The Hyperboloid Model of Hyperbolic Geometry

Eastern Washington University
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EWU Masters Thesis Collection Student Research and Creative Works
2012
The hyperboloid model of hyperbolic geometry

Zachery S. Lane Solheim
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Solheim, Zachery S. Lane, "The hyperboloid model of hyperbolic geometry" (2012). EWU Masters Thesis Collection. 240.
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The Hyperboloid Model of Hyperbolic Geometry
A Thesis
Presented To
Cheney, Washington
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree
Master of Science
By
Zachery S. Lane Solheim
Spring 2012
THESIS OF ZACHERY S. LANE SOLHEIM APPROVED BY
Date:
Dr. Ron Gentle, Graduate Study Chair
Date:
Dr. Yves Nievergelt, Graduate Study Committee
Date:
Dr. Achin Sen, Graduate Study Committee
ii
Abstract
The main goal of this thesis is to introduce and develop the
hyperboloid model of Hyperbolic Geometry. In order to do that,
some time is spent on Neutral Geometry as well as Euclidean
Geometry; these are used to build several models of Hyperbolic
Geometry. At this point the hyperboloid model is introduced,
related to the other models visited, and developed using some
concepts from physics as aids. After the development of the
hyperboloid model, Fuchsian groups are briefly discussed and
the more familiar models of Hyperbolic Geometry are further
investigated.
iii
Contents
1 History of Geometry 1 1
2 Neutral Geometry and Euclid V 7
2.1 Axioms and Definitions of Neutral Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Theorems of Neutral Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Equivalencies to Euclid V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Neutral Geometry and the Hyperbolic Axiom 50
3.1 Saccheri’s Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 The Hyperbolic Axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3 A Model for Hyperbolic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4 Necessities for Our Models 56
4.1 Concerning Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2 Inversion, Dilation, and Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.3 Möbius Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5 The Upper-Half Plane as A Model 94
6 Models of Hyperbolic Geometry 114
iv
6.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2 Poincaré Disk P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.1 Building the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3 Hemisphere H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.3.2 An Alternate Approach to H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.4 Klein Disk K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.4.2 History of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.5 The Hyperboloid H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.5.2 History of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7 Relativity, Minkowski Space, and the Hyperboloid H 2 129
7.1 Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.2 The Minkowski Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.3 Light-Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.4 The Hyperboloid, H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4.1 Reconstructing H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.4.2 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.4.3 Orthogonal Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.4.4 Generalizing Distance on H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.5 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.6 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.7 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
v
7.8 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8 Fuchsian Groups: Returning to H 154
8.1 Topology, Bundles, Group Action, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2 Isometries of the Half-Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.3 What is a Fuchsian Group? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
A Definitions 168
B Construction stuff that doesn’t seem to fit anywhere else... 171
B.1 The Klein Model K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
B.2 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
B.3 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
C Hyperbolic Functions 198
C.1 Hyperbolic Functions:

Definitions and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
C.2 Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
vi
List of Figures
1.1 Saccheri’s acute hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1 Crossbar Theorem Figure 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Crossbar Theorem Figure 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.1 Cases with l appearing as an e-ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2 Cases with l appearing as an e-semicircle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.3 Illustration of the Hyperbolic Axiom in H. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.1 Future light cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2 Translating ∆ABC along H 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
B.1 Perpendicular lines in the Klein disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
B.2 Case 3 of Theorem B.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
B.3 The angle of parallelism α of P with respect to l in H. . . . . . . . . 181
B.4 Construction midpoints in the Klein disk model. . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
B.5 Constructing midpoints in the Poincaré disk model. . . . . . . . . . . 188
B.6 Constructing midpoints in the half plane model. . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
B.7 Singly asymptotic triangles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
B.8 Doubly asymptotic triangles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
vii
B.9 Triply asymptotic triangles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
B.10 Area of a doubly asymptotic triangle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
B.11 Circles in the Poincaré disk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
B.12 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
viii
Chapter 1
History of Geometry 1
The origins of geometry date back to about 4000 years ago; specifically concerning
the Egyptians, geometry consisted of a set of principles, arrived at through experi-
mentation and observation, which they used in construction, astronomy, etc. From
Egypt, Thales (640-546 B.C.) brought geometry to Greece, where these principles
were generalized, expanded on, and explained; Thales himself took the idea of po-
sitions and straight edges in the Egyptian geometry to the more abstract points
and lines. Much progress was made in the development of geometry as a branch of
mathematics by such as Pythagoras, Hippocrates, and around 300B.C. Euclid.
While attempts had been made to describe thoroughly the Grecian geometry,
Euclid’s was the most significant attempt even though many flaws existed in Euclid’s
proofs, definitions, and theorems. Euclid built up and developed his geometry using
only five postulates. H.S.M. Coxeter [1] gives these postulates as follows:
I. A straight line may be drawn from any one point

to any other point.
II. A finite straight line may be produced to any length

in a straight line.
III. A circle may be described with any centre at any

distance from that centre.
IV. All right angles are equal.
V. If a straight line meet two other straight lines, so as

to make the two interior angles on one side of it to-
gether less than two right angles, the other straight
lines will meet if produced on that side on which
the angles are less than two right angles.
While these may be very near to Euclid’s original statement of his five postu-
lates, Greenberg [2] gives a version of the postulates that is perhaps more familiar,
and certainly easier to interpret.
I. For every point P and every point Q distinct from

P , there exists a unique line l passing through P
and Q.
II. For every segment AB and every segment CD, there

exists a unique point E such that A, B, and E are
collinear with A − B − E and BE ≡ CD.
III. For every point O and every point P distinct from

O, there exists a unique circle with center O and
radius |OP | = d(O, P ).
2
IV. All right angles are congruent to each other.
V. For each line l and each point P not on l, there is

a unique line m passing through P and parallel to
l.
m
• -
P
l -
The first four of these were readily accepted by mathematicians when pro-
posed, but the fifth was problematic, and mathematicians attempted to prove this
postulate from the first four for centuries. This resulted in the development of Neu-
tral Geometry (a geometry with no parallel postulate), but all attempts failed. Of
these, the attempts at a direct proof have been shown to be invalid because they
involve circular reasoning; the parallel postulate itself, or an equivalent statement, is
assumed at some point during the proof.
Proclus (410-485 A.D.), “one of the main sources of information on Greek

geometry” [2], made an early attempt at a proof in which he used circular reasoning
by implicitly introducing a new assumption. Coxeter gives Proclus’s assumtion as
“If a line intersects one of two parallels, it also intersects the other”. Other mathe-
maticians such as John Wallis (1616-1703 A.D.) and Alexis Clairaut (171-1765 A.D.)
made attempts at a proof by introducing an extra axiom to the first four. Wallis
included that given any triangle ∆ABC and any segment DE, there exists a tri-
3
angle ∆DEF similar to ∆ABC (∆ABC ∼ ∆DEF ), while Clairaut assumed that
rectangles exist.
Still other mathematicians attempted to prove the Parallel Postulate by con-

tradiction. Included here are Ibn al-Haytham and Girolamo Saccheri, and though
these men did not succeed in their attempts to prove Euclid V, many of their results
are now theorems in Hyperbolic and Elliptic Geometry.
Saccheri (1667-1733 A.D.) based his work on quadrilaterals ABCD in which

d(A, D) = d(B, C) with m∠DAB = m∠ABC = π2 . Since ∠BCD ∼
= ∠CDA, Sac-
cheri considered the following three possibilities:
1. The angles ∠BCD ∼

= ∠CDA are acute.

= ∠CDA are right angles.

= ∠CDA are obtuse.
Figure 1.1: Saccheri’s acute hypothesis.
Assuming that the first and third of these would lead to contradictions, Sac-
cheri believed he could prove the parallel postulate. While he discovered that the
obtuse hypothesis led to a contradiction[2], the acute hypothesis, on the other hand,
lead him to deductions important to what would later be called Hyperbolic Geome-
try, but never to a contradiction [1].
4
Johann Lambert (1728-1777 A.D.) took a similar course, considering one half
of Saccheri’s quadrilaterals (halved by the midpoints of sides AB and CD), which
was the same course taken by al-Haytham. Lambert came to the same conclusion
as Saccheri regarding the obtuse hypothesis (an equivalent hypothesis of Saccheri’s
for his own quadrilateral), but took the case of the acute hypothesis even further.
In fact, after defining the defect of a polygon Lambert concluded that the defect
of a polygon is proportional to it’s area, and suggested that the acute hypothesis
holds in the case of a sphere of imaginary radius [1]. Another interesting discovery
Lambert made while considering the acute hypothesis is that, while only angles, and
not lengths, are absolute in Euclidean geometry, when Euclid V is denied lengths are
also absolute.
While Lambert and Saccheri both discovered Hyperbolic Geometry, neither

of them acknowledged the fact: in fact, Greenberg quotes Saccheri as saying “The
hypothesis of the acute angle is absolutely false, because [it is] repugnant to the
nature of the straight line!”. It was not until about 1813 that C.F. Gauss, and almost
10 years later Janos Bolyai, accepted that Euclid V need not be true. Gauss had
spent over 30 years (1792-1829) following the denial of the parallel postulate before
he was content that the non-euclidean geometry this led to would be consistent [1].
Bolyai, on the other hand, spent significantly less time before he was convinced and
reported to his father Farkas Bolyai, in 1823, “out of nothing I have created a strange
new universe”[2].
While Gauss had never published his investigation into this non-euclidean
geometry, Janos Bolyai published his discoveries in an appendix to his father’s book,
the Tentamen, in 1831. However, another mathematician, Nikolai Lobachevsky, was
the first to publish any work on what he called “imaginary” geometry (and later
5
“pangeometry”) in 1829. Lobachevsky’s first published work received little attention
outside of Russia, and in Russia was rejected.1 Nonetheless, Lobachevsky continued
to publish his findings and challenge the Kantian view that Euclidean Geometry is
a necessary truth, “inherent in the structure of our mind”[2].
In their investigation into Euclid V and non-euclidean geometry, these men

had considered denials of the parallel postulate, of which there are two.
First, consider the Euclidean Parallel Postulate (equivalent to Euclid V, as

we will see later):
For each line l and each point P not on l, there exists a unique line m
passing through P and parallel to l.
Then for the proper denials, we have:
1. There exists a line l and a point P not on l such that no line m passing through
P is parallel to l.
2. There exists a line l and a point P not on l such that two distinct lines m1 and
m2 exist which pass through P and are parallel to l.
In considering these denials of Euclid V Janos Bolyai, Lobachevsky, and Gauss found
a new, consistent structure for geometry. The first of these denials was rejected as it
violated the assumed postulates , while the second led to Hyperbolic Geometry2 . We
will investigate and better define this Hyperbolic Geometry further, but first we’ll
build up a little Neutral, or Absolute, Geometry.
1
Greenberg quotes a Russian journal calling Lobachevsky’s discoveries “false new inventions”.[2]
2
Hyperbolic Geometry is also known as Lobachevskian Geometry, likely due to Lobachevsky’s
investigations (which went much further than Gauss’) and subsequent publications; Bolyai never
again published his findings after Gauss responded to Bolyai’s appendix by saying that he, Gauss,
had already come to the same conclusions and “dare not praise such a work”.
6
Chapter 2
Neutral Geometry and Euclid V
2.1 Axioms and Definitions of Neutral Geometry
Now, we’ve mentioned Saccheri’s approach in attempting to prove Euclid V, and

how it involves Neutral Geometry. In this chapter we’ll look into this approach,
which means we’ll need to investigate Neutral Geometry. Neutral Geometry is often
introduced with Euclid’s first four postulates, but to get things going we’ll use the
revised version of David Hilbert’s axioms as suggested by Wallace and West1 [3],
along with a few terms and relations, which we’ll leave undefined:
AXIOM 1: Given any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that con-
tains them.
Notice that Euclid I is given by our first axiom. The rest of our axioms may seems
less familiar, though Euclidean Geometry may be built up using them.
1
This approach is not the most sophisticated, and in fact detracts from the elegance of an
axiomatic geometry; some of the following axioms may be derived from the others (this set of
axioms is not independent).
7
AXIOM 2: To every pair of distinct points, there corresponds a unique posi-
tive number. This number is called the distance between the two points.
AXIOM 3: The points of a line can be coordinatized with the real numbers
such that
1. To every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number,
2. To every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the line, and
3. The distance between two distinct points is the absolute value of the difference
of the corresponding real numbers.
AXIOM 4: Given two points P and Q of a line, the coordinate system can
be chosen in such a way that the coordinate of P is zero and the coordinate of Q is
positive.
The next four axioms deal with space, and though much of what we’ll consider
will be two dimensional geometry, they are important to include for completeness.
AXIOM 5: Every plane contains at least three noncollinear points, and space
contains at least four nonplanar points.
AXIOM 6: If two points lie in a plane, then the line containing these points
lies in the same plane.
AXIOM 7: Any three points lie in at least one plane, and any three non-
collinear points lie in exactly one plane.
AXIOM 8: If two (distinct) planes intersect, then that intersection is a line.
AXIOM 9: Given a line and a plane containing it, the points of the plane
that do not lie on the line form two sets such that
1. each of the sets is convex and
8
2. if P is in one set and Q is in the other, then segment P Q intersects the line.
The next axiom is an extension of the last and, again, as it deals with space we will
not be using it immediately as we consider two-dimensional geometries.
AXIOM 10: The points of space that do not lie in a given plane form two sets
such that
1. Each of the sets is convex and
2. If P is in one set and Q is in the other, then segment P Q intersects the plane.
The next few axioms are focused on angles, which is probably a familiar concept...
−→ −→
Definition 2.1 Two rays AB and AC (or segments AB and AC) form an angle if
A, B, and C are not collinear. Such an angle is denoted ∠BAC or ∠CAB, and the
measure of this angle is the amount of rotation about the point A required to make
one ray (or segment) coincide with the second.
Definition 2.2 (i) If the sum of the measure of two angles A and B is 180◦ , then
angles A and B are supplementary, while (ii) if the sum of the measure of two angles
is 90◦ then the two angles are complementary.
AXIOM 11: To every angle there corresponds a real number between 0◦ and
180◦ .
−→
AXIOM 12: Let AB be a ray on the edge of the half-plane H. For every r
−→
between 0◦ and 180◦ , there is exactly one ray AP with P in H such that m∠P AB = r.
←→ ←→
Definition 2.3 Consider two lines, AB and AC. We know that each line separates
the plane into two convex sets. Let M be the convex set, formed by the separation of
←→
the plane by AB, which contains C. Similarly, let N be the convex set containing B
9
←→
formed by the separation of the plane by AC. Then the interior of the angle ∠BAC
is defined to be N ∩ M . Similarly, letting L be the convex set containing A which
←→
is formed by the separation of the plane by BC, we define the interior of ∆ABC to
be L ∩ M ∩ N .
AXIOM 13: If D is a point in the interior of ∠BAC, then
m∠BAC = m∠BAD + m∠DAC.
Definition 2.4 Given three distinct points, A, B, and C, B is between A and C,

A − B − C, if d(A, B) + d(B, C) = d(A, C).
Definition 2.5 Given two angles ∠ABC and ∠CBD, if A − B − D, then these
angles form a linear pair.
AXIOM 14: If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.
For the next axiom, a few definitions are necessary:
Definition 2.6 Two segments are congruent when their measures are equal.
Definition 2.7 Two angles are congruent when their measures are equal.
Definition 2.8 Given two polygons P1 and P2 , a one-to-one correspondence between

P1 and P2 is a bijection which maps each side of P1 to a side of P2 . Furthermore, if
A and B are sides of P1 such that A and B meet at a vertex, and X and Y are sides
of P2 such that X and Y meet at a vertex, if A corresponds to X (our bijection maps
A to X) and B corresponds to Y , then the included angle of A and B is mapped to
the included angle of X and Y
Definition 2.9 Two polygons are congruent when corresponding sides and angles
are congruent.
10
AXIOM 15: Given a one-to-one correspondence between two triangles (or be-
tween a triangle and itself): If two sides and the included angle of the first triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of the second triangle, then the correspondence
is a congruence.
Notice that we have no axiom regarding parallelism; if we were to include

Euclid V we would have Euclidean Geometry. Now, the undefined terms we’ll be
using are point, line, and plane, while the undefined relation we’ll use is “lies on”.
Though we leave these undefined, a mutual understanding of the meaning of each of
these is assumed; as an example of the relation, see the image for the restatement of
Euclid V, where the point P lies on the line m.
Some more terminology we use is defined in Appendix A.
2.2 Theorems of Neutral Geometry
Now that we know the “rules” of Neutral Geometry, let’s explore some of their results.
Theorem 2.10 The congruence relations defined above are equivalence relations.
Theorem 2.11 (i) Every segment has exactly one midpoint, and (ii) every angle
has exactly one bisector.
Proof: (i) Consider segment AB, and using Axiom 4 choose a coordinate
system so that the coordinate of A is zero, and B is 2. By Axiom 3 there exists C
←→
on line AB such that the coordinate of C is 1. Therefore, d(A, C) = d(C, B) = 1.
Thus, C is the midpoint of segment AB, and by Axiom 3 part2 this can be the only
midpoint.
−→ −−→
(ii) Now consider angle ∠ABC. Let H be the half-plane containing BA with BC on
11
−−→
th edge of H. Given m(∠ABC) = α, by Axiom 12 there exists exactly one ray AD
with D in H such that m(∠DAB) = α2 . Since there is exactly one such ray, we have
both existence and uniqueness of the angle bisector of arbitrary angle ∠ABC.
Theorem 2.12 Supplements and complements of the same or congruent angles are
congruent.
Proof: First let’s look at supplementary and complementary angles of a sin-

gle angle. Suppose angles ∠ABC and ∠DBE are supplementary to angle ∠CBD.
Then m(∠DBE) = 180◦ − m(∠CBD) = m(∠DBE). Therefore, ∠ABC is con-
gruent to ∠DBE. Similarly, if angles ∠ABC and ∠DBE are complementary to
angle ∠CBD, then m(∠DBE) = 90◦ − m(∠CBD) = m(∠DBE) so that ∠ABC is
congruent to ∠DBE.
Now let’s consider two angles, ∠ABC ∼

= ∠DEF . If ∠XBA and ∠Y ED
are supplementary angles of ∠ABC and ∠DEF respectively, then m(∠XBA) =
180◦ − m(∠ABC) = 180◦ − m(∠DEF ) = m(∠Y ED). Therefore, ∠XBA ∼
= ∠Y ED.
Similarly, if ∠XBA and ∠Y ED are complementary angles of ∠ABC and ∠DEF
respectively, then m(∠XBA) = 90◦ − m(∠ABC) = 90◦ − m(∠DEF ) = m(∠Y ED).
Therefore, ∠XBA ∼
= ∠Y ED.
12
Theorem 2.13 Given a line l and distinct points P , Q, and R not on l, if P and
Q are on the same side of l and if Q and R are on different sides of l, then P and
R are on different sides of l.2
Proof: From our axioms, l separates the plane into two convex sets, H and
K. Since P and Q are on the same side of l, assume wlog that P, Q ∈ H. Since Q
and R are on opposite sides of l, R ∈ K. Since P ∈ H and R ∈ K, P and R are on
different sides of l.
Corollary 2.2.1 Given a line l and distinct points P , Q, and R not on l, if P and
Q are on different sides of l, and Q and R are on different sides of l, then P and R
are on the same side of l. If, instead, P and Q are on the same side of l, and Q and
R are on the same side of l, then P and R are also on the same side of l.
Theorem 2.14 Pasch’s Axiom If a line l intersects ∆P QR at a point S such that

←→
P − S − Q, where l is distinct from P Q, then l intersects segments P R or RQ.
2
See the footnote to the introductory paragraph of §2.1; given an independent set of axioms,
this theorem leads to axiom 9.
13
Proof: From the hypothesis we know that P and Q are on opposite sides
of l since P Q intersects l at S and P − S − Q. The, wlog, assume that l does not
intersect P R. Then P and R are on the same side of l, which means that R and Q
are on opposite sides of l, so that there is T such thatR − T − Q and RQ intersects
l at T . Hence, if l intersects one side of a triangle, and does not intersect one of the
remaining sides it must intersect the last.
Theorem 2.15 The Crossbar Theorem. If X is a point in the interior of

∆U V W , then ray U X intersects segment W V at a point Y such that W − Y − V .
−−→
Proof: Let X be in the interior of ∆U V W , and notice that U X cannot
intersect U V or U W at a point Y distinct from U or Axiom 1 would be contradicted;
−−→
if U X intersects U V (or U W ) at some point Y distinct from U , then we have distinct
←→ ←−→ ←→ −−→
lines U V (or U W ) and U X both passing through U and Y . So either U X intersects
V W at a point Y where W − Y − V , or it does not exit ∆U V W (it does not intersect
any side of the triangle, except at U from which point the ray emanates).
−−→
To show that U X must intersect V W , we will first use Pasch’s Axiom to
←→ −−→
show that U X must intersect V W and then argue that, for X 0 − U − X, U X 0 cannot
14
←−→
intersect V W . Take T to be a point of U W such that T − U − W , and R to be a
←→ ←→
point of U V such that R − U − V . By Pasch’s Axiom, U X must intersect T V or
V W , and it must intersect RW or V W .
Figure 2.1: Crossbar Theorem Figure 1
←→
From our set-up, we know that T and W are on opposite sides of U X, and
←→
that R and V are on opposite sides of U X; it follows that either T and V are on
←→ ←→
the same side of U X or V and W are on the same side of U X. For the sake of
←→ ←→
contradiction, suppose that V and W are on the same side of U X, so that U X
must intersect T V at some point Y where T − Y − V . However, if T and V are on
←→ ←→ ←→
opposite sides of U X, then R and W must also be on opposite sides of U X, so U X
must also intersect RW at some point Z with R − Z − W . Since we’ve confirmed
−−→ ←→
that U X cannot intersect U W or U V , and we’ve assumed that U X (and therefore
−−→ −−→
U X) does not intersect V W , U X must not intersect RW , W V , or T V . Letting X 0
−−→
be a point such that X 0 − U − X, it must then be that U X 0 intersects T V at Y and
RW at Z. For all of this to occur, axiom 1 must be violated; wlog supposing that
−−→
Z − Y − X 0 − U , U X 0 enters ∆T U V at Y , and in order to pass through Z it must
exit through T V , U V , or T U , and in each case axiom 1 is violated. Therefore, V
←→
and W must be on opposite sides of U X.
15
Figure 2.2: Crossbar Theorem Figure 2
Here we see X and Y , points which are in the interior of the triangle while on
←−→
different sides of the line passing through V W , contradicting our definition
of the interior of a triangle.
←→
Now, let Y be the point at which U X intersects V W , where V − Y − W .
Recall that the interior of a triangle is defined the the intersection of three half
planes, and for ∆U V W these half planes are determined by the lines of which U V ,
V W , and U W are segments. From this it follows that the situation described in
figure 2.2 is impossible; it cannot be that X − U − Y , or there would exist Z such
←−→
that X − U − Y − Z, where Z is interior to ∆U V W , but XZ passes through V W , so
←−→ −−→
X and Z would be on different sides of V W . Therefore, U − X − Y , so U X intersects
V W at a point Y between V and W as desired.
Theorem 2.16 The Isosceles Triangle Theorem. If two sides of a triangle are
congruent, then the angles opposite those sides are congruent.
16
Proof: Suppose sides AB and BC of triangle ∆ABC are congruent. By
−−→
Theorem 2.11 there exists angle bisector BD of ∠ABC, and by the Crossbar Theorem
−−→
BD must intersect BC at some point E. Then by Theorem 2.10, the definition of
angle bisector, our hypothesis, and Axiom 15 (the SAS axiom) triangles ∆ABE and
∆CBE are congruent. Therefore, ∠BAC ∼
= ∠BCA.
Theorem 2.17 A point is on the perpendicular bisector of a line segment if and

only if it is equidistant from the endpoints of the line segment.
Proof: Given segment AB and point P , first suppose that P is equidistant

from both A and B. Then, as in the proof of Theorem 2.16, there is Q on AB such
that the angle bisector of ∠AP B intersects AB at Q. Then by Theorem 2.10, the def-
inition of angle bisector, our hypothesis, and Axiom 15 ∆AP Q ∼
= ∆BP Q. Then we
−→
have that AQ ∼ = BQ, and ray P Q bisects AB. Furthermore, since ∠AQP ∼= ∠BQP
and these two angles are supplementary, they must be right angles. Therefore, P lies
on the perpendicular bisector of AB.
17
Now, from the other direction, assume that P lies on the perpendicular bisec-
tor of AB. If P does not lie on AB, then let Q be the intersection of the perpendicular
bisector of AB with AB. Then by Axiom 15, the definition of bisector, and Theorem
2.10, ∆AQP ∼
= ∆BQP . Thus, AP ∼
= BP , and by the definition of segment congru-
ence P is equidistant from both A and B. If P lies on AB, then by the definition of
perpendicular bisector, P is equidistant from A and B.
Theorem 2.18 The Exterior Angle Theorem. Each exterior angle of a triangle
is greater in measure than either of the nonadjacent interior angles of the triangle.
Proof: Consider triangle ∆ABC; by Axioms 3 and 4 we may take a point

D such that A − B − D. Here, ∠CBD is an exterior angle of ∠ABC. Now, let E
be the midpoint of BC, and by Axiom 4 we have a point F such that A − E − F
and AE ∼
= EF . Notice that ∠CEA and ∠F EB are supplementary to ∠CEF , and
so by Theorem 2.12 are congruent. Thus by Axiom 15 we have ∆AEC ∼
= ∆F EB.
Now, since F is interior to ∠CBD, we have that m∠ACB = m∠CBF < m∠CBD.
18
Then by symmetry we have m∠CAB < m∠ABG. Since m∠ABG = m∠CBD, we
have m∠CAB < m∠CBD.
Theorem 2.19 If line l is a common perpendicular to lines m and n, then m and

n are parallel.
Proof: Suppose instead that m and n are not parallel. Then either m and
n intersect on l or off l. First, let P be the intersection of m and n, with P not on
l. Then m intersects l at a point Q and n intersects l at a point R distinct from Q.
This gives us a triangle, ∆P QR, where ∠P QR ∼
= ∠P RQ are right angles. Letting
S be a point on l such that S − Q − R, we have that ∠P QS, an exterior angle of
∆P QR must also be a right angle. This contradicts Theorem 2.18 since we have
m∠P QS = m∠P RQ. So if m and n are not parallel, then their point of intersection
19
must lie on l.
Now assume that P , the point of intersection of m and n lies on l. Let l be the
boundary of a half-plane H, take any point A distinct from P on l, and choose
two points X and Y on m and n respectively so that X and Y lie in H. Then
m∠AP X = m∠AP Y = 90◦ ; this contradicts Axiom 12. Therefore, distinct lines
m and n cannot intersect if they are both perpendicular to line l, so m and n are
parallel.
Theorem 2.20 Given a line l and a point P , there exists one and only one line m
through P perpendicular to l.
Proof: There will be two cases for this: P may lie on l, or P my not lie
on l. In either case, Theorem 2.19 guarantees uniqueness; if two lines m and n are
perpendicular to l, then they are parallel or they are the same line. If we assume
that m and n both pass through P , then m and n must be the same line. We’ll
consider each case separately for existence.
Now, for the first case Axiom 12 guarantees the existence of a perpendicular;
simply choose any point Q on l distinct from P , and Axiom 12 guarantees that
−→
there is exactly one ray P R in the half-plane H, whose boundary is l, such that
←→
m∠QP R = 90◦ . Then P R is the desired line perpendicular to l passing through P .
For the second case, assume that P does not lie on l and let Q be any point
←→ ←→
on l. If P Q is perpendicular to l, then we’re happy. If P Q is not perpendicular to l,
20
−→
then take R on l such that ∠RQP is acute. There exists a unique ray QS, with S
−→
and P on opposite sides of l, such that ∠RQP ∼ = ∠RQS, and there exists P 0 on QS
←→
such that QP ∼
= QP 0 . Letting T be the point of intersection of P P 0 with l, by axiom
15 we have ∆T QP ∼= ∆T QP 0 . Since ∠P T Q ∼
= ∠P 0 T Q, and ∠P T Q and ∠P 0 T Q are
←→
supplementary angles, they must be right angles. So P P 0 is perpendicular to l.
Theorem 2.21 The Angle-Side-Angle Congruence Condition for Triangles.

If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent, respectively, to two
angles and the included side of a second triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
Proof: Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆DEF such that ∠ABC ∼

= ∠DEF ,
∠BAC ∼
= ∠EDF , and AB ∼
= DE, we have that, by Axiom 15, if BC ∼
= EF or
AC ∼
= DF then ∆ABC ∼
= ∆DEF .
Suppose that BC ∼
6= EF ; in particular, let mBC < mEF . Then there is F 0
on EF such that E − F 0 − F and BC ∼
= EF 0 , and by Axiom 15 ∆ABC ∼
= ∆DEF 0 .
However, this implies that ∠EDF 0 ∼
= ∠BAC ∼
= ∠EDF , which contradicts Axiom
12. Therefore, BC ∼
= EF , and by Axiom 15 ∆ABC ∼
= ∆DEF .
21
Theorem 2.22 Converse of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem. If two angles of
a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite those angles are congruent.
Proof: Given a triangle, ∆ABC, such that ∠CAB ∼

= ∠CBA, we have by
Theorem 2.21 that ∆ABC ∼
= ∆BAC since any segment is congruent to itself; in
particular, AB ∼
= BA. Therefore, AC ∼
= BC.
Theorem 2.23 The Angle-Angle-Side Congruence Condition for Triangles.

