the substantial downward slope or droop of the V-A
curves.
ARC Welding
 Constant-Voltage Power Sources
✓It is well suited for semi-automatic operation. It maintains
constant arc voltage irrespective of current.
✓Used for consumable process.
✓In this cases arc gap is maintained by controllers so deposition
rate can be controlled by changes in current.
 Numerical Problems
1. For the manual arc welding process: what is most suitable
among the following V-I relationships?
a. V=80-0.1I
b. V=80-0.8I
c. V=80-0.5I
d. V=60-0.3I
 Numerical Problems
2. Determine the maximum power for a 4V+2I=240 DC power
source.
 Numerical Problems
2. Determine the maximum power for a 4V+2I=240 DC power
source.
 Numerical Problems
3. The voltage-length characteristic of a DC arc is given by
V=20+40l volts, where l is the length of the arc in cm. The
power source characteristic is approximated by a straight line
with an open circuit voltage =80V and a short circuit current
=1000A. Determine the optimum arc length and the
corresponding arc power.
 Numerical Problems
3. The voltage-length characteristic of a DC arc is given by
V=20+40l volts, where l is the length of the arc in cm. The
power source characteristic is approximated by a straight line
with an open circuit voltage =80V and a short circuit current
=1000A. Determine the optimum arc length and the
corresponding arc power.
 Numerical Problems
3. The voltage-length characteristic of a DC arc is given by
V=20+40l volts, where l is the length of the arc in cm. The
power source characteristic is approximated by a straight line
with an open circuit voltage =80V and a short circuit current
=1000A. Determine the optimum arc length and the
corresponding arc power.
Numerical Problems
 Duty Cycle
▪ It is specified for a welding machine that is apart from the
Ampere-Volt rating.
▪ Duty cycle is % of the 10min period that equipment operates at
rated power. This means there is no overheating

▪ Example: if welding equipment is the specified rating of 60% duty

cycle, current of 300A, and voltage of 30V.
▪ It means the machine will work safely for 6 min at 300A and 30V.

▪ Machine duty cycle is based on output current rating, not on

power.
 Duty Cycle
▪ 𝐼 2 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑟2 𝑇𝑟

▪ Where T is % rated duty cycle, I is rated current

▪ 𝑇𝑟 is required duty cycle, 𝐼𝑟 is maximum required
current output at desired duty cycle

Numerical problem:
1. What will be the duty cycle with a 200A power
supply rated at 60% duty cycle operated at the
current 250A output?
 Numerical Problems: Duty Cycle
1. What will be the duty cycle with a 200A power
supply rated at 60% duty cycle operated at the
current 250A output?
 Shielded-Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
✓Manual metal arc welding
✓Arc by consumable flux coated metal electrode
✓Shielding by flux which produces slag covers weld
pool
 Shielded-Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
✓Molten metal in weld pool solidifies in weld metal
while lighter molten flux floats on top surface and
solidifies as a slag layer.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Flow meter Regulator
Welding direction

Torch
Filler

Shielding gas
cylinder
rod

workpiece Power
source

Tungsten electrode

Filler Shielding gas

rod

Shielding gas Arc

Metal drop Weld Metal

Base metal
Weld pool
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)/MIGW

Flow meter Regulator

Welding direction

Torch
Consumable

Shielding gas
cylinder
electrode

workpiece Power
source

Consumable electrode

Shielding gas

Shielding gas Arc

Metal drop Weld Metal

Base metal
Weld pool
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Welding direction

Torch
Filler Control

Shielding gas

Orifice gas
rod Console

workpiece Power
source

_ Tungsten electrode
Orifice gas
Shielding gas Orifice gas nozzle
(water cooled)
Filler
rod Shielding gas nozzle

Metal drop Arc Plasma

Base metal + Weld Metal

Keyhole Molten metal
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
(a) Transferred Arc (b) Non-transferred Arc
• used for welding/cutting • used for thermal spraying

Onset

Final
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Wire Wire
Flux electrode reel
Hopper
Wire drive &
Torch control
Welding
direction
Flux
Power
workpiece source

