PPL - Navigation

NAVIGATION
J5
AVEX AIR TRAINING
NAVIGATION
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) CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE SUBJECT
1 1-1 - 1-8 THE EARTH

1 -Q1 - 1 -Q2 QUESTIONS
1 -A1 - 1 -A2 ANSWERS
2 2-1 - 2-6 AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

2-Q1 - 2-Q2 QUESTIONS
2-A1 - 2-A2 ANSWERS
3 3-1 - 3-5 AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM

3-A1 - 3-A2 ANSWERS
4 4-1 - 4-18 THE NAVIGATION COMPUTER

4-A1 - 4-A3 ANSWERS
5 5-1 - 5-9 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION
6 6-1 - 6-18 RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS
7 7-1 - 7-10 RADIO NAVIGATION
J 7-Q1 - 7-Q2
7-A1 - 7-A2
QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 08/2003

Revision: 08/2008
INDEX
Page (i)
INDEX
Arc to Time 1 .7
......................................................................................................................................
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) 6.5

l
.............................................................................. ....................
Calculating Actual Groundspeed .4.1 0

................................................................................................
) Calculating Density Altitude ......................................................................................................... 4 1 3 . .
Calculating True Airspeed ........................................................................................................... 4 1 2 . .
Calibrated Airspeed ..................................................................................................................... 4 1 2 . .
Cardinal Points 1 .1
.......................................................................................... ...... ................................
Chart Symbols 2.3

............ ......... . . . . . ................ . . . . . . . ...............................................................................
Compass Correction Card 3.2

......................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ .............................
Convergency 1 .2
... ................................................. ...............................................................................
Conversions .4.1 1
..................................................................................................... . . . . . . . ......................
Creating a Fix 6.4

..................................................................................................................................
Crosswind .4.1
.............................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................
Crosswind Component .4.5

. . . . . ............................ .................................................................................
Daylight .
............................................................................................... ............................... 1 .8 .............
Density Altitude ............................................................................................................................ 4 1 3 . .
Deviation 3.2
............................................................................................................ ..............................
Distance Flown .4.1 1

..................................................................................................................... ........
DME 68
................................................................................................................................................. .
Equator 1 .2
........................................................ ................................................................... .................
Finding Heading and Groundspeed .4.3

......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................................................................
Finding Headwind and Crosswind .4.5

............................................................................... .................
Finding Track and Groundspeed .................................................................................................. 4 8 . .
Finding WN .4.7
.................................................................................. ........................... .......................
Flight Level 5.4

.................................................. ...................... ..............................................................
Flight Log 5.4

........................................................................................................ . . . . . . . . ........................
Fix with Radial and Relative Bearing 7.6

.............................................................................................
Fix with Two Radials 7.5

............................................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................
Fix with VOR and DME 7.5

.............................................. ....................................................................
Fuel Calculations .4. 1 6

........................................................................................ ..................................
Fuel endurance .4. 1 7

............................................................................................................................
Fuel Required .
..................................................................... .4. 1 6
.........................................................
Global Positioning System (GPS) 6.9

..................................................................................................
Great Circle .
.......................................................................................... 1 .1
............... ................ ...........
Great Circle Track ...................................................................................................................... ..... 1 3 .
Greenwich Meridian 1 .1
......................................................... ...............................................................
Groundspeed .................................................................................................................................. 4 2 . .
Ground Radar 6. 1 5
l
. . . ............................ ....................... ............... . . . . . . . . ..................................................
Heading .4.1
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. . . . . . . . . ......... . . . . . . ............................... .................. .................................................................
Headwind .4.1
........................................................................................................................................
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Headwind Component .4.5
........................................ ...........................................................................
Indicated Airspeed ................................................................................................................... .... 4 1 2 . .
In-Flight Log 5.5

.................................................................................. ..................................................
International Standard Atmosphere .4. 1 4

. . .........................................................................................
Isogonal 1 .4
........................................................................................................................... ................
Kilometre 1 .5
............................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................................................
Lambert's Conformal Conic Projection 2.1

..........................................................................................
Latitude 1 .2
......................................................................................................................... . . . . ...............
Local Mean Time 1 .6

.................................. ........................................ ..................................................
Longitude 1 .1
.................. ...................................... ................ . . . . . . . . . ........................................................
Magnetic North 1 .4
..... . . . . . ......... ............................................................................................. . . . . . . . . . .......
Measuring Distance 7.1

....................................................................... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................
Meridians 1 .1
......................................................................................... ................................................
Nautical Mile 1 .5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................... .......................................................................
Navigation Computer .4.1

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.....................................................................................................................
Navigation Log 5.1

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................................................................................................................................
Off Track Corrections 5.5

. . ......... . . . . . ............... .......................................................................................
Official Day 1 .8
............................................................................................. .........................................
Official Night .................................................................................................................................... 1 8 .
One in Sixty Rule 5.7

............................................................................................................................
Orbital Plane 1 .6
..................................................... ...............................................................................
Orthomorphism 2.2
. . ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................................................. ................
Plane of the Ecliptic .

.............................................................................. 1 .6
.........................................
Planning a descent 7.6

............................................... .......................... . . . . . . . . . .......................................
Plotting Charts 7.1

............................................................................................. ....................................

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INDEX
Page (ii)
Plotting Co-ordinates . ............... . . .
................. .... . .
..................... ... .. .................................................. 7.3
Plotting a QTE . . . . ... ............................................................................... . .
..................... .................... 6.4
Plotting a Radial and DME Fix. . . . ...... ... .... ...................................................................................... 6.9
Plotting Radio Bearings ......................................................................................... ........ ................. 7.4
Q Codes . . . . . .
.. .......... .............. ...................... ....................... .
..... ............ ........................................... 6.4
Radials .
..... .
.................................................. ....................................................................... ............. 6.2
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................... ...................... . ............................. ..... . 6.7
Rectified Airspeed .
................................ ....................................................................................... .4.1 2
Relative Bearings ............................................. ............................. ................................................. . 6.5
Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI) . ........... .
............ ............................ ........................... .................... . 6.7
Representative Fraction . .
..................................... ... ............................................ ............................ 2.2
Revised Estimates . .... ............................................. ....... .................................... . .
........... ..... ............ 5.4
Rhumb Line . . .
............................................ ........... .. ....................................................... . 1 .3
........ . . . . . . . . .
Rhumb Line Track .