If two angles and the side opposite one of them in one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding parts of the second triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
Proof: Given two triangles, ∆ABC and ∆DEF in which ∠CAB ∼

= ∠F DE,
∠ABC ∼
= ∠DEF , and BC ∼
= EF ., if we were also given that AB ∼
= DE then by
Axiom 15 the two triangles would be congruent, so assume that mAB < mDE.
Then there exists D0 on DE, with D − D0 − E, such that AB ∼
= D0 E. This implies
that ∆ABC ∼
= ∆D0 EF , and it follows that ∠F D0 E ∼
= ∠CAB ∼
= ∠F DE. This
contradicts Axiom 12, so it must be that AB ∼
= DE, and ∆ABC ∼
= ∆DEF .
22
Theorem 2.24 The Side-Angle-Side-Angle-Side Congruence Condition for
Quadrilaterals. If the vertices of two convex quadrilaterals are in one-to-one cor-
respondence such that the three sides and the two included interior angles of one
quadrilateral are congruent to the corresponding parts of a second quadrilateral, then
the quadrilaterals are congruent.
Proof: Given two quadrilaterals, ABCD and EF GH in which

AB ∼
= EF , BC ∼
= F G, CD ∼
= GH, ∠ABC ∼
= ∠EF G, and ∠BCD ∼
= ∠F GH, we
will show the congruence of the quadrilaterals as wholes by considering a diagonal
of each. First note that, by Axiom 15, ∆ABC ∼
= ∆EF G, so that AC ∼
= EG and
∠BCA ∼
= ∠F GE. Then
m∠ACD = m∠BCD − m∠BCA = m∠F GH − m∠F GE = m∠EGH,
so ∠ACD ∼
= ∠EGH and, by S-A-S congruence, ∆ACD ∼
= ∆EGH. This tells us
that ∠GHE ∼
= ∠CDA, AD ∼
= EG, and ∠CAD ∼
= ∠GEH, which then implies that
∠BAD ∼
= ∠F EH. Therefore, ABCD ∼
= EF GH.
Theorem 2.25 If two angles of a triangle are not congruent, then the sides opposite
them are not congruent, and the larger side is opposite the larger angle.
Proof: Given a triangle ∆ABC in which ∠CAB ∼

6= ∠CBA, by the contra-
positive of the converse of the isosceles triangle theorem we know that CA ∼
6= CB. So
23
either mCB > mCA or mCA > mCB. Assume that m∠CAB > m∠CBA, so that
our goal is to show that mCB > mCA. Assume instead that mCA > mCB. Then
there is D on CA such that A − D − C and CD ∼
= CB. Then ∠CDB ∼
= ∠CBD, and
by the exterior angle theorem m∠CDB > m∠DAB. However, since m∠CBA =
m∠CBD + m∠DBA, this would imply that m∠CBA > m∠CAB. Thus, by contra-
diction it must be that mCB > mCA, so the larger side is opposite the larger angle.
Theorem 2.26 The Inverse of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem. If two sides of
a triangle are not congruent, then the angles opposite those sides are not congruent,
and the larger angle is opposite the larger side.
Proof: Suppose that in triangle ∆ABC we have that AC 6∼

= BC. Then the
angles opposite these sides are not congruent by the contrapositive of the isosceles
triangle theorem. It then follows from the previous theorem that the larger angle is
opposite the larger side.
Theorem 2.27 The Triangle Inequality. The sum of the measures of any two
sides of a triangle is greater than the measure of the third side.
Proof: Given a triangle ∆ABC, suppose that mAB + mBC ≤ mAC. Then
there exists D and F , not necessarily distinct, such that A − D − C or, if they are
distinct, A − D − F − C such that AB ∼
= AD and CB ∼
= CF .
24
First, suppose that D = F . Then we have that ∆ADB and ∆CDB are
isosceles triangles such that ∠ADB ∼
= ∠ABD and ∠CDB ∼
= ∠CBD by Theorem
2.16. However, since ∠ADB and ∠CDB are supplementary angles, ∠ABD and
∠CBD must also be supplementary angles by congruence. Since ∠ABD and ∠CBD
are supplementary and adjacent, they form a linear pair (one ray from each angle,
together, form a line). This contradicts Axiom 1 since we would have two distinct
lines passing through the same two distinct points A and C.
Now, assuming instead that D and F are distinct, we have that ∆ADB and
∆CF B are isosceles triangles in which ∠ABD ∼
= ∠ADB and ∠CBF ∼
= ∠CF B.
If either of ∠CF B or ∠ADB are obtuse, or right, angles, then the exterior angle
∠BF A or ∠BDC, respectively, is an acute, or right, angle. This would contradict
the exterior angle theorem (2.18), so ∠ADB and ∠CF B are acute angles. Then
∠BDC and ∠BF A are obtuse, and the exterior angle of ∆BDF has measure less
than m(∠BF D), again contradicting Theorem 2.18.
Hence, m(AB) + m(BC) > m(AC).
Theorem 2.28 The Hinge Theorem. If two sides of one triangle are congruent
to two sides of a second triangle, and the included angle of the first triangle is larger
in measure than the included angle of the second triangle, then the measure of the
third side of the first triangle is larger than the measure of the third side of the second
triangle.
25
Proof: Take triangles ∆ABC and ∆DEF , where AC ∼
= DF , AB ∼
= DE,
and m(∠CAB) < m(∠F DE). There is G such that B and G are on opposite sides
←→
of AC, ∠BAG ∼
= ∠EDF , and AG ∼
= AC ∼ = DF . Then, using that ∆ABG is an
isosceles triangle,
m∠BCG > m∠ACG = m∠AGC > m∠BGC.
Then, by Theorem 2.25, and using ∆BCG, m∠BCG > m∠BGC implies that
mBC < mBG = mF E.
Theorem 2.29 The Side-Side-Side Congruence Condition for Triangles. If

all three sides of one triangle are congruent to all three sides of the second triangle,
then the triangles are congruent.
Proof: Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆DEF such that AB ∼

= DE, BC ∼
=
EF , and CA ∼
= F D, suppose that ∠ABC ∼
6= ∠DEF . Then, by Theorem 2.28
AC ∼
6= DF . This contradicts our hypothesis, so it must be that ∠ABC ∼
= ∠DEF .
Then by Axiom 15 (or by running into a contradiction for a similar assumption for
the other two angles of ∆ABC), we have that ∆ABC ∼
= ∆DEF .
26
Theorem 2.30 The Alternate Interior Angle Theorem. If two lines are in-
tersected by a transversal such that a pair of alternate interior angles formed by the
intersection are congruent, then the lines are parallel.
Proof: Given distinct lines m and n, let l be a transversal of m and n

such that a pair of alternate interior angles are congruent; in particular, assume that
∠ABC ∼
= ∠DCB, where points A, B, C, and D lie as indicated above. Now, if m
and n intersect at some point P , then we have triangle ∆BCP . Notice, however,
←→
that if P is on the side of BC opposite D, then we have the exterior angle of ∠BCP
congruent to angle ∠CBP . This violates the Exterior Angle Theorem, and the same
←→
contradiction appears if P were on the other side of BC. Therefore, the intersection
P cannot exist, and the lines m and n are parallel.
Theorem 2.31 The sum of the measure of any two angles of a triangle is less than
180◦ .
Proof: Given ∆ABC, suppose that m∠ABC + m∠CAB ≥ 180◦ . Then,

extending AB to D where A − B − D, we have that m∠CBD = 180◦ − m∠ABC ≤
m∠CAB. This contradicts the exterior angle theorem, so our initial supposition
cannot hold.
Theorem 2.32 For any triangle ∆ABC, there exists a triangle ∆AB0 D having the
same angle sum as ∆ABC, and m(∠CAB) ≥ 2m(∠DAB0 ).
27
Proof: Given ∆ABC, let E be the midpoint of CB. There is a point D
such that A − E − D and AE ∼
= ED. By Axiom 15 ∆ACE ∼
= ∆DBE. By this
congruence, we have the angle sum of ∆ABC as
m∠CAE + m∠EAB + m∠ABC + m∠ACB
= m∠BDE + m∠EAB + m∠ABE + m∠DBE.
Thus we have the angle sum of ∆ADB is equal to that of ∆ABC, and by
a similar argument ∆ACD also has this same angle sum. Since either m∠DAB ≤
1 1
2
m∠CAB or m∠DAC ≤ 2
m∠CAB, we can set B0 to B or C respectively, and
we will have the triangle ∆AB0 D which has the same angle sum as ∆ABC, and
m∠DAB0 = 21 m∠BAC.
Theorem 2.33 The Saccheri-Legendre Theorem. The angle sum of any trian-
gle is less than or equal to 180◦ .
Proof: Assume there is ∆AB0 C0 with angle sum 180◦ + p, for p a positive
real number. Then by Theorem 2.32 there is ∆AB1 C1 with angle sum 180◦ + p, and
m∠C1 AB1 ≤ 21 m∠C0 AB, and further that there is C2 and B2 such that ∆AB2 C2
has angle sum 180◦ + p and m∠C2 AB2 ≤ 12 m∠C1 AB1 ≤ 14 m∠C0 AB0 .
28
We can continue this process, and by the Archimedian Principle there is n ∈ N such
that n applications will give us ∆Cn ABn with angle sum 180◦ + p, and
1
m∠Cn ABn ≤ m∠C0 AB0 ≤ p.
2n
This implies that m∠ABn Cn + m∠ACn Bn ≥ 180◦ . This contradicts Theorem 2.31,
so no such triangle ∆AB0 C0 may exist, and every triangle must have angle sum less
than or equal to 180◦ .
Corollary 2.2.2 The angle sum of any quadrilateral is less than or equal to 360◦ .
Theorem 2.34 In a Saccheri quadrilateral:
1. The diagonals of a Saccheri quadrilateral are congruent.
2. The summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral are congruent.
3. The summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral are not obtuse.
4. The line joining the midpoints of the base and summit of a Saccheri quadrilat-
eral are perpendicular to both.
5. The summit and base of a Saccheri quadrilateral are parallel.
Proof: Given a Saccheri quadrilateral ABCD, for part (1), Axiom 15

= ∆BAC. Thus AC ∼
gives us that ∆ABD ∼ = BD.
29
For part (2), we have, by hypothesis, that AD ∼
= BC and that the base angles
of ABCD are right angles. With this, combined with part (1) and Side-Side-Side
congruence, we have that ∆ACD ∼
= ∆BDC. Thus, ∠ADC ∼
= ∠BCD.
Now, for part (3) we’ll assume that the summit angles of ABCD are
obtuse. By this assumption ABCD must have angle sum greater than 360◦ . If
this is the case, then one of ∆ACD or ∆ABC has an angle sum greater than 180◦ ,
which contradicts the Saccheri-Legrendre Theorem, so each summit angle must be
right or acute.
Lastly, we’ll let P be the midpoint of AB and Q be the midpoint of DC.

By Axiom 15 ∆ADP ∼
= ∆BCP , so DP ∼
= CP . Then, by Side-Side-Side congruence,
∆DQP ∼
= ∆CQP , and so ∠DQP ∼
= ∠CQP . Since these are congruent supplemen-
tary angles, they are right angles and QP is perpendicular to CD. A symmetric
argument shows that QP is also perpendicular to AB. From this and Theorem 2.19,
30
part (5) should be clear.
Corollary 2.2.3 The fourth angle of a Lambert quadrilateral is not obtuse.
Note: this is equivalent to saying that the summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral
are not obtuse. In the figure below, we see that halving a Saccheri quadrilateral
about the midpoints of its summit and base results in a Lambert quadrilateral.
Theorem 2.35 The length of the summit of a Saccheri quadrilateral is greater than
or equal to the length of the base.
31
Proof: Given a Saccheri quadrilateral ABCD, if ∠ADB ≤ ∠CBD, then
mAB ≤ mCD by the Hinge Theorem (2.28). So for the sake of contradiction assume
that m∠ADB > m∠CBD. Since m∠ABD + m∠CBD = 90◦ , we have
m∠ABD + m∠ADB > 90◦ ,
giving ∆ABD an angle sum greater than 180◦ . This contradicts the Saccheri-
Legendre Theorem, so m∠ADB ≤ m∠CBD, and m(CD) ≥ m(AB).
Theorem 2.36 The length of the segment joining the midpoints of a Saccheri quadri-
lateral is less than or equal to the length of it’s sides.
Note: This is equivalent to saying that the length of any side of a Lambert quadri-
lateral included by two right angles is less that or equal to the length of the opposite
side.
Proof: Given a Saccheri quadrilateral ABCD, let P be the midpoint of

AB, and Q be the midpoint of CD. Extend QP to R such that Q − P − R and
32
QP ∼
= P R. Also extend CB to E such thatC − B − E and CB ∼
= BE. By S-A-S-A-S
congruence (Theorem 2.24), P BCQ ∼
= P BER. Notice, then, that QREC is a
Saccheri quadrilateral, so that by Theorem 2.35 m(P Q) = 21 m(QR) ≤ 12 m(CE) =
m(CB). This completes our proof.
Theorem 2.37 If one rectangle exists, then there exists a rectangle with two arbi-
trarily large sides.
Proof: Assume that AB0 C0 D0 is a rectangle. Given two positive numbers p and
q, we want to prove the existence of a rectangle with one side length greater than p
and another side length greater than q. Start by extending AB0 to B1 and D0 C0 to
C1 so that A − B0 − B1 and D0 − C0 − C1 , and AB0 ∼
= B0 B1 and D0 C0 ∼
= C0 C1 .
We then have that AB0 C0 D0 ∼
= B0 B1 C1 C0 by S-A-S-A-S congruence, and that
AB1 C1 D0 is a rectangle with on side length 2mAB0 . By the Archimedean Principle
there is n ∈ N such that after n iterations we will have a rectangle ABn Cn D0 in
which mABn > p.
Repeating this process for sides AD0 and Bn Cn (first extending AD0 to D1
and Bn Cn to Cn+1 ), the same argument says that there is m ∈ N such that m
iterations results in ABn Cn+m Dm , where mADm > q.
33
Theorem 2.38 If a rectangle ABCD exists, then for any point E such that A −
E − B the unique line l perpendicular to AB at E intersects CD at G such that
1. D − G − C,
2. AEGD is a rectangle, and
3. EBCG is a rectangle.
Proof: Given a rectangle ABCD, let A − E − B. Notice that by the

Saccheri-Legendre Theorem the angles ∠CEB and ∠DEA must be acute. Now let F
←→
be a point on the same side of AB as C and D such that m∠AEF = m∠F EB = 90◦ ;
note that F must then be interior to ∠CED (otherwise either ∠AEF or ∠BEF
←→
would be acute). Then, considering the triangle ∆CDE, EF must intersect CD at
some point G such that C − G − D by the Crossbar Theorem. It follows from the
Saccheri-Legendre Theorem that the angle sum of any quadrilateral is less than or
equal to 360◦ . So it must be that ∠DGE ∼
= ∠CGE are right angles. Thus, AEGD
and EBCG are rectangles.
34
Theorem 2.39 If one rectangle exists, then there exists a rectangle with two sides
of any desired length.
Proof: Assume that ABCD is a rectangle, let p and q be two positive

numbers, and let AEF G be the rectangle guaranteed to exist by the previous
theorem in which mAE > p and mAG > q. There is X on AE such that A − X − E,
and mAX = p. Let l be perpendicular to AE through X. By the previous theorem,
l intersects GF at a point X 0 such that AXX 0 G and XEF X 0 are rectangles. A
symmetric argument gives us the point Y on AG such that A − Y − G and mAY = q,
and that the line m ⊥ AG at Y gives us yet another rectangle AXY 0 Y with the
desired side lengths.
35
Theorem 2.40 If one rectangle exists, then every right triangle has an angle sum
of 180◦ .
Proof: Assume a rectangle exists. Then given a triangle ∆P QR where

∠RP Q is a right angle, the previous theorem guarantees the existence of a rectangle
ABCD where AB ∼
= P Q and AD ∼
= P R. By S-A-S ∆ABD ∼
= ∆P QR ∼
= ∆CDB.
By these congruences and the fact that ABCD has angle sum 360◦ , ∆ABD and
∆BCD have angle sum 180◦ , which implies that ∆P QR has angle sum 180◦ .
Theorem 2.41 In a triangle ∆ABC, if mAB ≥ mAC and mAB ≥ mBC, then the
←→
line l perpendicular to AB passing through C intersects AB at D such that A−D−B.
Proof: We’ll prove this by contradiction, so first note that there are two
alternatives to the statement above: either D is not distinct from A or B, or D does
not lie on AB (ie: D − A − B or A − B − D). For the first case, wlog we may assume
←→
D and A are the same point. Then AC and l are the same line; however, this implies
that ∠CAB is a right angle. We know that, in a triangle, a largest side if opposite
the largest angle, so m∠ACB ≥ 90. This leads to ∆ABC have two right angles,
which contradicts earlier work.
For the second case, assume that D − A − B. This gives us a new triangle
∆DAC with exterior angle ∠CAB. Since m∠CAB ≥ m∠ADC = 90, for our hy-
pothesis to hold both ∠CAB and ∠ACB must be obtuse. This implies ∆ABC has
36
angle sum greater than 180◦ , contradicting the Saccheri-Legendre Theorem. There-
fore, it must be that A − D − C.
Theorem 2.42 If one rectangle exists, then every triangle has angle sum of 180◦ .
Proof: Assume that a rectangle exists, and consider a triangle ∆ABC where
mAB ≥ mAC and mAB ≥ mBC. Let l be perpendicular to AB through C, and
intersection AB at D, where A−D−B. Then ∆ADC and ∆CBD are right triangles,
and therefore have angle sums of 180◦ . Then, because the angle sum of ∆ABC is
m∠DBC + m∠BCD + m∠DCA + m∠CAD, and m∠DAC + m∠DCA = 90◦ and
m∠DBC + m∠CBD = 90◦ , we have that the angle sum of ∆ABC is 180◦ .
Theorem 2.43 If one triangle has angle sum of 180◦ , then a rectangle exists.
37
Proof: Suppose that ∆ABC has angle sum 180◦ , letting AB have length
greater than or equal to the length of each of the remaining sides. Then the line
l perpendicular to AB passing through C intersects AB at a point D such that
A − D − B. As no triangle may have angle sum greater than 180◦ , along with the
assumption that ∆ABC has angle sum 180◦ , it must be that ∆ADC and ∆CDB
have angle sums 180◦ .
Now, let m be the line perpendicular to CD through C, and take point E to

be on the same side of l as B such that CE ∼
= DB. At this point, note that because
∆DBC has angle sum 180◦ and ∠CDB is a right angle, ∠DBC and ∠DCB are
complementary. Therefore, ∠DBC ∼
= ∠BCE. Then, by S-A-S, we have congruent
triangles ∆DBC ∼
= ∆ECB, so m∠DBC + m∠CBE = m∠DCB + m∠BCE = 90◦ ,
and we have a quadrilateral with four right angles; we have the existence of a rectangle
DBEC.
Theorem 2.44 If one triangle has an angle sum of 180◦ , then every triangle has
angle sum of 180◦ .
This follows immediately from Theorems 2.33 and 2.32.
Theorem 2.45 Given any triangle ∆ABC in which ∠CAB is a right angle, and
given any q where 0 < q < 90, there exists ∆ADC where ∠CAD is a right angle,
and m∠ADC < q.
38
Proof:Given a right triangle ∆ABC, and letting q be the desired angle
←→
measure, 0 < q < 90, we may take D1 on AB such that A − B − D1 and CB ∼ = BD1 .
By the Isosceles Triangle Theorem ∠BCD1 ∼
= ∠BD1 C. Also, we know that
m∠CBD1 +m∠CD1 B +m∠D1 CB ≤ 180◦ , but m∠CBD1 = 180◦ −m∠CBA. Thus,
using this and the stated angle congruence, 180◦ − m∠CBA + 2m∠CD1 B ≤ 180◦ , or
m∠CD1 B ≤ 21 m∠CBA. Now, there is n ∈ N such that n iterations of this process
1
gives us the right triangle ∆ADn C in which m∠ADn C = 2n
m∠ABC = p < q.
2.3 Equivalencies to Euclid V
In future chapters we will assume a denial of Euclid V. So, in the interest of knowing
what else we will be denying, some equivalencies of Euclid V follow. We’ll repeatedly
use some of the more recent result from the previous section. To summarize, we have
There exists a right triangle ⇔ Every triangle has

with angle sum 180◦ angle sum 180◦
⇔ A rectangle exists
⇔ There exists a triangle with
angle sum 180◦
Theorem 2.46 Euclid’s fifth postulate is equivalent to the Euclidean Parallel Pos-
tulate.
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V, and let l be a line and P a point not on l.

Then there is a unique line r passing through P such that l and r are perpendicular.
Also, there is a unique line s passing through P such that r and s are perpendicular.
By Euclid V, s and l are parallel. Now, letting t be any line passing through P and
distinct from r and s, we have that the interior angles on one side of r, given by the
39
intersections of r with t and with l, are together less than 180◦ by Axiom 12. Euclid
V then says that t and l must intersect. Thus, s is unique as a line passing through
P and parallel to l, giving the Euclidean Parallel Postulate.
⇐ Assume the Euclidean Parallel Postulate, and let l be a line and P a point
not on l. Then there is a unique line s which passes through P and is parallel to
l. Again, taking r to be the unique line perpendicular to l and passing through P ,
and letting t be the line perpendicular to r and passing through P , we have that t
is parallel to l. Then by the Euclidean Parallel Postulate it must be that t and s
are the same line. Now letting u be any line passing through P , distinct from s, it
must be that u intersects l at some point. If u is distinct from r, then there is one
side of r on which the intersections of r with u and l create interior angles whose
sum is less that two right angles. By the Saccheri-Legendre Theorem (2.33), u and
l must intersect on the side of r giving the interior angles with sum less than two
right angles. We therefore have Euclid V.
Theorem 2.47 Euclid V is equivalent to Proclus’ Axiom: if two lines are parallel,
and another line passes through one of these, then it also passes through the other.
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V, and let l and t be parallel lines. Then for
any point P on t, t is the only line parallel to l passing through P by the previous
theorem. Therefore, any line r which intersects t (and is distinct from t) must also
intersect l. By symmetry, any line which intersects l must also intersect t. Thus we
have Proclus’ Axiom.
⇐ Assume Proclus’ Axiom, and take a line l and a point P . There exists at
least one line t passing through P and parallel to l. By Proclus’ Axiom any line r
(distinct from t) intersecting t through P must also intersect l. Thus t is the only
line passing through P , a point not on l, which is parallel to l. As l may be any
40
line and P any point not on that line, we have the Euclidean Parallel Postulate, and
therefore Euclid V.
Theorem 2.48 Euclid’s fifth postulate is equivalent to every triangle having an angle
sum of 180◦ .
α
B C C0
Proof: ⇐ Assume that ∆ABC is a right triangle with angle sum 180◦ .
Then, letting ∠ABC be the right angle of our triangle, we have that for any α,
where 0 < α < 90, we may extend BC to C0 such that m∠BC 0 A = β < α by
−−→
Theorem 2.45. Then there is a unique ray AD where m∠BAD = 180 − α and D is
−−→
interior to ∠BAC0 . By the Crossbar Theorem, AD must intersect BC0 at a point
C 0 . Since ∆ABC has angle sum 180◦ , every triangle has angle sum 180◦ , so it must
be that m∠ABC 0 = α.
−−→
Then as α → 0, m∠BC 0 A → 90. This means that, for any ray AD with
←→ −−→ ←→
D on the same side of AB as C, if m∠BAD < 90◦ , then AD will intersect BC.
←→
By a symmetric argument, if a point E were on the opposite side of AB as C and
−→ ←→
if m∠BAE < 90◦ , the AE will intersect BC. Thus, a line l passing through A is
←→
parallel to BC only if it is perpendicular to AB. This gives us the Euclidean Parallel
Postulate, and hence Euclid V.
⇒ Now assume Euclid V, and take distinct lines l, m and n, such that
l ⊥ m ⊥ n. Let P a point of n not on m, and let k be the line through P perpendicular
to n. If k is not perpendicular to l, then there is another line, k 0 distinct from k,
41
which passes through P and is perpendicular to l. However, by construction both
k and k 0 are parallel to m and pass through P , and by the previous theorem this
is impossible. So k 0 and k must be the same line. This gives us the existence of a
rectangle, formed the the intersection of line k, l, m, and n, and the existence of a
rectangle is equivalent to the desired result.
Corollary 2.3.1 Euclid’s fifth postulate is equivalent to the existence of a quadri-

lateral with angle sum 360◦ .
Lemma 2.3.1 If each interior angle of a quadrilateral ABCD is a right angle,

then opposite sides of ABCD are congruent.
Proof: Suppose that each angle of ABCD is a right angle; note that Euclid
V follows since we have a quadrilateral with angle sum 360◦ , so that each of ∆ABD
and ∆CDB must have angle sums of 180◦ . Then we have the following equations:
m∠ABD + m∠DBC = 90◦
m∠ADB + m∠BDC = 90◦
m∠ABD + m∠ADB = 90◦
m∠CBD + m∠CDB = 90◦ .
This allows us to say that ∠ABD ∼

= ∠CDB and ∠ADB ∼
= ∠CBD. Since BD is
congruent to DB, axiom 15 gives us that ∆ABD ∼
= ∆CDB, so that AB ∼
= CD and
AD ∼
= BC.
Theorem 2.49 Euclid V is equivalent to parallels being everywhere equidistant.
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V, and let l and m be parallel lines. Take r to

be perpendicular to l through a point P on l, and note that r must intersect m
42
through a point P 0 by Proclus’ Axiom. As a line perpendicular to r through P 0 will
be parallel to l, and because we have the Euclidean Parallel Postulate, m must be
perpendicular to r. Now let Q be a point on l distinct from P , and let s be a line
perpendicular to l through Q. Then just as r must be perpendicular to m, s must
be perpendicular to m through some point Q0 . This gives us a rectangle P P 0 Q0 Q.
This holds for all lines s distinct from r, so regardless of the length mP Q we will
have P P 0 ∼
= QQ0 . Since congruent segments have the same measure, l and m are
everywhere equidistant.
⇐ Assume now that parallel lines are everywhere equidistant. Then given
two parallel lines, l and m, we may choose any two distinct points of l, P and Q, and
drop line r and s perpendicular to m passing through P and Q respectively. Letting
P 0 be the points at which r intersects m, and Q0 be the points at which s intersects
m, by hypothesis we have that P P 0 ∼
= QQ0 . This gives us a Saccheri quadrilateral
P QQ0 P , and by Theorem 2.34 ∠P P 0 Q0 ∼
= ∠QQ0 P 0 .
Since l is a common perpendicular between r and s, r and s must be parallel.
Then the hypothesis again allows us to say that P Q ∼
= P 0 Q0 . Then, considering tri-
angles ∆P P 0 Q0 and ∆P 0 P Q, by S-S-S congruence we know that ∆P P 0 Q0 ∼
= ∆P 0 P Q,
so ∠P 0 P Q ∼
= ∠P P 0 Q0 ∼
= ∠QQ0 P 0 . Therefore, each angle of P P 0 Q0 Q is a right an-
gle, and opposite sides are congruent, so P P 0 Q0 Q is a rectangle. Since parallel lines
being everywhere equidistant implies a rectangle exists, it also implies Euclid V by
Corollary 2.3.1.
43
The next equivalence we will consider is that between Euclid V and the con-
verse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem:
If two lines l and m are parallel, and r is a transversal of l and m,

then the alternate interior angles formed by the intersection of r with
l and of r with m are congruent.
Theorem 2.50 Euclid V is equivalent to the converse of the Alternate Interior Angle
Theorem.
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V, so that every triangle has angle sum 180◦ , and
consider parallel lines l and m. Let s be a transversal of these lines, intersecting m at
P and l and Q. Note that if s is perpendicular to l, then s is also perpendicular to m
since there exists exactly one line parallel to l passing through P , and if a common
perpendicular exists between two lines then they are parallel (ie: if s ⊥ l and s 6⊥ m,
then a second line parallel to l could be constructed which is perpendicular to s at
P , but m must be the unique line parallel to l through P , so s ⊥ l implies s ⊥ m).
Since right angles are congruent, our conclusion is satisfied if s ⊥ l.
If, instead, s is not perpendicular to l, then s is also not perpendicular to m;

assume this is the case. Then there exists a line r which passes through P and is
perpendicular to l (and therefore m). Letting O be the point at which r intersects l,
it follows that ∠OP Q and ∠OQP are complementary. Similarly, there exists a line
r0 which passes through Q and is perpendicular to both l and m. Letting R be the
intersection of r0 with m, we have that ∠RP Q and ∠RQP are also complementary.
Notice that we also have complementary pairs of angles ∠OQP and ∠RQP , and
∠OP Q and ∠RP O. Since ∠OQP and ∠RP Q are both complementary to angle
∠RQP , it follows from Theorem 2.12 that ∠OQP ∼
= ∠RP Q.
44
Therefore, the converse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem follows from
Euclid V.
⇐ Assume the converse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem, and take l
and m to be parallel lines. Then if r is perpendicular to l at a point P , it is also
perpendicular to m at a point Q. Let s be yet another line, distinct from m and
passing through Q, which intersects l at some point R. Then ∠P QR and ∠P RQ are
complementary since s forms congruent alternate interior angles by its intersections
with l and m, and we therefore have a triangle ∆P QR with angle sum 180◦ . Since
Euclid V is equivalent to a triangle have angle sum 180◦ , we then have that the
converse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem implies Euclid V.
Corollary 2.3.2 In Euclidean Geometry, given distinct lines k, l, m, and n, if k k l,

k ⊥ m and l ⊥ n, then m k n.
Proof: Given our hypothesis, let P be the point of intersection of k and m, and
Q be the point of intersection of l and n. Since l and n pass through Q, and l is
the unique line parallel to k passing through Q, n must intersect k; let R be the
point at which k intersects n. Similarly, l and m must intersect at some point S. By
Theorem 2.50, alternate interior angles formed by the intersections of n with k and
l are congruent; however, n ⊥ l, so ∠QRS is a right angle (k ⊥ n). Since m and n
45
are distinct lines for which there is a common perpendicular, k, m and n are parallel
by Theorem 2.19.
Theorem 2.51 Euclid V is equivalent to the Pythagorean Theorem.
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V, and take a right triangle ∆ABC where ∠BCA
is a right angle; this triangle must have angle sum 180◦ by Theorem 2.3.3. Taking
a point D on AB such that A − D − B and CD ⊥ AB, we have two triangles
∆ADC and ∆BCD. Then ∠DCA ∼
= ∠DBC and ∠DCB ∼
= ∠DAC, so we have
|AC| |AD| |BC| |DB|
∆ADC ∼ ∆CDB ∼ ∆ACB. Then we have |AB|
= |AC|
and |AB|
= |BC|
. This
implies that |AC|2 = |AD||AB| and |BC|2 = |AB||DB|, which in turn implies that
|AC|2 + |BC|2 = |AB|(|AD| + |DB|) = |AB|2 . Thus we have the Pythagorean
Theorem.
⇐ Assume the Pythagorean Theorem, and let ∆ABC be an isosceles right

triangle, with ∠CBA a right angle, and AB ∼
= BC. Then letting D be the midpoint
of AC, we have congruent triangle ∆DBA ∼
= ∆DBC. From this, we have ∠ADB ∼
=
∠CDB. As these angles are also supplementary, we have that BD ⊥ AC. So
|AB|2 + |BC|2 = |AC|2 ,
|CD|2 + |DB|2 = |BC|2 , and
|AD|2 + |DB|2 = |AB|2 .
46
This leads us to
|CD|2 + |AD|2 + 2|DB|2 = |AB|2 + |BC|2
= |AC|2
= (|AD| + |DC|)2
= |CD|2 + 2|CD||DA| + |DA|2
2|DB|2 = 2|CD||DA|
|DB|2 = |CD|2
Therefore, |CD| = |DA| = |DB|, and we have that ∆CDB ∼

= ∆ADB are congruent
isosceles right triangles, so
90 = m∠ABC = m∠DBC + m∠DBA = m∠DCB + m∠DAB,
and ∆ABC has an angle sum of 180. Thus we have Euclid V.
Theorem 2.52 Euclid V is equivalent to the following statement: given a triangle

∆ABC, a circle γ may be constructed passing through A, B, and C.
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V, and consider a triangle ∆ABC. Let t and s

be perpendicular bisectors of the segments AB and BC respectively. Let D and E
be the midpoints of segments AB and BC respectively. Then t and s intersect at
←→ ←→ ←→ ←→
some point F ; if t k s, then by corollary 2.3.2 AB k BC, but AB and BC clearly
intersect at B. F is equidistant from A, B, and C by Theorem 2.17, so a circle γ
may be constructed with center F and radius |F A| which will pass through A, B,
and C.
47
⇐ Assume that any triangle may be circumscribed and let ∆ABC be an
isosceles right triangle, with ∠CAB the right angle. Also let γ be the circle circum-
scribed about ∆ABC, then BC is a diameter of γ. Let O be the center of γ, so
that we have triangles ∆OAB and ∆OAC. Since OA ∼
= OB ∼
= OC and AB ∼
= AC,
we have by S-S-S that ∆OAC ∼
= ∆OAB, and that each is an isosceles triangle.
However, O must be the midpoint of BC since BC is a diameter of γ, so ∠BOA
and ∠COA are both supplementary and congruent, and therefore right angles. By
the given triangle congruence, ∠OCA ∼
= ∠OAC ∼
= ∠OAB ∼
= ∠OBA. Since ∠OAC
and ∠OAB are complementary, ∠OCA and ∠OBA are also complementary bay the
stated angle congruences. Therefore, ∆ABC has angle sum 180◦ .
Theorem 2.53 Euclid V is equivalent to Wallace’s Postulate: Given any triangle

∆ABC and given any segment DE, there exists a triangle ∆DEF ∼ ∆ABC. Note
that AB need not be congruent to DE, so Euclid V is equivalent to the existence of
similar, but not congruent, triangles.
48
Proof: ⇒ Assume Euclid V so that every triangle has angle sum 180◦ .
Considering a triangle ∆ABC and a segment, DE, there exists F such that ∠EDF ∼
=
←→
∠BAC. There also exists a point F 0 , on the same side of DE as F , such that
∠DEF 0 ∼= ∠ABC. Since ∆ABC has angle sum 180◦ , it must be that m∠ABC +
−−→ −−→
m∠BAC < 180◦ . Then, by Euclid V, EF 0 and DF must intersect at a point G on
←→
the same side of DE as F . Also by Euclid V,
m∠DGE = 180◦ − m∠GDE − m∠GED = 180◦ − m∠CAB − m∠CBA = m∠ACB,
so ∠ACB ∼
= ∠DGE. Therefore, ∆ABC ∼ ∆DEG.
⇐ Assuming Wallace’s postulate, there exist triangles ∆ABC and ∆AB 0 C 0

where A − B − B 0 , A − C − C 0 , and ∆ABC ∼ ∆AB 0 C 0 . Then we have that
∠AB 0 C 0 ∼
= ∠ABC, ∠AC 0 B 0 ∼
= ∠ACB, and ∠CAB ∼
= ∠C 0 AB 0 . Since ∠B 0 BC is
supplementary to ∠ABC and ∠C 0 CB is supplementary to ∠ACB, it follows from
our congruences that BB 0 C 0 C has angle sum 360◦ , which implies Euclid V.
49
Chapter 3
Neutral Geometry and the

Hyperbolic Axiom
3.1 Saccheri’s Approach
Now we can discuss Saccheri’s attempt at proving Euclid V in a little more depth. Re-
call that Saccheri started with a quadrilateral, ABCD in which ∠DAB ∼
= ∠ABC
are right angles, and DA ∼
= BC,
and, from the following possibilities, hoped to eliminate the first and third:

= ∠CDA are acute angles.

