Animal cell: 🐇

Eukaryotic
NUCLEUS ● Contains DNA coding for a particular
protein needed to build new cells.

● Enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

CYTOPLASM ● Liquid substance in which chemical

reactions occur.

● Contains enzymes (biological catalysts,

i.e. proteins that speed up the rate of
reaction).

● Organelles are found in it

CELL MEMBRANE ● Controls what enters and leaves the cell
MITOCHONDRIA ● Where aerobic respiration reactions
occur, providing energy for the cell
RIBOSOMES ● Where protein synthesis occurs.

● Found on a structure called the rough

endoplasmic reticulum.

Plant cell : 🌱
Eukaryotic
NUCLEUS ● Contains DNA coding for a particular
protein needed to build new cells.

● Enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

CYTOPLASM ● Liquid substance in which chemical

reactions occur.

● Contains enzymes (biological catalysts,

i.e. proteins that speed up the rate of
reaction).

● Organelles are found in it

CELL MEMBRANE ● Controls what enters and leaves the cell

MITOCHONDRIA ● Where aerobic respiration reactions

occur, providing energy for the cell

RIBOSOMES ● Where protein synthesis occurs.

● Found on a structure called the rough

endoplasmic reticulum.

CHLOROPLAST ● Where photosynthesis takes place,

providing food for the plant

● Contains chlorophyll pigment (which

makes it green) which harvests the light
needed for photosynthesis.

PERMANENT VACUOLE ● Contains cell sap ( sugars )

● Found within the cytoplasm

● Improves cell’s rigidity

CELL WALL ● Made from cellulose

● Provides strength to the cell

Bacteria cell: 🦠
Prokaryotic

CYTOPLASM ● Liquid substance in which chemical

reactions occur.

● Contains enzymes (biological catalysts,

i.e. proteins that speed up the rate of
reaction).

● Organelles are found in it

CELL MEMBRANE ● Controls what enters and leaves the cell

CELL WALL ● Provides strength to the cell

● Made of a different from animal and plant
compound

CHROMOSOMAL DNA ● As bacterial cells have no nucleus, this

floats in the cytoplasm

PLASMID ● Small rings of DNA - code for extra genes

to those provided by chromosomal DNA
 FLAGELLUM ● Long, thin ‘whip-like’ tails attached to
bacteria that allow them to move

Differentiation is a process that makes cells become specialised. This may include change
in structure, function, and gene expression. During differentiation the cell gets sub-cellular
structures for it to be suited to its role. Cells can differentiate once or can be differentiating
their whole life (STEM CELLS). In animal cells most cells differentiate once and in plants
many cells can do it more than once.

Animal specialised cells: 🐇🩸

Sperm cells: carry male DNA to the egg cell to make reproduction process successful.
● Streamlined head and long tail to aid swimming

● Many mitochondria (where respiration happens) which supply the energy to allow the cell
to move

● The acrosome (top of the head) has digestive enzymes which break down the outer layers
of membrane of the egg cell

● Haploid nucleus - the word haploid simply means that it has 23 chromosomes, rather than
the 46 that most other body cells have

Ciliated cell: It has cilia that it uses to move bacteria that were trapped by mucus to the
stomach.

● Long, hair-like processes called cilia waft bacteria trapped by sticky mucus (produced by
nearby goblet cells) down to the stomach, where they are killed by the stomach acid. This is
one of the ways our body protects against illness.

Located in:

Respiratory tract (lining of the trachea and bronchi)

Fallopian tubes
Brain's ventricles

Egg cell : Specialised to accept and let to get in a single sperm cell and develop into an
embryo.

● Surrounded by a special cell membrane which can only accept one sperm cell (during
fertilisation) and becomes impermeable following this

● Lots of mitochondria to provide an energy source for the developing embryo

● Large size and cytoplasm to allow quick, repeated division as the embryo grows
Plant specialized cells: 🌱🩸

Root hair cell: specialised to take up water by osmosis and mineral ions by active transport
from the soil as they are found in the tips of roots.

● Have a large surface area due to root hairs, meaning more water can move in

● The large permanent vacuole affects the speed of movement of water from the soil to the
cell

● Mitochondria to provide energy from respiration for the active transport of mineral ions into
the root hair cell
Phloem cell: specialised to carry the products of photosynthesis (food) to all parts of the
plants.

● Cell walls of each cell form structures called sieve plates when they break down, allowing
the movement of substances from cell to cell

● Despite losing many sub-cellular structures, the energy these cells need to be alive is
supplied by the mitochondria of the companion cells.
Xylem cell: specialized to transport water and minerals up the plant from the root.