Flux
Wire electrode
Flux
Molten slag
Arc Solidified Slag

Molten metal
Weld Metal
Base metal Metal drop
 Conduction mode
✓When energy is transferred to a workpiece and immediately
causes heating by a combination of conduction of heat in the
flame, arc, or, to a much lesser extent, beam, and conversion of
kinetic energy.
✓If the rate at which energy is being deposited exceeds the rate at
which heat is being conducted away, the temperature will rise to
eventually cause melting and produce a fusion weld.
✓This mode of energy deposition and weld production is called
the melt-in mode or the conduction mode.
 Conduction mode
✓In the melt-in or conduction mode, the temperature is maximum
at the point of deposition, on or near the surface.
✓From that point outward into the mass of the workpiece, the
temperature drops off. Depending on the total amount and rate
of energy deposition, as well as the thermal conductivity and
mass of the workpiece, heat energy is partitioned between
melting to produce a fusion zone and just heating to produce a
heat-affected zone.
 Keyhole mode
✓If the density of the energy coming from a source is high enough,
the rate at which it is deposited greatly exceeds the rate at
which it is lost by being conducted into the workpiece(s).
✓The material at the point of deposition rises in temperature not
just to the melting point, but well above that.
✓The temperature can rise to the boiling point, converting liquid
to vapor, superheating the vapor.
✓When this occurs, the energy source is said to be operating in the
keyhole mode.
 Keyhole mode
Continued inward
propagation of heat to
Surface heating raise a larger volume
Initial deposition and inward of material to above
of impinging propagating of Tm, and elevation of
energy on the heat to cause temperature near the
surface melting anywhere surface to above TBP,
T> Tm; causing vaporization
and a downward force
on the liquid;
 Keyhole mode

Continued deposition of heat, Eventual penetration of vapor

increased vaporization and cavity through thickness to
greater depression of liquid, and produce a keyhole of vapor
increased growth of melted surrounded by molten material
volume;
 Keyhole mode
F1 = Vapour pressure
F2 = Force resulting
from surface tension
F3 = Hydrostatic
pressure
F4= Frictional force
from the escaping
metal vapour
F5 = Weight of the
Keyhole mode EBW molten liquid.
 Keyhole mode

✓ Formed vapour (expand and less dense) moves upward away from the surface, and produces a reaction force that
presses the melt downward and sideways.

✓ The result is a depression that permits additional photons (from a laser beam), electrons (from an electron beam), or
electrons and ions (from a plasma arc) to impinge upon fresh material, which is then heated in the same way.

✓ The depression becomes larger and transforms to a keyhole, the entire central core of which consists of vapor
surrounded on all sides by an envelope of liquid.

✓ For sufficient energy input, this keyhole will penetrate entirely through the thickness of the workpiece, even if this is
several centimetres or inches.

✓ In this way, the faces of the two joint elements can be melted, the molten material flows back into the molten weld
pool, metallurgical continuity is obtained, and solidification can occur to produce a weld.

✓ Key-hole mode (as opposed to the melt-in mode) begins to occur at energy densities above around 109 W/m2
Effect of Beam Defocus (EBW)
 Fusion welding: Energy Density
Heat input to workpiece
Energy Density: Power input/Effective area
gas 10W/cm2
Welding
~3K°C
50W/cm2
arc
Welding
~6K°C

10kW/cm2
high energy
beam welding ~20-30K°C
Power density of heat source
Energy Density: Type of Penetration
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
✓Electron beam is the energy source
for melting the metals.

✓As the filament is negatively

charged, it emits electrons which
are accelerated by an electric field.

✓These electrons go through the

anode and are focused (0.3 ~ 0.8
mm diam.) by an electromagnetic
coil on the w/s surface with a high
power density (~ 1010 W/m2).

✓High-intensity beam forms a deep

penetrating keyhole.
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
✓The weld is formed as the intense laser light
rapidly heats the material-typically calculated in
milli-seconds.

✓There are typically three types of welds:

✓Conduction mode
✓Conduction/penetration mode
✓Penetration or keyhole mode.
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

✓ At high power densities, all materials will evaporate if the energy can be absorbed.
Thus, when welding in this way, a hole is usually formed by evaporation.
✓ This "hole" is then traversed through the material with the molten walls sealing up
behind it.
✓ The result is what is known as a "keyhole weld. This is characterized by its parallel-
sided fusion zone and narrow width.
Comparison of typical EB, LB, and
conventional arc
Chemical Fusion
Welding
 Chemical Fusion Welding
It is subset of fusion welding process where source of heat is
exothermic chemical reaction.