= ∠CDA are right angles.
50
= ∠CDA are obtuse angles.
3.2 The Hyperbolic Axiom
We’ve seen several postulates and axioms, and now we’ll visit another: the Hyperbolic
Axiom.
The Hyperbolic Axiom: There exists a line l and a point P not on

l, such that at least two distinct lines parallel to l pass through P .
When including this into our original 15 accepted axioms, we have the ax-
ioms for Hyperbolic Geometry. From previous work, we immediately have several
theorems of Hyperbolic Geometry.
Theorem 3.1 There exists a triangle with angle sum less than 180◦ , and therefore
all triangles have angle sum less than 180◦ .
Theorem 3.2 No rectangle exists. Equivalently, any two parallel lines have at most
one common perpendicular.
Theorem 3.3 The converse of the Alternate Interior Angle Theorem does not hold.
Theorem 3.4 Given a line l and a point P not on l, if two distinct lines, t1 and t2 ,
are parallel to l and pass through P , then every line between t1 and t2 is parallel to l.
Proof: Take l, P , t1 , and t2 as stated, and let r be perpendicular to l and

pass through P . Take X1 and Y1 to be points of t1 on opposite sides of r, and take
X2 and Y2 to be points of t2 on opposite sides of r, with X1 and X2 on the same
side of r. A line m passing through P is between t1 and t2 if every point of m on
51
the same side of r as X1 is interior to angle ∠X1 P Y1 , and every point of m on the
same side of r as X2 is interior to angle ∠X2 P Y2 . Since t1 and t1 are parallel to l,
no point of l is interior to ∠X1 P Y1 or interior to ∠X2 P Y2 , so no point of a line m
between t1 and t2 may also be a point of l; m is parallel to l.
Lemma 3.2.1 The summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral are acute.
Proof: Recall that Euclid V is equivalent to the existence of a rectangle, and

that the summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral are right or acute. Then by ac-
cepting the Hyperbolic Axiom we force the summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral
to be acute.
Theorem 3.5 Given parallel lines l and m, no three points of one line are equidis-
tant from the second; hence, parallel lines are not everywhere equidistant.
52
Proof: Our approach here will be to assume that there exist three points
on a given line which are equidistant from a second, parallel, line, and run into a
contradiction. So take line l and m as described in the figure above, with l k m
and three points of m, A, B, and C, equidistant from the line l. This results in two
Saccheri quadrilaterals, ABDE and BCF E where ∠ADE, ∠DEB, ∠BEF , and
∠EF C are right angles. Then ∠DAB ∼
= ∠ABE and ∠EBC ∼
= ∠BCF . However,
∠ABE and ∠EBC are supplementary, so cannot both be acute (recall that the
summit angles of a Saccheri quadrilateral must be acute). This gives us the desired
contradiction, so the line m cannot be everywhere equidistant from the parallel line
l.
Corollary 3.2.1 Given two lines, l and m, if l and m are parallel then either
1. there exist a pair of points on m equidistant from l or
2. there exist no two points of m which are equidistant from l.
Theorem 3.6 For every line l and every point P not on l, there exist distinct lines
t and s, passing through P , which are parallel to l.
To prove this, first consider line l and any point P not on l. Letting r be
the line perpendicular to l through P , and letting t be perpendicular to r through
P , gives us one line parallel to l passing through P . Now, letting R be a point of
t distinct from P , take a line u to be perpendicular to l passing through R; this
yields a Lambert quadrilateral P T SR, where T is the intersection of r and l and
S is the intersection of u and l. From Neutral Geometry we have that ∠SRP is
either right or acute, but because we’ve taken on the Hyperbolic Axiom, a negation
of Euclid V, ∠SRP must be acute. There then exists a line s distinct from t which
53
is perpendicular to u, passing through P . Since u is a common perpendicular to s
and l, l k s. We now have two lines, t and s, which are both parallel to l and pass
through P , completing the proof.
Theorem 3.7 Parallelism is not a transitive relation.
This is a direct result of the Hyperbolic axiom; as we’re given a line l, and
two lines t and s which are parallel to l, yet intersect at a point P , we have that t is
parallel to l, and l is parallel to s, but s is not parallel to t. This does not mean that
no two parallel lines have a common parallel; rather, that there exist triples of lines
where two of the lines are parallel to the third, but are not parallel to each other.
These few theorems of Hyperbolic Geometry should give the reader an idea
of how different the Euclidean and Hyperbolic Geometries appear to be. More the-
orems will be considered later, but first we’ll address the question of consistency
of Hyperbolic Geometry. This question may be answered through the creation of
a model which adheres to the axioms of Hyperbolic Geometry. There are several
models of Hyperbolic geometry,a few which we’ll consider later and one which we
will focus on in chapter 7, but to begin we’ll look at what’s known as the Upper-Half
Plane model.
54
3.3 A Model for Hyperbolic Geometry
The Upper-Half Plane model for Hyperbolic Geometry is often credited to Poincaré,
though Stillwell refers to it as the Liouville-Beltrami model in Sources of Hyperbolic
Geometry [4]. This model, and the others we see later, is embedded within a model
of Euclidean Geometry. In this case, we’ll be working in a subset of C; specifically,
the Upper-Half plane will be denoted H, where H = {z ∈ C : z = x + iy, y > 0}.
The line L = {z ∈ C : z = x + i0} is the boundary of H, any point of which is
referred to as an ideal point.
In H, lines will appear either as the intersection of H with a Euclidean circle

whose center lies on L, or as a Euclidean ray which is perpendicular to L. This may
feel unnatural, but remember that we’re building a model for Hyperbolic Geometry,
so we will need this model to satisfy all the necessary axioms. At the same time,
because H is embedded within a Euclidean model, we may use Euclidean ideas to
build up and show consistency of the model. For example, the measure of an angle
between two hyperbolic lines in H will be the same as the angle between the Euclidean
semicircles, or Euclidean semicircle and Euclidean ray, that these Hyperbolic lines
appear as. Distance, on the other hand, cannot be measured in such a Euclidean
fashion; however, we can use Euclidean distance to help define distance in H. This
and more will be seen very soon, but first we’ll need to consider some Euclidean
results to help us define H, and show that it is in fact a model for Hyperbolic
Geometry.
55
Chapter 4
Necessities for Our Models
4.1 Concerning Circles
We have several ideas to visit before our first model of Hyperbolic Geometry can truly
be considered. The first to attack is Euclidean results concerning circles. These will
be important, not only to the basic layout of our first model, but also in showing the
consistency of Hyperbolic Geometry itself through our first model. Throughout this
section, we will be working in Euclidean Geometry, so Euclid V, and the statements
we’ve shown to be equivalent in previous sections, will be assumed.
Remark 1 Given two non-parallel chords of a circle, the center of the circle is the
point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the chords.
Theorem 4.1 Through any three non-collinear points there is a unique circle.
Proof: Let A, B, and C be three noncollinear points, with t1 the perpendicular

bisector of AB and t2 the perpendicular bisector of BC. By Euclid V, t1 and t2
intersect at a distinct point, D, which is equidistant from A, B, and C by Theorem
56
2.17. Then a circle O with center D and radius mDC passes through A, B, and
C. Since the center must lie on the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of
the chords AB and AC, the center D is uniquely determined, hence O is uniquely
determined.
Theorem 4.2 Given a line l, and two points, A and B, on the same side of l, if
←→
AB is not perpendicular to l then there exists a unique circle passing through A and
B whose center lies on l.
Proof: Given that points A and B are on

the same side of a given line l such that
←→
AB is not perpendicular to l, Euclid V
implies that t, the perpendicular bisector
of AB, intersects l at a unique point C.
As C is equidistant from A and B, a circle
O with center C and radius mCA passes
through both A and B. As C is unique,
O must also be unique.
Theorem 4.3 Two distinct circles may intersect once, twice, or not at all.
Proof: By Theorem 4.1 if two circles intersect at three or more points, then
these two circles are are not distinct. To show that two distinct circles may intersect
twice, once, or not at all, we will consider each case individually. The last case is
clear; simply consider two circles with the same center and different radii. For the
second case, consider points A and B, and the midpoint C of AB. Letting O1 and
O2 be circles with center A and B respectively, each with radius mAC = mBC, we
57
have circles that intersect at a single point C. If these two circles were to intersect
at another point D, then A and B would each lie on the perpendicular bisector of
CD; such a perpendicular bisector cannot exist by axiom 1.
For the first case, keep A, C, and O1 as stated, and choose two distinct points
of O1 , P and Q. Let R be a point on the perpendicular bisector of P Q, so that a
circle O3 with center R and radius mRP = mRQ intersects O1 at the two points, P
and Q.
Definition 4.4 Two circles are called orthogonal when the circles intersect, and the
lines tangent to the circles at a given point of intersection are perpendicular to each
other.
Theorem 4.5 Given a circle C and two point of that circle P and Q, if P and Q
58
are not diametrically opposed then there exists exactly one circle D passing through
P and Q orthogonal to C.
Proof: Given a circle C with center O and two points P and Q, not
diametrically opposed on C, take l to be the perpendicular bisector of P Q. Note
that l must pass through O by remark 1. Now, for a circle D to be orthogonal to
C, the segments connecting the center of D to P (or Q) and the segment connecting
O to P (or Q) must together form a right angle. So we’ll take t to be tangent to C
at P . Because P Q is not a diameter of C, t will intersect l at some point R. Then
defining D to be the circle centered at R with radius mRP = mRQ, we have a circle
orthogonal to C. Because both t and l are unique, D is unique; no circle distinct
from D may pass through P and Q and be orthogonal to C.
Definition 4.6 Given a triangle T , if a circle C contains the three vertices of T ,

then C is said to circumscribe T , and T is inscribed in C.
Theorem 4.7 Given a triangle ∆ABC, if a circle O circumscribes this triangle

such that AB is a diameter of O, then ∆ABC is a right triangle, and ∠ACB is the
required right angle.
Proof: Let ∆ABC and circle O be as stated, with AB a diameter of O

and C a point on O. Letting D be the center of O, m∠DAC = m∠DCA and
m∠DBC = m∠DCB since ∆DAC and ∆DBC are isosceles triangles. Then we
have that 2m∠DAC + 2m∠DBC = 180◦ , or m∠BAC + m∠ABC = 90◦ . Thus,
∠ACB is a right angle.
59
Remark 2 If ∆DCB is an isosceles triangle, and O is a circle with center D and
radius r = mDB = mDC, then there is a point A on O such that A − D − C; so
AC is a diameter of O, and m∠CDB = 2m∠CAB. Referencing the diagram above,
Notice that ∠CDB is exterior to ∆ADC, so b = 2a.
Theorem 4.8 (Inscribed Angle Theorem) Given a circle γ with center O and
distinct points A, B, and C of γ, m∠COB = 2m∠CAB.
Proof: Let γ, A, B, C, and O be as stated; if any side of δABC is already a

diameter then we’re done, so assume that no side of this triangle is a diameter. Let
D be a point of γ such that AD is a diameter of γ. Then by the previous theorem
1
m∠BAD = m∠BOD
2
1
m∠CAD = m∠COD
2
60
If C is interior to ∠BAD, then
m∠CAB = m∠BAD − m∠CAD

1
= (m∠BOD − m∠COD)
2
1
= m∠BOC
2
By symmetric argument if B is interior to ∠CAD then the desired conclusion holds.
If D is interior to ∠CAB, then
m∠CAB = m∠CAD + m∠BAD

1
= (m∠COD + m∠BOD)
2
1
= m∠COB.
2
4.2 Inversion, Dilation, and Reflection
Though we’ll look at dilation and reflection in this section, inversion about a circle
is our prime concern. An inversion about a circle C is a type of mapping from the
punctured plane onto itself, where points outside C are sent to the interior of C,
and points interior to C are mapped outside C, and the only points fixed by this
inversion are those points on C.
Definition 4.9 Given a circle C with center O and any point P distinct from O,
the inversion about C, denoted IC , gives us IC (P ) = P 0 where |OP ||OP 0 | = rC2 and
O, P , and P 0 are collinear (O not between P and P 0 ), and rC is the radius of C.
Definition 4.10 Let O be a point and k a positive number. The dilation with center
O and ratio k is the transformation of the Euclidean plane that fixes O and maps a
61
−→
point P 6= O onto the unique point P ∗ on OP such that |OP ∗ | = k|OP |.
Remark 3 For each point O and real number k > 0, Dk,O is a bijection with inverse
−1
Dk,O = D 1 ,O .
k
Definition 4.11 Given a line l, reflection about a line, denoted Rl , is a bijection

from the plane onto itself where, for any point P ,
←→
1. if P is not on l and O is the point on l such that OP is perpendicular to l,
then Rl (P ) = P 0 iff |OP | = |OP 0 | and P 0 − O − P , or
2. iff P is on l, then Rl (P ) = P .
Theorem 4.12 Given a circle C, the inversion IC , and a point P not the center of
C,
1. if P is interior to C, then IC (P ) lies exterior to C,
2. if P is exterior to C, then IC (P ) lies interior to C, and
3. if P lies on C, then IC (P ) = P .
Proof: Each of these should be clear. Case 1: Suppose instead that P 0 is

not exterior to C. Then |OP 0 | ≤ rC , and therefore, |OP ||OP 0 | < rC2 , where rC is the
radius of C. Case 2: Suppose that P 0 is not interior to C. Then |OP 0 | ≥ rC , and
|OP ||OP 0 | > rC2 . Case 3: Suppose that P 0 is distinct from P , and is therefore either
interior or exterior to C. Then |OP 0 | =
6 rC , and therefore |OP ||OP 0 | =
6 rC2 .
Definition 4.13 Given a circle γ and a chord AB of γ such that AB is not a

diameter of γ, then the lines tangent to γ at A and B intersect at a point P . This
point P is called the pole of AB.
62
Theorem 4.14 Given a circle γ with center O and radius r, and a point P distinct
←→
from O interior to γ, if AB is the chord of γ perpendicular to OP at P , then the
pole of AB is P 0 , the inverse of P through γ.
Proof: Take the circle γ, point P , and chord of γ, AB, to be as stated.

Then take Q to be the pole of AB with respect to γ. Then we have right triangles
∆OP A and ∆OAQ. Since each of these triangles are right triangles, and they share
∠AOQ, ∆OP A ∼ ∆AOQ. Then
|OP | |OA|
=
|OA| |OQ|
⇒ |OP ||OQ| = |OA|2
= r2
Therefore, the pole of AB with respect to γ is the inverse of P through γ.
Remark 4 Given a circle γ with center O and a point P interior to γ distinct from
O, if AB is the chord of γ perpendicular to OP at P and P 0 is the pole of P with
respect to γ, then ∆P 0 AB is an isosceles triangle with ∠P 0 AB ∼
= ∠P 0 BA.
63
Theorem 4.15 Suppose a point P is outside a circle γ with center O. Let Q be the
midpoint of OP , and take δ to be the circle with center Q and diameter OP . Then
←→ ←→
δ and γ intersect at two points, A and B, AP and BP are tangent to γ, and the
inverse of P is the point at which AB intersects OP .
Proof: Since δ contains points both inside and outside γ, it must intersect
γ at two points A and B. Also, because OP is a diameter of δ, for any point R on δ
←→ ←→
∠P RO will be a right angle, so P A and P B are tangent to γ. Now, letting S be the
point at which AB intersects P O, by construction P is the pole of S, so by the last
theorem P is the inverse of S. Since composition of inversion through a given circle
gives the identity function on the punctured plane, S is also the inverse of P .
Theorem 4.16 Given a circle C with center ω and radius r, the inverse of a point
r2 ωz̄+(r2 −|ω|2 )
z ∈ C \ {ω}, through C is given by IC (z) = z̄−ω̄
+ω = z̄−ω̄
.
Proof: Begin by noting that the inverse of a point z through the unit circle
centered on at the origin is z̄1 ; |z|| z̄1 | = 1 is clear, and since 1
z̄
= z
|z|2
, we have that z,
1
z̄
, and the origin are collinear. Not only that, but because |z|2 > 0 the origin cannot
lie between z and z̄1 . We will use this below, taking the funciton I1 to be inversion
through the unit circle centered at the origin, so that I1 (z) = z̄1 .
64
Now, given any circle C with center ω and radius r, we may find the inverse of
a point z 6= ω through dilations and translations. Using the function Tω (z) = z − ω,
an example of a translation, we can move our circle C so that it is centered at the
origin. Then, with function Dr (z) = zr , we transform the circle C into the unit circle.
The function I1 then gives the inverse of the point to which our original point, z, is
sent by Tω and Dr . Then using the inverse functions Dr−1 (z) = rz and Tω−1 (z) = z+ω,
we rescale and translate the unit circle back to C. Defining a function F to be the
composition of these functions in the order presented, we have
r2
F (z) = (Tω−1 ◦ Dr−1 ◦ I1 ◦ Dr ◦ Tω )(z) = + ω.
z̄ − ω̄
In order to check that this meets the requirements for inversion through C, first note
that
s 2
p r2 r
|z − ω||F (z) − ω| = (z − ω)(z̄ − ω̄) +ω−ω + ω̄ − ω̄
z̄ − ω̄ z−ω
s
p r4
= (z − ω)(z̄ − ω̄)
(z̄ − ω̄)(z − ω)
= r2 .
We still need that F (z), z, and ω are collinear such that ω is not between z and
F (z). However, the functions Tω and Dr and their inverses preserve such relations,
and because for any z 0 ∈ C \ {0}, the origin, z 0 and 1
z¯0
are collinear such that the
origin is not between z 0 and 1
z¯0
, the desired relationship holds for z, F (z), and ω.
Remark 5 Given a circle C, IC ◦ IC is the identity function on the punctured plane,

so IC is its own inverse.
|CB|2 −|AC|2 −|AB|2

Theorem 4.17 Given a triangle ∆ABC with m∠CAB = θ, cos θ = −2|AB||AC|
.
This is known as the Law of Cosines.
65
Proof: Given a triangle ∆ABC, coordinatize the plane such that A = (0, 0),
B = (|AB|, 0), and C = (|AC| cos θ, |AC| sin θ).
Then
p
|CB| = (|AC| cos θ − |AB|)2 + (|AC| sin θ − 0)2 .
Solving this equation for cos θ, we have
|CB|2 = |AC|2 cos2 θ − 2|AC||AB| cos θ + |AB|2 + |AC|2 sin2 θ
= |AC|2 + |AB|2 − 2|AB||AC| cos θ

|CB|2 − |AB|2 − |AC|2
⇒ cos θ = .
−2|AC||AB|
|AB| |BC| |CA|

Theorem 4.18 Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆XY Z, if |XY |
= |Y Z|
= |ZX|
, then
∆ABC ∼ ∆XY Z.
Proof: We want to show that γ1 = m∠ABC = m∠XY Z = γ2 . At least

two angles of each triangle are acute, so assume that γ1 and γ2 are acute. Then using
the law of cosines, we have
66
|CA|2 − |AB|2 − |BC|2
cos γ1 =
−2|AB||BC|

1 |CA||CA| |AB||AB| |BC||BC|
= − − −
2 |AB||BC| |AB||BC| |AB||BC|

1 |ZX||ZX| |XY ||XY | |Y Z||Y Z|
= − − −
2 |XY ||Y Z| |XY ||Y Z| |XY ||Y Z|
|ZX|2 − |XY |2 − |Y Z|2
=
−2|XY ||Y Z|
= cos γ2 .
So γ1 = γ2 . Letting α1 , α2 , β1 , and β2 denote the measure of angles ∠BCA, ∠Y ZX,

∠CAB, and ∠ZXY respectively, the same argument gives us cos α1 = cos α2 and
cos β1 = cos β2 .
Assuming that α1 6= α2 and β1 6= β2 , it must then be that α1 = 180 − α2 and

β1 = 180 − β2 . Then
α1 + β1 = 360 − α2 − β2
= 180 + γ2
= 180 + γ1 .
However, the sum of the measure of two angles of any triangle may not be greater than
(or equal to) 180◦ , so the assumption that α1 6= α2 and β1 6= β2 is flawed. Therefore,
at least one pair of corresponding angles are congruent, which then implies that all
three pairs of angles are congruent.
Theorem 4.19 Given two triangles ∆ABC and ∆XY Z, if two sides of ∆ABC are
proportional to two sides of ∆XY Z, and if the measure of the included angle of the
first pair of sides is equal to the measure of the included angle of the second pair,
then ∆ABC ∼ ∆XY Z.
67
Proof: Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆XY Z such that |AB|/|BC| = |XY |/|Y Z|
and m∠ABC = m∠XY Z, let γ denote this angle measure. Then
|ZX|2 − |Y X|2 − |Y Z|2

cos γ =
−2|Y X||Y Z|
|CA| − |AB|2 − |BC|2
2
= .
−2|AB||BC|
This leads us to
|ZX|2 |Y X| |Y Z| |CA|2 |AB| |BC|

− − = − −
|Y X||Y Z| |Y Z| |Y X| |AB||BC| |BC| |AB|
|ZX|2 |XY ||Y Z| |XY |2
⇒ = =
|CA|2 |AB||BC| |AB|2
Thus, by the previous theorem, ∆ABC ∼ ∆XY Z.
Theorem 4.20 Given a circle C with center O, and points P and Q, if IC (P ) = P 0

and IC (Q) = Q0 , then ∆OP Q ∼ ∆OQ0 P 0 .
Proof: Let C, O, P , Q,
P 0 , and Q0 exist as stated,
and let r be the radius of
C. Then
|OP ||OP 0 | = r2 = |OQ||OQ0 |,
or |OP |/|OQ| = |OQ0 |/|OP 0 |.

Then by the previous theo-
rem, ∆OP Q ∼ ∆OQ0 P .
68
Theorem 4.21 Given a circle C, and four points A, B, P , and Q, each distinct
|P A||BQ|
from the center of C, inversion in C preserves the ratio |P B||AQ|
; we’ll later refer to
this as the cross-ratio.
Proof: Given points A, B, P , and Q, and a circle C, assume that none of

the given points are the center of C. We have from inversion through C, IC (A) = A0 ,
IC (B) = B 0 , IC (P ) = P 0 , and IC (Q) = Q0 . Letting r be the radius of C and O it’s
center, we have by how inversion is defined that
|OA||OA0 | = |OB||OB 0 | = |OP ||OP 0 | = |OQ||OQ0 | = r2 .
|P A| |OP |
By Theorem 4.20, ∆OP A ∼ ∆OA0 P 0 and ∆OP B ∼ ∆OB 0 P 0 . Then |P 0 A0 |
= |OA0 |
|P B| |OP |
and |P 0 B 0 |
= |OB 0 |
, which gives
|P A| |P 0 A0 ||OP | |OB 0 |
=
|P B| |OA0 | |P 0 B 0 ||OP |
|P 0 A0 ||OB 0 |
=
|P 0 B 0 ||OA0 |
|BQ| |Q0 B 0 ||OA0 | |P A||QB| |P 0 A0 ||Q0 B 0 |
Similarly, |AQ|
= |Q0 A0 ||OB 0 |
. Thus, we have the desired result, |P B||QA|
= |P 0 B 0 ||Q0 A0 |
.
Now, we had assumed that none of A, B, P , and Q were the center of C; this
is because inversion through a circle is a mapping from the punctured plane to itself,
where the center of the circle of inversion is the missing point. The case where P is
the center of the circle is a case we’ll visit later.
69
Theorem 4.22 Given a circle C with center O,
1. IC sends circles not passing through O to circles not passing through O,
2. if δ is a circle passing through O, then IC sends δ to a line not passing through

O which is parallel to the line tangent to δ at O,
3. IC sends lines not passing through O to circles passing through O,
4. IC sends lines passing through O to themselves, and
5. IC sends circles orthogonal to C to themselves.
Proof: 1. Let C and γ be circles, with O the center of C and O not on γ.

Also, let uv be a diameter of γ such that O lies on ←
→. If w is any point of γ distinct
uv
from u and v, then ∆uvw is a right triangle with right angle ∠uwv. Let u0 , v 0 , and
w0 be the images of u, v, and w through inversion about C. Then ∆Owu ∼ ∆Ou0 w0
and ∆Owv ∼ ∆Ov 0 w0 . This similarity gives us congruent angles ∠Owu ∼
= ∠Ou0 w0
and ∠Owv ∼
= ∠Ov 0 w0 . However, we know that m∠Owv − m∠Owu = 90. using the
given congruences, this equation gives us
m∠Ov 0 w0 − m∠Ou0 w0 = 90
180 − m∠w0 v 0 u0 − m∠Ou0 w0 = 90
90 = m∠w0 v 0 u0 + m∠Ou0 w0
Therefore ∠w0 u0 v 0 and ∠w0 v 0 u0 are complementary, forcing ∠v 0 w0 u0 to be a right

angle.
This holds for any w ∈ γ distinct from u and v, and therefore any w0 ∈ IC (γ).
Therefore, IC (γ) is a circle with diameter u0 v 0 .
70
2. Consider the same circle C, and let δ be a circle such that O lies on δ. Letting
OP be a diameter of δ and Q a point on δ distinct from O and P , we have a right
triangle ∆OP Q. Now, ∆OP Q ∼ ∆OQ0 P 0 , so ∠OP 0 Q0 is also a right angle. Letting
R be yet another point of δ distinct from O, P , and Q, we also have a right angle
←−→ ←−→ ←→
∠OP 0 R0 . Since P 0 Q0 and P 0 R0 are perpendicular to OP 0 at P 0 , these two lines must
←→
not be distinct. Therefore, IC (δ) is a line perpendicular to OP at P 0 .
Furthermore, since OP is a diameter of δ, if t is the line tangent to δ at O then t is

←→ ←→ ←−→
also perpendicular to OP . Since OP is a common perpendicular to t and P 0 Q0 , the
71
←−→
image of δ under IC , we have that t k P 0 Q0 .
3. Our third case is clear by case two and the preceding theorem.
4. Let l be a line passing through O. Then for any P on l distinct from O,

←→ ←→
IC (P ) is a point of OP , but l = OP . Thus, the image of l under IC (minus O) is l
(minus O).
5. Finally, assume that D is a circle orthogonal to C, and let P Q be a

←→
diameter of D such that P Q passes through O, O the center of C. Let R be a point
of intersection between C and D, so that ∠P RQ is a right angle. Letting S be the
center of D, we also have that ∠ORS is a right angle. This gives us that ∠P RS is
complementary to both ∠SRQ and ∠ORP , which gives us ∠ORP ∼
= ∠SRQ. Since
∆SRQ is an isosceles triangle, this last congruence can be extended,
∠ORP ∼
= ∠SRQ ∼
= ∠SQR.
This, along with our assumption that triangles have angle measure 180◦ , implies that
∠OP R ∼
= ∠ORQ, which in turn implies that ∆OP R ∼ ∆ORQ. With O, P , and Q
collinear, and R fixed under inversion through C, it must then be that P and Q are
inverses under C. Therefore, the image of d under inversion through C is a circle
containing points P , Q, and R; these are points of D, so D is sent to itself under
inversion through C.
72
Theorem 4.23 Given a circle C, a second circle D is sent to itself under inversion
through C if and only if D is orthogonal to C.
Proof: One direction follows from Theorem 4.22 part 5. For the other direc-
tion, consider a circle C with center O, and a circle D is sent to itself under inversion
through C. It follows from Theorem 4.22 that some points of D must lie interior to
C, and some must lie exterior to C; then C and D must intersect at two points, A
−→
and B. Also from Theorem 4.22 (part 4), we know that OA is sent to itself under
−→
inversion. Now, either OA is tangent to D or it intersects D at two points, A and
some other point A0 .
−→
For the sake of contradiction, assume that OA is not tangent to D. Since D
−→
and OA are sent to themselves under inversion through C, the intersection
−→
D ∩ OA = {A, A0 } is sent to itself, as a set, under inversion through C. However, A is
a fixed point under inversion through C, so A0 must also be a fixed point. This implies
−→
that A0 lies on both C and OA, which in turn implies that A = A0 , contradicting
that A and A0 are distinct. Therefore, if D is sent to itself under inversion through
−→
C then OA is tangent to D, so that D is orthogonal to C.
73
Theorem 4.24 If P and Q are distinct points and inverses under IC for some circle
C, then any circle passing through P and Q is orthogonal to C.
Proof: Suppose that IC (P ) = Q for some circle C with center O (Q distinct

from P , or equivalently P not on C). Now take D to be a circle passing through P
and Q. Since one of P and Q lies inside C and one lies outside C, D must intersect
C twice; however, we’ll only need to use one point of intersection, so take one point
of intersection between D and C to be the point R. Recall that inversion through C
sends circles not passing through the center of C to other circles not passing through
the center of C. Since P , Q, and O are collinear, D cannot pass through O, so IC
sends D to some circle D0 . However, three points determine a unique circle, and
since P , Q, and R are points of both D and D0 , it must be that D and D0 are the
same circle. So, by the previous theorem, D is orthogonal to C.
Theorem 4.25 Given a circle γ with center O and radius r, denote dilation with
center P and ratio k by Dk,P . Dk,P maps γ to a circle γ ∗ with center O∗ and radius
kr, and for any point Q on γ, the line tangent to γ at Q is either parallel to the line
tangent to γ ∗ at Q∗ or the two lines are not distinct.
Proof: Consider a circle γ with center O and radius r, and a point P and a
positive real number k; we will dilate γ with respect to the point P and ratio k. To
74
begin, note that we can take any point Q, and let P = p and Q = q where p and q
are complex numbers. Then consider the ray z = p + (q − p)t with t ≥ 0. The image
of Q under Dk,P , Q∗ , is given by q ∗ on this ray where kq ∗ − pk = kkq − pk. Notice
that
kkq − pk = kk(q − p)k
= kp + k(q − p) − pk,
so q ∗ = p + k(q − p). Now, if Q is any point on γ then |QO| = kq − ok = r where

O = o, o a complex number. The first we’ll show is that |Q∗ O∗ | = kq ∗ − o∗ k = kr,
so that for any point Q on γ, Q∗ lies on a circle with center O∗ and radius kr.
kq ∗ − o∗ k = kp + k(q − p) − [p + k(o − p)]k
= kk(q − o)k
= kkq − ok
= kr.
Therefore, Dk,P sends a point Q of γ to a point Q∗ of a circle δ with center O∗ and

−1
radius kr. By a symmetric argument, Dk,P = D 1 ,P sends each point of δ to a point
k
of γ, so the image of γ under Dk,P is δ.
75
Now, take t to be a line tangent to γ at a point Q, and let R be a point of t
distinct from Q. Then |QR|2 + |OQ|2 = |OR|2 since ∆OQR is a right triangle with
←−−→
∠QRO a right angle. We’ll show that Q∗ W ∗ is a line tangent to δ by showing that
|Q∗ R∗ |2 + |O∗ Q∗ |2 = |O∗ R∗ |2 ;
|Q∗ R∗ |2 + |O∗ Q∗ |2 = k[p + k(q − p)] − [p + k(r − p)]k2 + k[p + k(o − p)] − [p + k(q − p)]k2
= kk(q − p) − k(r − p)k2 + kk(o − p) − k(q − p)k2
= k 2 (kq − rk2 + ko − qk2 )
= k 2 kr − ok2
= kkr − kok2
= k[p + k(r − p)] − [p + k(o − p)]k2
= kr∗ − o∗ k2
= |R∗ O∗ |2 .
Therefore, ∠R∗ Q∗ O∗ is a right angle for each R on t, so each point of t is sent to

−1
a point of s, the line tangent to δ at Q∗ . Similarly, Dk,P sends each point of s to a
76
point of t, so the image of t under Dk,P is s, the line tangent to δ at Q∗ .
Now, to show that t and s are either parallel or equal, we’ll use the equation
z = r + t(q − r) for t and the equation z = r∗ + t(q ∗ − r∗ ) for s. If t and s were to
intersect, then there is t0 such that
r + t0 (q − r) = r∗ + t0 (q ∗ − r∗ )
⇒ r + t0 (q − r) = [p + k(r − p)] + t0 ([p + k(q − p)] − [p + k(r − p)])
⇒ r + t0 (q − r) = (1 − k)p + k[r + t0 (q − r)]
⇒ r + t0 (q − r) = p (4.1)
However, r + t(q − r) = z is an equation for the line passing through R and Q, so if

any solution t0 to equation (4.1) exists, then P , Q, and R are collinear; this implies
that if such t0 exists then s = t, since P , Q, and Q∗ are collinear and P , R, and R∗
are collinear. Therefore, if t and s intersect then they are the same line, and if s and
t are distinct lines then they are parallel.
Definition 4.26 Given a circle C with center O and radius r, the power of a point
P with respect to C is a real number given by P(P ) = |OP |2 − r2 .
77
Lemma 4.2.1 If O is a point outside a circle C with center P and radius r, and l
is a line through P intersecting C at points Q and R (or at a single point Q if l is
tangent to C), then P(O) = |OQ||OR| (or P(O) = |OQ|2 ).
Proof: This follows from the law of cosines. Consider O, C, P , Q, and

R as stated, and the triangles ∆OP Q and ∆OP R. Let α = m∠P OQ = m∠P OR.
|P Q|2 −|OP |2 −|OQ|2 |P R|2 −|OP |2 −|OR|2
Then the law of cosines gives us cos α = −2|OP ||OQ|
= −2|OP ||OR|
. Now,
consider the following equations/implications:
|P Q|2 − |OP |2 − |OQ|2 |P R|2 − |OP |2 − |OR|2