......................... .................................... .......... . ................................................. 1 .3
Route Selection . . . .
...................... ........................................... ...... ........ ................... ..................... .... 5.1
Scale ............................................. . . . . . ......... ............................ .......... ............................................... 2.2
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) ................................................... ...................................... . 6.17
Slide Rule .
............................................. .... .......... . . ......................................................................... .4.9
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Small Circle . . .
................................ .......... ................................. .............................................. . . . . . . . . . 1 .1
Solar Day ........................................................................................... . . . . . ......................................... 1 .6
Speed. Distance and Time Calculations . ........................ .................................................. .......... 4.1 0
Standard Time ........................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . .................... ............. ....... . . 1 .7
Statute Mile . . . .
.................................... ...... . . . .
... ... .......... ........... .. .. .............................. . ..................... 1 .5
Sunlight. .
...................... ................................................................................ ................................... . 1 .8
Sunrise .
........ .
................................... .
............................. ............................. ..................................... 1 .8
Sunset. ................................ . . . . . .......... ............................................ ....................................... .. ....... . . 1 .8
Tailwind . .
............................ ........................... . . . . . ........ .... ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................ . .4.1
...
Ten Degree Drift Lines ............................................................................... .... ............................... . . 5.6

Topographic Map .
.......... ......................... ............................................... . . . . . . . . .. . . ......... ......... ........... 2.1
Track .
.................................................................... ....................... . ...................... . ............................ 1 .3
Transponder .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... ......................... ....... .......................................... ... . 6.17
Triangle of Velocities .
............................................................. . .
..... ...... .......................................... .4.1
Tropic of Cancer ............................................. . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . ........................... . ............................. 1 .6
Tropic of Capricorn . ........... ........ . ................... . .
............................. ......... ......................................... 1 .6
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True Airspeed ..................... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . ......................... .................................................... .4.1 2
True Altitude .
.......... . . . . . . ............................................. ................................................................... .4. 1 5
True North ....... ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................ ............................................. 1 .1
j Twilight. . .
. ..... . ........ ........................................................................................................................... 1 .8
Universal Time ..... .............. ................ ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................... . ........................... ... . 1 .7
Variation . .
.......... .............................. .......................................................................................... . ......1 .4
VHF Direction Finding (VDF) .
...................................... ..................... . ................... . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 6.1
VOR .................................................................................................................................................. 6.2
Wind Direction and Velocity . . . . . .4.2
J
... ... .... ...... ....................... ..............................................................
Wind Scale .
.................. ........................... ............ ............................................ . . ............................. .4.2
j Private Pilot Licence

Revision: 08/2008
© Avex Air Training 08/2003
THE EARTH
CHAPTER 1
I Page 1 -1
THE EARTH
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A. INTRODUCTION
Many of the terms associated with the theory of navigation are probably known to the student from
school days. However, a general review of the terms and definitions is in order as they form a very im
portant and integral part of this subject.
l B. THE FORM OF THE EARTH

Although the earth is assumed to be round, it is in fact slightly flat at the poles and is thus not the
perfect sphere portrayed in model globes. The earth should correctly be referred to as an oblate
spheroid. This flattening of the poles is called compression and results in the earth's polar diameter
being approximately 23 nautical miles shorter than the equatorial diameter.
=
However, for all practical purposes and for calculations the earth is assumed to be a perfect sphere.
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. l C. CARDINAL POINTS AND DIRECTION
North, South, East and West are known as Cardinal Points.· The Earth's axis is defined by a straight
line joining the North and South poles and the earth spins around this axis from West to East.
Direction on the Earth is measured clockwise from True North, oooo 360°. A three figure group is al
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-
ways used.
N = 000° (T), E = 090° (T), S = 1 80° (T), W = 270° (T)
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The 45° positions, i.e. NE - 045°, SE - 1 35°, SW - 225° and NW - 3 1 5° are called the Quadrantal
points.
0 THE GREAT CIRCLE (GC)

D. CIRCLES ON THE EARTH
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j
A Great Circle is a circle drawn on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius are those of the
sphere itself. A great circle, therefore, divides the sphere into two equal halves. The significance of a
l great circle is that its shorter arc represents the shortest possible distance between two points on
. J the Earth's surface. This translates to the shortest time taken between two points, but there is a
disadvantage to this which will be discussed later.
Only one great circle can be drawn between two positions unless they are diametrically opposite, in
which case any number of great circles can be drawn, eg between the North and South poles.
Radio waves follow a GC path over the Earth's surface and, therefore, if we are to plot radio
@_THE SMALL CIRCLE

bearings on a chart we must be able to plot GC bearings.
! A Small Circle is any circle drawn on the surface of the Earth, whose centre and radius are not
those of the Earth. The only small circles of any significance in terms of navigation are Parallels of
� POSITION
.. }
Latitude, used for position finding.
To define position accurately on the earth, a system of lines running north/south and east/west is used.
These lines are defined as follows:
1 . LONGITUDE
Lines of Longitude, or Meridians, are lines joining the north and south poles. It follows that a
meridian is half a great circle and together with its exact opposite or anti-meridian forms a great
circle. Lines of Longitude or Meridians are measured up to 1 80° east or west of the prime meridian,
perhaps more commonly known as the Greenwich Meridian which runs through the Greenwich
Observatory in England.

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2. LATITUDE
Latitude is measured up to goo north or south of the Equator, which is therefore 0°. The Equator is
also a great circle because it cuts the earth exactly in half. Parallels of latitude are in fact small
circles, progressively reducing in size as they move away from the equator until they reach the
� E arth s' Axis

poles.
No rth
Parallels
;;:-----�·
Me ir di ans
of of
L ati u
t de
1
Equ ato r
l
.�n11fh Pnl�
Figure 1-1: Latitude and Longitude
By using a combination of lines of latitude and longitude we are able to express our position on the
earth, for example 26°8 28°E . This position can be made more accurate by dividing the degrees
into minutes and the minutes into seconds, ie one degree equals 60 minutes and one minute equals
sixty seconds. Our position could now be expressed as: 26° 08' 02" S and 28° 1 4' 34" E. Remember
that by convention latitude is always given first.
Remember:
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Latitude is measured north and south of the equator along a meridian.
Longitude is measured east and west along a parallel of latitude.
F. CONVERGENCY
j
I Convergency is expressed as the angle of inclination between two particular meridians at a particular
latitude. Meridians are semi-great circles joining the poles and because the earth is a sphere it follows
J
that the meridians converge as they run towards the poles. See Figu re 1-2.
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THE EARTH
Page 1-3
G re atCi rcle Rhumb Line