Two types:
Thermit welding Oxyfuel gas welding

employ a highly employ an exothermic

exothermic chemical chemical reaction
reaction between solid- involving the
phase particulate combustion of a fuel
materials (or solid gas with oxygen
particles and a gas).
3Fe3O4+8Al=9Fe+4Al2O3
(838 kJ/mol of oxide)
 Oxyfuel gas welding
✓Exothermic Reaction between fuel gas with oxygen.

✓Fuel gas: Natural gas/methane, propane, propylene,

butane, or other hydrocarbon gases, or even
hydrogen

✓Oxyacetylene welding (OAW): Acetylene gas is used

as the fuel due to its high flame temperature (i.e.,
intense source energy).

✓In combustion, two stages are there in OAW welding.

✓Primary combustion zone
✓Secondary combustion zone
 Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
Primary combustion zone:
Acetylene gas reacts with The inner core of
pressurized oxygen from Primary
the cylinder, and it forms Combustion zone
carbon monoxide and (2800-3500°C)
hydrogen.
Acetylene ~1000°C
C2H2
Oxygen
O2
C2H2+O2 (cylinder)=2CO+H2
+448 kJ/mol of acetylene
(1/3 of total heat generation OAW process)

High energy density region: The welder uses the inner flame to
melt the workpiece.
 Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
Primary combustion zone:
1/3 of total heat generation occurs in The inner core of
small volumes, so the high energy Primary
density region is the hottest region. Combustion zone
(2800-3500°C)
Acetylene ~1000°C
C2H2
Oxygen
O2

The welder uses the inner flame to melt the workpiece.

 Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
Secondary combustion zone:
Just after the primary combustion zone.

Monoxide (CO) from the primary combustion zone reacts

with surrounding oxygen and forms Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Primary
Combustion zone
Acetylene (2800-3500°C)
C2H2
Oxygen
O2
The outer flame of
secondary
2CO+O2 (surrounding)= 2CO2
Combustion zone
+570 kJ/mol of acetylene
(~2500°C)
 Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
Secondary combustion zone:
Hydrogen (H2) from the primary combustion zone reacts
with surrounding oxygen and forms water vapor(H2O).

Primary
Combustion zone
Acetylene (2800-3500°C)
C2H2
Oxygen
O2
The outer flame of
secondary
2H2+O2 (surrounding)= 2H2O
Combustion zone
+242 kJ/mol of acetylene
(~2500°C)
 Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)
Secondary combustion zone:
Outer flame is used to provide shielding of molten liquid of
weld by CO2.

It can also be used to control the cooling rate and

preheating of the workpiece.
Primary
Combustion zone
Acetylene (2800-3500°C)
C2H2
Oxygen
O2
The outer flame of
secondary
A slow cooling rate avoids Combustion zone
cracking and HAZ (~2500°C)
transformation.
 Types of flames in OAW
Chemically Chemically Chemically
Neutral Reducing or Oxidizing
carburizing flame The amount of O2
Molar ratio of
Supplying excess is more, so some
C2H2 to O2 is 1:1.
acetylene. fraction is not
C2H2+O2 used in the
(cylinder)=2CO+H2 It burns with primary
surrounding oxygen combustion zone.
in the secondary
zone and from an
acetylene feather.

Acetylene
Feather
 Types of flames in OAW
Carburizing flame is good for the removal of oxides from
metals (Al, Mg), and it prevents oxidation during welding.

Oxidizing flame: metal being welded to form an oxide. It

prevents from loss of high vapor pressure components such
as Zn out of brass by forming oxide skin.

Q (W) = 48 kJ/L × V acetylene × h/3600 s

Vacetylene = the volumetric flow rate of acetylene in liters (L) per

hour (h),
The heat of combustion of acetylene (C2H2) is 48 kJ/L at a standard
state of 25°C, 1 atm pressure.
This equations apply to other oxyfuel gas combinations, simply
substituting the heat of combustion for the particular fuel gas, in
kilojoules per liter.
 Joining Classification
Bright Acetylene
Luminous Feather Outer blue cone
inner core (1275 °C)
In an oxyacetylene flame, the available heat at the (2900°C)
source