=
−2|OP ||OQ| −2|OP ||OR|
⇒ (|P Q|2 − |OP |2 − |OQ|2 )|OR| = (|P R|2 − |OP |2 − |OR|2 )|OQ|
⇒ |P Q|2 |OR| − |P R|2 |OQ| + |OP |2 (|OQ| − |OR|) − |OQ||OR|(|OQ| − |OR|) = 0
⇒ r2 |OR| − r2 |OQ| + (|OP |2 − |OQ||OR|)(|OQ| − |OR|) = 0
⇒ (|OP |2 − |OQ||OR| − r2 )(|OQ| − |OR|) = 0. (4.2)
By (4.2), either |OQ| = |OR|, which implies that Q = R, or |OP |2 − r2 = |OQ||OR|.
If Q = R, then ∆OP Q is a right triangle and by the Pythagorean Theorem
P(O) = |OP |2 − r2 = |OP |2 − |P Q|2 = |OQ|2
as desired. If Q and R are distinct, then P(O) = |OP |2 − r2 = |OQ||OR|.
As an alternative proof of Lemma 4.2.1, we may use cyclic quadrilaterals:
Definition 4.27 Given a quadrilateral ABCD, if A, B, C, and D lie on a circle

γ, then ABCD is called a cyclic quadrilateral.
Theorem 4.28 If ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, then opposite angles are sup-
plementary: m∠ABC + m∠CDA = 180◦ and m∠BCD + m∠DAC = 180◦ .
78
Proof: Suppose that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral of a circle γ whose
center is O. By Theorem 4.8
1
m∠BAC = m∠BOC
2
= m∠BDC
1
m∠CAD = m∠COD
2
= m∠CBD
Now consider the triangles ∆ABD and ∆BDC. Because the angle sum of these
triangles is 180◦ , we have that
m∠BCD = 180 − m∠BDC − m∠DBC
= 180 − m∠CAB − m∠CAD
= 180 − m∠BAD,
so ∠BAD and ∠BCD are supplementary; it follows (by symmetric argument or the
fact that ABCD has angle sum 360◦ ) that ∠ABC and ∠CDA are also supplemen-
tary.
Alternate proof to lemma 4.2.1: If O is a point outside the circle γ, with

center is P and radius r, and l and m are lines passing through O, l intersecting
γ at points A and B such that A − B − O, and m intersecting γ at C and D
such that D − C − O. ThenABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. By Theorem 4.28
alternate interior angle of ABCD are supplementary, so ∠OBC ∼
= ∠ODA and
∠OCB ∼
= ∠OAD. It follows that ∆OBC ∼ ∆OAD, which implies
|OB|
|OD|
= |OC|
|OA|
, or
|OA||OB| = |OC||OD|. Now, assume that CD is in fact a diameter of γ. Then
|OA||OB| = |OC||OD| = (|P O| − r)(|P O| + r) = |P O|2 − r2 = P(O).
79
This covers all lines l passing through O and intersecting γ at two distinct
points. If l were to be tangent to γ so that l intersects γ at a single point A, then
∠OAP is a right angle. Letting CD be a diameter of γ such that D − C − O, we
have by the Pythagorean Theorem that
P(O) = |OP |2 − r2 = (|OA|2 + r2 ) − r2 = |OA|2 .
Theorem 4.29 Given a circle γ with radius r and center O, and a circle δ with
radius s and center P such that O is outside δ, let p be the power of O with respect
r2 s
to δ. The image of δ under inversions through γ is the circle δ 0 with radius p
and center P ∗ = D r2 ,O (P ). If Q is any point of δ, then the line tangent to δ 0 at

p
0
Q = Iγ (Q) is the reflection of the line tangent to δ at Q across the perpendicular
bisector of QQ0 .
−→
Proof: Take γ, δ, and p to be as stated. Then with O outside δ, either OQ
−→
intersects δ at a point R distinct from Q, or OQ is tangent to δ, in which case let
Q = R. Then
|OQ0 | |OQ0 ||OQ| r2
= = ,
|OR| |OR||OQ| p
so Q0 = D r2 ,O (R). This holds for any point Q of δ (and corresponding point R), so
p
inversion through γ sends each point of δ to a point of δ ∗ ; by Theorem 4.25, δ ∗ is

r2 s
the circle with center P ∗ and radius p
. Furthermore, Theorem 4.22 assures us that
inversion through γ will send δ to a circle δ 0 , so it must be that δ 0 = δ ∗ .
80
Now, letting t be the line tangent to δ at R, we know that the line t∗ tangent
to δ ∗ at R∗ = Q0 is parallel to t. Furthermore, if QR is not a diameter of δ, then
the line u tangent to δ at Q will intersect t at some point S, which is the pole of the
midpoint M of QR. So ∠SRQ ∼
= ∠SQR. Since u intersects t, it must also intersect
t0 at some point T , and we have ∠SRQ ∼
= ∠SQR ∼
= ∠T Q0 Q. This gives us the
isosceles triangle ∆T Q0 Q, which implies that T is on the perpendicular bisector of
QQ0 . Therefore, t0 is the reflection of t across the perpendicular bisector of QQ0 .
Definition 4.30 A function φ is conformal if, for any distinct points A, B, and C
in its domain, m∠ABC = m∠φ(A)φ(B)φ(C).
Remark 6 Recall that dilation maps a line t to a line s parallel to t. It follows that
dilation is a conformal mapping of the plane onto itself.
Theorem 4.31 Inversion is a conformal mapping of the punctured complex plane

to itself.
Proof: Given a circle γ with center O and radius r, let α and β be arcs
intersecting at a point P , and let t and s be lines tangent to α and β respectively,
both at P . Then the angle formed by the intersection of α and β can be measured
with the angle formed by the intersection of t and s. Now, let Iγ (P ) = P 0 , let α0 be
81
the image of α under inversion through γ, and let β 0 be the image of β. Then the
line t0 tangent to α0 at P 0 and the line s0 tangent to β 0 at P 0 are reflections of t and s
across the perpendicular bisector of P P 0 . Since reflection preserves angles, the angle
formed by t0 and s is congruent to the angle formed by t and s. Hence, inversion is
a conformal mapping.
Theorem 4.32 Given collinear points A, B, C, D, and O, with A − B − D − O,

|AO| |CO|
A − C − D − O and |BO|
= |DO|
, there exists a circle γ with center O such that
Iγ (A) = D, Iγ (B) = C, and Iγ (AB) = CD.
Proof: From our hypothesis, we have that |AO||DO| = |CO||BO|. Then

p
let γ be the circle with center O and radius r = |AO||DO|. Then Iγ (A) = D and
Iγ (B) = C.
82
Remark 7 In order to construct the circle γ used in the proof of Theorem 4.32, first
take δ to be the circle for which BC is a diameter; the midpoint of BC, M , will be
the center of δ. Letting t be a line tangent to δ at a point Q and passing through
O, the radius of γ is then |OQ|. This comes from the fact that if two points of a
circle (δ) are inverses of one another under inversion through a second circle (γ),
then the two circles are orthogonal. Since B and C are points of δ, where B, C, and
O are collinear, and ∠M QO is a right angle, the circle γ we’ve constructed will be
orthogonal to δ and inversion through γ will send B to C and visa-versa.
Theorem 4.33 Given a circle C with center O and a line l, let t be the line
perpendicular to l and passing through O. Then there exists a circle γ such that
Iγ (C \ {P }) = l, where P is a point of intersection of t with C.
Proof: Let O be the center of our circle C, t be a line perpendicular to l

passing through O, and P and Q the points of intersection of t with C. Suppose
that t intersects l at R, and consider first the possibility that P − Q − R. Then take
p
γ to be the circle with center P and radius r = |P Q||P R|. Then we have that C
passes through the center of γ, and that Q and R are inverses with respect to γ since
←→
P −Q−R and |P Q||P R| = r2 . Then, because P R ⊥ l, we have that Iγ (C \{P }) = l.
Notice, however, that if R = Q (so l is tangent to C at Q) then |P R||P Q| = |P Q|2 =

r2 , so γ will be the circle with center P and radius |P Q|. This is depicted below.
83
See that if R = P , then we may instead consider the circle δ with center Q and
radius |P Q|; in other words, this does not change our approach, simply the notation.
Now, the last case to consider is P − R − Q. Then we may again define γ to be the
p
circle with center P and radius r = |P Q||P R| so that Q and R are inverses with
←→
respect to γ, and since l ⊥ P Q we’ll have Iγ (C \ {P }) = l.
Remark 8 The construction of the circle γ in the first part of the proof of Theorem
84
4.33 is similar to the construction of the circle γ used in the proof of Theorem 4.32,
which is explained in remark 7. Take δ to be the circle for which QR is a diameter,
and construct a line t tangent to δ passing through P . The line t will intersect δ at
some point S, and the desired circle γ will be that which has center P and radius
|P S|.
The construction of γ is a little more transparent for the second and third cases
considered in the proof of Theorem 4.33. For the second case, we simply construct
the circle with center P and radius P Q. For the third case, notice that because we
assume that P − R − Q it must be that l intersects the circle C at some point T ; then
we may let γ be the circle with center P and radius |P T |. These two constructions
are illustrated within the proof.
Corollary 4.2.1 Given any two circles C1 and C2 , there exists a third circle C such
that IC (C1 ) = C2 .
Proof: Given circles C1 and C2 , let D be a circle such that ID sends C2 to

some line l and maps C1 to a circle I(C1 ). Then there exists a circle C which maps
l to ID (C1 ) by Theorem 4.33.
ID(C)
C2 / C1
ID ID

l / ID (C1 )
IC
85
−1
In the above, ID(C) = ID IC ID , so that inversion through the circle D(C) maps C2
to C1 . Note that D(C) may in fact be a line, which we may view as a circle whose
center is the point at infinity; in such a case ID(C) is inversion about a circle centered
at infinity, which is reflection across a line.
4.3 Möbius Transformations
Definition 4.34 A Möbius transformation, or a linear fractional transformation, is

a (nonconstant) function from the extended complex plane, C̄ = C ∪ {∞}, onto itself
φ : C̄ → C̄, of the form
az + b
φ(z) = .
cz + d
Here, a, b, c, d ∈ C with |ad − bc| 6= 0. Working in the extended complex plane,
φ(∞) = ∞ if c = 0, and φ(∞) = a
c
and φ( −d
c
) = ∞ otherwise.
az+b
Theorem 4.35 M = {φ : C̄ → C̄ : φ(z) = cz+d
, a, b, c, d ∈ C, and ad − bc 6= 0} is
a group under composition.
az+b pz+q
Proof: Let φ, ψ ∈ M, where φ(z) = cz+d
and ψ(z) = rz+s
. Then, for closure
under composition, consider
pz+q

a rz+s
+b
(φ ◦ ψ)(z) = pz+q

c +d
rz+s
apz + aq + brz + bs
=
cpz + cq + drz + ds
(ap + br)z + (aq + bs)
= .
(cp + dr)z + (cq + ds)
Now we just need (ap + br)(cq + ds) − (cp + dr)(aq + bs) 6= 0. Since,
(ap+br)(cq +ds)−(cp+dr)(aq +bs) = apds+brcq −draq −cpbs = (ad−bc)(ps−rq),
86
we have by hypothesis that the two factors on the right side of the above equation
are not zero, so the product is not zero and we have closure. An identity element
clearly exists, as the identity function p(z) = z is certainly in M. Since composition
of functions is associative, the last thing to show is that inverses exist.
az+b
Starting with an element of M, φ(z) = cz+d
, consider the associated matrix
and it’s inverse,
   
d −b
a b ad−bc ad−bc
Φ=  and Φ−1 =  .
−c a
c d ad−bc ad−bc
Then, letting
d −b
ad−bc
z + ad−bc dz − b
γ(z) = −c a = ,
ad−bc
z + ad−bc
−cz + a
we have the composition of φ and γ giving
dz−b

a −cz+a
+b
(φ ◦ γ)(z) = dz−b

c +d
−cz+a
(ad − bc)z + (−ab + ab)
=
(cd − cd)z + (−cb + da)
= z.
So for arbitrary φ ∈ M, there exists some γ ∈ M such that (φ◦γ)(z) = z (ie: inverses
exist).
This gives us that M is a group under composition. Our next theorem should
explain why this approach to finding the inverse of a möbius transformation works.
GL2 (C)
Theorem 4.36 M is isomorphic to (C\{0})I2
, the general linear group of two by two
matrices with complex entries, with complex scalar multiples of the identity matrix
factored out.
87
Proof: Define Σ : GL2 (C) → M by
 
a b
Σ   = az + b .
c d cz + d
az+b pz+q
Σ is clearly onto, and, letting φ(z) = cz+d
and ψ(z) = rz+s
, the following
shows that Σ is a homomorphism:
    
a b p q ap + br aq + bs
Σ    = Σ  
c d r s cp + dr cr + ds
(ap + br)z + (aq + bs)
=
(cp + dr)z + (cq + ds)
= (φ ◦ ψ)(z)
   
a b p q
= Σ   ◦ Σ   .
c d r s
Since the identity of M is α(z) = z, the kernel of Σ is clearly (C \ 0)I2 , the

set of complex scalar multiples of the 2 × 2 identity matrix, so the first isomorphism
theorem then gives us the desired result.
Theorem 4.37 If φ ∈ M then φ is the composition of translations, dilations, rota-

tions, and complex inversion.
Note: complex inversion is the composition of complex conjugation z → z̄,

which is simply reflection across the real axis, and inversion through the unit circle
S 1 , z → z̄1 . So complex inversion is given by z → 1
z
az+b
Proof: Consider the generic möbius transformation φ(z) = cz+d
. Then
a
c
(cz + d) − ad
c
+b a 1 ad − bc
φ(z) = = − .
cz + d c cz + d c
88
Now, define function Tα , Dβ , Rθ , C, and V as follows:
Tα (z) = α + z translation, α ∈ C
Dβ (z) = βz dilation, β ∈ R
Rθ (z) = eiθ z rotation, θ ∈ R
C(z) = z̄ conjugation, or ref lection across the real axis

1
V (z) = inversion through S 1
z̄
0
We can then write φ in terms of these function. Then, taking c = r0 eiθ for some r0
00
and θ0 , and ad−bc
c
= r00 eiθ for some r00 and θ00 , we have for any z ∈ C,
R 0 0
z θ
−−→ eiθ z
D 0 0
r
−−→ r0 eiθ z = cz
Td
−→ cz + d
C◦V 1
−−→
cz + d
D−r00 ◦Rθ00 100
−−−−−−→ −r00 eiθ
cz + d
ad − bc 1
= −
c cz + d
Ta/c a ad − bc 1
−−→ − = φ(z)
c c cz + d
Therefore, φ is the desired composition,
φ(z) = (T ac ◦ D−r00 ◦ Rθ00 ◦ C ◦ V ◦ Td ◦ Dr0 ◦ Rθ0 )(z).
Corollary 4.3.1 If φ ∈ M, then φ is conformal.
Proof: This follows from the previous theorem. Clearly translations, reflec-
tions, rotations, and dilations are conformal. We’ve previously shown that inversions
89
are conformal. Therefore möbius transformations, compositions of such mappings,
are also conformal.
Corollary 4.3.2 An element of M sends a line or circle to another line or circle.
Proof: This is almost immediate from Theorem 4.37. Möbius transforma-

tions are compositions of translations, dilations, rotations, reflection across the real
axis, and inversion through S 1 ; it is clear that translation, dilations, rotations, and
reflections send a line or circle to a line or circle. Then we need only consider what
the image of a line or circle is under inversion. However, we’ve already seen in The-
orem 4.22 that inversion through a given circle will send a line or circle to another
line or circle, so möbius transformations must send a line or circle to another line or
circle.
Theorem 4.38 If an element of M is not the identity function, then it fixes either
one point or two of the extended complex plane.
Proof: Suppose the φ ∈ M is not the identity function. If φ(z) = z, where

z 6= ∞, then
az + b = cz 2 + dz or cz z + (d − a)z − b = 0 (4.3)
This equation has either one or two distinct solutions if c 6= 0. On the other hand,
∞ is a fixed point of φ iff c = 0, and (4.1) becomes (d − a)z − b = 0, which has
exactly one solution if d 6= a and none if d = a. Thus, a non-trivial element of M
fixes exactly one or exactly two points of the extended complex plane.
Corollary 4.3.3 Each möbius transformation is uniquely determined by its effect

on any three distinct points.
90
Proof: Let p, q, and r be any three distinct points of the extended complex
plane, and suppose that m1 and m2 are möbius transformations such that
m1 (p) = m2 (p), m1 (q) = m2 (q), and m1 (r) = m2 (r).
Then m−1 −1
1 m2 fixes p, q, and r, which implies that m1 m2 = I is the identity function
by Theorem 4.38, which in turn implies that m1 = m2 .
Remark 9 By Corollary 4.3.3, given any elements p, q, and r of the extended com-
plex plane, there exists a unique möbius transformation N such that N (p) = 0,
N (q) = 1, and N (r) = ∞, namely

q−r z−p
N (z) = .
q−p z−r
This is denoted [z, p, q, r].
|AP ||BQ|
Note that the cross-ratio |BP ||AQ|
is often denoted (AB, P Q), and that if we
identify points A, B, P , and Q with elements of the extended complex plane a, b, p,
and q respectively, then
|AP ||BQ| ka − pkkb − qk

(AB, P Q) = = = k[b, q, a, p]k.
|BP ||AQ| ka − qkkb − pk
Now, suppose that we have N (z) = [z, p, q, r] for some p, q, and r, and suppose that
m is any möbius transformation. Then notice that N ◦ m maps m−1 (p) to 0, m−1 (q)
to 1, and m−1 (r) to ∞. Then we have that
N ◦ m(z) = [z, m−1 (p), m−1 (q), m−1 (r)] = [m(z), p, q, r].
It follows that
[m(z), m(p), m(q), m(r)] = [z, p, q, r]
91
for any p, q, and r in the extended complex plane. This gives us that, if a, b, p, and
q are elements of the extended complex plane associated with points A, B, P , and
Q, and m is any möbius transformation, then
(AB, P Q) = k[b, q, a, p]k = k[m(b), m(q), m(a), m(p)]k.
What we have here a proof of the following theorem.
|AP ||BQ|
Theorem 4.39 Möbius transformations preserve the cross ratio |BP ||AQ|
.
Proof: We’ve seen one approach to proving this theorem. Another approach
we may take hinges upon Theorem 4.37, which gives us that möbius transformations
are compositions of translations, dilations (with center at the origin), rotations, and
complex inversion (complex conjugation composed with inversion through S 1 ); we’ll
take on each of these functions on their own, letting A, B, P , and Q be points in
the complex plane represented by the complex numbers a, b, p, and q respectively.
Translation by α, Tα clearly preserves our ratio since translations preserve (euclidean)
distance:
|Tα (A)Tα (P )| = [(a + α) − (p + α)][(a + α) − (p + α)] = (a − p)(a − p) = |AP |.
The same holds true for rotations,
|Rθ (A)Rθ (P )| = (eiθ a−eiθ p)(eiθ a − eiθ p) = eiθ (a−p)e−iθ (a − p) = (a−p)(a − p) = |AP |,
and conjugation,
|C(A)C(P )| = (ā − p̄)(ā − p̄) = (ā − p̄)(a − p) − |AP |.
Dilation, on the other hand, clearly does not preserve (euclidean) distance. However,
dilations with center at the origin clearly do preserve the ratio we’re concerned with;
92
consider a dilation Dk with center at the origin and ratio k,
|Dk (A)Dk (P )||Dk (B)dk (Q)| k|AP |k|BQ| |AP ||BQ|

= = .
|Dk (B)Dk (P )||Dk (A)Dk (Q)| k|BP |k|AQ| |BP ||AQ|
|AP ||BQ|
Lastly we have inversion. By Theorem 4.21 inversion preserves the ratio |BP ||AQ|
,
and our proof is complete; another more analytic approach follows.
Let A, B, P , and Q be points in the complex plane. Then for φ ∈ M,

aA+b aP +b
φ(A) = cA+d
and φ(P ) = cP +d
for some a, b, c, d ∈ C. Then
|φ(A)φ(P )| (φ(A) − φ(P ))(φ(A) − φ(P ))

=
|φ(B)φ(P )| (φ(B) − φ(P )) − (φ(B) − φ(P ))

(aA+b)(cP +d)−(cA+d)(aP +b) (aA+b)(cP +d)−(cA+d)(aP +b)
(cA+d)(cP +d) (cA+d)(cP +d)
=
(aB+b)(cP +d)−(cB+d)(aP +b) (aB+b)(cP +d)−(cB+d)(aP +b)
(cB+d)(cP +d) (cB+d)(cP +d)

adA+bcP −bcA−daP adA+bcP −bcA−daP
c2 P +cd(A+P )+d2 c2 AP +cd(A+P )+d2
=
adB+bcP −bcB−daP adB+bcP −bcB−daP
c2 P +cd(B+P )+d2 c2 BP +cd(B+P )+d2

(ad−bc)(A−P ) (ad−bc)(A−P )
(cA+d)(cP +d) (cA+d)(cP +d)
=
(ad−bc)(B−P ) (ad−bc)(B−P )
(cB+d)(cP +d) (cB+d)(cP +d)
(A − P )(cB + d)(A − P )(cB + d)

=
(B − P )(cA + d)(B − P )(cA + d)
Then for the desired ratio we have
|φ(A)φ(P )| |φ(B)φ(Q)| (A − P )(cB + d)(A − P )(cB + d) (B − Q)(cA + d)(B − Q)(cA + d)

=
|φ(B)φ(P )| |φ(A)φ(Q)| (B − P )(cA + d)(B − P )(cA + d) (A − Q)(cB + d)(A − Q)(cB + d)
(A − P )(A − P )(B − Q)(B − Q)
=
(B − P )(B − P )(A − Q)(A − Q)
|AP ||BQ|
=
|BP ||AQ|
93
Chapter 5
The Upper-Half Plane as A Model
In this chapter we’ll see how H may serve as a model for Hyperbolic Geometry.
In order to do this, we will define some basic terminology as it applies to H, and
show that it satisfies all of the planar axioms for Neutral Geometry, as well as the
Hyperbolic Axiom. I say planar because axioms 5 through 8, along with 10, deal with
space, and the upper half plane is intended as a representation of two dimensional
Hyperbolic Geometry1 . Now, before we delve into our axioms, we will need to solidify
some definitions, review some terminology, and introduce some new notation.
Notation: <(z) and =(z) denote the real and imaginary parts of the complex
number z respectively; so for z = x + iy, <(z) = x and =(z) = y.
Notation: Let H = {z ∈ C : =(z) > 0} be our half plane.
Notation: Given a familiarity with the Euclidean geometry, we will use e to

denote an object’s existence as Euclidean, and h as Hyperbolic.
←→
For example, eAB is a Euclidean line (or e-line) passing through points A and
←→
B, and hAB the Hyperbolic line through A and B. This will be an important tool,
1
There is, however, an analogous model for three-dimensional hyperbolic space called the “half
space” model.
94
since our models of Hyperbolic Geometry are embedded within models of Euclidean
Geometry, and Euclidean tools will be used to build up, and show the consistency
of, our model. One of these may be assumed at times, which should be clear from
context, and in such cases one or both of these notations will be discarded.
Notation: Let L = {z ∈ C : =(z) = 0}, and note that L will serve as the
boundary of H.
Definition 5.1 Points on L are called ideal points, and points outside both L and
H are called ultra-ideal points. Note that neither ideal nor ultra-ideal points are
actually points of our hyperbolic plane.
Now, lines in the upper half plane will appear as one of two familiar Euclidean
objects: first, we have h-lines represented as the intersection of e-lines, which are per-
pendicular to L, with H, and second we have h-lines represented as the intersection
of e-circles, whose center lies on L, with H.
We will introduce more notation and definitions along the way, but we have
what we need for now, so let’s move on to the first axiom.
Axiom 1: Given any two distinct points, there is exactly one line that con-
tains them.
This axiom’s standing in the model follows from some Euclidean results. First,
let A and B be distinct points of H. If A and B lie on an e-line l perpendicular to L
←→
at a point C, then hAB = l ∩ H is as unique in H as l is in C. If the e-line through
A and B is not perpendicular to L, then by Theorem 4.2 there is exactly one e-circle
C through A and B whose center is the intersection of L with the perpendicular
←→
bisector of AB, and we will take hAB = C ∩ H, giving us a unique line passing
through A and B. Thus, our model satisfies our first axiom.
95
Axiom 2: To every pair of distinct points, there corresponds a positive
number. This number is called the distance between the two points.
To begin discussing distance, we’ll introduce the Poincaré metric:
1
ds2 = (dx2 + dy 2 ).
y2
This discussion takes on two sides: first we have the possibility that two points
determine an h-line appearing as an e-ray, and second we have the appearance of
the h-line determined by two points as an e-semicircle. In either case take γ to be
the line we’re interested in.
Considering the first case, take A, B ∈ H such that A = x0 +ia and B = x0 +ib,
and letting b > a. Then we will define the hyperbolic distance (in the half-plane)
between these points, dH (A, B), by the line integral
Z
dH (A, B) = |ds|
γ
Z bp 0 2
(x ) + 1
= dy
a y
Z b
1
= dy
a y
= ln(y)|ba

b
= ln (5.1)
a
←→
Now, if C is the ideal point of this h-line AB, then we have that dH (A, B) =
ln(|CB|/|CA|) (using the notation |AC| to represent the Euclidean distance from A
to C). Note that, by the ordering b > a, we have that |BC|/|AC| > 1, giving our
distance a positive value.
6
•B
γ
• γ
B • •A
A
L C• •D •C
96
←→
For our second case, we’ll have two ideal points for hAB, C and D, and
another ideal point, O = c + i0, as the center of the e-semicircle used to define our
h-line. Assume that C − B − A − D in the hyperbolic sense, and label me ∠DOA = α
←→
and me ∠DOB = β, allowing α < β. Then, by representing hAB as
{z : z = c + r cos θ + i sin θ, 0 < θ < 180◦ }
where r = |OA| is the radius of the e-semicircle, we have dx = −r sin θdθ, and
dy = r cos θdθ, and this allows us to use define the h-distance in the half-plane
between A and B as follows:
Z
dH (A, B) = |ds|
γ
Z β√ 2 2
r sin θ + r2 cos2 θ
= dθ
α r sin θ
Z β
1
= dθ
α sin θ
β
1 − cos θ
= ln
sin θ α
β
1 − (1 − 2 sin(θ/2))
= ln
2 sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2) α
β
θ
= ln tan
2
α
tan(β/2)
= ln
tan(α/2)
At this point, we may use a result regarding circles from Euclidean geometry
|BD| |AD|
(illustrated below) to give us that tan β2 = |BC|
, and tan α2 = |AC|
, so that

|BD|/|BC| |BD||AC|
dH (A, B) = ln = ln .
|AD|/|AC| |AD||BC|
By our ordering, we have that |BD|/|AD| > 1 and |AC|/|BC| > 1, guaranteeing
that our h-distance is positive.
97
B
•
Q
Q
•A
β
L 2
β
• • •
D C
Axiom 3: The points of a line can be placed in a correspondence with the

real numbers such that
1. To every point of the line there corresponds exactly one real number,
2. To every real number there corresponds exactly one point of the line, and
3. The distance between two distinct points is the absolute value of the difference
of the corresponding real numbers.
For this, take l to be an h-line, and let A0 to be a point on l, assigning to A0

the value 0. Assuming that l has only one ideal point, C, take two arbitrary points, P
and Q, from l and assign to P and Q the values ln(|P C|/|A0 C|) and ln(|QC|/|A0 C|).
If P − A0 − C then the value assigned to P , vl (P ), is positive, and the greater
the e-distance from A0 the larger the value assigned to P will be. Similarly, is
A0 − P − C then vl (P ) will be negative, and as P approaches C, the value assigned
to P approaches −∞. More specifically, because we’re assigning values using the
natural log function, a bijection between (0, ∞) and R, each point will be assigned a
unique real number, and every real number will be assigned to exactly one point of
l. This takes care of the first and second parts of this axiom. For the third, consider
98
the following:
|vl (P ) − vl (Q)| = | ln(|P C|/|A0 C|) − ln(|QC|/|A0 C|)|
= | ln(|P C|/|QC|)
= dH (P, Q).
We’ve covered axiom 3 for l having only on ideal point, so now assume that l
has two ideal points, C and D. Again taking P and Q from l, and assigning values
0 0
|A C||P D| |A C||QD|
vl (P ) = ln |P C||A0 D| and vl (P ) = ln |QC||A0 D| . Again we will have each point of
l assigned a unique real number, and each real number assigned to a unique point,
and the third part of this axioms holds:
0 0
|A C||P D| |A C||QD|
|vl (P ) − vl (Q)| = | ln − ln |
|P C||A0 D| |QC||A0 D|

|QC||P D|
= | ln
|P C||QD|
= dH (P, Q).
Axiom 4: Given two points P and Q of a line, the coordinate system can
be chosen in such a way that the coordinate of P is zero and the coordinate of Q is
positive.
This is essentially covered in the discussion of the previous axiom. However,

we said that the ordering of the points would affect the value assigned; this need not
occur.
Just as before, given an h-line l, choose a point P from l, and assign to it the
value zero, vl (P ) = 0. Taking another point Q from l, first assume that l has only one
ideal point, C. If Q − P − C, then vl (Q) = ln(|QC|/|P C|) will assign to Q a positive
value as discussed earlier. If instead P −Q−C, then take vl (Q) = ln(|P C|/|QC|) > 0.
Now, instead assuming that L has two ideal points C and D, if D −Q−P −C,
99

|P D||QC|
then take the same approach to assigning a value to Q: vl (Q) = ln |QD||P > 0.
C|
If instead D − P − Q − C, then assign to Q the value vl (Q) = ln |P C||QD|
|QC||P D|
> 0.
Recall that axioms 5 through 8 deal with 3 dimensions, so we will skip those
and move on to the ninth axiom.
Axiom 9: Given a line and a plane containing it, the points of the plane that
do not lie on the line form two sets such that
1. each of the sets is convex and
2. if P is in one set and Q is in the other, then segment P Q intersects the line.
Given that lines are represented as either e-rays or e-semicircles with cen-
ters on L, that our model satisfies this axiom should be clear. What follows are
illustrations of possible situations related to this axiom.
(a) Intersection outside segment (b) Intersecting between A and B

AB
(c) Hyperparallel lines (d) Parallel lines
Figure 5.1: Cases with l appearing as an e-ray
100
In (c) and (d) we see a new idea: hyperparallel lines and parallel lines. Though
←→ ←→
AB appear to intersect at O, remember that O is not part of H, l and AB merely
←→
share an ideal point. In such cases, l and AB are said to be parallel or convergent
←→
parallels. If AB and l do not intersect and do not both converge to an ideal point,
then they are said to be hyperparallel.
(a) Hyperparallel lines (b) Parallel lines
(c) Hyperparallel lines
(d) Intersection outside segment AB (e) Intersection at C between A and B
Figure 5.2: Cases with l appearing as an e-semicircle
Notice in figure 5.2(a), that the e-segment AB passes through l, so the sets
l separates the plane into are not convex in the Euclidean sense. However, we’re
101
building a model for Hyperbolic Geometry, not Euclidean, and the sets are convex;
←→
as illustrated, the h-line AB does not intersect l between A and B.
As illustrated in the last two figures, we will have two main cases to consider
in showing that H satisfies axiom 9 of Neutral Geometry. Taking l to be a line in H,
we have
Case 1: l appears as an e-ray, l = {a + iy} ⊂ H for some a ∈ R, and
Case 2: l appears as an e-semicircle, l = {x + iy ∈ H : (x − c)2 + y 2 = r2 }, where c + i0

is the center of the e-semicircle representing l, and r its radius.
For the first case, l separates H into two sets defined as follows
H1 := {x + iy ∈ H : x < a}
H2 := {x + iy ∈ H : x > a}.
These are the two sets which the axiom requires be convex such that, given two
points A and B, if A lies in one set and B lies in the second then AB intersects l at
some point C such that A − C − B. Now, taking two points A and B of H (we’re
←→
not yet concerned with how they’re related to H1 and H2 ), either AB appears as an
←→ ←→
e-ray or as an e-semicircle. If AB appears as an e-ray, it’s clear that either l = AB
←→ ←→
or l ∩ AB = ∅, so if A and B are both in H1 (or H2 ) and AB appears as an e-ray,
then AB ∩ l = ∅ as desired.
←→
If, on the other hand, AB appears as an e-semicircle, then we can write
←→
AB = {x + iy ∈ H : (x − d)2 + y 2 = s2 } for some d ∈ R and s > 0. If we assume
that A, B ∈ H1 , then, with A = x1 + iy1 and B = x2 + iy2 , we can assume wlog that
x1 < x2 so that x1 < x2 < a. It follows that if C is a point such that A − C − B,
where C = xC + iyC , then x1 < xC < x2 < a. Therefore, no point C with A − C − B
lies on l, so AB ∩ l = ∅.
102
This gives us, for our first case, that H1 , and by symmetry H2 , is convex.
We still need that if A ∈ H1 and B ∈ H2 , then AB intersects l at a point C with
A − C − B. So, assuming that A = x1 + iy1 ∈ H1 and B = x2 + iy2 ∈ H2 , we clearly
←→
have AB appearing as an e-semicircle. Since we can describe AB as
p
AB = {x + iy ∈ H : y = s2 − (x − d)2 , x1 < x < x2 },
and because x1 < a < x2 , it follows that there is some point C = a + iyC such that
A − C − B and l ∩ AB = {C}.
This takes care of our first case, so now consider the second; l = {x + iy ∈
H : (x − c)2 + y 2 = r2 }, where c + i0 is the center of the e-semicircle representing l,
and r is its radius. This line l will separate the plane into sets
H1 := {x + iy ∈ H : (x − c)2 + y 2 < r2 }
H2 := {x + iy ∈ H : (x − c)2 + y 2 > r2 }
Again, we’ll take two points of H, A = x1 + iy1 and B = x2 + iy2 , which leads to two
(sub-)cases.
←→ ←→
(i) Either AB appears as an e-ray, AB = {a + iy : y > 0}, or
←→ ←→
(ii) AB appears as an e-semicircle, AB = {x + iy ∈ H : ((x − d)2 + y 2 = s2 } where
←→
d + 0i is the center of the semicircle representing AB and s is its radius.
For the first case we’ll assume that y2 > y1 and for the second we’ll assume that
←→
x2 > x1 , but in each case we’ll parameterize AB and build a strictly increasing (or
strictly decreasing or constant) function which is zero only at points of l.
←→
For our first case, 2(i), we can parameterize AB with the function
←→
f1 : R → AB defined by f1 (t) = a + iet . Since we’re interested in the possible
103
←→
intersection of l and AB, we’ll use this parameterization to define another function,
g1 (t) := (a − c)2 + e2t − r2 .