track ----track
Conve g
r ency
Figure 1·2: Convergency, Great Circle and Rhumb Line Tracks
l The effect of this is significant when we measure bearings. Earlier we said that although the shorter
arc of a great circle was indeed the shortest distance between two points, there was a
disadvantage. Because of convergency the great circle will cut each meridian at a different angle.
See Figu e
r 1-3.
Figure 1-3: Convergency
If we wish to fly from one point to another, then on a map we will draw a line between these two
places representing the route we wish to fly - the great circle path. This line is called a track and
when we measure the bearing of the track, we measure the angle between the track and a meridian
relative to True North. Figu e
r 1-3 clearly shows the change in track angles at points 1,2 and 3. The
effect of convergency varies with the latitude being zero at the Equator and maximum at the poles.
On a flight of some considerable distance an aircraft following a great circle path would undoubtedly
be flying the shortest distance, but would be continually altering heading to maintain track. A
solution to this is the Rhumb line, which by definition is a curved line on the earth which cuts each
meridian at the same angle. See Figu e r 1-2. The disadvantage of this is that we will of course fly a
longer distance. However, whether we decide to fly the great circle or Rhumb line track will depend
on the length of the route and our latitude. At South African latitudes and the relatively short
distances from east to west, we tend to fly great circle tracks. But more about that in Ch ap et r 5,
P rac itc al N avig ation.
To summarise, then, remember the following:

I
J (i) Although meridians are great circles, they also qualify as Rhumb lines since they possess

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Page 1 -4
constant direction (N/S).
(ii) he equator is a great circle, but it cuts every meridian at the same angle so it too qualifies as a
Rhumb Line.
(iii) A parallel of latitude also cuts each meridian at the same angle and so it is also a Rhumb Line.
(iv) When drawing, or imagining, these lines on the earth's surface, remember that the Great Circle
will always be nearer to the pole and the Rhumb line nearer to the equator.
(v) The angular difference that exists between the Rhumb Line and the Great circle is known as the
conversion angle.
G. DIRECTION MEASUREMENT
It was stated earlier that the purpose of a meridian was to help fix position on the earth. It is also, of
course, a readily available reference for true north since all meridians link the poles.
When measuring a track, the angle of the track relative to a meridian and thus true north, is deter
mined. The bearing obtained is referred to as a true bearing and may be written as, for example,
090°(T). The (T) obviously meaning true north. Bearings are always measured clockwise from true
north. But as we know, a true bearing is of little use to us in an aeroplane since we have no true refer
ence. We use magnetic bearings to navigate. Magnetic bearings are referenced to Magnetic North,
which, sadly for us, is not in the same place as true north! Magnetic north may be either to the west
or to the east of true north, depending on your position on the earth's surface. The angular difference
between true north and magnetic north is referred to as variation. When magnetic north is to the west
of true north, variation is expressed as being west, and obviously east when the magnetic pole is east
of the true pole. The diagram in Figure 1.4 clearly illustrates this point.
IVfag JVonn 1rue JVonn
TRACK = 1 1 Oo(T) + 20°W

= 130°(M)
j
!
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Figure 1-4: Variation
Fortunately, variation does not require a calculation. The value of variation at a particular place on the
earth can be determined by reference to an isogonal, a curved broken line, drawn on a chart. See Fig
ure 1-5.
J ------------
Figure 1-5: An Isogonal

l
J Variation in Southern Africa is west.

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A method used to remember the correct application of variation, is the rhyme:
Variation West: Magnetic Best (true plus variation = magnetic)
Variation East: Magnetic Least (true minus variation = magnetic)
The term Agonic Line is given to the line where variation is zero, or where true north and magnetic
north have the same direction. Variation is not constant but gradually changes because the magnetic
poles are slowly moving around True north. The change is very small, occurring only over a period of
several years. It is usually indicated at the bottom of the South African Aeronautical chart series, 1 :500
000 and 1 : 1 000 000.
H. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
(i) THE NAUTICAL MILE
The nautical mile is the standard unit of distance used in navigation. But where does it come from?
It is defined as the average length of the arc of one minute of latitude measured at the earth's
surface. See Figure 1-6.
I
Due to the earth's compression the length of the nautical mile is not constant, but varies with
latitude. Since a standard unit of length is required for navigation, an average or standard nautical
mile is used and is assumed to be 6080 teet in length.
If one minute of latitude is one nautical mile, then obviously one degree of latitude is 60 nm. Worth
remembering.
North
l 1 Minute
of
Latitude
l
J
J
South
Figure 1-6: 1 Minute of Latitude = 1 Nautical Mile
(ii) THE KILOMETRE
Although not really used in aviation, the origin of the kilometre is interesting. One kilometre is one
ten thousandth of the distance from the equator to either pole. In other words the distance from
equator to pole is 1 0, 000 km.
(iii) THE STATUTE MILE
This is a fixed unit of length created by royal statute, hence the name, and is 5280 feet.
I
J The following conversions should be useful:
J
1 nautical mile =6080 feet
1 statute mile = 5280 feet
1 kilometre = 3280 feet