● Upon formation, a chemical called lignin is deposited which causes the cells to die. They
become hollow and are joined end-to-end to form a continuous tube so water and mineral
ions can move through.

● Lignin is deposited in spirals which helps the cells withstand the pressure from the
movement of water.
Microscopes 🔬

Light microscope:
 2 lenses
 Illuminated from underneath.
 Maximum magnification 2000x
 Resolving power 200nm (the lover the RP the more detailed is seen)
 Used to view tissues, cells and large sub-cellular structures.

Parts of the microscope:

Eyepiece - This is the part of microscope that we look through to view specimens.
Barrel - The upper part of the microscope that can be moved up or down to focus the image.
Turret - The part of the microscope that is rotated to change the magnification lens in use.
Lens - The lens increases the magnification of the specimen. See Section 1.13.
Stage - The flat surface on which we place the specimen.
The discovery of the electron microscope has allowed us to view many organelles
more clearly - especially very small structures such as ribosomes.

Electron microscopes are also used to examine proteins in much greater detail than
can be achieved with a light microscope, which has led to many important scientific
discoveries.

Electron microscopes used for detecting and discovering viruses which is such a
useful thing because viruses are super small and its hard to detect and discover them
with a light microscope.

Electron microscope:
 used to form an image because the electrons have a much smaller wavelength than
that of light waves.
 1 type scanning electron microscope that create 3D images (low magnification)
 2 type transmission electron microscope which creates 2D images detailing
organelles.
 Magnification 2000000x (2 million)
 1 type has resolving power 10nm.
 2 type has resolving power 0.2 nm
 2 type microscopes were used to discover viruses like Ebola, poliovirus, and
smallpox.
Use standard form when working with equation. Example not 1000 but 10^3
Number 3 shows order of magnitude

Prefixes go before units of measurement (such as

‘centimetres’) to show the multiple of the unit.
In biology calculations you can estimate:

For example, if we take a 1m x 1m square sample of grassland and count the number of a
particular species of plant (dandelions) in that square, we can estimate the number of
dandelions in the whole field by multiplying that number by however many 1m x 1m squares
can fit in the field. For example:

One 1m x 1m square contains 15 dandelions The entire field measures 50m x 50m, so it fits
50 of the 1m x 1m squares Multiply 15 by 50: 15 x 50 = 750 dandelions in the whole field

1.6 - Core Practical: Investigating Biological Specimens PMT WEBSITE THEME 1 page
8

Formulas to know:

Magnification = measured size / actual size

Actual size = measured size / magnification

Total magnification = objective lens magnification x eyepiece lens magnification

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the reaction without being used up.

● Enzymes are present in many reactions - allowing them to be controlled.

● They can both break up large molecules and join small ones

● They are protein molecules, and the shape of the enzyme is vital to its function.

● This is because each enzyme has its own uniquely shaped active site where the substrate
binds.

There is a hypothesis that the shape of the substance is like the shape of the active site of
the enzyme, so when thy bond together it forms an enzyme-substrate complex. Once the
reaction is finished product leaves the enzyme
Enzymes can only catalyse (speed up) reactions when they bind to a substrate that has a
complementary shape, as this is the only way that the substrate will fit into the active site.
This is called enzyme specificity.
Enzymes require an optimum pH and temperature because they are proteins. They also
need an optimum substrate concentration.

Temperature:
 Optimum temperature in human is around 37 degrees Celsius.
 The rate of reaction increases when temperature increases up to optimum.
 When temperature is higher than optimum reaction slows down and stops.
 When temperature is too hot bonds that hold, the enzyme together will begin to
break.
 This will change the shape of the active site and substance will no longer fit.
 So, enzyme will become denatured and will no longer work.

pH:
 Optimum pH for most enzymes is 7 but for some that are produced in acidic nature
(for example in stomach) will have lover optimum pH.
 If the pH is too high or too low, the forces that hold the amino acid chains that
make up the protein will be affected.
 This will change the size and shape of the active site and substances will no
longer fit.
 Same as with temperature enzyme will become denatured and will no longer work.
 Substance concentration:
 As the substrate concentration (concentration of the substance binding to the
enzyme) increases, the rate of reaction will increase - up to a point.
 As the substrate concentration (concentration of the substance binding to the
enzyme) increases, the rate of reaction will increase - up to a point.
 It only works up to a saturation point anything above this will have no effect on the
rate of reaction.
 Saturation point is different for every enzyme.