←→
Notice that if g1 (t) = 0, then l and AB intersect at f1 (t0 ). Also, g10 (t) = 2e2t , so g1
is a strictly increasing function. Letting f1 (t1 ) = A and f1 (t2 ) = B, we have that
t1 < t2 since y1 < y2 .
If we then assume A, B ∈ H1 , then it follows that g1 (t1 ) < g1 (t2 ) < 0. Since g1
is strictly increasing, for any t such that t1 < t < t2 we will have g1 (t) < 0; therefore,
there is no t ∈ (t1 , t2 ) such that g1 (t) = 0, and AB ∩ l = ∅. This means that H1 is
convex, and by a symmetric argument H2 is also convex.
If we instead have that A ∈ H1 and B ∈ H2 , then g1 (t1 ) < 0 and g1 (t2 ) > 0.
The continuity of g1 then implies that there is some t0 such that g1 (t0 ) = 0 and
t1 < t0 < t2 . Therefore, if A and B are on different sides of l, then AB intersects l
at a point C, A − C − B, where f (t0 ) = C.
For case 2(ii) we’ll need to recall from calculus the hyperbolic functions
tanh(x) and sech(x). Taking
←→
AB = {x + iy ∈ H : ((x − d)2 + y 2 = s2 },
←→
we will parameterize AB with f2 and define a strictly increasing (or strictly decreasing
←→
or constant) function g2 . Parameterizing AB with f2 (t) = d + s tanh(t) + is sech(t),
and then defining g2 by
g2 (t) = (d − c + s tanh(t))2 + (s sech(t))2 − r2 ,

←→
we have that if g2 (t0 ) = 0 then l and AB intersect at f2 (t0 ), and that
g20 (t) = 2(d − c + s tanh(t))(s sech2 (t)) + 2s sech(t)(−s tanh(t)sech(t))
= 2(d − c)
104
Therefore, g2 is either strictly increasing (if d > c), strictly decreasing (if d < c), or
←→
constant (if d = c); notice that if g2 is constant, then either AB and l never intersect,
←→
or AB and l are the same line. Then, again letting f2 (t1 ) = A and f2 (t2 ) = B, assume
wlog that A, B ∈ H1 and that g2 is increasing so that g2 (t1 ) < g2 (t2 ) < 0. As before,
the monotonicity of g2 implies that no t ∈ (t1 , t2 ) gives g2 (t) = 0, and therefore no
←→
point C exists such that A − C − B and AB intersects l and C. Therefore, H1 is
convex; a symmetric argument also shows that H2 is convex.
Furthermore, if A ∈ H1 and B ∈ H2 , then g2 (t1 ) < 0 < g2 (t2 ). The continuity

of g2 then implies that there is some t0 ∈ (t1 , t2 ) such that g2 (t0 ) = 0, so that
←→
A − f2 (t0 ) − B and AB ∩ l = {f2 (t0 )}.
Having covered each case (and sub-case), we have that H satisfies axiom 9 of
Neutral Geometry.
Now, skipping over axiom 10 (since it deals with three dimensions), we need
to discuss angles in this model before we can visit the eleventh axiom. Taking
P, Q, R ∈ H, we will separate this into cases since we have lines appearing differently.
←→ ←→
First, suppose that hP Q and hQR appear as an e-ray and an e-semicircle respec-
←→
tively. If t is the e-tangent to QR as an e-semicircle at Q, then let R0 be a point
←→
on t, on the same side of P Q as R. Then define mh ∠P QR = me ∠P QR0 . If, on the
←→ ←→
other hand, both hP Q and hQR appear as e-semicircles, then take t and s to be
←→ ←→
e-tangents to P Q and QR respectively, each through Q. Take a point R0 on s, and P 0
←→ ←→
on t, appearing on the same side of P Q and QR, respectively, as their counterparts.
Then define the hyperbolic measure of angle ∠P QR to be the euclidean measure of
angle ∠P 0 QR0 , mh ∠P QR = me ∠P 0 QR0 .
Axiom 11: To every angle there corresponds a real number between 0◦ and
180◦ .
105
By the way we have defined the measure of an angle in our model, we have
that every angle can be measured in a Euclidean fashion. So just as C satisfies
this axiom as a model of Euclidean geometry, H satisfies this axiom as a model of
Hyperbolic Geometry.
−→
Axiom 12: Let AB be a ray on the edge of the half-plane H. For every R
−→
between 0◦ and 180◦ , there is exactly one ray AP with P in H such that m, P AB = r.
←→
First let us take an h-line AB, and assume that this appears as an e-ray.
Then for any r, with 0 < r < 180, there is unique e-line t passing through A, with
←→
point C on a desired side of AB on t such that me ∠BAC = r. We want this line t to
be tangent to an h-line l, at A, and a result regarding circles gives us the existence
and uniqueness of such a line. Then choosing any point D of l, on the same side of
←→ −−→
AB as C, we have the unique ray hAD with mh ∠BAD = me ∠BAC = r.
This takes care of the case in which the given line appear as an e-ray, so now assume
←→ ←→
that we start with AB appearing as an e-semicircle, and take AC to be the e-line
←→ −−→
tangent to AB at A. Then for any r with 0 < r < 180, there is a unique e-ray AD
−−→
with me ∠CAD = r. Then we have two cases: if AD is vertical, then this is also
−−→
an h-ray giving us the desired angle measure, and if AD is not a vertical ray then,
as before, we are guaranteed the existence and uniqueness of an e-semicircle passing
←→ −−→
through A, hAE, with AD as a tangent. Then, assuming that E is on the same side
106
←→
of AB as C, we have that mh ∠BAE = me ∠CAD = r.
Axiom 13: If D is a point in the interior of ∠BAC, then
m∠BAC = m∠BAD + m∠DAC.
←→
To begin, consider an angle ∠BAC, with the corresponding h-lines AB and
←→
AC, and take D to be a point on the interior of ∠BAC. Then, with our measure
of angles, let mh ∠BAC = me ∠B 0 AC 0 where B 0 and C 0 are points on tangent lines
(where necessary) corresponding to B and C respectively. Then, let D0 correspond
←→
to D (on the e-tangent to hAD if necessary), so that mh ∠CAD = me ∠C 0 AD0 and
mh ∠DAB = me ∠D0 AB 0 . Since D0 is interior to ∠CAB, we have that
mh ∠CAB = me ∠C 0 AB 0 = me ∠C 0 AD0 + me ∠D0 AB 0 = mh ∠CAD + mh ∠DAB.
Axiom 14: If two angles form a linear pair, then they are supplementary.
107
←→ ←→
Take an h-line AB, a point D on AB such that D − A − B, and an h-ray
−→ −−→ −→ ←→
AC. Then take e-ray AC 0 (tangent to hAC if necessary), and let eAB 0 be the e-line
←→ ←→
tangent to AB (if necessary). Finally, let D0 be a point on eAB 0 such that D0 −A−B 0 .
All of this gives us that mh ∠DAC = me ∠D0 AC 0 and mh ∠CAB = me ∠C 0 AB 0 .
Since e∠D0 AC 0 and e∠C 0 AB 0 form a linear pair, they are supplementary, and since
these two Euclidean angles are supplementary, so are their Hyperbolic counterparts,
h∠DAC and h∠DAB.
This completes axiom 14, and before we move on to the last axiom, that of
congruence, consider that Theorem 2.21 (ASA Congruence) is equivalent to Axiom
15. We already have that the side-angle-side congruence condition implies the angle-
side-angle congruence condition, so to prove their equivalence assume the angle-side-
angle congruence condition.
Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆XY Z in which AB ∼

= XY , ∠ABC ∼
= ∠XY Z,
and BC ∼
= Y Z, if ∠BCA ∼
= ∠Y ZX then we have congruent triangles by our hy-
pothesis, so assume that these two angles are not congruent. In particular, let
m∠BCA > m∠Y ZX. Then by the Cross-Bar Theorem there is a point D with
A − D − B, and ∠BCD ∼
= ∠Y ZX. Then we have ∆BCD ∼
= ∆Y ZX, and in partic-
ular DB ∼
= XY ∼
= AB, so A = D. Thus, ∆ABC ∼
= ∆XY Z, and we have that the
side-angle-side congruence condition for triangles holds assuming the angle-side-angle
congruence condition.
Another idea we’ll need is that inversion through a circle preserves hyperbolic
|AP ||BQ|
distance. We already know that inversion preserves the ratio |AQ||BP |
by Theorem
4.21 when none of the points A, B, P , and Q are the center of the circle of inversion.
←→
So if γ is an h-line appearing as a semicircle, and if AB is an h-line appearing as
←→
a semicircle such that neither ideal point of AB is the center of the e-semicircle γ,
108
then dH (A, B) = dH (A0 , B 0 ), where A0 = Iγ (A) and B 0 = Iγ (B). However, what if
←→
AB, still appearing as an e-semicircle, has the center of the e-semicircle γ as an ideal
←→
point? Or, what if AB appears as an e-ray, and its ideal point is the center of the
e-semicircle γ? For the first of these questions we’ll move out of H and look at a
slightly more general situation.
Now. take points A, B, P , and Q to lie on a circle γ, and let P be the center
of circle C. Since the inverse of P through C is not defined, we’ll take another point
E on the circle γ to vary across γ so that E → P . Recall that the image of γ under
inversion through C will be a line, and take IC (A) = A0 , IC (B) = B 0 , IC (Q) = Q0 ,
and IC (E) = E 0 , and assume that Q0 − A0 − B 0 − E 0 . Now, as E → P , we have
|AE||BQ| |A0 E 0 ||B 0 Q0 |

lim = lim
E→P |AQ||BE| E→P |A0 Q0 ||B 0 E 0 |
|B 0 Q0 | |A0 E 0 |
= lim
|A0 Q0 | E→P |B 0 E 0 |
|B 0 Q0 | |A0 B 0 | + |B 0 E 0 |
= lim (5.2)
|A0 Q0 | E→P |B 0 E 0 |
|B 0 Q0 | |A0 B 0 | + |B 0 E 0 |
= lim (5.3)
|A0 Q0 | |B 0 E 0 |→∞ |B 0 E 0 |
0 0
|B Q | 1
= lim
|A0 Q0 | |B 0 E 0 |→∞ 1
|B 0 Q0 |
=
|A0 Q0 |
109
Our transition from line 5.2 to line 5.3 is made by observing that as E approaches
P , the distance from B 0 , which we’re leaving fixed, to E 0 tends towards infinity.
This takes care of the first question; inversion preserves distance when map-
ping from an e-semicircle to an e-ray. Notice that, because IC−1 = IC for any circle
C, this also means that inversion preserves distance when mapping a segment from
an e-ray to an e-semicircle. For the second question, we’ll return to H since the
distance function dH will be needed explicitly.
We’ll let γ be a line appearing as an e-semicircle with center O, and let l be

a line with ideal point O and appearing as an e-ray. Then take points A and B of l
such that O − A − B (in the Euclidean sense). Then our goal will be to show that
|OB| |OB 0 | |OA0 |

dH (A, B) = ln = ln 0
= ln 0
= dH (A0 , B 0 ).
|OA| |OA | |OB |
Since |OA||OA0 | = r2 = |OB||OB 0 | where r is the radius of e-semicircle γ, it follows

|OB| |OA0 |
that |OA|
= |OB 0 |
. This gives us the desired result.
Axiom 15: If two sides and the included angle of a triangle are congruent to
the corresponding parts of a second triangle, then the correspondence is a congruence.
110
By the previous discussion, we need only show that the angle-side-angle con-
gruence condition for triangles holds in our model. So, let ∆ABC and ∆XY Z be two
= ∠ZXY , AB ∼
h-triangles such that ∠CAB ∼ = XY , and ∠CBA ∼
= ∠ZY X. Without
loss of generality, we may assume that each of the h-lines creating these triangles have
←→
two ideal points. In particular, let O be one ideal point of AB. Then, letting be a
circle with center O, inversion through sends ∆ABC to a triangle ∆A0 B 0 C 0 where
←− →
A0 B 0 is a segment of an h-line l with a single ideal point P . Then, by Theorem 4.33,
there is a circle γ through which inversion sends ∆XY Z to ∆X 0 Y 0 Z 0 where X 0 Y 0 is
a segment of l. Since inversion preserves hyperbolic length and the measure of angles
between circles, and between a circle and a line, we have that ∆ABC ∼
= ∆A0 B 0 C 0 ,
and ∆XY Z ∼
= ∆X 0 Y 0 Z 0 , and the congruences between corresponding angles and
included side still hold for these new triangles.
Now, there is a circle δ1 with center P , through which inversion sends Y 0 to B 0

(and X 0 to X 00 , Z 0 to Z 00 ); the construction of such δ1 is similar to the constructions
discuss in remarks 7 and 8. Since inversion preserves hyperbolic distance we know
that A0 B 0 ∼
= X 0Y 0 ∼
= X 00 B 0 , so a circle δ2 with center P and radius |P B 0 | will map
111
X 00 to A0 (and Z 00 to Z 000 ).
This gives us two triangles ∆A0 B 0 C 0 and ∆A0 B 0 Z 000 , in which
∠B 0 A0 C 0 ∼
= ∠B 0 A0 Z 000 and ∠A0 B 0 C 0 ∼
= ∠A0 B 0 Z 000 .
Supposing that Z 0 and C 0 are on different sides of l, we may reflect ∆A0 B 0 Z 000 across
l to attain ∆A0 B 0 Z 0000 with the same congruences (if Z 0 and C 0 are on the same side
of l, then Z 0000 need only be replaced with Z 000 in what follows).
This gives us two triangles ∆A0 B 0 C 0 and ∆A0 B 0 Z 0000 which we must show are
congruent. By axiom 12, and because ∠A0 B 0 C 0 ∼
= ∠A0 B 0 Z 0000 , Z 0000 , C 0 , and A0 must
be collinear. Similarly, Z 0000 , C 0 , and B 0 must be collinear. Then, in accordance with
axiom 1, it must be that Z 0000 = C 0 . The following congruences then hold:
AC ∼
= A0 C 0 ∼
= A0 Z 0000 ∼
= X 0Z 0 ∼
= XZ
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BC ∼
= B0C 0 ∼
= B 0 Z 0000 ∼
= Y 0Z 0 ∼
= YZ
∠ACB ∼
= ∠A0 C 0 B 0 ∼
= ∠A0 Z 0000 B 0 ∼
= ∠X 0 Z 0 Y 0 ∼
= ∠XZY.
Thus, the angle-side-angle congruence condition for triangles holds in our model, and
it follows that the side-angle-side congruence condition also holds.
Finally, we can address the last axiom of Hyperbolic Geometry.
The Hyperbolic Axiom: There exists a line l, and a point P not on l, such
that two distinct lines exist which are parallel to l and pass through P .
Consider a line l appearing as an e-semicircle, with ideal points A and B. Now

let t and s be two more lines appearing as e-semicircles, where A and C are ideal
points of t, and B and D are ideal points of s, with A − D − C − B. By this ordering,
t and s must intersect at a point P , and because |AC| < |AB| and |BD| < |AB|
both t and s are parallel to l. This construction satisfies our last axiom, and H is
therefore a valid model for Hyperbolic Geometry.
Figure 5.3: Illustration of the Hyperbolic Axiom in H.
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Chapter 6
Models of Hyperbolic Geometry
6.1 History
In the last chapter, we explored one model of geometry: the half-plane. This model
is often credited to Poincaré, possibly due to the wide array of mathematical fields
he helped to advance, and his extensive use of Hyperbolic Geometry (and its estab-
lished models) in a variety of fields including complex analysis, number theory, and
differential equations. However, the half-plane model was actually developed by Bel-
trami (1868), aided by results from Liouville. In particular, Liouville had discovered
a constant curvature metric, obtained through transformations of the line element of
the pseudosphere [4]. In fact, Beltrami is largely responsible for two of the models we
see in this chapter, and it is for this reason that Stillwell refers to the half-plane, con-
formal (or Poincaré) disk, and Klein disk models as the Liouville-Beltrami, Riemann-
Beltrami, and Cayley-Beltrami models respectively.
These three models were developed by Beltrami, at least in part, to show

the equiconsistency of the Hyperbolic and Euclidean Geometries. Beginning with
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the hemisphere model, which we’ll see very soon, Beltrami developed these other
three models, not just for two dimensions, but for general n-dimensional Hyperbolic
Geometry.
6.2 Poincaré Disk P
6.2.1 Building the Model
The next model to visit is the Poincaré disk model, sometimes called the confor-
mal disk model. To move into this model of Hyperbolic Geometry, we’ll need to
use some of the Euclidean results previously established; we’ll be using a möbius
transformation to bring the half-plane into the unit disk. In particular, we want
az+b
a transformation m(z) = cz+d
, where ad − bc 6= 0, m(0) = −i, m(∞) = i, and
m(i) = 0. Given what we know of möbius transformations, we can then assume that
b a
d
= −i, c
= −i, and ai + b = 0. This gives us the transformation
−z + i
m(z) = .
zi − 1
Note that we may use this function’s inverse to move back from Poincaré’s disk into
the half-plane: m−1 (z) = z+i
zi+1
.
115
Moving to this model is this way gives us a good deal of information. For
instance, because the half-plane model is conformal, and möbius transformations are
conformal mappings of the extended complex plane to itself, Poincaré’s disk is also
conformal. Also, because möbius transformations send lines and circles to lines and
circles, and because h-lines appear in the half-plane as Euclidean semi-circles or rays,
h-lines will appear in this model to be circular arcs or line segments; in particular,
lines will appear as the arcs of circles orthogonal to the unit disk or as diameters of
the disk. Notice that, because our möbius transformation sent i to 0, an h-line will
appear as a diameter of the disk iff its half-plane representation passes through i.
Another advantage this approach provides comes from the fact that möbius
transformations preserve the ratio we used in the half-plane model to define distance.
Recall that, by Theorem 4.39, if f is a möbius transformation and A, B, P , and Q
|AP ||BQ| |f (A)f (P )||f (B)f (Q)|
are points of the extended complex plane, then |AQ||BP |
= |f (A)f (Q)||f (B)f (P )|
. This lets
us define distance in the Poincaré disk between points A and B to be dP (A, B) =
←→
ln |AP ||BQ|
|BP ||AQ|
, where, as before, P and Q are ideal points of AB; though the ideal
points now make up the boundary of the disk, since m sends L to ∂S 1 . By its
relation to the half-plane model, and what we know about möbius transformations,
the Poincaré disk clearly satisfies the axioms of Hyperbolic Geometry.
116
6.3 Hemisphere H
This is the model Beltrami started with in his development of the other three (the
last of which appears in the next section). It should make sense, then, that this
model will be the intermediary step between our two disk models.
In order to move from the Poincaré disk to the hemisphere, we’ll build a
function f which projects from the north pole of S 2 = {(z, t) ∈ C × R : z z̄ + t2 = 1}
onto the southern hemisphere of S 2 ; note that the choice of S 2 (as well our choice of
using the southern hemisphere) is arbitrary, and is simply a convenient choice since
we’ve used the unit disk for the setting of the Poincaré disk. Here we’ll use the fact
that a line passing through the point (x, y, 0) (or (z, 0)) and (0, 0, 1) is given by
w(x, y, 0) + (1 − w)(0, 0, 1) = (wx, wy, 1 − w)
and letting w vary across R.
Now, we’re interested in projecting the Poincaré disk (the unit disk) onto
the southern hemisphere of S 2 , so for any (x, y) ∈ S 1 we want to find w such that
w(x, y, 0) + (1 − w)(0, 0, 1) intersects the southern hemisphere; then we’re looking at
w2 (x2 + y 2 ) + (1 − w)2 = 1
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with 1 − w < 0. This leads us to the equation w2 (x2 + y 2 + 1) − 2w = 0, which
2 2
yields solutions w = 0 and w = x2 +y 2 +1
> 2
= 1. Since the second of these solutions
matches our requirement that 1 − w < 0, this is what we’ll use so that the point
which (x, y, 0) will be projected to is
x2 + y 2 − 1

2 2 2x 2y
(x, y, 0)+ 1 − 2 (0, 0, 1) = , , ,
x2 + y 2 + 1 x + y2 + 1 x2 + y 2 + 1 x2 + y 2 + 1 x2 + y 2 + 1

|z|2 −1
or |z|2z
2 +1 |z|2 +1 . So we can define f : C → C × R by
,
|z|2 − 1

2z
f (z) = , .
|z|2 + 1 |z|2 + 1
We should be able to move back and forth between models, and the following
function would move us back from the hemisphere model to the Poincaré disk:
z
f −1 (z, t) = p .
1 + 1 − |z|2
It’s important to see how we can relate the image of a line l from the Poincaré
disk to it’s image under f . First off, if l is a line appearing as a diameter of the disk,
then it’s image under f will be one half of a great circle of S 2 passing through the
south pole; note that we can view this as the intersection of the southern hemisphere
with a plane in C × R orthogonal to C and passing through the origin. As for the
118
rest of our lines in the Poincaré disk, those appearing as arcs of circles orthogonal
to the unit disk, these will be sent to the intersection of a sphere with the southern
hemisphere of S 2 . More specifically, given a line l of P described by a Euclidean
circle α with center ω = (ω1 , ω2 ), radius r, and orthogonal to the disk, the image
of l under f will be the intersection of the southern hemisphere with the sphere α0 ,
which has center (ω, 0) and radius r. This fact may not be clear, so to confirm it
take line l and circle α to be as described. We have that
2
2 2z 2z̄ z z̄ − 1
|f (z)| = + =1
z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1
for any z ∈ l by virtue of the fact that z is being sent to the surface of S 2 by f .
Then we need that
2
2z 2z̄ z z̄ − 1
−ω − ω̄ + = r2
z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1
where r is the radius of α. To confirm this, we’ll use that the inverse of z through
S 1 is z 0 = z̄1 .
2
2z 2z̄ z z̄ − 1 2z ω̄ + 2z̄ω
−ω − ω̄ + = 1− + ω ω̄
z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1 z z̄ + 1
z z̄ + 1 + ω ω̄z z̄ − 2z ω̄ − 2ωz̄
=
z z̄ + 1
r + z z̄ ω ω̄ − ωz − ω̄z̄ + z1z̄
2

=
z z̄ + 1
r + z z̄(ω ω̄ − ωz̄ 0 − ω̄z 0 + z 0 z̄ 0 )
2
=
z z̄ + 1
2
r (z z̄ + 1)
=
z z̄ + 1
2
= r
This tells us that the image of l under f is the desired intersection.
119
This relationship is helpful for a couple reasons, the first being that it will serve
as a stepping stone to our next model. The second, and perhaps more interesting
reason is that is gives us a view into three dimensional hyperbolic space. Recall
axiom 8: if two distinct planes intersect, then their intersection is a line. What we
have with this hemisphere is a model of two-dimensional Hyperbolic Geometry, so
our hemisphere is a Hyperbolic plane on which lines are given by the intersections
of S 2 with both Euclidean half-planes perpendicular to C, and Euclidean (southern)
hemispheres with centers on C. These Euclidean half-planes and hemispheres are
actually other Hyperbolic planes. From this, we can get a vague idea of how to
visualize a model of three dimensional Hyperbolic Geometry in C × R− , or C × R+
if we changed our discussion to northern hemispheres, and it helps us relate the
hemisphere back to the half-plane model we started with.
Now, we can actually look at the intersections of hemispheres with the south-
ern hemisphere to S 2 as the intersection of half-planes with S 2 instead, and this will
lead to our next model for Hyperbolic Geometry.
120
6.3.2 An Alternate Approach to H
In the previous section, our approach to moving into H was the inverse of stereo-
graphic projection from the north pole of S 2 . An alternate approach we can take
involves three dimensional inversion: inversion through spheres. In particular, con-
√
sider the sphere S whose center is the north pole of S 2 and whose radius is 2. The
intersection of S with C is S 1 , the unit circle. Let inversion through S be denoted IS ,
and recall what we know about circle inversion. In particular, when inverting through
a circle γ, if a second circle δ passes through the center of γ then inversion through
γ maps δ to a line. We have a similar situation for inversion through spheres. Since
S 2 passes through the center of S, IS will map S 2 to a plane; specifically, IS (S 2 ) = C
and IS (C) = S 2 .
Now, any circle C orthogonal to S 1 is the equator of a sphere SC whose center

is on C. Furthermore, such a sphere SC is orthogonal to C, S 2 , and S. Since this
is the case, IS (SC ) = SC , so IS (SC ∩ C) = SC ∩ S 2 ; in particular, IS will map the
intersection of SC with the unit disk to the intersection of SC with the southern
hemisphere of S 2 . Notice that the intersection of SC with the unit disk is a line in
P and that the intersection of SC with the southern hemisphere of S 2 is a line in H.
Essentially, we have that IS |C , the restriction of IS to C, is the function f we defined
earlier, and restricting each of these to P results in H.
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6.4 Klein Disk K
As mentioned in the previous section, lines in H are the intersection of spheres, whose
centers on C and which are orthogonal to S 2 , with the southern hemisphere of S 2 .
These intersections will be semi-circles on S 2 which are orthogonal to the equator
and lie on planes orthogonal to C (as noted at the end of the previous section). We
can use these ideas to move into yet another model of Hyperbolic Geometry.
This new model will be constructed using the simple projection function
g : C × R → C defined by g(z, t) = z. Now, consider a line l in the hemisphere
model whose image under f −1 is l0 , a line in the Poincaré disk appearing as an arc
of a Euclidean circle with center ω = (ω1 , ω2 ) and radius r. Then l lies on both S 2
and the sphere with center (ω, 0) and radius r, given by
(z − ω)(z̄ − ω̄) + t2 = r2 .
It follows that, for any (z, t) ∈ l, we have
(z − ω)(z̄ − ω̄) + t2 = r2 , and z̄z + t2 = 1.
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This leads us to
−ωz̄ − ω̄z + ω ω̄ + 1 = r2 or
−2ω1 x − 2ω2 y + 1 = r2
which is a linear equation of x and y. Clearly now we have that the image of l, an h-
line appearing as an arc, will be a euclidean line segment under g. However, what if l0
instead appears as a diameter? In this case, note that we can represent l0 by a linear
equation ax0 + by 0 = 0 (ie: l0 = {z 0 = (x0 + iy 0 ) ∈ C : ax0 + by 0 = 0, and x02 + y 02 < 1})
for some a, b ∈ R. Then for any z 0 ∈ l0 ,
2x0 2y 0 x02 + y 02 − 1

0 0 0
f (z ) = f ((x , y )) = , , = (x, y, t) = (z, t),
x02 + y 02 + 1 x02 + y 02 + 1 x02 + y 02 + 1
and
2x0 2y 0

g(z, t) = z = , .
x02 + y 02 + 1 x02 + y 02 + 1
It follows from ax0 + by 0 = 0 that
2ax0 2by 0 2
02 02
+ 02 02
= 02 (ax0 + by 0 ) = 0,
x +y +1 x +y +1 x + y 02 + 1
so a line in P appearing as a diameter will be sent to itself by the composition g ◦ f .
What all this gives us is a function φ : C → C defined by φ(z) = (g ◦ f )(z),

for the function f defined in the previous section. This function φ will send a line l
from the Poincaré disk to the chord of the unit disk whose endpoints are the ideal
123
points of l (these ideal points are clearly fixed by f ). Furthermore, the image of the
Poincaré disk under φ is the model of Hyperbolic Geometry for which this section
is named: the Klein model. This means that lines will be represented in the Klein
model as chords, and the endpoints of such a chord will be ideal points of the line it
represents.
6.4.2 History of the Model
This model first appeared, not directly as a model of Hyperbolic Geometry, but in
relation to projective geometry in Cayley’s work (1859) (this should make sense con-
sidering how we moved form the hemisphere to the Klein disk). It was Beltrami who
first connected our model to Hyperbolic Geometry in his 1868 paper “Fundamental
theory of spaces of constant curvature.” However, in 1928 Klein gives credit to Ca-
ley for the model, and claimed that he, Klein, had first realized its connection to
Hyperbolic Geometry.
Before developing this model, Beltrami had been investigating the pseudo-
sphere; as a surface of constant negative curvature the pseudosphere can me made
to model part of the hyperbolic plane. However, the pseudosphere could not serve as
a model of the entire hyperbolic plane as it has a boundary curve and is not simply
connected. To get around these issues, Beltrami considered the universal cover of the
pseudosphere, “a surface wrapped infinitely many times around the pseudosphere”
[4], and removed the boundary curve of this covering. Beltrami had focused on the
pseudosphere because he had wanted to find a surface, based in Euclidean Geometry,
which could be used to model Hyperbolic Geometry and had “the ordinary notion of
lengths of curves”[4]. However, the pseudosphere is only a special case of what Bel-
trami called a “pseudospherical surface,” meaning an arbitrary surface of constant
124
negative curvature given by the formula for its line element.
In 1850 Liouville had already found such a surface which is simply connected,
p
the upper half plane with line element dx2 + dy 2 /y, by transforming coordinates
of the pseudosphere. We’ve seen the model of Hyperbolic Geometry this admits,
but Beltrami was also interested in finding a model in which the lines of Hyperbolic
Geometry would appear as euclidean lines. Investigating this, Beltrami had already
known that central projection from a sphere (or hemisphere) onto a tangent plane
mapped geodesics to euclidean lines, and made the discovery that only surfaces of
constant curvature admit such a mapping. Applying this idea to the pseudosphere
led Beltrami to what we call the Klein (or projective) model of Hyperbolic geometry.
Stillwell notes that Beltrami’s construction gave two advantages:
• first, that the hyperbolic plane is the open unit disk where lines appear as open
chords of the disk, and
• second, that isometries of the plane are the projective transformations of the
euclidean plane which map the unit disk to itself.
6.5 The Hyperboloid H 2
125
The final model we’ll be moving into comes from physics. Here, we move the Klein
disk into the plane (z, t) = (z, 1) so that the center of the disk is now (0, 1), and
from the origin we want to project the Klein disk onto the upper-half of the two
sheeted hyperboloid, given by z z̄ − t2 = −1. Consider the equation of a line through
the origin and any point interior to the disk, z0 : z = tz0 . This line will intersect the
hyperboloid at two points, but we want the t-coordinate to be positive. In order to
find an appropriate function, sending the Klein disk onto the desired surface, we can
make the appropriate substitution into the equation describing the surface and solve
for t:
z z̄ − t2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ t2 z0 z¯0 − t2 + 1 = 0
⇒ t2 (z0 z̄0 − 1) = −1
1
⇒ t2 =
1 − z0 z̄0
r
1
⇒ t=±
1 − z0 z̄0
Since we want t > 0, we choose t = √ 1 , which then gives us z = √ z0 .