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Page 1-6
nautical mile = 1853 metres, or 185300 em
I. TIME
1. THE EARTH'S ORBIT
When viewed from the north pole, the Earth rotates about its North/South axis in an anti-clockwise
direction, or from west to east. It completes one revolution (360°) in approximately twenty four
hours, which is called a mean solar day. At the same time, the Earth is also orbiting the Sun,
completing one elliptical orbit in approximately 365 days. The actual time taken is closer to 365 and
one quarter days, which is inconvenient, but explains the adjustment required every 4 years which
we know as a leap year. The plane of this orbit is called the Ecliptic; the Earth's axis being inclined
to it at 66S and the Equator at 23S .
23SN
December 23 June 22
Mi d-Summer Mi d-Win e
tr
l
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Figure 1-7: The Earth's Orbit
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the N/S axis remains fixed in space making it appear as if the Sun
moves from 23.5° North to 23S South and back again over a period of a year resulting in the
Earth's seasons. These two parallels, representing the furthest north and south travel of the Sun,
are named the Tropic of Cancer (23S N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23SS) .
Tropic o f
Cancer
J
1i'opic o f
Caprico rn
Figure 1-8: The Orbital Plane, Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
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2. LOCAL MEAN TIME
The mean solar day of 24 hours is used as the basis of time keeping. During this period the Earth
J
will carry out one complete revolution with reference to the sun, or a complete change of longitude
of 360°, which means in one hour the Earth will turn through 15°. The time at a particular meridian is
known as the Local Mean Time and all places on the same meridian of longitude will have the
same time.
It follows then, that if the time at one position is known the time at a second position can be
calculated providing its longitude is known.
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EXAMPLE 1
If the time at position A (longitude 30° East) is 1 1 30, determine the time at position B (longitude
75° East).
SOLUTION 1
Change of longitude is 45° East (75° - 30° = 45°). 45° + 1 5° (1 hour) = 3 hours. Since position
B is further East, it will be 3 hours later, ie 1430.
Obviously positions are never always in multiples of 1 5° and it is necessary, therefore to expand
the principle of time change with longitude.
If a change of longitude of 1 5° occurs in one hour then the following can be deduced:
1 ° of longitude = 4 minutes
1 5' of longitude = 1 minute
1 of longitude = 4 seconds.
'
This method of converting longitude to time is known as conversion of Arc to Time.
Given that the time changes by one hour for each 1 5° of longitude, if we travelled from the west
coast of South Africa to the east coast, say from Alexander Bay to Durban, we would undergo a
change in longitude of 1 4°, which means that Durban time should be almost one hour later than
Alexander Bay. Johannesburg is at 28° East longitude, Nelspruit which is at 31 o East longitude is 3°,
or 1 2 minutes in time, later. It is easy to imagine the chaos that this could cause! Clearly there is a
need for some sort of standardisation and in fact this is exactly what it is called.
3. STANDARD TIME
The first requirement of standardisation is a starting point or datum. Since time changes occur with
a change of longitude, and longitude is measured east or west of Greenwich (longitude 00°) it would
be logical to use the Greenwich meridian as the time datum. The local mean time at the Greenwich
meridian used to be known as Greenwich Mean Time (this term has been replaced by Co-ordinated
Universal Time, or UTC), and so if it is noon at Greenwich then at 1 5° East Longitude it will be 1
pm, whilst at 1 5° West Longitude it will be 1 1 am. Remember, times east of Greenwich will always
be later and times west of Greenwich will always be earlier.
To eliminate the problems caused by time changes for every degree of longitude, the principle of
standard time based on time zones is in general use.
Effectively, the Earth is divided into zones, each comprising 1 5° or one hour. Zone Zero is the zone
around Greenwich (meridian 00°), from 7.5° west to 7.5" east of Greenwich. Zone one would be the
area between 7.5" E and 22.5" E (based on 1 5° E meridian), and so on. Standard Time is flexible in
that it allows a country to adopt one zone as its standard time. South Africa is an example. The
majority of the country falls into the zone which is UTC +2 hours. Our example, Alexander Bay, is in
fact in the zone which is UTC + 1 hour. To make life easy, South Africa has adopted a standard
time factor (STF) of UTC +2 hours. In other words, it the time at Greenwich is 0800, the time in
South Africa is 1 000.
4. REPORTING TIME
The problems associated with different times at different places and international travel necessitate
the use of a standard with regard to time reporting.
(a) EXPRESSING TIME
The day obviously comprises 24 hours. The day starts at midnight which is expressed as 0000
and whilst normal practice is to express time as "am" (ante-meridiem, or morning) or "pm"
(post-meridiem, or afternoon), in aviation the 24 hour clock is used. Midday, or 1 2 noon is
expressed as 1 200, 6 pm as 1 800 and so on.
(b) CO-ORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC)
For standardisation and ease of use, all time reports are corrected from Standard Time to UTC.
For example, the pilot of an aircraft departing at 0600 in South Africa would transmit his
departure time as 0400 and all further radio reports involving time are also given in UTC.

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6. SUNRISE AND SUNSET
I
These two terms are used in the regulations governing flight by day and night and it is important,
therefore, to have an understanding of them.
� SUNRISE
(a) DEFINITIONS
v
� Sunrise is defined as the time when the very first part of the sun appears above the horizon.
SUNSET
Sunset occurs when the very last part of the sun is above the horizon.
1
SUNLIGHT
This is said to occur between sunrise and sunset.
TWILIGHT
Early risers will be aware that it becomes light before the sun has actually risen and by the
same token remains light after the sun has set. These periods are known as twilight.
DAYLIGHT
This is the period between the beginning of morning twilight and the end of evening twilight.
OFFICIAL DAY
This is defined as the period from 1 5 minutes before sunrise to 1 5 minutes after sunset.
OFFICIAL NIGHT
This is defined as the period from 1 5 minutes after sunset to 15 minutes before sunrise.
(b) CHANGES IN SUNRISE AND SUNSET
From the last two definitions it becomes apparent that a knowledge of sunrise and sunset is in
order. The times of Sunrise and Sunset vary not only with latitude but also with the seasons, due
to the tilt of the earth's axis. They will also vary with altitude - the higher we go the tater the
sunset and the earlier the sunrise. It is conceivable that an aircraft at altitude can still be
experiencing daylight whilst it is in fact officially night on the ground. Remember that in order to
fly an aircraft at night the pilot must be the holder of a night rating and to remain within the
bounds of the law it is necessary to plan the flight correctly!
Given that sunrise and sunset vary with latitude, provided that we know the latitude of the
position the actual time of sunrise or sunset can be calculated from a set of tables. These times
can also be provided by the local aviation meteorological office.

Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 1 -01
QUESTIONS
1 1 . If the Local Mean Time at airfield A (30° E) is 1 1 00. The Local Mean Time at airfield B (23° E) is:
I
(a) 1 1 00,
(b) 1 1 28,
(c) 1 032,
(d) 1 028.
I
1
2. The rotation of the earth occurs about the polar axis:
(a) from east to west at a rate of 1 5° every hour,

1 o every 5 minutes,
l
(b) from east to west at a rate of
(c) from west to east at a rate of 1 ° every 5 minutes,
(d) from west to east at a rate of 1 5° every hour.
3. With reference to direction on the earth:
(a) the cardinal points are: north, south, east and west,
(b) the quadrantal points are: north, south, east and west,
(c) the cardinal points are: north east, south east, south west and north west,
�I (d) the cardinal points are: 045°, 1 35°, 225°, 31 5°.
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4. Latitude means the location of a position:
(a) to the east or west of the Greenwich meridian,

(b) either north or south of the equator,
(c) u p to 1 80° north or south of the equator,
(d) up to goo east or west of the prime meridian.
5. Longitude is measured up to:
(a) goo north or south of the equator,

(b) goo east or west of the greenwich meridian,
I (c)
(d)
1 80° east or west of the greenwich meridian,
1 80° north or south of the equator.
l
6. Except when flying along a meridian of longitude or along the equator, an aircraft which is flying a
great circle track over the earth will:
(a) cross each meridian at the same angle and fly the shortest distance between two points,
(b) fly a heading which is continually changing and will fly a longer distance as a result,
(c) cross each meridian at the same angle and fly a longer distance as a result,
(d) cross each meridian at a different angle and fly the shortest distance between two points.
7. The angle between adjacent meridians on the earth is referred to as:
(a) variation,
(b) convergency,
(c) deviation,
(d) declination.
8. A nautical mile is:
(a) the average length of the arc of one minute of latitude measured at the earth's surface,
(b) a unit of length created by royal statute,
(c) one ten thousandth of the distance from the equator to either pole,
(d) the average length of one minute of longitude, but only if measured along the equator.

Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 1 -02
9. On the earth, the distance from airfield A (S 03' E042') to airfield B (N 01' E042') is:
(a) 240 nm,

(b) 60 nm,
(c) 1 80 nm,
(d) 60 nm,
1 0. The standard time factor adopted by South Africa:
(a) is 1 hour later than UTC,

(b) is 2 hours later than UTC,
(c) is 2 hours earlier than UTC,
(d) varies between one and two hours in keeping with British summer time.
1 1 . The local mean time at Cape Town International Airport (E 0 1 8' 36') is 1 1 30. The equivalent local
mean time at Durban International Airport (E 030' 56') will:
(a) also be 1 1 30,

(b) be 49 minutes and 20 seconds earlier,
(c) be 33 minutes and 1 8 seconds later,
(d) be 49 minutes and 20 seconds later.
1 2. An aircraft departs airfield A (E 030') at 0800 LMT on a flight to airfield B (E 024'). If the flying time
is 2 hours 30 minutes the local mean time of arrival at B is:
(a) 1 030 LMT

(b) 0805 LMT
(c) 1 006 LMT
(d) 1 054 LMT
1 3 . An aircraft departs airfield A (E 01 8') at 1 030 LMT on a flight to airfield B (E 026'). If the flying time
is 3 hours 1 0 minutes the local mean time of arrival at B is:
(a) 1412 LMT

(b) 1 308 LMT
(c) 1 340 LMT
(d) 1 422 LMT
1 4. At 051 2 the very first part of the sun appears above the horizon. Official day will commence at:
(a) 051 2,
(b) 0457,
(c) 0527,
(d) 0502.
1 5. At 1 822 the very last part of the sun is above the horizon. Official night will commence at:
(a) 1 837,
(b) 1 807,
(c) 1 822,
(d) 1 832.
1 6. Aeronautical charts depict a broken line joining places which have the same value of magnetic
variation. This line is referred to as:
(a) an agonic line,

(b) a rhumb line,
(c) an isogonal,
(d) a meridian

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 1 -A1
ANSWERS
-1
1 . (c)
Difference in longitude = 30° - 23° - 7° x 4 minutes (for each 1 ° of longitude) = 28 minutes.
Airfield B, at 23° East, is to the west of Airfield A, which means that the LMT of Airfield B will be
earlier than that of Airfield A.
1 1 00 - 28 minutes = 1 032 LMT
2. (d)
See page 1 - 1 , C. CARDINAL POINTS AND DIRECTION, and page 1 -6, 2. LOCAL MEAN TIME
3. (a)
See page 1 - 1 . C. CARDINAL POINTS AND DIRECTION.
4. (b)
Latitude is measured up to 90° north or south of the equator. See page 1 -2, 2. LATITUDE.
5. (c)
Longitude is measured up to 1 80° east or west of the Prime, or Greenwich, Meridian. See page 1 -1 ,
E. POSITION.
6. (d)
Because of convergency a great circle will cut each meridian at a different angle and the shorter arc
of a great circle (which divides the earth into two halves) will always be the shortest distance
between two points. The equator, which is also a great circle, cuts every meridian at the same angle
and the shorter arc will also be the shortest distance between two points. See also page 1 -1 , D.
CIRCLES ON THE EARTH and page 1 -2, F. CONVERGENCY.
]
7. (b)
See page 1 -2, F. CONVERGENCY.
8. (a)
See page 1-5, H. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT.
9. (a)
1 nautical mile is the average length of one minute of latitude. Positions A and B are on the same
meridian of longitude (E 042°), therefore the difference in latitude between both positions can be
used to calculate the distance. Be careful. In this example, position A is in the southern hemisphere
and position B is in the northern hemisphere.
Position A to the equator = 3°.

Position B from the equator is 1 °.
3° + 1 o = 4° change of latitude x 60 nm/degree = 240 nm.
1 0 . (b)
See page 1 -7, 3. STANDARD TIME.

i
J Private Pilot Licence

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 1 -A2
1 1 . (d)
The difference in longitude between Cape Town and Durban is:

1
I 030° 56' - 01 S0 36' = 1 2° 20'
LMT changes by 4 minutes for each 1 °, or by 4 seconds for each 1 ', of longitude. Therefore:
1 2° x 4 minutes = 4S minutes + 20' x 4 seconds = SO seconds (1 minute 20 seconds). Since