1.10 Enzymes practical PMT website theme 1 page 10

The rate of reaction formula shows how fast an enzyme is working.

Rate = 10g / hour - this is the rate at which the enzyme is catalysing the reaction, and may
change depending on temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.

Name Converts to Example

Carbohydrase Convert carbohydrates into Example: amylase breaks
simple sugar down starch into maltose.
Proteases Convert proteins into Example: pepsin, which is
amino acids produced in the stomach,
other forms can be found in
pancreas and small
intestine.
Lipases Converts lipids (fats) into Produced in the pancreas
fatty acids ad glycerol and small intestine.

Soluble glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol pass into the bloodstream to be
carried to all the cells around the body.

They are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins with some glucose being used
in respiration.

Building these new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins requires some different, more complex
enzymes to increase the rate of reaction.
Diffusion:

 A form of passive transport

 No energy needed.

 Molecules move in every direction and collide with each other.

 Net movement is from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.

Osmosis:

 A form of passive transport

 Only applied to water

 Water moves from the area of high solute concentration to lower solute
concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

 Example: f the solute was salt, from more ‘salty’ solution to less ‘salty’ solution
Active transport:

 Form of transport that requires energy.

 Energy comes from ATP, which is the molecule produced in respiration.

 Moves molecules against concentration gradient, from low concentration to high

concentration.

1.16 Practical on Osmosis PMT website theme 1 page 14

Chromosomes

 Chromosomes contain genetic info.

 They contain coils of DNA.
 Gene is a short section of DNA that codes for a protein and controls a
characteristic.
 Each chromosome carries many genes.
 There are 23 pair of chromosomes in each cell.
 Diploid – 46 chromosomes in body cell
 Haploid – 23 chromosomes in the cell so half of 46 this can be found in sperm and
egg cells （the combine to form the diploid amount）
  Mitosis is a step in the cell cycle this is when the cell divides.

1. Interphase: The cell grows and carries out its functions, and DNA replicates.

2. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane breaks down, and

spindle fibbers form.

3. Metaphase: Chromosomes line up along the cell's equator.

4. Anaphase: Chromatids (or chromosomes) separate and move to opposite

ends of the cell.

5. Telophase: Chromosomes reach the poles, nuclear membranes reform, and

chromosomes decondense.

6. Cytokinesis: Cell membrane pinches in (in animal cells) or a cell plate forms
(in plant cells), resulting in two daughter cells.

Cell division by mitosis in multicellular organisms is important in their growth and

development, and when replacing damaged cells. Mitosis is also a vital part of asexual
reproduction, as this type of reproduction only involves one organism, so to produce
offspring it simply replicates its own cells.

Mitosis makes 2 genetically identical diploid daughter cells each has identical set of
chromosomes to the parent cell.
Growth in animals 🐇
 Occurs via cell division which occurs by mitosis.

 After this cell differentiate to specialized forms, they get their special functions.

 Most cells differentiate at the early stage and lose this ability after this.

 Most specialised cells can make more of the same cell by undergoing mitosis.

 Others like red blood cell that loses nucleus cannot divide and can only be replaced
by adult stem cells.

In mature animals, cell division mostly only happens to repair or replace damaged cells, as
they undergo little growth.

Cancer is when a small change happens in cell that leads it to uncontrolled division, cells
that result from this uncontrolled division called tumour.
Percentiles charts can tell us the rate at which an organism of interest is growing

The growth of babies can be measured using mass, length or head circumference.
A baby born at the 50th percentile for mass is heavier than 50% of babies.
A baby born at the 25th percentile for mass is heavier than 75% of babies.
A baby born at the 75th percentile for mass is heavier than 25% of babies.
Stem cells can undergo division and divide as many times needed (produce similar

🐇
cells) and these cells will differentiate to have different functions.

Stem cells in animals/humans:

1) Embryonic stem cell

 Forms when sperm and egg cell combine or fuse to form a zygote.
 Can differentiate into any type of cell in the body.
 Scientists can clone these cells and make them differentiate into almost
any cell in the body.