1−z0 z¯0 1−z0 z¯0
This gives us the desired function ψ : D1 → {(z, t) : z z̄ − t2 = −1, t > 0} defined by

z 1
ψ(z) = √ ,√ .
1 − z z̄ 1 − z z̄
126
Thus, we have the 3-dimensional Euclidean model of 2-dimensional Hyper-
bolic Geometry called the hyperboloid model. A point of interest with this model
is that, with respect to the Minkowski metric ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 − dt2 , the surface
we’ve projected onto is a sphere of radius i; Lambert had speculated that his acute
hypothesis “described geometry on a ‘sphere of imaginary radius’.”[2]
6.5.2 History of the model
As we’ve said, the hyperboloid model of Hyperbolic Geometry dates back to Lam-
bert’s speculation that Hyperbolic Geometry could be modeled on a sphere of imag-
inary radius. However, this model was not thoroughly discussed or applied until
the late 19th century and early 20th century. The first appearance of the hyperboloid
model may have been in German mathematician Wilhelm Killing’s piece on computa-
tions in Hyperbolic Geometry, “Die Rechnung in Nicht-Euclidischen Raumformen”,
published in Crelle’s Journal in 1880. Killing attributed the ideas presented to Karl
Weierstrass, and described the hyperboloid through Weierstrass coordinates.
In this same time period Poincaré was studying Fuchsian groups and quadratic
forms. His work here led Poincaré to the same model Killing discussed in 1880, and to
the conclusion that “the study of similarity substitutions of quadratic forms reduces
127
to that of fuchsian groups” [4]. Poincaré subsequently published his work, “On the
applications of noneuclidean geometry to the theory of quadratic forms” in 1881
and “Theory of Fuchsian Groups” in 1882 where, as Stillwell notes, the hyperboloid
model is implicit.
Several years later the hyperboloid model was connected to the then-recent
theory of special relativity presented by Einstein. Contributors to this connection,
and the development of the hyperboloid as it relates to relativity, include Poincaré
(1905-6), Herman Minkowski, and Jansen, in 1909, who Reynolds says gave “the first
detailed exposition of H 2 ”, the hyperboloid model of Hyperbolic Geometry. In the
following chapter we will use this connection to further investigate H 2 .
128
Chapter 7
Relativity, Minkowski Space, and

the Hyperboloid H 2
“Subjects of our perception are always places and times connected. No one
has observed a place except at a particular time, or has observed a time at a
particular place. Yet I respect the dogma that time and space have independent
existences each.” Hermann Minkowski, 1909
7.1 Special Theory of Relativity
In 1905 Albert Einstein published his paper “On the Electrodynamics of Moving
Bodies”, which introduced the special theory of relativity. This theory, which uti-
lizes contributions of Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré, connects time and space
in a way contradictory to many assumptions held by physicists at the time of its
introduction. Perhaps the most immediate of these stems from the work of James
Clark Maxwell who, in 1865, published the now famous Maxwell equations. In his
studies Maxwell discovered the existence of electromagnetic waves and that they
129
travel at the speed of light, commonly denoted c. The measure of the speed of
electromagnetic waves will never deviate, in a vacuum, regardless of the observer’s
state of motion. This result, which Einstein accepted and used in his special theory
of relativity, appeared paradoxical because it implies that the distance traveled and
time taken to travel will be measured differently by observers in different locations,
or in different states of motion. Nonetheless, it is one of three “Postulates of Special
Relativity” assumed by Einstein.
Central to the theory of relativity are the Einstein field equations, the so-
lutions of which are metrics. In particular, we are concerned with the Minkowski
metric, which may be given generally as
n
X
2
ds = −dx20 + dx2i
i=1
and is a solution to the field equations of a vacuum; when n = 2, this is the metric
we will associate with H 2 , the hyperboloid model of Hyperbolic Geometry.
7.2 The Minkowski Metric
When the Minkowski metric given by ds2 = −dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 is associated with
R1,3 we have a model of space-time (with this metric R1,3 is referred to as Minkowski
space) for Einstein’s special theory of relativity. While classic Minkowski space is
R1,3 , we can also associate R1,2 with
ds2 = −dx20 + dx21 + dx22
and get a model of space time1 . This version of Minkowski space is where we will
build our hyperboloid. Before we begin this construction, consider what’s called a
light cone.
1
This is a model with only two spatial dimensions, whereas classic Minkowski space has three.
130
7.3 Light-Cones
Working in Minkowski space (and generally the theory of relativity) the speed of
light is denoted by c; we’ll let c = 1. If a flash of light were to occur at the origin,
the path the light particles follow through space and time is given by what is called
a light-cone; we can think of this as the set of points satisfying x21 + x22 − x20 = 0.
Notice that we have a future light-cone (x0 > 0) and a past light-cone (x0 < 0),
and the x1 y2 -plane (or simply C) representing the present. Future (or past) events
(points in R1,2 ) are separated by this light-cone into three types: light-like, time-
like, and space-like. Light-like events are those events laying on the light-cone itself,
and are causally affected by the event E of the light emission. Space-like events are
those outside the light-cone (x21 + x22 − x20 > 0); these are not causally affected by E.
Time-like events are those inside the cone (x21 + x22 − x20 < 0); these may be causally
affected by E.
Figure 7.1: Future light cone
This light-cone will be particularly important when we begin discussing the

notion of distance on our model.
131
7.4 The Hyperboloid, H 2
7.4.1 Reconstructing H 2
As we’ve said, we’ll be using three-dimensional Minkowski space, denoted R1,2 or M 3 ,

whose metric is given by ds2 = −dx20 + dx21 + dx22 where x0 is the time coordinate,
and x1 and x2 are spatial coordinates.
Our hyperboloid model of Hyperbolic Geometry, H 2 , is set in M 3 , and one

approach to building and discussing this model begins with a Minkowski quadratic
form,
  
−1 0 0 x0
  
q((x0 , x1 , x2 )) = −x20 + x21 + x22 = [x0 x1 x2 ]  0 t
1 0   x1  = X J0 X.
  
  
0 0 1 x2
Note that this can be generalized for a model of (n − 1)-dimensional Hyperbolic

Geometry in M n by taking our quadratic form to be
n
! n
X X
qn xi Ui = ei x2i ,
i=0 i=0
where U = {U0 , U1 , ..., Un } is a basis for M n , qn (Ui ) = ei , e0 = −1, and ei = 1 for

i 6= 0. For much of this section we will, for the sake of brevity, take U to be a basis
for M 3 and let X = 2i=0 Ui xi .
P
Along with this quadratic form, a bilinear form, p, will be useful in our de-
velopment of the model.
Definition 7.1 A bilinear form on a vector space V is a function f : V × V → F,

where F is a field of scalars, such that
i. f (u + v, w) = f (u, w) + f (v, w),
132
ii. f (u, v + w) = f (u, v) + f (u, w), and
iii. f (λu, v) = λf (u, v) = f (u, λv).
For any X, Y ∈ M 3 , define the bilinear form p by

1
p(X, Y ) := [q(X + Y ) − q(X) − q(Y )] = X t J0 Y.
2
Notice that q(X) = p(X, X), and that p(Ui , Uj ) = ei if i = j, and p(Ui , Uj ) = 0 if
i 6= j. Furthermore, the hyperboloid on which we’ll model Hyperbolic Geometry,
discussed in chapter 6.5, is given by
q(X) = −1, x0 > 0. (7.1)
For the Minkowski metric, 7.1 gives us the sphere with radius i, while q(x) = 1 gives
us the sphere of radius 1 (a hyperboloid of one sheet in the Euclidean sense). With
our model more clearly held within M 3 , let us return briefly to the discussion of the
theory of relativity and light cones.
The light-cone, as we’ve discussed it, acts as the asymptote for the (upper-half
of a two-sheeted) hyperboloid described in 7.12 . Then, looking at the hyperboloid as
an observer of flat space-time, H 2 is a circle whose radius increases faster than the
speed of light.
Now, we’ve already seen some of the basic concepts needed for H 2 as a model
of Hyperbolic Geometry; in the following sections we will more completely describe
H 2 as a model, essentially putting the geometry onto H 2 .
The ideas we have so far, and some new-ish ideas:
Lines on H 2 are the non-empty intersections of planes passing through the

origin of M 3 with H 2 .
2
With the Minkowski metric, the light-cone is the separating barrier for the sphere of radius i
and the sphere of radius 1, q(x) = −1 with x0 > 0 and q(x) = 1.
133
Betweenness for points of a line should come naturally from the appearance
of a line or, alternatively, how we initially constructed lines on H 2 ; projecting from
the origin, through the Klein disk, onto H 2 .
Separation of H 2 , as the hyperbolic plane, by a line should also be clear; a

line l will separate H 2 into two ”half planes”. As with previous models, we’ll say
that two points (or other geometric objects) are on opposite sides of l if one point
lies on one of these half planes, and the second point lies on the second half-plane.
From here the Plane Separation Postulate (our Neutral Geometry axiom 9) comes
easily.
7.4.2 Distance
Reynolds [5] begins the discussion of distance from two points A and B of H 2 by
looking at a partition of the segment AB, P = {P0 = A, P1 , ..., Pn = B}, and then
defines the distance between A and B to be
n q
X
d(A, B) = lim q(Pj − Pj−1 ),
kPk→0
j=1
where kPk = max1≤j≤n {de (Pj , Pj−1 )} and de (Pj , Pj−1 ) is the Euclidean distance from
Pj to Pj−1 , so that q(Pj − Pj−1 ) is intended as a squared length. Since this would
require each q(Pj − Pj−1 ) to be positive, the fact will have to be verified.
To argue that q(Pj − Pj−1 ) > 0, it’s convenient to return to our discussion of
relativity and mix in some Euclidean ideas. Recall that q(X) = 0 gives us our light-
cone in M 3 , and that q(X) < 0 for our time-like vectors inside the light-cone. So
considering Pj − Pj−1 as a vector of M 3 , we want to show that Pj − Pj−1 is space-like.
Now, since Pj and Pj−1 are points of a differentiable e − path (our h-line l),
the mean value theorem tells us that there is some point W on hPj Pj−1 such that
134
a vector tangent to H 2 at W will be parallel to Pj − Pj−1 . Recall that H 2 may be
thought of as a circle whose radius increases faster than the speed of light, and that
we let c = 1, which gives us that a light-like (sometimes called null) vector will have
slope 1, time-like vectors will have slope greater than 1, and space-like vectors will
have slope less than 1. Then the movement of a particle passing through the origin
(or, relating back to the meaning of our coordinates, passing through the spatial
origin at the present time, x0 = 0) and moving, at a constant speed, faster than
the speed of light in M 3 will be represented by a vector with slope less than one.
Therefore, a vector tangent to H 2 , in particular any vector tangent to H 2 at W , will
have slope less than one, from which it follows that Pj − Pj−1 has a slope less than
one. Since it is emanating from the origin, Pj − Pj−1 is therefore space like. Hence,
q(Pj − Pj−1 ) > 0.
We can then use a parameterization of AB to evaluate this limit. Taking

F (v) be this parameterization, assume that v ∈ [a, b] and F (a) = A and F (b) =
B. Associating this to the partition of AB, we can then partition [a, b] by v0 =
a, v1 , ..., vn = b, so that F (vj ) = Pj . Clearly F should be differentiable, so take F 0 to
be the derivative of F . Then we have
n q
X
d(A, B) = lim q(Pj − Pj−1 )
kPk→0
j=1
s
n
X q(F (vj ) − F (vj−1 ))
= lim (vj − vj−1 )
kPk→0
j=1
(vj − vj−1 )2
s
n
X F (vj ) − F (vj−1 )
= lim q (vj − vj−1 )
kPk→0
j=1
vj − vj−1
Z bp
= q(F 0 (v)) dv.
a
Now, before we can use this to give an explicit formula for distance in H 2 ,
135
we will consider a special case and then discuss some transformations that will be
helpful for fully developing a general distance formula.
The special case we’ll consider is distance between two points on the line in
p
H 2 described by q(x0 , x1 , 0) = −1, or equivalently x0 = x21 + 1 with x2 = 0.3
Following [5], we’ll call this line H 1 and take A = a0 U0 + a1 U1 and B = b0 U0 + b1 U1
to be points of H 1 ; then we can take v ∈ [a1 , b1 ] and define our parameterization by
√
F (v) = v 2 + 1U0 + vU1 , so that F 0 (v) = √vv2 +1 U0 + U1 . This gives us
Z b1 p
d(A, B) = q(F 0 (v)) dv
a1
Z b1 r
v2
= − 2 + 1 dv
a1 v +1
√ b1
= ln(v + v 2 + 1)
a1
= arcsinh(b1 ) − arcsinh(a1 )
In particular, if A = U0 , then d(U0 , B) = arcsinh(b1 ) if b1 > 04 . Then, if we let

r −r
r = arcsinh(v), then v = e −e2
= sinh(r) and, recalling from our parameterization,
√ r −r
x0 = v 2 + 1 = e +e 2
= cosh(r). This gives us a new parameterization of H 1 ,
P (r) = U0 cosh(r) + U1 sinh(r), r ∈ R,
which will become useful when we generalize our distance formula.
7.4.3 Orthogonal Transformations
Definition 7.2 Orthogonal Transformation: A linear transformation T : M 3 →

M 3 is called an orthogonal transformation with respect to q if it preserves q.
T : M 3 → M 3 is orthogonal if q(T (X)) = q(X).
3
This is given by the intersection of the plane x2 = 0 with H 2 or, relating back to K, this is the
projection of the line l = {z = x + iy : y = 0} in K onto H 2 by ψ.
4
For definitions and properties of the hyperbolic functions, see Appendix B.
136
Theorem 7.3 Given a linear transformation T : M 3 → M 3 , T is an orthogonal
transformation of M 3 if and only if p(T (X), T (Y )) = p(X, Y ) for each X, Y ∈ M 3
or, equivalently,
[T ]t J0 [T ] = J0
where [T ]t is the transpose of matrix [T ] and J0 is the metric tensor of M 3 ,

 
−1 0 0
 
J0 =  0
 
1 0 
 
0 0 1
Proof: Given a linear transformation T : M 3 → M 3 , we’ll first assume that T is an

orthogonal transformation of M 3 ; then for any X ∈ M 3 we know that q(T (X)) =
q(X). Then, from the definition of p, for any X, Y ∈ M 3
1
p(T (X), T (Y )) = (q(T (X) + T (Y )) − q(T (X)) − q(T (Y )))
2
1
= (q(T (X + Y )) − q(T (X)) − q(T (Y )))
2
1
= (q(X + Y ) − q(X) − q(Y ))
2
= p(X, Y ).
On the other hand, if we suppose that p(T (X), T (Y )) = p(X, Y ) for every
X, Y ∈ M 3 , then it follows immediately that
q(T (X)) = p(T (X), T (X)) = p(X, X) = q(X).
Theorem 7.4 The orthogonal transformations of M 3 form a group, called the or-
thogonal group O(M 3 ).
137
Proof: It’s clear that the identity T (X) = X is an orthogonal transfor-
mation of M 3 . Since each orthogonal transformation preserves distance, if T is an
orthogonal transformation of M 3 it is necessarily one-to-one and onto, so an inverse
transformation exists, T −1 (X) = [T ]−1 X. Now, if T is an orthogonal transformation
of M 3 we want T −1 to also be an orthogonal transformation of M 3 . We can express
T −1 as follows,
T t J0 T = J0 ⇔ J0 T t J0 T = I ⇔ J0 T t J0 = T −1 , (7.2)
so that
(T −1 )t J0 T −1 = (J0 T t J0 )t J0 (J0 T t J0 ) = J0 T J0 J0 (J0 T t J0 ) = J0 T (J0 T t J0 ) = J0 T T −1 = J0 ,
and we have that T −1 is also an orthogonal transformation of M 3 . Finally, if T and

S are orthogonal transformations of M 3 then (T ◦ S)(X) = ([T ][S])X, and
([T ][S])t J0 ([T ][S]) = [S]t [T ]t J0 [T ][S] = [S]t J0 [S] = J0
by the previous theorem, so O(M 3 ) is closed under composition, hence a group.
Definition 7.5 It follows from Theorem 7.3 that if T ∈ O(M 3 ) then T has deter-
minant ±1; since T t J0 T = J0 , using the fact that det(T t ) = det(T ) we get
−1 = det(J0 ) = det(T t J0 T ) = det(T t ) det(J0 ) det(T ) = − det(T )2 ,
so det(T ) = ±1. The elements of O(M 3 ) with determinant 1 form a group O+ (M 3 )

called the special orthogonal group; this is a subgroup of O(M 3 ) of index 2.
Returning to H 2 , let X ∈ H 2 and T ∈ O(M 3 ), so that q(T (X)) = q(X) =

−1. It follows that either T (X) ∈ H 2 or −T (x) ∈ H 2 ; however, T is a linear
transformation, and therefore continuous. Note that since T is continuous, the image
138
of any connected set under T must also be connected. However, the upper- and lower-
sheet of the two sheeted hyperboloid described by q(X) = −1 do not together form a
connected set, nor does any union of nonempty subsets of each; in other words, if H
and K are non-empty subsets of the upper- and lower-sheet respectively, then H ∪ K
is not connected. Therefore, either T (X) ∈ H 2 for all X ∈ H 2 , or −T (X) ∈ H 2 for
all X ∈ H 2 . Now, the collection of T ∈ O(M 3 ) which send H 2 to itself form yet
another group, G(M 3 ). This admits another group, G+ (M 3 ) = G(M 3 ) ∩ O+ (M 3 ),
which is a subgroup of G(M 3 ) of index 2.
Remark 10 This group, G+ (M 3 ), is referred to as the 2-dimensional Lorentz group,

often denoted O(1, 2). Recall that we’re working in 3-dimensional space-time; the
Lorentz group is usually discussed for classic Minkowski space, 4-dimensional space-
time, and is denoted O(1, 3). This may be generalized, as we’ve done for 3-dimensions,
to n-dimensional space-time (for n ≥ 2) where this group would be called the (n − 1)-
dimensional Lorentz group and denoted O(1, n − 1).
7.4.4 Generalizing Distance on H 2
Returning to the special case of distance on H 1 , we’ll restrict ourselves (briefly) to

Minkowski 2-space, M 2 . There are groups O(M 2 ), O+ (M 2 ), etc. analogous to those
discussed in the previous section, and we’ll use these here.
Theorem 7.6 T ∈ O(M 2 ) if and only if

 
e cosh(s) f sinh(s)
[T ] =  
e sinh(s) f cosh(s)
where e = ±1, f = ±1, and s are uniquely determined by T .
139
Proof: As in Definition 7.5, because T t J0 T = J0 and J0 = J0−1 , we know
that
det(T t ) det(J0 ) det(T ) = det(J0 ) = −1,
so det(T ) = ±1, and, as in line (7.2), we know
J0 T t J0 T = I,
so it must be that J0 T t J0 = T −1 . If
 
a b
T = ,
c d
then it follows that  

d −b
T −1 = ±  
−c a
so that
       
−1 0 a c −1 0 a −c d −b
J0 T t J0 =    =  = ± .
0 1 b d 0 1 −b d −c a
This leads us to consider two cases:
1. if det T = 1, then    
a −c d −b
 = 
−b d −c a
which implies that a = d and b = c,
2. and if det T = −1 then

   
a −c −d b
 = 
−b d c −a
which implies that a = −d and b = −c.
140
For the first case we have that ad − bc = a2 − b2 = 1, and for the second we have
ad − bc = −a2 + b2 = −1; each case leads us to a = ± cosh(s) and b = ± sinh(s) for
some s, so that for the first case
 
± cosh(s) ± sinh(s)
T = ,
± sinh(s) ± cosh(s)
and for the second case

 
± cosh(s) ± sinh(s)
T = 
∓ sinh(s) ∓ cosh(s)
or  
± cosh(s) ∓ sinh(s)
T = .
± sinh(s) ∓ cosh(s)
Corollary 7.4.1 Given e and f from Theorem 7.6,
i. T ∈ G(M 2 ) if and only if e = 1,
ii. T ∈ O+ (M 2 ) if and only if e = f , and
iii. T ∈ G+ (M 2 ) if and only if e = f = 1.
Proof:
h i
i. Let T be in O(M 2 ), and consider X = 1, 0 .
  
e cosh(s) f sinh(s) 1
TX =   
e sinh(s) f cosh(s) 0
 
e cosh(s)
=  
e sinh(s)
141
Since G(M 2 ) is defined to be those elements of O(M 2 ) which map H 1 to itself,
T ∈ G(M 2 ) if and only if e cosh(s) > 0, so T ∈ G(M 2 ) if and only if e = 1.
ii. Recall that O+ (M 2 ) is the subgroup of O(M 2 ) containing all elements of O(M 2 )
with determinant 1. As we saw in the proof of Theorem 7.6, if [T ] has deter-
minant 1 then e = f , and if [T ] has determinant -1 then e = −f .
iii. T ∈ G+ (M 2 ) = G(M 2 ) ∩ O+ (M 2 ) if and only if e = 1, by part i., and e = f ,

by part ii., so T ∈ G+ (M 2 ) = G(M 2 ) ∩ O+ (M 2 ) if and only if e = f = 1.
Now, returning to M 3 , define a new subgroup G1 of G(M 3 ) where T ∈ G1 if

and only if T map H 1 to itself.
Theorem 7.7 If T ∈ G1 then T fixes M 2 , and using

 
t0,0 t1,0 t2,0
 
T =  t0,1 t1,1 t2,1  ,
 
 
t0,2 t1,2 t2,2
t2,0 = t2,1 = 0, from which it follows that t0,2 = t1,2 = 0; so T ∈ G1 will fix the
subspace spanned by U2 .
Proof: Let T ∈ G1 , and X lie on H 1 , so that

    
t0,0 t1,0 t2,0 x0 x t + x1 t1,0
    0 0,0 
T X =  t0,1 t1,1 t2,1   x1  =  x0 t0,1 + x1 t1,1 =Y
    
    
t0,2 t1,2 t2,2 0 x0 t0,2 + x1 t1,2
h i
is also on H 1 . Then x0 t0,2 + x1 t1,2 = 0 for all X on H 1 ; this includes X = 1, 0, 0 ,
so it must be that t0,2 = 0. Then x1 t1,2 = 0 for all X on H 1 , which implies that t1,2
is also 0.
142
Now, since J0 T t J0 = T −1 (from line (7.2)), we have
     
−1 0 0 t t 0 −1 0 0 t −t0,1 0
   0,0 0,1    0,0 
  0 1 0  =  −t1,0 t1,1  = T −1 ,
     
 0 1 0   t1,0 t1,1 0 0
     
0 0 1 t2,0 t2,1 t2,2 0 0 1 −t2,0 t2,1 t2,2
but T −1 must also map H 1 to itself, so t2,0 = t2,1 = 0.
So for any T ∈ G1 and X = [x0 , x1 , 0] we have

    
t t 0 x x t + x1 t1,0
 0,0 1,0  0   0 0,0 
T X =  t0,1 t1,1  =  x0 t0,1 + x1 t1,1 .
    
0   x1
    
0 0 t2,2 0 0
So if T ∈ G1 then T maps M 2 back to M 2 , and the subspace spanned by U2 back to

itself. Also, since T t J0 T = J0 it must be that t2,2 = ±1; notice that
   
t0,0 t0,1 0 −1 0 0 t0,0 t1,0 0
   
t
T J0 T =  t1,0 t1,1 0   0 1 0   t0,1 t1,1 0 
   
   
0 0 t2,2 0 0 1 0 0 t2,2
 
2 2
−t0,0 − t0,1 −t0,0 t1,0 − t0,1 t1,1 0
 
=  t0,0 t1,0 + t0,1 t1,1 2 2
0  = J0 ,
 
t0,0 + t0,1
 
2
0 0 t2,2
so t2,2 = ±1. Combining this with Theorem 7.6 we have that if T ∈ G1 then
T = Ls J1i J2j
where i, j = 0, 1 are exponents,

 
cosh(s) sinh(s) 0
 
Ls =  sinh(s) cosh(s) 0
 

 
0 0 1
143
for some real s, and
   
1 0 0 1 0 0
   
J1 =  0 −1 0  , J2 =  0 1 0 .
   
   
0 0 1 0 0 −1
From here, we have that Ls Lt = Ls+t and L0 = I, the identity transformation

of M 3 :
  
cosh(s) sinh(s) 0 cosh(t) sinh(t) 0
  
Ls Lt =  sinh(s) cosh(s) 0   sinh(t) cosh(t) 0 
  
  
0 0 1 0 0 1
 
cosh(s) cosh(t) + sinh(s) sinh(t) cosh(s) sinh(t) + sinh(s) cosh(t) 0
 
=  sinh(s) cosh(t) + cosh(s) sinh(t) sinh(s) sinh(t) + cosh(s) cosh(t) 0 
 
 
0 0 1
 
cosh(s + t) sinh(s + t) 0
 
=  sinh(s + t) cosh(s + t) 0  = Ls+t
 
 
0 0 1
Similarly, defining G0 to be the subgroup of G(M 3 ) consisting of transforma-

tions which fix U0 , we have that T ∈ G0 will fix the subspace spanned by U1 and U2 ;
since T ∈ G0 fixes U0 , its inverse also fixes U0 , and so T is of the form
 
1 0 0
 
T =  0 t1,1 t1,2 .
 
 
0 t2,1 t2,2
144
However,because q(x1 U1 + x2 U2 ) = x21 + x22 , this subspace spanned by U1 and
U2 is a Euclidean plane with the restriction of q giving the usual Euclidean metric.
Now, if T is an orthogonal transformation of a Euclidean plane then it is a rotation
or reflection, and has the form
 
cos θ −h sin θ
T = 
sin θ h cos θ
for h = ±1, and T would be in the special orthogonal group of the Euclidean plane
if and only if h = 1 [5]. So, if T ∈ G0 , then
T = Rθ J2j ,
again with j = 0, 1, for some θ where Rθ is a transformation of the subspace spanned

by U1 and U2 by rotation of θ,
 
1 0 0
 
Rθ =  0 cos θ − sin θ .
 
 
0 sin θ cos θ
Theorem 7.8 G1 ∩ G0 = {I, R180◦ , J1 , J2 }.
Proof: If T ∈ G0 ∩ G1 , then
T = Ls J1i J2j = Rθ J2k
for some s and θ, i, j, k = 0, 1. This forces cosh(s) = 1, which implies that s = 0.

Our options for T then are
 
1 0 0
 
 
 0 a 0 
 
0 0 b
145
where a, b = ±1; these elements form the set {I, R180◦ , J1 , J2 }, each of which is in G0
and G1 .
Now, recall the parameterization P we gave for H 1 . If we apply Rθ to this

parameterization we get
P (r, θ) = Rθ (P (r)) = U0 cosh r + U1 cos θ sinh r + U2 sin θ sinh r;
this is a parameterization of H 2 ; recall that this is a sphere with imaginary radius

in M 3 , and notice the similarity between this parameterization and that of S 2 :
(sin(ψ) cos(θ), sin(ψ) sin(θ), cos(ψ)).
Using this parameterization we can now define hyperbolic translations and

rotations; using matrix multiplication and properties of the hyperbolic functions,
Ls (P (r, 0)) = P (r + s, 0) and Rθ (P (r, φ)) = P (r, φ + θ), so that Ls is a translation
by s along H 1 and Rθ is a rotation about U0 by θ.
Now, returning to a direct discussion of distance on H 2 , let A and B be

points of H 2 as before, with l the line passing through A and B. Applying the
appropriate transformations from G we may map A to U0 and B to some point B 0
of H 1 , B 0 = P (r, 0). However, recall that elements of G preserve the bilinear form
p, so it follows that
p(A, B) = p(U0 , B 0 ) = p(P (0, 0), P (r, 0)) = p((1, 0, 0), (cosh r, sinh r, 0)) = − cosh r.
However, r is the distance from U0 to B 0 , which is the distance from A to B, so we

have
r = d(A, B) = arccosh(−p(A, B)).
146
7.5 Lines
Recall that lines in H 2 are to be the intersection of planes passing through the origin
with the upper-half of the two sheeted hyperboloid q(X) = −1. Since three points
determine a unique plane, it follows that through two points of H 2 there exists a
unique line. Furthermore, the equation of any line in H 2 will be given by the equation
of the plane which defines the line,
p(V, X) = −v0 x0 + v1 x1 + v2 x2 = 0,
for some non-zero V ∈ M 3 . If X is on this line then q(X) = −1, so we can assume
that q(V ) = 1, so that V lies on the hyperboloid of one sheet (the sphere of radius
1 with respect to the Minkowski metric); denote this subset of M 3 by D2 ,
D2 := {V ∈ M 3 : q(V ) = 1}.
Now, notice that, for some fixed V ∈ D2 , if X satisfies p(V, X) then X also satisfies
p(−V, X); let ±V be the poles of the line l = {X ∈ H 2 : p(V, X) = 0}.
7.6 Isometries
This group G is the group of isometries of H 2 . To show this, we’ll be using the
following theorem.
−→ −−→
Theorem 7.9 Let l and m be lines on H 2 , AB a ray of l and CD a ray of m, and
R a side of l and S a side of m. There exists exactly one T ∈ G such that T (A) = C,
−→ −−→
T (l) = m, T (AB) = CD, and T (R) = S.
Proof: Recall from our discussion generalizing distance that a ray may be
mapped to a ray of the line H 1 by some element of G, and in fact that any ray may
147
be mapped so to the ray of H 1 emanating from U0 such that x1 ≥ 0. Then each of
−→ −−→
AB and CD may each be mapped to this ray of H 1 by some T1 and T2 in G, where
T1 (A) = U0 and T2 (C) = U0 . It follows that l and m are then mapped to H 1 by T1
and T2 respectively. If T1 maps R to the same side of H 1 to which S is mapped by
T2 , then T2−1 ◦ T1 is the desired element of G; letting T = T2−1 ◦ T1 , we have that
−→ −−→
T (A) = C, T (l) = m, T (AB) = CD, and T (R) = S. If, on the other hand, R and S
are mapped to different sides of H 1 by T1 and T2 , then J2 will map T1 (R) to T2 (S)
and fix T1 (l) = T2 (m) = H 1 , so that T2−1 ◦ J2 ◦ T1 is the desired element of G, so that
−→ −−→
for T = T2−1 ◦ J2 ◦ T1 we have T (A) = C, T (l) = m, T (AB) = CD, and T (R) = S.
Now, an isometry of H 2 is a function ρ : H 2 → H 2 which preserves distance,

so by the previous theorem, restricting elements of G to H 2 results in an isometry
of H 2 . However, our claim is that every isometry of H 2 is given by some element
of G. To show that this is true we’ll use the above theorem and the fact that an
isometry is determined by what it does to three non-collinear points. Suppose that
ρ is an isometry of H 2 , and consider a triangle ∆ABC on H 2 . Letting ρ map A, B,
and C to A0 , B 0 , and C 0 respectively, because ρ is and isometry ∆ABC ∼
= ∆A0 B 0 C 0
by the side-side-side congruence condition, Theorem 2.29. However, by Theorem 7.9
−→ −−→
there is some T ∈ G which maps A to A0 and AB to A0 B 0 ; since T is an isometry, we
know that A0 B 0 ∼
= AB ∼
= A0 T (B), implying that T (B) = B 0 . By the same theorem
←−→
we may assume that T maps C to the same side of A0 B” as C 0 . It then follows that
T (C) = C 0 , so ρ = T |H 2 , so that every isometry of H 2 is an fact the restriction of
some element of G.
148
7.7 Trigonometry
−→ −→ ←→ ←→
Definition 7.10 Suppose that AB and AC are rays in H 2 such that AB =
6 AC.
If V and W are vectors in M 3 tangent to AB and AC respectively at A such that
q(V ) = q(W ) = 1, then the measure of the angle ∠BAC is given by
m∠BAC = arccos(p(V, W )).
Consider a triangle ∆ABC in H 2 , and take dH (A, B) = c, dH (C, B) = a,

dH (A, C) = b, and m∠ABC = β, , ∠BCA = γ, m∠CAB = α. We know that there
exists a T in G which would map C to U0 , A to the ray of H 1 for which x1 ≥ 0, and B
to the side of H 1 for which x2 > 0, and because such T is an isometry of H 2 ∆ABC
and its image under T would be congruent; that the side lengths of the two triangle
are congruent is clear. It follows that corresponding angles of these two triangles are
congruent, but to give this assertion more credibility, consider the following: if V and
W are vectors tangent to AB and AC respectively, then T (V ) and T (W ) are also
vectors tangent to T (A)T (B) and T (A)T (C) respectively. Also, because T ∈ G, T
preserves the bilinear form p, in other words, q(T (V )) = p(T (V ), T (V )) = p(V, V ) =
1, q(T (W )) = p(T (W ), T (W )) = p(W, W ) = 1, and p(V, W ) = p(T (V ), T (W )), so
T preserves angles. Due to this fact, we can assume that ∆ABC is already such a
triangle; let C = U0 , A be a point of the ray of H 1 for which x1 ≥ 0, and let B lie
on the side of H 1 for which x2 > 0. Then, using our parameterization
P (r, θ) = Rθ (P (r)) = U0 cosh r + U1 cos θ sinh r + U2 sin θ sinh r,
we have A = P (b, 0) and B = P (a, γ). Now, recall that Ls is a translation by −b

along H 1 , so that L−b will map A = P (b, 0) to A0 = P (0, 0) = U0 . Similarly, L−b
will map C = U0 to C 0 = P (−b, 0) = P (b, 180◦ ); essentially L−b is sliding C along
149
H 1 for x1 ≤ 0. As for B = P (a, γ), applying L−b will also translate B to the point
B 0 = P (c, 180◦ − α); this last comes from the fact that our parameterization gives us
−−→
a point X on on H 2 in terms of its distance from U0 and the angle formed by U0 X
and H 1 for x1 ≥ 0. Since the distance from B 0 to A0 = U0 is c, and the angle formed
−−→
by U0 B 0 and H 1 with x1 ≤ 0 is α, it follows that B 0 = P (c, 180◦ − α).
Figure 7.2: Translating ∆ABC along H 1 .
In figure 7.2 we have, on the left, the triangle ∆ABC and its image ∆A0 B 0 C 0 .
On the right, we have the plane tangent to H 2 at U0 , illustrating our identification
of B with P (a, γ) and B 0 with P (c, 180◦ − α).
Then, looking a little more closely at the equation B 0 = L−b (B), we have
    
cosh(c) cosh(b) − sinh(b) 0 cosh(a)
    