Durban is further east than Cape Town, the LMT will be later by 49 minutes and 20 seconds.
1 2. (c)
The change of longitude between A and B is so. The time difference is so x 4 minutes/degree = 24
minutes.
Depart A at OSOO + 2 hours 30 minutes = 1 030, but, B is to the west of A, therefore the LMT will
be 24 minutes earlier. 1 030 - 24 = 1 OOS LMT. Or you could say that OSOO at A is 073S at B. 073S
+ 0230 = 1 OOS LMT
1 3 . (a)
The change of longitude between A and B is so. The time difference is so x 4 minutes/degree = 32
minutes.
I
Depart A at 1 030 + 3 hours 1 0 minutes = 1 340, but, B is to the east of A, therefore the LMT will
be 32 minutes later. 1 340 + 32 = 1 41 2 LMT.
J
14. (b)
See page 1 -S, 6. SUNRISE AND SUNSET
1 5. (a)
See page 1 -S, 6. SUNRISE AND SUNSET
l 1 S. (c)
.J
I
See page 1 -4, G. DIRECTION MEASUREMENT
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Revision: 08/2008
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
CHAPTER 2
Page 2-1
l AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
l A. INTRODUCTION
One of the problems faced by map makers is how to make something that is round (the Earth}, ap
pear flat (a map) without losing any of the properties. Some distortion will always occur and so in pro
ducing a map, the map maker will incorporate those properties which are essential according to the
purpose for which the map will be used. Most aviation charts fall into two categories; the aeronautical
topographical chart and the navigation plotting chart.
B. THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

The type of map most commonly used by pilots is the topographic map. Topographic simply means
that the features of the earth are represented fairly accurately on the chart with a minimum of distor
tion. Various methods are used to project the earth onto a sheet of paper, the type of projection com
mon to the 1 :1 000 000 and 1:500 000 scale maps in general aviation use in South Africa is the Lam
bert's Conformal Conic Projection.
C. LAMBERT'S CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION
l 1 . METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Imagine a transparent, reduced or model earth with a light source at the centre. A cone of paper is
placed around the earth and the light projects the surface of the earth onto the paper. The cone
cuts the reduced earth at two points which are known as Standard Parallels.
STANDARD
PARALLELS
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Figure 2·1: The Lambert's Conformal Gonic Projection
When the sheet of paper is opened up, the chart appears in the form shown in Figure 2-2.
_,

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l
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
Page 2-2
STANDARD
PARALLELS
(SCALE CORREcrr'i\------Jo• /.
SCALE EXPANDS
Figure 2-2: Graticule of Lambert's Chart
2. PROPERTIES
(a) PARALLELS OF LATITUDE
These appear as arcs nearly equally spaced.
(b) MERIDIANS
These are shown as straight lines, converging towards the nearer pole.
(c) SCALE
Scale is correct only at the two standard parallels, contracts between them and expands outside
of them. On the 1 :500 000 and 1 : 1 000 000 series used in South Africa the scale is fairly
constant throughout the chart.
(d) CONVERGENCY
This is constant throughout the chart.
(e) GREAT CIRCLES
A straight line drawn on this chart is a great circle.
(f) ORTHOMORPHIC
This term means "correct shape" and is generally used by most text books to indicate that the
angular relationship of meridians and parallels on a particular chart are correct. In other words
they cut each other at 90°. The term "Conformal" is the more commonly used term to indicate
the same thing.
D. SCALE
Scale simply means the ratio of the length of a line drawn on a chart (Chart Length - CL) to the corre
sponding distance on the surface of the earth (Earth Distance - ED). Various methods are used to ex
press scale, the most common of which is, perhaps, the representative fraction:
1 :1 DOD DOD or
1 000 000
Which simply means that 1 unit on the chart = 1 000 000 units on the earth; the chart units can be
centimetres (em) or inches ("). Earth distance can be in Statute miles, Nautical miles or Kilometres.
Scale may also be expressed as a statement in words: for example: 1 em equals 1 0 nm
l
'
"
It may also be shown as a graduated scale line:
10 0 1 20 30
Nautical Miles

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AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
Page 2-3
The formula for scale is:
Scale = Chart Length (CL)

Earth Distance (ED)
If two of the three items are known, the third can be found:
EXAMPLE 1
The scale of a chart is 1 :1 000 000. If a line drawn on the chart is 1 8 em in length, the earth
distance in nautical miles is:
SOLUTION 1
Scale = CL
ED
1 8 em on the chart is the equivalent of 18 000 000 em on the earth (The scale is 1 :1 000 000).
Therefore convert 1 8 000 000 em to nautical miles.
l 1 nm = 1 85300 em, so:
J
18 000 000 = 97.1 4 nm
1 85300
EXAMPLE 2
The scale of a chart is expressed as 3 em = 8 nm. What is the scale as a representative fraction?
SOLUTION 2
Scale = CL
ED
Remember that both units must be the same, in this case centimetres, so:
Scale = 3 3 1
8 nm x 1 85300 = 1 482400 = 494 1 33
l
E. AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION AND SYMBOLS
The aeronautical charts used by VFR pilots are the 1 :500 000 or 1 000 000 scale Topographical charts.
In addition to land and coastal features these charts also contain an aeronautical information overlay,
usually in blue. Typically this information includes the various airspaces, Flight Information Region (FIR)
boundaries, communication sectors, navigation and aerodrome information. The various symbols used
on the chart and their meaning are usually printed on the reverse side of the chart. Some of the more
common symbols have been included here as a quick reference for examination purposes.
1 . AIRSPACE
(a) Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ)
The boundary of the airspace is indicated by a line of dots:
•••• • • • •
J Either inside the airspace, or if it is too small, very close to it will be a statement in words giving
the type of airspace, the name of the aerodrome and the vertical limits, for example:
RAND ATZ, 6500 ALT/GND
Meaning: from ground level to an altitude of 6500 ft above sea level.
J
(b) Control Zone (CTR)
The boundary of the airspace is shown by a dashed line:

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AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
Page 2-4
Inside the airspace, or close to it will be a statement in words giving the type of airspace, the
name of the aerodrome and the vertical limits, for example:
LANSERIA CTR, 6500 ALT/GND
(c) Combined ATZ/CTR
The boundary of the airspace is shown in the following manner:
· - · - · - ·-
(d) Terminal Control Area (TMA), Control Area (CTA)
The boundary of the airspace is shown as a solid line, with the name, designation and vertical
limits indicated within the airspace.
(e) Airway/Upper Airway (AWY)
The lateral limits of both routes are shown by solid lines within which is indicated the route
designator, upper and lower limits, for example:
FL195 FL460
A40S FL145 UA405 FL200
The letter "U" in the above example indicates an upper airway.
(f) Advisory Route
The lateral limits of this route is shown by broken lines within which is indicated the route
designator, upper and lower limits, for example:
WB1D FL1 1 5
FL075
In some cases an Upper Airway may be located immediately above an Advisory Route, in which
case the lateral limits will be solid lines. The presence of the Advisory Route will be indicated by
the route designator which will always have the letter "D" on the end, and the vertical limits which
will be less than that of the airway.
(g) Flight Information Service Route
This route is indicated in the following manner:
l
- - - - G657F - - - - -
J This type of route can be easily recognised because it will always have the letter "F" at the end
of the route designator.
(h) Flight Information Region Boundary (FIR)
FIR boundaries are indicated in the following manner:
(i) Danger (FAD), Restricted (FAR) and Prohibited (FAP)Areas
These airspaces are all indicated in the same way, a solid line indicating the boundary, with
shading around the inside. The shapes are irregular, but the designation identifies which type of
airspace it is. Upper and lower limits will also be shown, for example:

Revision: 08/2008
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
111/!l!!lllIIIll///l/!1! !1!!1!!/
Page 2-5
FL1 00
FAD 1 82
GND
0) Communication Sectors
Within a FIR various communication sectors are provided. Each will have its own unique radio
frequency, vertical limits and hours of operation. In most cases this information is provided along
the boundary of the sector with the name of the Air Traffic Service (ATS), for example:
JOHANNESBURG WEST G N D/FL460 1 1 8.55
(k) Reporting Points
Compulsory Non-Compulsory
l
I
2. MINIMUM FLIGHT ALTITUDES
Minimum flight altitudes in thousands and hundreds of feet are provided in whole degree sectors of
)
latitude and longitude, for example between 26° and 27" South, and 26° and 27° East, as follows:
i
26°S---if-----+-
j 27"S---if-----+-
The values provide clearance above all topographical features by 1 000 ft where the highest point is
below 5000 ft and by 2000 ft where the highest point is above 5001 ft. In the case of the above
example, flight at 8 1 00 ft would provide 2000 ft clearance above all obstacles in that sector.
3. RADIO NAVIGATION BEACONS
• • •
I I • I 1
• • • •
I • • • • •
I I 1 Q1 I I
I I I I I I
I I I
.J
• • •• •
• • •
NDB VOR VOR Co-located Co-located VOR and DME

with compulsory (usua lly combined with a
reporting point compass rose)

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AERONAUTICAL CHARTS
. I Page 2-6
I 4. AERODROMES
0Aerodrome C ivil
0 Military
0
Joint Civil and Military
with nn f�r..ilitiA!=:;
5. AERODROME DATA
The following example indicates the type of basic aerodrome information which may be available on
a chart:
l
NOB TWR APP
- - - - - - - - ,
I KRUGER I
1 MPUMALANGAI
I
J
: INTL AIRPORT J1
________
2829 LH26
1 ILS DME
J
De-code:
NDB - Non-Directional Beacon

TWR - Control Tower
APP - approach Control
2829 - airfield elevation above sea level in feet
LH26 - Lights (L), Hard surface (H). length of longest runway in metres (26)
ILS - Instrument Landing System
DME - Distance Measuring Equipment
The box drawn in a broken line around the name of the aerodrome indicates that this is a Customs
aerodrome.
The symbols (L) and (H) may be replaced by a dash (-) on some aerodromes indicating no lights
and a sand or grass runway.
6. ADDITIONAL CHART SYMBOLS
l
�872
A.(243)
1- ' .'
5285
(453) .3953
A
Unlighted Lighted Spot Highest Elevation
Obstruction Obstruction Elevation on Chart
-
-
I
. I
Isogonal
In the case of the Lighted and Unlighted obstructions, the higher figure indicates the elevation of the
top of the obstruction above sea level and the figure in brackets indicates the height of the top of
the obstruction above ground level.

Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 2-01
QUESTIONS
1 . An aircraft, flying due north along a meridian changes latitude by 2°25'. the equivalent of a chart
length of 25 em. The scale of the chart is:
(a) 1: 1 074 740,
I (b) 1: 1 250 000,
(c) 1: 1 1 05 550,
(d) 1: 500 000.
2. An aeronautical chart has a scale of 1:500 000. A line drawn on the chart measures 1 5 em. The
equivalent earth distance is:
(a) 55.47 nm,

(b) 24.25 nm,
(c) 40.47 nm,
(d) 33.25 nm
3. An aircraft, flying due south along a meridian changes latitude by 3°1 8', the equivalent of a chart
length of 29 em. The scale of the chart is:
(a) 1: 1 ooo 000,
(b) 1: 1 265 1 52,
(c) 1: 1 1 1 0 450,
(d) 1: 1 245 225.
4. An aeronautical chart has a scale of 1 :250 000. A line drawn on the chart measures 25 em. The
equivalent earth distance is:
(a) 35.73 nm,

(b) 28.45 nm,
(c) 31 .23 nm,
(d) 33.73 nm
5. If the scale of a chart is expressed as 12 em = 35 nm, the scale as a representative fraction is:
(a) 1: 540 458
l
(b) 1: 1 000 000
(c) 1: 885 275
(d) 1: 658 344
6. If the scale of a chart is expressed as 1 8 em = 55 nm, the scale as a representative fraction is:
(a) 1: 740 235

( b) 1: 566 1 94
(c) 1: ooo ooo
(d) 1: 455 688
7. A topographic chart is one on which:
(a) there is considerable distortion of the earth's features,

(b) a rhumb line is always a straight line and therefore the shortest distance between two places,
(c) there is very little distortion of the earth's features,
(d) meridians of longitude always appear as parallel straight lines.
l
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Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 2-02
8. An aeronautical chart which is orthomorphic, or conformal, is one on which:
(a) meridians of longitude always appear as parallel straight lines,

(b) there is very little distortion of the earth's features,
(c) the ;angular relationship between meridians and parallels is correct, i.e. they cut each other at
goo
(d) the e is considerable distortion of the earth's features.
9. On a Lambert's Topographical chart:
(a) the scale is only correct at the equator,

(b) a rhumb line will appear as a straight line,
(c) meridians are parallel straight lines,
�l
(d) the scale of the chart is only correct at the standard parallels.
�
1 0. One of the benefits of the Lambert's Conformal chart is that:
(a) a straight line drawn on this chart is a great circle,

(b) great circle tracks cut each meridian at the same angle,
(c) meridians appear as parallel straight lines,
(d) in comparison to great circle distances, rhumb line tracks are always shorter.