Q (W) = 48 kJ/L acetylene x V acetylene x h/3600 s

V acetylene = the volumetric flow rate of acetylene in

liters (L) per hour (h),

The heat of combustion of acetylene (C2H2) is 48 kJ/L

at a standard state of 25°C, 1 atm pressure. Carburizing flame
This equations apply to other oxyfuel gas
combinations, simply substituting the heat of
combustion for the particular fuel gas, in kilojoules per
liter.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fs1UhhJH0E8&ab_channe
l=WeBuildStuff
Video
 Thermit Welding
Generally, metal oxide reacts with Al. aluminum dust
reduces the oxide of another metal due to the faster
reactivity of aluminum.
3Fe3O4+8Al=9Fe+4Al2O3 (838 kJ/mol of oxide)
Fe2O3+2Al=2Fe+Al2O3 (860 kJ/mol of oxide)
3CuO+2Al=3Cu+Al2O3 (1210 kJ/mol of oxide)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uxsFglz2ig&ab_channel=WolfgangLendner
Resistance Welding
 Resistance Spot Welding

1 2 3 4 5 6
Electrode

I
+ Solidifying Weld nugget

_
Molten liquid
Electrode

Plot of squeezing force and current during cycle.

The sequence is:
(1) parts inserted between open electrodes
Force 1 2 3 4 5 6 (2) Electrodes close and force is applied
Current (3) weld time current is switched on
(4) current is turned off but force is maintained or
increased
I

Spot welding cycle time

 Nugget Growth Mechanism
At first the resistance increases in stage 1 do to
the increased temperature (increased bulk
resistance) outweighing the better surface
contact.
With thinner materials, the peak occurs more
rapidly.
Stage 2
Stage 1 Peak occurs earlier with thinner materials.
Resistance
Increase in
drop
resistance to Stage 3 Stage 2 Drop in resistance because of current
Start of Stage 4
peak value Secondary
weld shunting into the mushy and solid state bonded
state pic Steady state
resistance region
Resistance

Total resistance between electrodes: Stage 3 instability in the current path as nugget
1. Resistance of workpieces (R1) approaching a steady state growth mode.
2. Contact resistance between
electrodes and workpieces (R2) Stage 4 Steady State Growth of Nugget until
3. Resistance between workpiece either expulsion or current off time and new
surfaces (Faying surfaces, affected by nugget formation
surface cleanliness etc.) (R3)
R1 and R2 << R3

welding time
 Resistance Welding
High-frequency High-frequency
resistance welding induction welding

https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=0x1uRR9Jb34&ab_channel=
Tenaris
Thermal analysis in welding
 Mode of Heat Transfer
Conduction mode of heat transfer
Conduction in solids: lattice vibrations of the molecules
and the movement of free electrons.
In gases and liquids: collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
T
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝒅𝑻 Th
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = −𝒌𝑨
𝒅𝒙

Tl
0
x
l
 Conservation of Energy: 1-D
1D Heat Conduction Equation - Plane Wall
Rate of Rate of Rate of heat Rate of energy
-
energy energy + generation = change within
added at removed inside the the element
x at x+Dx element
Δ𝐸𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑄ሶ 𝑥 − 𝑄ሶ 𝑥+Δ𝑥 + 𝒒
ഺ=
Δ𝑡

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 ഺ = 𝝆𝒄
+𝒒
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 𝟐 +𝒒ഺ = 𝝆𝒄
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒕
 Conservation of Energy: 1-D
 2T 1 T =
k
=
x 2
 t Thermal diffusivity C p
• Thermal diffusivity (α, unit m2/s) is ability of a material to conduct
thermal energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy.

• Diffusivity is an important parameter for understanding diffusion (rate)

processes.

• Thermal diffusivity gives a measure of “time scale (t (s)=L2/𝛼)” of heat

diffusion or how fast the heat would flow between two temperatures.

• For e.g. if you hold an iron rod (α=2.3×10-5 m2/s) in the left hand and
an aluminum rod (α=9.7×10-5 m2/s) in the right hand and place the
other two ends in a fire-place, the right hand will sense the heat much
quicker.
 Conservation of Energy: 2-D
2D Heat Conduction Equation
Rate of - Rate of + Rate of heat = Rate of energy
energy energy generation change within
added removed inside the the element
element

𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 + 𝒌 ഺ = 𝝆𝒄
+𝒒
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝑻
𝒌 𝟐 +𝒌 𝟐+𝒒 ഺ = 𝝆𝒄
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒕
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy
Conservation of Energy