 − sinh(c) cos(α)  =  − sinh(b) cosh(b) 0   sinh(a) cos(γ)  .
    
    
sinh(c) sin(α) 0 0 1 sinh(a) sin(γ)
Simplifying the right side of this equation yields

   
cosh(c) cosh(b) cosh(a) − sinh(b) sinh(a) cos(γ)
   
 − sinh(c) cos(α)  =  − sinh(b) cosh(a) + cosh(b) sinh(a) cos(γ) ,
   
   
sinh(c) sin(α) sinh(a) sin(γ)
150
which gives us our next theorem.
Theorem 7.11 Given a triangle ∆ABC, take dH (A, B) = c, dH (C, B) = a, dH (A, C) =

b, and m∠ABC = β, , ∠BCA = γ, m∠CAB = α. Then the following hold:
1. The hyperbolic law of cosines,
cosh(a) cosh(b) − cosh(c)

cos(γ) =
sinh(a) sinh(b)
2. The hyperbolic law of sines,
sin(α) sin(γ) sin(β)

= = .
sinh(a) sinh(c) sinh(b)
From the hyperbolic law of cosines we get the following corollary, analogous
to Pythagoras’ Theorem for Euclidean Geometry.
Corollary 7.7.1 If ∆ABC is a right triangle, with m∠ABC = 90◦ , then letting
dH (A, B) = c, dH (A, C) = b, and dH (B, C) = a, the side lengths of ∆ABC are
related as follows;
cosh(b) = cosh(a) cosh(c).
7.8 Circles
Unlike H, P, and H, the conformal models of Hyperbolic Geometry we’ve seen, in

H 2 hyperbolic circles will not necessarily appear as euclidean circles. Circles in H 2
are given by the intersection of a plane, not passing through the origin or tangent to
H 2 , with H 2 , from which it follows that three points will determine a unique circle.
In general, the equation of a circle is that of the plane which defines it,
p(V, X) = −v0 x0 + v1 x1 + v2 x2 = −k
151
for some fixed V ∈ M 3 \ {0} and k ∈ R \ {0}. This is the first theorem we see in
this section.
Theorem 7.12 Each circle γ lies on a plane given by
p(V, X) = −v0 x0 + v1 x1 + v2 x2 = −k
for some fixed V ∈ M 3 \ {0} and k ∈ R \ {0}
As with much of our previous work, we can prove this theorem by first con-
sidering a relatively simple case. Here, we’ll begin with a circle C whose center is
U0 , so that for each X on C, X = P (r, θ) for θ ∈ [0, 360) where r is the radius of
the circle. This circle is clearly the intersection of a plane which is parallel (in the
euclidean sense) to the x1 x2 -plane. Notice that X lies on this circle satisfies
P (U0 , X) = − cosh r.
Let’s denote by S the plane whose intersection with H 2 is C. Now, if we have a

second circle C 0 with center V = P (d, θ) and radius r, then we can map C to C 0
by applying a translation followed by a rotation; applying Ld to U0 will map U0 to
P (d, 0), and following this up with the rotation Rθ results in V , Rθ Ld (U0 ) = V .
Since Rθ Ld is an isometry, each point X of C will be mapped to a point X 0 such
that the distance from X 0 to V is r, so X 0 lies on C 0 ; hence, the image of C under
Rθ Ld is C 0 .Furthermore, since T = Rθ Ld preserves the bilinear form p, we have that
for T (X) = X 0
p(V, X 0 ) = p(U0 , X) = − cosh r.
Finally, this isometry T clearly maps S to a second plane S 0 ; any element of G will
map two-dimensional subspaces of M 3 to one another, and T specifically is a rotation
152
about the x0 -axis and translation about the path H 1 . Then we have
T (C) = T (S ∩ H 2 ) = S 0 ∩ H 2 = C 0 .
153
Chapter 8
Fuchsian Groups: Returning to H
In this chapter we will be revisiting our first model of Hyperbolic Geometry, H. We’ll
be investigating isometries and the topology of H, and what are known as Fuchsian
groups. Before delving back into the half plane model, we’ll need some definitions
and terminology for later discussion.
8.1 Topology, Bundles, Group Action, Etc.
Definition 8.1 Let X be a metric space and G be a group of homeomorphisms of

X. Then a family {Mα : α ∈ A} of subsets of X indexed by elements of a set A is
called locally finite if for any compact subset K ⊂ X, Mα ∩ K 6= ∅ for only finitely
many α ∈ A. If the orbit of any point x ∈ X is locally finite then G acts properly
discontinuously on X.
Lemma 8.1.1 If a group G acts properly discontinuously on a set X then each orbit
Gx is discrete and each stabilizer Gx is finite.
154
Proof: Supposing that G acts properly discontinuously on X, we know that
each orbit Gx is locally finite. If there is some Gx0 which is not discrete, then every
neighborhood U of x0 there are infinitely many g ∈ Gx0 such that g · x0 ∈ U ; this
would contradict our assumption that Gx0 is locally finite, so each orbit must be
discrete. Since each Gx is discrete, each x ∈ X has a neighborhood U such that the
set of g ∈ G mapping x into U is finite; such a subset of G contains Gx , so Gx must
also be finite.
Theorem 8.2 A group G acts properly discontinuously on a set X if and only if

each x ∈ X has a neighborhood V such that
g(V ) ∩ V 6= ∅ f or only f initely many g ∈ G, (8.1)
where g(V ) = {g · v : v ∈ V }.
Proof: First suppose that G acts properly discontinuously on X. Then each

orbit Gx is discrete and for each x ∈ X, Gx is finite. Therefore, there exists a ball
centered at x with radius , B(x, ), which contains no point of Gx other than x.
Then for any neighborhood V of x contained in B(x, ), g(V ) ∩ V 6= ∅ implies that
g(x) = x, so g ∈ Gx . Since Gx is finite, there exist only finitely many g ∈ G such
that g(V ) ∩ V 6= ∅.
We’ll argue the other direction by contrapositive. If there exists Gx which

is not discrete, then there exists an accumulation point x0 of Gx, so that every
neighborhood of x0 contains infinitely many points of Gx; each neighborhood of x0
will contain infinitely many points of its image under G. So if Gx is not discrete then
(8.1) does not hold. Similarly, if g·x = x for infinitely many g ∈ G, then g(V )∩V 6= ∅
for infinitely many g, and (8.1) does not hold. So, if (8.1) does hold Gx must be
155
discrete and, for each x ∈ X, Gx is finite; hence, G acts properly discontinuously on
X.
8.2 Isometries of the Half-Plane
Definition 8.3 Given a geometry (K, d) and function f : (K, d) → (K, d) where
d(A, B) is the distance from A to B for all A, B ∈ K, if d(A, B) = d(f (A), f (B)) for
all A, B ∈ K, then f is called an isometry of (K, d).
Here we’ll specifically discuss isometries of H (denoting the half-plane model

of Hyperbolic Geometry). We’ll see here that many möbius transformations are
isometries of H (clearly not all möbius transformations are isometries since we used
−z+i
the transformation z → zi−1
to send H to D). We’ll also discuss Isom(H), the group
of all isometries on H (we’ll need to show that this is in fact a group), and we’ll
discuss the idea of “orientation-preserving”.
Consider the group of 2 × 2 matrices with determinant 1,

   
 a b 
SL2 (R) = g =   : a, b, c, d ∈ R, det(g) = 1 .
 c d 
This group is called the unimodular group, and is directly related to the group of
real linear fractional (möbius ) transformations

az + b
MR = z → : a, b, c, d ∈ R, ad − bc = 1
cx + d
just as M is related to GL2 (C);
SL2 (R)
MR ∼
= PSL2 (R) = .
±I2
156
Theorem 8.4 PSL2 (R) acts on H by homeomorphisms.
az+b
Proof: For z in H and g in PSL2 (R), g · z = cz+b
such that
 
a b
  ∈ PSL2 (R),
c d
so g · z = m(z) for some m ∈ MR . We want m|H to be a homeomorphism on H.

Since m ∈ MR m−1 exists, and m and m−1 are both continuous. To show that m
is a homeomorphism, we also need that m is a bijection on H; however, if m maps
H to H for any m ∈ MR then this is also true of m−1 , and m would be a bijection
on H. So we need to ensure that m will map H to H; let m ∈ MR and z ∈ H, and
consider m(z) = w. Then we have
az + b
w = m(z) =
cz + d
(az + b)(az̄ + d)
=
|cz + d|2
ac|z|2 + adz + bcz̄ + bd
=
|cz + d|2
Then the imaginary part of w, =(w), is given by
ad=(z) + bc=(z̄) ad=(z) − bc=(z) (ad − bc)=(z) =(z)

=(w) = 2
= 2
= 2
= .
|cz + d| |cz + d| |cz + d| |cz + d|2
Then =(z) > 0 implies that =(w) > 0. Hence m is a bijection on H, and is therefore
a homeomorphism on H.
Theorem 8.5 PSL2 (R) ⊂ Isom(H).
Proof: Recall from Theorem 4.39 that möbius transformations preserve the
|AQ||BP |
ratio (AB, P Q) = ,
and that distance from A to B in H is defined to be
|AP ||BQ|
←→
dH = |ln((AB, P Q))| where P and Q are ideal points of AB; note that one of P
157
←→
and Q may be the point at infinity in C̄ if AB appears as a euclidean ray. Since
P SL2 (R) acts on H by homeomorphisms, specifically elements of M(R), elements of
P SL2 (R) also preserve the ratio (AB, P Q), and therefore preserve distance. Hence,
P SL2 (R) ⊆ Isom(H). For the strict containment, note that reflection across the
imaginary axis, z → −z̄, is also an isometry of H since it clearly preserves (AB, P Q).
However, this is not a möbius transformation, so no element of PSL2 (R) may be
represented by z → −z̄, and we have P SL2 (R) ⊂ Isom(H).
Lemma 8.2.1 For any line l in H, there exists an element g of PSL2 (R) such that
g maps l to the imaginary axis.
Proof: We have two cases to consider: when l appears as a euclidean ray,

and when l appears as a Euclidean semicircle. When l appears as a ray, we have
l = {z = x + yi : x = a}
for some real a. Clearly m(z) = z − a will map l to the imaginary axis, so we want
m ∈ MR or, equivalently,
 
1 −a
g=  ∈ PSL2 (R).
0 1
Clearly, det(g) = 1, so the result holds in the first case.
For our second case, our line l will be given by

( 2 )
2
a+b b−a
l = z = x + yi : z − =
2 2
where a and b are the ideal points of l. We’re searching for a transformation which
λ(z−b)
will map one ideal point to 0, and the second to ∞; choosing m(z) = λ(z−a)
will
158
satisfy this requirement. Then we need the appropriate λ such that
 
λ −λb
g=  ∈ PSL2 (R).
λ −λa
Setting det(g) = −λ2 a + λ2 b = 1 gives λ = √1 .
b−a
Theorem 8.6 If z, w ∈ H, then

|z−w̄|+|z−w|
(i) dH (z, w) = ln |z−w̄|−|z−w|
|z−w|2
(ii) cosh dH (z, w) = 1 + 2=(z)=(w)
|z−w|
(iii) sinh( 21 dH (z, w)) = 2(=(z)=(w))1/2
|z−w̄|
(iv) cosh( 21 dH (z, w)) = 2(=(z)=(w))1/2
(v) tanh( 21 dH (z, w)) = z−w

z−w̄
.
Proof: Since (ii)-(v) all follow from (i) [6], it is sufficient to prove (i)1 .
This proof takes on two sides, and to begin we’ll consider the case where A = z and
←→
B = w are points in H such that AB appears as a euclidean ray. As we know from
chapter 5, specifically from line 5.1 in our discussion of axiom 2, the distance from
between these points is then
=(z)
dH (z, w) = |ln((AB, P Q))| = ln ,
=(w)
←→ |z−w̄|+|z−w|
where P and Q are the ideal points of AB. Since |z−w̄|−|z−w|
≥ 1, we can assume
wlog that =(z) ≥ =(w)2 , so that what we have to show is that
|z − w̄| + |z − w| =(z)
= .
|z − w̄| − |z − w| =(w)
1
The computations for (ii) − (iv) can be found in Appendix B.
2 |z−w̄|+|z−w| =w
The argument does not change if, instead, =(z) ≤ =(w); we would have |z−w̄|z−w = =z =
edH (z,w) and our conclusion is the same.
159
By assumption <(z) = <(w), so |z − w| = =(z − w) and |z − w| = =(z − w̄). Then
|z−w̄|+|z−w|
|z−w̄|−|z−w|
becomes
|z − w̄| + |z − w| =(z − w̄) + =(z − w) 2=(z) =(z)

= = = = edH (z,w) ,
|z − w̄| − |z − w| =(z − w̄) − =(z − w) 2=(w) =(w)
|z−w̄|+|z−w|
so that dH (z, w) = ln |z− w̄|−|z−w|
.
←→
Now, for second side to this proof we’re concerned with when AB appears as
|z−w̄|+|z−w|
a semicircle. However, if we can show that |z−w̄|−|z−w|
is preserved under action by
g ∈ PSL2 (R), then the proof would be complete since dH (x, w) is preserved under
←→
action by g by Theorem 8.5. Let g0 be the element of PSL2 (R) which maps AB to
the imaginary axis (see Lemma 8.2.1), so that <(g0 · z) = <(g0 · w) = 0. Then, letting
m0 be the element of MR corresponding to g0 ,
az+b aw̄+b az+b aw+b
|m0 (z) − m0 (w)| + |m0 (z) − m0 (w)| cz+d
− cw̄+d
+ cz+d
− cw+d
= az+b aw̄+b az+b aw+b
(8.2)
|m0 (z) − m0 (w)| − |m0 (z) − m0 (w)| cz+d
− cw̄+d
− cz+d
− cw+d
az+b aw̄+b
For now, consider cz+d
− cw̄+d
:
az + b aw̄ + b (acz w̄ + bcw̄ + adz + bd) − (acz w̄ + bcz + adw̄ + bd)

− =
cz + d cw̄ + d (cz + d)(cw̄ + d)
z(ad − bc) − w̄(ac − bd)
=
(cz + d)(cw̄ + d)
z − w̄
=
(cz + d)(cw̄ + d)
Applying this to (8.2), we have
z−w̄ z−w
|m0 (z) − m0 (w)| + |m0 (z) − m0 (w)| (cz+d)(cw̄+d)
+ (cz+d)(cw+d)
=
|m0 (z) − m0 (w)| − |m0 (z) − m0 (w)| z−w̄
− z−w
(cz+d)(cw̄+d) (cz+d)(cw+d)
|z − w̄| + |z − w|
=
|z − w̄| − |z − w|
|z−w̄|+|z−w|
since |(cz +d)(cw̄ +d)| = |(cz +d)(cw +d)|. Therefore, dH (z, w) = ln |z−w̄|−|z−w|
holds
for all points A = z and B = w if it holds for points for which the line containing
160
them appears as a ray. Having already shown this holds in such cases, the proof is
complete.
Definition 8.7 Define S ∗ L2 (R) := {g ∈ GL2 (R) : det(g) = ±1} so that SL2 (R) is
a subgroup of S ∗ L2 (R) of index two;
S ∗ L2 (R) = SL2 (R) o hKi ,
where hKi is congruent to the cyclic group of order two, C2 , and

 
1 0
K= .
0 −1
Further define
∗ S ∗ L2 (R)
P S L2 (R) := ,
±I2
so that PSL2 (R) is a subgroup of P S ∗ L2 (R) with index two;
P S ∗ L2 (R) = PSL2 (R) o hKi .
Remark 11 Euclidean dilation centered at the origin and with ratio k > 0 is an
isometry of H represented in MR by m(z) = kz and in PSL2 (R) by
 
√k 0
g= k .
1
0 √k
Remark 12 Given distinct points A, B, and C, dH (A, C) = dH (A, B) + dH (B, C) if

and only if A − B − C.
Lemma 8.2.2 If ρ is an isometry of H then ρ sends lines in H to lines in H.
Proof: If ρ is an isometry of H, then dH (ρ(z), ρ(w)) = dH (z, w) for each

z, w ∈ H. Take A, B, and C to be distinct collinear points such that A − B − C.
161
Suppose that ρ maps A, B, and C to A0 , B 0 , and C 0 respectively. Then it follows
from remark 12 that
dH (A, C) = dH (A, B) + dH (B, C) = dH (A0 , B 0 ) + dH (B 0 , C 0 ).
However, ρ is an isometry, so dH (A, C) = dH (A0 , C 0 ), so it must be that A0 − B 0 − C 0 ,

←→ ←−→
and ρ maps AC to A0 B 0 .
Lemma 8.2.3 If an isometry ρ maps the imaginary axis I to itself and fixes i, then
either ρ(z) = z or ρ(z) = − z1 for each z on I.
Proof: Assuming that ρ maps I to itself and fixes i, consider some z on I

distinct from i. If ρ(z) = w, then we know that w is on I and
dH (i, z) = dH (i, w)
since ρ is an isometry which fixes i. However, there are only two such points on I,
one of which is z. To see that − z1 is the second, consider the following; if z lies on I
then z = ki for some k > 0 and − z1 = ki , so − z1 also lies on I, and
i i
1 i+ + i−
edH (i,− z ) = k
i
k
i
i+ k
− i− k
1
|ki + i| + k1 |ki − i|
k
= 1
|ki + i| − k1 |ki − i|
k
|ki − ī| + |ki − i|
=
|ki − ī| − |ki − i|
= edH (z,i) .
Therefore, if ρ fixes i and maps I to itself, then either ρ fixes I or ρ(z) = − z1 for each
z on I.
Theorem 8.8 Isom(H) is generated by the möbius transformations in PSL2 (R) and
the mapping z → −z̄, and is isomorphic to P S ∗ L2 (R).
162
Proof: By Lemma 8.2.2, if ρ is an isometry then it maps lines to lines,
and so maps the imaginary axis I to some line ρ(I). By Lemma 8.2.1, there exists
g ∈ PSL2 (R) (and associated m ∈ MR ) such that g · ρ(I) = m(ρ(I)) is the imaginary
axis. By applying the isometry z → kz, for some k > 0, we may assume that i is
fixed by m ◦ ρ. Then by Lemma 8.2.3 either m ◦ ρ fixes I or (m ◦ ρ)(z) = − z1 ; so,
if necessary, we can apply the isometry z → − z1 to be sure that all of I is fixed by
m ◦ ρ.
Now, take z = x + yi not on I and m(ρ(z)) = w = u + vi, so that for all t > 0
we have
dH (z, it) = dH (w, it).
Then it follows from Theorem 8.6(iii) that
|z − it| |w − it|
p = p ⇒ [x2 + (y − t)2 ]v = [u2 + (v − t)2 ]y
2 =(z)=(it) 2 =(w)=(it)
for all t > 0. Then dividing both sides of the second equation above by t2 and letting
t tends towards infinity yields
[x2 + (y − t)2 ]v
lim =v
t→∞ t2
and
[u2 + (v − t)2 ]y
lim = y,
t→∞ t2
so v = y, and therefore x2 = u2 . This implies that w = z or w = −z̄. If w = z,
consider a third point m(ρ(r)) = r0 = s0 + t0 i; we require dH (z, r) = dH (z, r0 ), and if
r0 = r̄ then these distance are not equal since z is not on I, so it must be that r0 = r.
Therefore, if w = z this holds for all z and m ◦ ρ is the identity, so ρ = m−1 , and is
therefore associated to some element of PSL2 (R). If w = −z̄, then
−dz̄ − b
ρ(z) = m−1 (−z̄) =
cz̄ − a
163
az+b
where m(z) = cz+d
. Notice that (−d)(−a) − (c)(−b) = bc − ad = −1, so ρ is not in
MR (or associated to any element of PSL2 (R)). Thus any isometry of H is generated
by z → −z̄ and elements of MR .
Definition 8.9 Let the trace of g ∈ PSL2 (R) be denote Tr(g). If a transformation
g ∈ PSL2 (R) is not the identity, it is called elliptic if (Tr(g))2 < 4, parabolic if
(Tr(g))2 = 4, and hyperbolic if (Tr(g))2 > 4.
This terminology is in reference to the curves in R2 invariant under the action

of the matrices [6]. A matrix in SL2 (R), which is not the identity, is called hyperbolic
when it is diagonalizable over R, or is conjugate to a unique matrix
 
λ 0
 
1
0 λ
in SL2 (R). The invariant curves of such a matrix’s action on R2 are hyperbolas,
hence the term hyperbolic transformation. Similarly, an elliptic transformation is
given by a matrix conjugate in SL2 (R) to a unique matrix of the form
 
cos θ sin θ
 ,
− sin θ cos θ
and the invariant curves of such a transformation are ellipses. Referring to the
remaining transformations as parabolic is analogous to parabolas being the curves
intermediate between hyperbolas and ellipses.
Theorem 8.10 A hyperbolic transformation has two fixed points in R ∪ {∞}
Proof: Assuming that g is a hyperbolic transformation, we want to solve
az + b
z= .
cz + d
164
This leads us to cz 2 + dz − az − b = 0, from which we have
p
(a − d) ± (d − a)2 + 4cb
z =
p2c
(a − d) ± (d2 − 2ad + a2 + 4cb
=
p 2c
(a − d) ± (d + d)2 − 4(ad − cb)
=
p 2c
(a − d) ± (Tr(g))2 − 4
= .
2c
Since (Tr(g))2 > 4, there are two real solutions, and so g fixes two points of R ∪ {∞}.
In particular, if c = 0, so that  
a b
g= ,
0 d
b
then one of these fixed points is ∞, and the other is d−a
.
Definition 8.11 A line in H joining two fixed points of a hyperbolic transformation

g is the axis of g, denoted C(g).
Notice that the fixed points of a hyperbolic transformation are points of L ∪

{∞}, so the fixed points of a hyperbolic transformation are ideal points. Then if g
is hyperbolic fixing z0 and ∞, then C(g) = {z ∈ H : <(z) = z0 }, and if g fixes z0
and z1 then ( )
2 2
z0 + z1 z0 − z1
C(g) = z∈H: z− = .
2 2
Theorem 8.12 If g is hyperbolic then g maps C(T ) onto itself.
Proof: Suppose that g is hyperbolic, so that g fixes two points z0 and z1 ;

one of these fixed points may be ∞. Since g maps lines of H to lines of H (Lemma
8.2.2), the line whose ideal points are z0 and z1 must be mapped to itself.
165
8.3 What is a Fuchsian Group?
Definition 8.13 A discrete subgroup of Isom(H) is called a Fuchsian group if it

consists of orientation preserving transformations. So a Fuchsian group is a discrete
subgroup of PSL(2, R). Equivalently, a subgroup of Isom(H) is called a Fuchsian
group if it acts properly discontinuously on H.
Theorem 8.14 In definition 8.9 we classified elements of PSL2 (R) as hyperbolic,

parabolic, or elliptic.
i. All hyperbolic and parabolic cyclic subgroups of PSL2 (R) are Fuchsian groups.
ii. An elliptic cyclic subgroup of PSL2 (R) is a Fuchsian group if and only if it is
finite.
Our calling these groups Fuchsian comes from Poincaré labeling a type of
periodic function, which are invariant under substitutions of the form
az + b
z→ , ad − bc 6= 0,
cz + d
as Fuchsian after the mathematician Lazarus Fuchs who discovered a large class of
such functions. These functions and their groups originated from certain differential
equations [4]. In studying these Fuchsian groups by means of tessellations, Poicané
realized that linear fractional transformations could be used to define length in Hy-
perbolic (or Bolyai-Lobachevsky) Geometry. Later, in a paper published in 1881,
Poincaré discussed the use of Hyperbolic Geometry in the study of quadratic forms,
and came to the conclusion that “the study of similarity substitutions of quadratic
forms reduces to that of fuchsian groups.” This idea arose as Poincaré was studying
curvilinear polygons on one half of a two sheeted hyperboloid, brought about by
166
application of similarity substitutions which preserve the indefinite quadratic form
describing the hyperboloid. By projecting this half-hyperboloid into the interior of a
circle, Poincaré returned to what we’ve called the poincaré disk where the polygons
remained polygons, but became bounded by circular arcs which we know to be lines
in this model; this is where Poincaré had been studying Fuchsian groups.
Now, if Γ is a Fuchsian group, then, relating back to the polygons, there

exists some closed region F of H (or P, or H 2 , etc.) such that the action of Γ on
F tessellates the hyperbolic plane; this region F is called the fundamental domain
of Γ. In this way the study of Fuchsian groups leads us to the study of tessellations
of the hyperbolic plane. From here, one is lead to the study of orbifolds, or orbit
manifolds, which are given by the quotient Γ\H where Γ is a Fuchsian group.
167
Appendix A
Definitions
Definition A.1 Given a line l and point A, l contains A if A lies on l. A is also

said to be a point of l.
Definition A.2 Three points A, B, and C are non-collinear if they are not collinear:
if there does not exist a line containing A, B, and C.
Definition A.3 Two lines intersect if there is a point which lies on both lines. More
generally, two objects (circles, polygons, planes, etc.) intersect if a point lies on both
objects.
Definition A.4 A set is convex if, for all points A and B contained by the set, the
segment AB does not contain any point not contained by the set.
Definition A.5 Given a line l and distinct points A and B not on l, A and B are
said to be on the same side of l when AB does not intersect l, and to be on opposite
sides of l when AB does intersect l.
This gives us the convex sets mentioned in axiom 9; defining a set H to

contain points which are on the same side of l, this set is clearly convex by the
168
previous definition. We can similarly define a set K to contain points, not in H,
which are on the same side of l:
H := {A, B : AB ∩ l = ∅}, and K := {C, D : C, D 6∈ H, CD ∩ l = ∅}.
It follows that if A ∈ H and B ∈ K, then AB intersects l, so A and B are on opposite

sides of l.
Definition A.6 Given two points A and B, and the unique line l passing through
them, the segment AB is the set of all points of l lying between A and B, as well as
A and B. AB = {C ∈ l : A − C − B or C = A or C = B}.
Definition A.7 Given a triangle ∆ABC, the interior of this triangle is the set of
←→ ←→
all points which are one the same side of AB, on the same side of BC, and on the
←→
same side of AC.
Definition A.8 (i) A right angle is an angle whose measure is 90◦ , (ii) an acute
angle is an angle whose measure is less than 90◦ , and (iii) an obtuse angle is an angle
whose measure is greater than 90◦ . Note that by Axiom 12 we measure angles only
between 0◦ and 180◦ .
Definition A.9 Two angles who share vertices and one side are adjacent if the
second side of either angle is not interior to the other angle.
Definition A.10 Any angle that is both supplememtary and adjacent to an angle
of a triangle is called an exterior angle of the triangle.
Definition A.11 Given two lines M N and OP who intersect at a point R such
that M − R − N and O − R − P , angles ∠M RO and ∠P RN are vertical angles, and
∠ORN and ∠P RM are vertical angles. More specifically, if angle A is adjacent and
supplementary to both angles B and C, then B and C are vertical angles.
169
Definition A.12 Given a segment AB, a point C is said to be the midpoint of AB
if A, B, and C are collinear, and if d(A, C) = d(C, B).
−−→
Definition A.13 Given angle ∠ABC, BD is an angle bisector of ∠ABC if D is in
the interior of ∠ABC and m(∠ABD) = m(∠DBC) = 21 m(∠ABC).
Definition A.14 Lines l and m are said to be perpendicular if they intersect, and
the angles formed by this intersection are right angles.
Definition A.15 A circle with center P is the set of all points equidistant from the
point P ; this distance is called the radius of the circle.
Definition A.16 A quadrilateral ABCD is called a Saccheri quadrilateral if ∠DAB

and ∠ABC are right angles, and AD ∼
= BC.
Definition A.17 A quadrilateral ABCD is called a rectangle if each of its interior

angles are right angles and opposite sides are congruent; AD ∼
= BC, AB ∼
= CD, and
m∠ABC = m∠BCD = m∠CDA = m∠DAB = 90◦ .
Definition A.18 Given a Saccheri quadrilateral ABCD such that ∠DAB and
∠ABC are right angles and AD ∼
= BC, AB is the base of ABCD and CD is the
summit.
Definition A.19 A quadrilateral ABCD is called a Lambert quadrilateral if ∠CDA,

∠DAB, and ∠ABC are right angles.
Definition A.20 Given triangles ∆ABC and ∆XY Z, if each angle of ∆ABC is
congruent to a corresponding angle of ∆XY Z, then these triangles are similar, de-
noted ∆ABC ∼ ∆XY Z. If follows that pairs of congruent triangles are also similar
triangles.
170
Appendix B
Construction stuff that doesn’t

seem to fit anywhere else...
Throughout this section we’ll be referencing different models of Hyperbolic Geometry.

Recalling the notation we’ve used for each model, we have the half plane model H,
the Poincaré disk P, the hemisphere model H, the Klein disk K, and the hyperboloid
model H 2 .
B.1 The Klein Model K
Theorem B.1 Let l be a line in K, and let l0 be the corresponding line in P. If A0

−−→
is on l0 , so that φ(A0 ) = A is on l, then the euclidean ray OA0 intersects l at A.
The function φ in this theorem is the same function we used in the construction of
K,
2z
φ(z) = .
|z|2 + 1
171
It’s easy to see that A0 = z, Aφ(z), and the origin O are collinear, in the euclidean
sense, since the euclidean line passing through z and φ(z) is given by
tz + (1 − t)φ(z),
−2
so that when t = we get tz+(1−t)φ(z) = 0. In fact, we can say that 0−z−φ(z),
|z|2 −1
−−→
again in the euclidean sense, so that the euclidean ray OA0 passes through A. Of
course, this theorem is also clear if one were to review our construction of K, where we
used the inverse of stereographic projection to move from P to H, and then projected
H back onto the unit disk to obtain K.
While we’re relating back to the construction of K, recall that P is conformal;

because stereographic projection is a conformal mapping we also have that H is also a
conformal model of Hyperbolic Geometry. However, the Klein disk is not a conformal
model, as our next theorem illustrates.
Theorem B.2 Let l and m be lines in K. Then l is perpendicular to m if
i. m appears as a diameter and l ⊥ m in the euclidean sense, or
ii. if, when extended, l passes through the pole of m.
Proof: Let m be a line in K, and take P to be the pole of m. If T1 and

T2 are the ideal points of m, then the (euclidean) circle C with center P and radius
P T2 is orthogonal to the boundary of K; let’s denote this by ∂K. This means that
inversion through C will map ∂K to itself, and if R is any point on ∂K between T1
and T2 then IC (R) = S, where S is the point on K such that P − R − S. Recall from
Theorem 4.24 that any circle passing through R and S will be orthogonal to C, so
the lines in P corresponding to T1 T2 and RS are perpendicular; hence the line l in
K with R and S as ideal points is perpendicular to m.
172
Notice that, because the ideal points of a line in P will be interchanged by
inverting through a circle (which gives another line in P perpendicular to the first),
this proof gives us that two lines in K, which do not both appear as diameters, are
perpendicular if and only if, when extended, one line passes through the pole of the
other. However, this does not quite cover the possibility that both l and m appear
as diameters. That l and m, both appearing as diameters, are perpendicular if and
only if they are perpendicular in the euclidean sense comes from the fact that P
is conformal and that our mapping φ from P to K fixes only the origin and ∂K.
Because the origin is fixed K is conformal at the origin (in fact K is conformal only
at the origin), and we have that l and m are perpendicular if and only if they are
perpendicular in the euclidean sense.
Figure B.1: Perpendicular lines in the Klein disk
|AC||BD|
Denote the ratio we’ve frequently used, |AD||BC|
, by (AB, CD).
173
Definition B.3 If A, B, C, and D are distinct collinear points in the extended
complex plane, then C and D are harmonic conjugates with respect to the seg-
ment AB (likewise, A and B are harmonic conjugates with respect to CD) when
(AB, CD) = 1. The segment joining all four points, with endpoints A, B, C, or D
(so if A − C − B − D then the segment we’re concerned with is AD), is called a
harmonic tetrad; we will denote this segment by ABCD.
Theorem B.4 Given a segment AB, if C is the midpoint of AB then the harmonic
conjugate of C with respect to AB is the point at infinity.
Proof: With the given situation, we’re looking for a point D such that
|AC||BD|
(AB, CD) = = 1.
|BC||AD|
|AC| |BD|
Since |BC|
= 1, we also need |AD|
= 1. There are only two possible points, C and the
point at infinity, but C and D must be distinct in order to be harmonic conjugates,
so D must be the point at infinity.
Theorem B.5 If C and D are harmonic conjugates with respect to AB, then either
A − C − B or A − D − B.
Proof: Suppose that C and D are harmonic conjugates with respect to AB,
and that A − B − D. Then we have that
|AC||BD| |AC||BD|
(AB, CD) = = = 1,
|BC||AD| |BC|(|AB| + |BD|)
|BC| |BD|
so that |AC|
= |AB|+|BD|
< 1. This means that the distance from A to C is greater than
the distance from B to C, so |AC| = |AB|±|BC|. If it were that |AC| = |AB|+|BC|,
then
(|AB| + |BC|)|BD|
1= ⇒ (|AB| + |BC|)|BD| = |BC|(|AB| + |BD|)
|BC|(|AB| + |BD|)
|AB| |AB|
⇒ =
|BC| |BD|
174
This implies that C = D, which contradicts the definition of harmonic conjugates.
So |AC| = |AB| − |BC|, which implies that A − C − B.
Now, suppose we are given that C and D are harmonic conjugates with respect
to AB, and let γ be the (euclidean) circle whose diameter is AB. Then the midpoint
M of AB is the center of γ, and |AB| = 2r where r is the radius of γ. Now, since C
and D are harmonic conjugates with respect to AB we know that (AB, CD) = 1, so
|AC||BD| = |BC||AD|.
However, notice that when we take d1 = |M C| and d2 = |M D| this leads us to
|AC||BD| = |BC||AD| ⇔ (r + d1 )(d2 − r) = (r − d1 )(r + d2 )
⇔ r2 = d1 d2 .
Thus C and D are mapped to one another under inversion through γ.
Corollary B.1.1 If C and D are harmonic conjugates with respect to AB, and γ is
the circle with diameter AB, then Iγ maps C to D and visa-versa.
Definition B.6 Given line l and a point P not on l, h : C → C is the harmonic

homology with center P and axis l if:
h
1. P →
− P,
h
2. if A lies on l, then A →
− A,
h
3. and if A does not lie on l and is distinct from P , then A → − A0 , where A0 is the
←→
harmonic conjugate of A with respect to M P and M is the point at which P A
←→
intersects l; if the euclidean lines l and P A are parallel, then M is the point at
infinity and A0 is the point such that P is the midpoint of AA0 .
175
Definition B.7 Given lines l and m, and a point P not on l or m, a perspectivity
with center P maps l to m such that, if A is on l, then the perspectivity with center
←→ ←→
P maps A to A0 , the point of intersection of P A with n; if P A and n are parallel,
then A0 is the point at infinity on n.
Given a triangle ∆ABC, let m∠ABC = β, m∠CAB = α, and m∠BCA = γ.