These could potentially be used to replace insulin-producing cells in those suffering

from diabetes, new neural cells for diseases such as Alzheimer’s, or nerve cells for
those paralysed with spinal cord injuries. And even cancer.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. High differentiation potential: 1. Ethical concerns: The extraction
They have the ability to of embryonic stem cells involves
differentiate into almost any type the destruction of human
of cell in the body, providing a embryos, leading to ethical and
wide range of potential uses in moral objections from various
regenerative medicine. groups.
 2. Pluripotency: Embryonic stem 2. Risk of rejection in transplants:
cells are pluripotent, meaning There's a higher risk of rejection
they can give rise to all three in patients as these cells may not
germ layers and have the be a genetic match, necessitating
potential to become various cell immunosuppression.
types. 3. Tumour formation risk:
3. Abundance in early embryos: Embryonic stem cells can form
During the early stages of tumours or teratomas if not
embryonic development, these controlled properly during their
cells are plentiful and easier to differentiation into specific cell
obtain. types.

2) Adult stem cells

 Can be found in bone marrow.
 Can form lots of types of cells including blood cells.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Less risk of rejection: As they 1. Limited differentiation: They
come from the patient's own have a more restricted ability to
body, there's a reduced risk of differentiate into various cell
rejection or immune system types compared to embryonic
reactions when used in stem cells, which might limit their
treatments. versatility in certain treatments.
2. Ethical acceptance: They don't 2. Potential for mutations: Adult
raise the same ethical concerns stem cells might have
as embryonic stem cells since accumulated genetic mutations
they are sourced from adult over time, which could impact
tissues. their effectiveness and safety in
3. Readily available: Adult stem therapies.55c
cells are found in various tissues, 3. Limited quantity: They exist in
making them more accessible for smaller quantities compared to
potential therapeutic use. embryonic stem cells, making it
challenging to obtain enough
cells for certain treatments.
Meristems in plants 🌱
 Can be found in root and shoot tips.
 Can differentiate into any type of plant and can do this throughout the life of
the plant.
 Can be used to make clones of the plant this can be useful if parent plant has
certain desirable features or for research to save a rare plant from exclusion.

Therapeutic cloning involves an embryo being produced with the same genes as
the patient.

● The embryo produced could then be harvested to obtain the embryonic stem
cells.
 ● These could be grown into any cells the patient needed, such as new tissues or
organs.

● The advantage is that they would not be rejected as they would have the exact
same genetic make-up as the individual.

Nervous system makes us react to the surrounding and coordinate our actions in
response to stimuli.

 Receptor cells convert a stimulus into an electrical impulse.

 This impulse travels along cell called sensory neurons to the central nervous
system or CNS.

 That is where information processed, and appropriate response is coordinated

which makes electrical impulse being sent along motor neurons to effector.

 The effector carries out the response.

There are automatic and fast responses that take place even before you think they are
called receptors.
 Prevent the individual from being hurt.

 Information travels down a pathway called a reflex arc this is why vital
responses are that quick.

 Pathway is different from the usual response to stimulus because the impulse
doesn’t pas through conscious areas of the brain.

1) Stimulus detected by receptor.

2) Impulses sent along a sensory neuron.
3) In CNS impulse passes to a relay neuron
4) Impulses sent along motor neuron.
5) Impulses reaches an effector resulting it the appropriate response.

Examples of reflex arcs are pupils getting smaller to avoid damage from bright lights,
moving your hand from a hot surface to prevent damage.
Synapses are the gaps between two neurons.
 When the impulse reaches the end of the first neuron, a chemical called a
neurotransmitter is released into the synapse.

 This neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse.

 When the neurotransmitter reaches the second neuron, it triggers the impulse to
begin again in the next neuron. Different neurotransmitters have different effects on
the frequency and speed of the impulse in the second neuron.
Some nerves are surrounded by a myelin sheath/coating.

This allows the nerve transmission to travel faster, so this is an advantage to have a
nerve cell surrounding by myelin coating.

Myelin is produced by cells called Schwann cells.

Genetic engineering:

Making insulin:

1) Restriction enzymes it cut open the plasmid at a base sequence and

produces sticky ends.

2) At the same time in the pancreases, we identify the gene for making
insulin. We extract it using the same restriction enzymes, we need it to
produce sticky ends.

3) Human insulin gene is inserted into the plasmid the sticky ends math
up. After we use second enzyme called ligase this will glue it together /
seal it together.

4) Insert the modified plasmid into bacteria cell.

5) Bacteria divide by binary fishing.

6) Lots of bacteria produce insulin.

Sexual reproduction:
 Involves the joining of male and female gametes, each containing genetic
information from mother or father.

🐇
 Gamete – reproductive cell of an animal or a plant

In animals:

🌱
Sperm and egg cells

In flowering plants:

Pollen and egg cells

Gametes are formed my miosis and they are not identical.

Each gamete has 23 chromosomes and they fuse in fertilisation