The law of sines states that
|AB| |AC| |BC|

= = .
sin γ sin β sin α
Theorem B.8 A perspectivity preserves the cross-ratio (AB, CD) of four collinear
points A, B, C, and D.
Proof: Consider distinct lines l and n, and a point P not on l or n, and let
A, B, C, and D be distinct points of l. Then we want to show that
(AB, CD) = (A0 B 0 , C 0 D0 ).
We have several triangles here, including ∆AP C and ∆P BC. It follows from the
law of sines that
|AC| sin(m∠AP C)
=
|BC| sin(m∠BP C)
and
|BD| sin(m∠BP D)
= .
|AD| sin(m∠AP D)
Now, since ∠AP C ∼
= ∠A0 P C 0 , ∠BP C ∼
= ∠B 0 P C 0 , ∠AP D ∼
= ∠A0 P D0 , and
∠BP D ∼
= ∠B 0 P D0 , we have
176
|AC| |BD|
(AB, CD) =
|BC| |AD|
sin(m∠AP C) sin(m∠BP D)
=
sin(m∠BP C) sin(m∠AP D)
sin(m∠AP C) sin(m∠BP D)
=
sin(m∠BP C) sin(m∠AP D)
sin(m∠A0 P C 0 ) sin(m∠B 0 P D0 )
=
sin(m∠B 0 P C 0 ) sin(m∠A0 P D0 )
|A0 C 0 | |B 0 D0 |
=
|B 0 C 0 | |A0 D0 |
= (A0 B 0 , C 0 D0 ).
Now, we want a distance function dK for our model K so that, for points A
and B of P and corresponding points A0 and B 0 in K, dK (A0 , B 0 ) = dP (A, B). At
this point we have several tools to make quick work of this problem. To start, we
know that we can map lines in P to a diameter of the unit disk, through a circle
inversion (hyperbolic reflection in P), without changing the value of the cross-ratio
←→
(AB, P Q), where A and B are points of P and P and Q are the ideal points of AB.
Also, by the previous theorem, we know that the same may be done with points A0
and B 0 of K through a perspectivity; notice that since A and A0 , and B and B 0 , are
the same points (represented in different models), P and Q are ideal points for both
←→ ←−→ ←→ ←−→
AB and A0 B 0 . Then wlog we can assume that AB and A0 B 0 appear as diameters.
Since rotation also does not change the cross-ratio, we can assume that P = −1 and
Q = 1, and take A = z and B = w (each of these are points on the real axis of the
complex plane).
177
With all of this in mind, we will once again use the cross ratio to help define
distance. Starting with A, B, P , Q, A0 , and B 0 as stated, consider
|AQ||BP | 1+z1−w
(AB, P Q) = =
|AP ||BQ| 1−z1+w
and
|A0 Q||B 0 P | 1 + φ(z) 1 − φ(w)
(A0 B 0 , P Q) = 0 0
=
|A P ||B Q| 1 − φ(z) 1 + φ(w)
where φ is our mapping from P to K. Notice, however, that
2z 1 − 2z + |z|2 (1 − z)2
1 − φ(z) = 1 − = = ,
1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2 1 + z2
and similarly
2z 1 + 2z + |z|2 (1 + z)2
1 + φ(z) = 1 + = = .
1 + |z|2 1 + |z|2 1 + z2
This simplifies our situation so that
2 2
0 0 1 + φ(z) 1 − φ(w) 1+z 1−w
(A B , P Q) = = = (AB, P Q)2 .
1 − φ(z) 1 + φ(w) 1−z 1+w
It follows then that ln[(AB, P Q)] = 1
2
ln[(A0 B 0 , P Q)]. This leads to the following
definition for distance in K.
Definition B.9 If A and B are points in K, the the (Klein) distance from A to B is
1
dK (A, B) = | ln[(AB, P Q)]|,
2
←→ ←→
where P and Q are the ideal points of AB (endpoints of the chord defining AB).
Now that we have a definition for distance in K, we can give a few more
definitions.
Definition B.10 Given a line l in K, hyperbolic reflection in K is a mapping RK,l :

K → K defined as follows: RK,l (A) = A∗ if AA∗ is perpendicular to l and intersects l
at M such that dK (AM ) = dK (A∗ M ).
178
Remark 13 Notice that it follows, from our work on circle inversion in chapter 4.2,
that euclidean circle inversions are hyperbolic reflections in P and H.
Theorem B.11 For any two lines l and m in H, there exists an isometry of H which
maps l to m.
Proof: We have three main cases to consider here: first, that l and m each
appear as a ray; second, that exactly one of l and m appears as a ray; and third,
that l and m each appear as a semicircle. In each case we’ll assume that l and m
are distinct lines; if they are not distinct, then the identity is the desired isometry.
Now, for our first case we can take
l = {z ∈ H : <(z) = a} and m = {z ∈ H : <(z) = b}
with a 6= b. Then the desired isometry is reflection across the line
a+b
n = {z ∈ H : <(z) = }
2
given by

a+b a+b
Rn (z) = − z − + = −z̄ + a + b.
2 2
See that for any z ∈ l,
Rn (z) = −a + =(z)i + a + b = b + =(z)i ∈ m.
For our second case, suppose the m appears as a ray,
m = {z ∈ H : <(z) = b}
for some real b, and that l appears as a semicircle,
l = {z ∈ H : |z − w|2 = r2 }
179
for some w on the boundary L and real number r. Then by Theorem 4.33 there is
a line n about which reflection maps l to m. Notice that we’re using here the fact
that if γ is a circle whose center lies on L, then inversion through γ, restricted to H,
is hyperbolic reflection through the line γ ∩ H.
Our third case follows from the second; supposing that l and m appear as
semicircles, we can take a line n appearing as a semicircle. It follows from our
second case that there is an isometry ρ1 mapping l to n, and an isometry ρ2 mapping
m to n. Since the isometries of H form a group closed under composition, ρ−1
2 exists,
and ρ−1
2 ◦ ρ1 is an isometry of H which will map l to n.
Figure B.2: Case 3 of Theorem B.11.
Regarding the third case considered in the proof of Theorem B.11, the isome-
tries used, ρ1 and ρ2 , are actually euclidean circle inversions restricted to H, or
hyperbolic reflections across γ1 and γ2 (see figure B.2). Since ρ2 is then its own
inverse, the isometry we gave, which maps l to n, could also be given as ρ2 ◦ ρ1 .
Definition B.12 Given a line l and a point P not on l, the angle of parallelism α
of P with respect to l is the acute angle formed by line m, perpendicular to l and
180
passing through P , with a line n which passes through P and is convergently parallel
to l.
Figure B.3: The angle of parallelism α of P with respect to l in H.
Theorem B.13 Given a point P and a line l not containing P , the angle of par-
allelism at P with respect to l is determined only by the distance of P from l, such
that σ(d) = cos−1 (tanh(d)) if the distance from P to l is d.
Proof: To prove this, we’ll work in the half plane H. Recall from Theorem
B.11 that we can map any line l onto any other line by some isometry of H; so wlog
assume that l is given by
l = {z = x + iy : x2 + y 2 = 1, y > 0}.
Letting m be the line passing through P perpendicular to l, m will intersect l at a

point X. If P does not lie on the imaginary axis, then neither does X. If this is the
case, then consider the point Y = (0, i) on l; there exists a point M on XY which
is the midpoint of this same segment. Reflection across the perpendicular bisector
181
of XY , the line perpendicular to l passing through M , will map the line m to the
imaginary axis and map l to itself. Since hyperbolic reflection, though orientation
reversing, preserves hyperbolic angles and distances, we can assume that P lies on
the imaginary axis, so that P = ki for some k > 0.
Now consider a line n passing through P which is convergently parallel to l as

described in the figure below, where α is the angle of parallelism of P with respect
to l.
182
Letting n be described by the euclidean circle with center O = −n + 0i and radius
r, we know that the (hyperbolic) distance from P to the line l is ln kii = ln k since
P = ki lies on the imaginary axis, which is perpendicular to l. Denoting the distance
by d = ln(k), we get that k = ed . Also, we know that n2 + k 2 = r2 , which gives us
n2 + k 2 = r2 ⇒ (r − 1)2 + k 2 = r2
1 + k2
⇒ r= ,
2
from which it follows that
cos(α) = cos(90 − β) = sin(β)

n
=
r
r−1
=
r
1+k2
2
−1
= 1+k2
2
k2 − 1
= 2
k +1
e2d − 1
= 2d = tanh(d).
e +1
183
1 1
Note that it can similarly be shown that sin(α) = cosh(d)
and tan(α) = sinh(d)
. Then,
defining a function σ by
σ(d) = cos−1 (tanh(d)) = α,
we may find the angle of parallelism of a point with respect to a line with only the
knowledge of the distance between the point and the line.
Corollary B.1.2 Take a hyperbolic line l and a point P not on l, and let m be the
line perpendicular to l passing through p. If the ideal points of l are Q and R, and
m intersects l at T , then ∠QP T ∼
= ∠RP T .
Notice that the angles in this corollary are each the angle of parallelism of P with
respect to l. Since the angle of parallelism of P with respect to l is determined by
the distance from P to l, we have the desired result.
Definition B.14 Given distinct lines l and m in K (or P, or H, or H) which do not

intersect, if l and m share an ideal point, then l and m are convergently parallel, and
are called divergently parallel otherwise.
Theorem B.15 If l is a line in K appearing as a diameter, then hyperbolic reflection

across l is the same as euclidean reflection (restricted to points in K) across the
euclidean line m for which l is a segment.
This follows from Theorem B.2.
Theorem B.16 If l is a line in K, not appearing as a diameter, with pole P , then

hyperbolic reflection across l is the restriction of the harmonic homology with center
P and axis l to points in K.
184
Proof: Let l be a line in K, not appearing as a diameter, with pole P , and
let m be a line divergently parallel to l with ideal points Q and R. Also let Q0 be the
←→
intersection of the euclidean line eP Q with the boundary of the unit disk distinct
←→
from Q, and let R0 be the intersection of eP R with the boundary of the unit disk
distinct from R. Then the line n1 with ideal points Q and R0 intersects l at a point
←−→
M , and l intersects QQ0 at a point S. See that ∠QM S ∼ = ∠Q0 M S since this is the
←−→ ←→
angle of parallelism of M with respect to QQ0 . Similarly, m intersects RR0 at a point
T , and ∠RM T ∼
= ∠R0 M T . Since ∠RM T and ∠Q0 M T are vertical angles, we have
∠R0 M T ∼
= ∠RM T ∼
= ∠Q0 M T ∼
= ∠QM T.
←→ ←→
Now, we’ll consider φ the perspectivity with center P mapping eQR0 to eQ0 R.
Clearly we have that φ maps n1 to n2 , where n2 is the line with ideal points Q0 and R.
Letting A be a point on n1 distinct from M , let A0 be the image of A under φ. Then
←→
by the definition of a perspectivity (Definition B.7) and Theorem B.2, AA0 ⊥ m.
←→
Letting the intersection of AA0 with m be the point B, we have ∠ABM ∼ = ∠A0 BM .
Since we also have
∠AM B ∼
= ∠QM T ∼
= ∠Q0 M T ∼
= ∠A0 M B
and M B ∼
= M B, we have by Theorem 2.21 that ∆AM B ∼ = ∠A0 M B, so AB ∼ = A0 B.
←→
Since AA0 ⊥ m and AB ∼
= A0 B, we have that A0 is the reflection of A across m.
Now, we still have to show that A and A0 are harmonic conjugates with respect
to the segment P B; we need (AA0 , P B) = 1. First, see that we can talk about the
perspectivity with center M ; this maps P to itself, A to Q, B to S, and A0 to Q0 .
Since perspectivities preserve the cross-ratio, we have
(AA0 , P B) = (QQ0 , P S).
185
Also, since A0 is the reflection of A across m, and Q0 is the reflection of Q across m,
←→ ←→
the line A0 Q intersects AQ0 at a point N on m. Then considering a perspectivity
with center N , we have P mapped to P , A mapped to Q0 , M mapped to S, and A0
mapped to Q, so we get
(AA0 , P B) = (Q0 Q, P S).
However, we have the relation
|Q0 P ||QS| 1
(Q0 Q, P S) = 0
= 0
,
|Q S||QP | (QQ , P S)
so (AA0 , P B)2 = (QQ0 , P S)(Q0 Q, P S) = 1, which implies that (AA0 , P B) is its own
reciprocal, hence (AA0 , P B) = 1.
Construction of a midpoint of segment AB in K: Given a segment AB,

let l and m be lines perpendicular to AB at A and B respectively. The ideal points
of l and m are P and Q such that P − A − Q, and R and S such that R − B − S.
Construct chord P S which intersects AB at a point M . Since ∠P M A ∼
= ∠SM B,
the angle of parallelism of M with respect to l is the same as the angle of parallelism
186
of M with respect to m, so the distance from M to B is equal to the distance from
M to A; hence, M is the midpoint of AB.
The construction of the midpoint of a segment in our other models is similar;

the following figures illustrate the construction of a midpoint in K, P, and H.
Figure B.4: Construction midpoints in the Klein disk model.
187
Figure B.5: Constructing midpoints in the Poincaré disk model.
Figure B.6: Constructing midpoints in the half plane model.
188
B.2 Triangles
In our models of Hyperbolic Geometry, there are some special triangles that appear
knows as asymptotic triangles (see figures B.7-B.9).
Figure B.7: Singly asymptotic triangles.
Figure B.8: Doubly asymptotic triangles.
189
Figure B.9: Triply asymptotic triangles.
The triply asymptotic triangle, also called an ideal triangle, is given by three
lines, each pair sharing a single ideal point; these ideal points serve as the vertices
of such a triangle. In figure B.9 we see examples of this as illustrated in H. We
will be using these asymptotic triangles to define area of a region in the hyperbolic
plane, which leads us to our next theorem, for which we’ll need to measure angles in
radians; define rad∠ABC to be the measure of ∠ABC in radians.
Theorem B.17 Every ideal triangle is congruent and has area π.
Proof: We know that any line of H can be mapped to another by some

isometry; it follows that any ideal triangle can also be mapped to another by some
isometry, so all ideal triangles are congruent. Now, we can assume that the ideal
triangle ∆ under consideration is given by the lines
l = {z = x+yi : x = −1}, m = {z = x+yi : x = 1}, and n = {z = x+yi : |z|2 = 1},
so that the vertices of ∆ are −1, 1, and ∞i. Then the triangular region whose area
we claim to be π is
√
˚ = {z = x + yi : −1 < x < 1, y >
∆ 1 − x2 },
and the area of this region is given by

Z Z 1Z ∞ Z 1 Z π
dydx dx cos(θ)dθ
dA = √ 2
= √ = = π.
∆˚ −1 1−x2 y −1 1 − x2 0 cos(θ)
190
Using this, we can give a formula for the area of hyperbolic triangles in general.
Theorem B.18 The area of a triangle ∆ABC, where A, B, and C may be points
of the hyperbolic plane or ideal points, is given by
A(∆ABC) = π − rad∠ABC − rad∠BCA − rad∠CAB.
Proof: By Theorem B.17 this holds for all ideal triangles, so we’ll next
consider a doubly asymptotic triangle. Again, by applying the appropriate isometry,
we can assume that two of the lines used to define ∆ABC are
l = {z = x + yi : x = −1} and n = {z = x + yi : |z|2 = 1},
and that one vertex of ∆ABC is ∞i, so that the third line used to define our triangle
is m = {z = x+yi : x = a} for some a ∈ (−1, 1). Supposing that rad∠BAC = γ 6= 0,
√
then A = a + 1 − a2 i = cos(γ) + i sin(γ). Then the area of ∆ABC is given by
Z Z aZ ∞ Z a Z π
dydx dx cos(θ)dθ
dA = √ 2
= √ = = π − γ.
˚
∆ABC −1 1−x2 y −1 1 − x2 γ cos(θ)
Figure B.10: Area of a doubly asymptotic triangle.
191
By a similar argument, if we have a singly asymptotic triangle ∆ABC with
non-zero interior angles rad∠ABC = γ and rad∠BCA = β, then the area of this
triangle is π − γ − β.
Finally, if ∆ABC is not an asymptotic triangle, so that rad∠ABC = β,

rad∠BCA = γ, and rad∠CAB = α are all non-zero, then we can use singly (or
doubly or triply) asymptotic triangles to find the area of ∆ABC. Consider triangles
←→
∆P AB and ∆P BC, where P is an ideal point of AC, and let rad∠P BA = θ; note
that rad∠P AB = π − α. Then
A(∆P AB) = π − (π − α) − θ) = α − θ
and
A(∆P BC) = π − γ − (θ + β).
Subtracting one area from the other, we have that the area of ∆ABC is
A(∆ABC) = A(∆P BC)−A(∆P AB) = (n−1)π−γ−(θ+β)−(α−θ) = π−γ−β−α.
192
Remark 14 Theorem B.18 is actually a special case of the Gauss-Bonnet theorem;
applied to hyperbolic polygons in general, the theorem implies that the area of a
hyperbolic n-gon P with vertices A1 , A2 , ..., An is given by
n
X
A(P ) = nπ − rad∠Ai−1 Ai Ai+1 ,
i=1
where A0 = An and An+1 = A1 . This quantity is also called the defect of the polygon
P ; the defect of a hyperbolic n-gon is the euclidean angle sum of an n-gon less the
angle sum of the hyperbolic n-gon.
B.3 Circles
Theorem B.19 In the half plane model H every euclidean circle contained entirely
in H is a hyperbolic circle, and every hyperbolic circle in H is a euclidean circle.
Proof:
Consider a euclidean circle γ = {z = x + yi : |z − ω|2 = r2 } for some r > 0

and ω such that =(ω) − r > 0. Then consider the hyperbolic lines l and m given by
l = {z = x + yi : |z − u|2 = |ω − u|2 − r2 }
and
m = {z = x + yi : |z − v|2 = |ω − v|2 − r2 }
for some u, v ∈ C on the real axis; l and m are orthogonal to γ. Not only that, but
l and m intersect at a point A = z0 . Given the definitions of l and m, we can solve
|z − u|2 − |ω − u|2 = |z − v|2 − |ω − v|2
for <(z) = x, finding that <(z) = <(ω). After some more algebra, one gets
p
=(z) = y = =(ω)2 − r2 .
193
p
This point of intersection z0 = <(ω) + =(ω)2 − r2 i is the hyperbolic center
of γ. To assure ourselves of this, let’s return to the line l, and let n be a second
line passing through z0 . Now, l appears as a semicircle, and so hyperbolic reflection
across l is given by inversion about the circle describing l, and since l is orthogonal
to γ, γ is fixed under hyperbolic reflection across l. Not only that, but the segment
AB of m interior to γ, with A and B on γ, must also be sent to some segment A0 B 0
interior to γ with A0 and B 0 on γ. Since hyperbolic reflection preserves hyperbolic
distance, dH (A, B) = dH (A0 B 0 ). Since n was chosen arbitrarily as a line passing
through z0 , this is true of all lines passing through z0 , so γ is a hyperbolic circle with
1
center z0 = <(w) + (=(w)2 − r2 ) 2 i.
For the second direction, consider a hyperbolic circle δ with center w and
radius s, and a euclidean circle γ with center v and radius r. There exists a line l
1
such that hyperbolic reflection across l maps the point z0 = <(v) + (=(v)2 − r2 ) 2
to w; let γ 0 and v 0 be the images of γ and v under this reflection. Now, euclidean
dilation preserves euclidean circles, and there is some k > 0 such that dilation with
center w and ratio k maps γ 0 to γ 00 , where γ 00 intersects δ at at least one point, z.
Now, from the previous discussion γ 00 is also a hyperbolic circle with center w. Since
γ 00 and δ both have center w and have at least one point in common, they must be
the same circle; hence, δ is also a euclidean circle.
It follows from the previous theorem that euclidean circles in P are hyperbolic
circles, and visa versa. In fact, another approach to proving Theorem B.19 begins in
the Poincaré disk by taking a euclidean circle in P whose center is the origin. While
distances in P are distorted as we move away from the origin, by starting with a
circle centered at the origin we have that the hyperbolic distance from any point on
194
this circle to the center is “evenly” distorted; while the hyperbolic radius (since this
is in fact a hyperbolic circle as well as a euclidean circle) and euclidean radius of this
circle are not the same, the hyperbolic and euclidean centers are. In the figure below
we see several hyperbolic circles, all of which have the same (hyperbolic) radius.
Figure B.11: Circles in the Poincaré disk.
Each of the circles in Figure (B.11) is actually a reflection of the inner-most

circle, that centered at the origin. Since hyperbolic reflection (euclidean circle inver-
sion restricted to the interior of the unit disk) maps circles to circles and preserves
hyperbolic distance, each euclidean circle in figure (B.11) is again a hyperbolic circle
with a different center, though all have equal radii.
Bringing this into the half plane model, H, involves certain stereographic
projections, the first mapping P onto the northern hemisphere of the unit sphere
from the south-pole (or onto the southern hemisphere from the north-pole); this is a
195
model of Hyperbolic Geometry discuss earlier. Moving from the hemisphere to the
half plane, we stereographically project the hemisphere, from a point on the equator,
to the half-plane; this mapping is described in the figures below.
Figure B.12: Projections
In the figure above, we see the projection described; on the left, mapping the
Poincaré disk to the northern hemisphere of the unit sphere H+ , and then on the
right projecting H+ to the half plane model H.
Construction of a Circle in P given a center and radius: Suppose we’re

given points A and B, and we want to find the hyperbolic circle γ with center A and
radius AB. Let l be the line perpendicular to AB at A, and let C be the hyperbolic
reflection of B across l; BC should be a diameter of the circle to be constructed.
Now, since l passes through A, the circle we want to construct should be fixed under
reflection across l (l passes through the center of the desired circle). Since BC is a
←→
diameter of γ, γ will meet AB at right angles, so the euclidean circles representing
←→ ←→
γ and AB should be orthogonal; we may then construct euclidean tangents to BC
at B and C, which meet at some point D. This point D is the euclidean center of
γ, so constructing the euclidean circle with center D and radius DB gives us γ, the
196
hyperbolic circle with center A and radius AB.
197
Appendix C
Hyperbolic Functions
C.1 Hyperbolic Functions:
Definitions and Properties
The hyperbolic functions are defined as follows:
ex + e−x e2x + 1
hyperbolic cosine : cosh(x) = =
2 2ex
x −x 2x
e −e e −1
hyperbolic sine : sinh(x) = =
2 2ex
sinh(x) e − e−x
x
e2x − 1
hyperbolic tangent : tanh(x) = = x = 2x
cosh(x) e + e−x e +1
x −x
cosh(x) e +e e2x + 1
hyperbolic cotangent : coth(x) = = x =
sinh(x) e − e−x e2x − 1
1 2 2ex
hyperbolic secant : sech(x) = = x = 2x
cosh(x) e + e−x e +1
1 2 2ex
hyperbolic cosecant : scsh(x) = = x =
sinh(x) e − e−x e2x − 1
Some properties of the hyperbolic functions and their inverses include:
1. cosh(0) = 1
198
2. sinh(0) = 0
3. sinh(−x) = − sinh(x)
4. cosh(−x) = cosh(x)
5. sinh(2x) = 2 cosh(x) sinh(x)
6. cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1
e4 x + 2e2x + 1 e4 x − 2e2x + 1
cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = −
4e2x 4e2x
4e2x
=
4e2x
= 1
7. sech2 x + tanh2 (x) = 1
1 + sinh2 (x)
sech2 x + tanh2 (x) =
cosh2 (x)
cosh2 (x)
=
cosh2 (x)
= 1
8. coth2 (x) − scsh2 (x) = 1
cosh2 (x) − 1
coth2 (x) − scsh2 (x) =
sinh(x)
sinh2 (x)
=
sinh2 (x)
= 1
199
9. cosh(x + y) = sinh(x) sinh(y) + cosh(x) cosh(y)
e2x e2y + 1
cosh(x + y) =
2ex ey
2e2x e2y + 2
=
4ex ey
2e e − e2x − e2y + e2x + e2y + 2
2x 2y
=
4ex ey
e e − e − e2y + 1 e2x e2y + e2x + e2y + 1
2x 2y 2x
= +
4ex ey 4ex ey
2x 2y 2x 2y
e −1e −1 e +1e +1
= +
2ex 2ey 2ex 2ey
= sinh(x) sinh(y) + cosh(x) cosh(y)
10. cosh(2x) = sinh2 (x) + cosh2 (x)
11. sinh(x + y) = cosh(x) sinh(y) + sinh(x) cosh(y)
12. sinh(2x) = 2 cosh(x) sinh(x)

√
13. cosh−1 (x) = arccosh(x) = ln(x + x2 − 1); x ≥ 1
ex +e−x
Take y = cosh(x) = 2
. Then, solving for x,
2y = ex + e−x ⇒ 0 = ex − 2y + e−x
⇒ 0 = e2x − 2yex + 1
p
x 2y + 4y 2 − 4 p
⇒ e = = y + y2 − 1
2
p
⇒ x = ln(y + y 2 − 1)
√
14. sinh−1 (x) = arcsinh(x) = ln(x + x2 + 1)
15. tanh−1 (x) = arctanh(x) = 12 ln 1+x

1−x
; −1 < x < 1
200
Take y = tanh(x), and solving for x,
y(e2x + 1) = e2x − 1 ⇒ 0 = e2x (1 − y) − (1 + y)

1+y
⇒ e2x =
1−y

1 1+y
⇒ x = ln
2 1−y
C.2 Computations
In our discussion of Fuchsian groups, some calculations relating to the distance func-
tion in H were said to follow from
|z − w̄| + |z − w|
dH (z, w) = ln ;
|z − w̄| − |z − w|
this is shown here.
1. Note that <(z − w̄) = <(z − w), so
|z−w̄|2 −|z−w|2 = <(z−w̄)2 +=(z−w̄)2 −<(z−w)2 −=(z−w)2 = =(z−w̄)2 −=(z−w)2
edH (z,w) + e−dH (z,w)

cosh dH (z, w) =
2
1 |z − w̄| + |z − w| |z − w̄| − |z − w|
= +
2 |z − w̄| − |z − w| |z − w̄| + |z − w|
1 2|z − w̄|2 + 2|z − w|2

=
2 |z − w̄|2 − |z − w|2
2|z − w|2
= 1+
|z − w̄|2 − |z − w|2
2|z − w|2
= 1+
=(z − w̄)2 − =(z − w)2
|z − w|2
= 1+
2=(z)=(w)
201
2.
1 edH (z,w) − 1

1
sinh dH (z, w) =
2 2 edH (z,w)/2
|z−w̄|+|z−w|
1 |z−w̄|−|z−w| − 1
= q
2 |z−w̄|+|z−w|
|z−w̄|−|z−w|
|z − w|
= p
|z − w̄|2 − |z − w|2
|z − w|
= p
2 =(z)=(w)
3.
1 edH (z,w) + 1

1
cosh dH (z, w) =
2 2 edH (z,w)/2
|z−w̄|+|z−w|
1 |z−w̄|−|z−w| + 1
= q
2 |z−w̄|+|z−w|
|z−w̄|−|z−w|
|z − w̄|
= p
|z − w̄|2 − |z − w|2
|z − w̄|
= p
2 =(z)=(w)
4. From the last two, we have
sinh 21 dH (z, w)

1
tanh dH (z, w) =
cosh 12 dH (z, w)

2
|z − w|
=
|z − w̄|
202
Bibliography
[1] H.S.M. Coxeter Non-Euclidean Geometry, 6th edition, The Mathematical

Association of America, Washington, D.C., 1998
[2] Marvin J. Greenberg Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries: Develop-

ment and History, third edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York,
1993
[3] Edward C. Wallace, Stephen F. West Roads to Geometry, third edition,

Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2004
[4] John Stillwell, Sources of Hyperbolic Geometry
[5] William Reynolds, Hyperbolic Geometry on a Hyperboloid, The American

mathematical Monthly, Vol. 100, No. 5 (May 1993), pp. 442-455
[6] Svetlana Katok, Fuchsian Groups, Chicago Lectures in Mathematics, 1992
203
VITA
Author: Zachery Sterling Lane Solheim

Undergraduate Schools Attended: Eastern Washington University
stuff Columbia Basin College
Degrees Awarded: B.A. in Mathematics, 2010,
stuff Eastern Washington University
Professional Experience: Graduate Instructorship, 2010-2012,
stuff Mathematics Department,
stuff Eastern Washington University
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The hyperboloid model of hyperbolic geometry

Follow this and additional works at: http://dc.ewu.edu/theses

Eastern Washington University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree

Zachery S. Lane Solheim

2 Neutral Geometry and Euclid V 7

2.1 Axioms and Definitions of Neutral Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 Theorems of Neutral Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.3 Equivalencies to Euclid V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 Neutral Geometry and the Hyperbolic Axiom 50

3.1 Saccheri’s Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3.2 The Hyperbolic Axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.3 A Model for Hyperbolic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4 Necessities for Our Models 56

4.1 Concerning Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.2 Inversion, Dilation, and Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4.3 Möbius Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

5 The Upper-Half Plane as A Model 94

6 Models of Hyperbolic Geometry 114

6.2 Poincaré Disk P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6.2.1 Building the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6.3 Hemisphere H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.3.1 Building the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

6.3.2 An Alternate Approach to H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

6.4 Klein Disk K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.4.1 Building the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.4.2 History of the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6.5 The Hyperboloid H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

6.5.1 Building the Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

6.5.2 History of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

7 Relativity, Minkowski Space, and the Hyperboloid H 2 129

7.1 Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

7.2 The Minkowski Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

7.3 Light-Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

7.4 The Hyperboloid, H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

7.4.1 Reconstructing H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

7.4.2 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

7.4.3 Orthogonal Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7.4.4 Generalizing Distance on H 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

7.5 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

7.6 Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

7.7 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

8 Fuchsian Groups: Returning to H 154

8.1 Topology, Bundles, Group Action, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

8.2 Isometries of the Half-Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

8.3 What is a Fuchsian Group? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

B Construction stuff that doesn’t seem to fit anywhere else... 171

B.1 The Klein Model K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

B.2 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

B.3 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

C Hyperbolic Functions 198

C.1 Hyperbolic Functions:

C.2 Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

1.1 Saccheri’s acute hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Crossbar Theorem Figure 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.2 Crossbar Theorem Figure 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16