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 2-A1
ANSWERS
1 . (a)
The distance along the meridian is 2° 25' which equals 1 45 nm (1 minute of latitude measured along
J
a meridian is 1 nm).
Scale = C hart Length

Earth Distance
= 25 em
1 45 nm x 1 85300
=
1
1 ,074 740
2. (c)
Earth distance =
1 5 em x 500 000
1 85300
= 40.47 nm
3. (b)
The distance along the meridian is 3° 1 8' which equals 1 98 nm.
Scale = C hart Length

Earth Distance
=
29 em
J
1 98 nm x 1 85300
= 1
1 265 1 52
4. (d)
Earth distance = 25 em x 250 000

1 85300
{
) =
33.73 nm
5. (a)
1 2 em
35 nm x 1 85300
=
1 : 540 458
I'
6. (b)
.
1 8 em
55 nm x 1 85300
= 1 : 566 1 94
7. (c)
See page 2-1 , B. THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 2-A2
8. (c)
See page 2-2, 2. PROPERTIES
9. (d)
1 o. (a)
•
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•
1
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Revision: 08/2008
AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM
CHAPTER 3 Page 3-1
AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM
A. INTRODUCTION
Navigation, whether in the air or on the ground, is only possible if there is a reference system which
can be used to indicate direction. The traditional cardinal points, ie North, South, East and West, which
are based on the earth's axis, are true directions and are of no use in the air since there is no instru
ment capable of indicating the direction of True North. However, a freely suspended magnet will align
itself with the Earth's magnetic field and will therefore indicate the direction of magnetic North, a
property which is ideal for direction finding. Unfortunately Magnetic North is not in the same location
as True North, the approximate position of Magnetic North being 76°N 1 00°W, but the angular differ
ence between true north and magnetic north, (variation), at various points around the earth can be
measured and this information printed on aeronautical charts in the form of Isogonal.
B. COMPASS CONSTRUCTION
The magnetic compass used in an aircraft comprises a glass bowl containing a float to which is at
tached two bar magnets and a compass direction card. The float is mounted on a pivot housed in a
sapphire cup which allows it to rotate freely. The bowl is filled with a petroleum based clear fluid which
acts as a damper to prevent excessive oscillations. A vertical lubber line is positioned within the case,
located on the centre of the face of the bowl to provide a heading reference.
post
Figure 3-1: Compass Construction
The compass direction card is usually marked with the letters N, S, E and W to indicate the cardinal
points. The graduated scale is numbered every 30°, for example 3 = 30°, 6 = 60° and so on. The
scale comprises long lines which indicate increments of 1 oo and short lines which indicate 5°.
12 9 3 N
...········· ············
____ Deviation adjustment saew
Figure 3-2: The Magnetic Compass

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AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM
Page 3-2
The orientation of the compass card can lead to some confusion unless it is understood that when
looking at the card we are in fact looking at the back of the card. For example, Figure 3-2 shows a
compass heading of 060', which is a north-easterly direction. If we wanted to turn onto north then
clearly we would have to turn left. However, on the compass card North is to the right. When flying
with just a compass always remember to turn away from the heading required.
C. COMPASS ERRORS
1 . DEVIATION
Deviation is caused by the magnetic fields which are present in an aircraft as a result of the moving
parts of an engine, the radios and electrical circuits. The combined effect of these magnetic fields is
to deflect the compass away from indicating magnetic north to what we might call compass north.
As these magnetic fields are· relative to the aircraft itself, the deviation is not constant and varies
from heading to heading. Small compensating magnets attached to adjusting screws can be used to
reduce much of the deviation, (see Figure 3-2). The residual deviation is established by means of a
compass swing, carried out by an aircraft technician, the effect of which is indicated on a compass
correction card located near the compass. The card normally lists corrected headings to steer for 8
pre-determined headings, so interpolation will be necessary to calculate other compass headings.
FOR STEER
N 000
045 043
E 091
1 35 1 38
s 1 79
225 222
w 272
31 5 31 3
Figure 3-3: Compass Correction Card
For example, using Figure 3-3, determine the compass heading if the magnetic heading is 030'
North is correct, but 045' (M) requires a compass heading of 043', so we can say that 45 magnetic
degrees equals 43 compass degrees, so one magnetic degree equals 43+ 45 which is .95,
therefore 30 magnetic degrees equals 30 x .95 = 28.5' (C).
The method of actually calculating the aircraft's deviation is not applicable here, but deviation can
be expressed as the number of degrees that must be applied to the compass heading to give the
magnetic heading, or vice versa.
Deviation can be expressed as either West or East, meaning that Compass North is either West or
East of Magnetic North or also as a plus ( + ) or minus (-) sign, where West is (-) and East is ( + ).
See Figure 3-4.

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AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM
Page 3-3
Compass Magnetic True North
North � North
'
\�;
DEVIATION-- \·
'll!\
TRACK = 110'(T) + 20'W
- 4' (WEST)
= 130'(M) + 4'(W)
= 134' (C)
TRACK = 1 10'(T) + 20'W

= 130'(M)
TRACK = 110'(T)
Figure 3-4: Compass Deviation
When working from Compass to True the sign can be applied correctly, but must be reversed when
working from True to Compass.
EXAMPLE 1 :
Heading 230' (Compass), deviation + 2', variation 1 6'W

J The true heading is:
230' (C) + 2' = 232' (M) - 1 6'W = 21 6' (T)
EXAMPLE 2:
Heading 1 1 4'(T), variation 21'W, deviation -3'
The Compass heading is:
1 1 4'(T) + 21'W = 135'(M) + 3' = 1 38'(C)
2. MAGNETIC DIP
The force of magnetic attraction, which is strongest at the magnetic poles, is such that the north
seeking end of a freely suspended magnet would tend to point downwards, or dip, at the poles.
Midway between the magnetic poles the earth's magnetic field lies parallel to the surface and the
value of dip is zero. In an effort to reduce the effect of dip near the magnetic poles, the compass is
designed to have a high pivot point with the magnets suspended well below this point so that a
pendulum effect of the magnets acts as a righting force to keep the magnets nearly horizontal. The
residual dip results in a small displacement of the CG and introduces two temporary errors in the
form of acceleration/deceleration errors and a turning error.
3. A CCELERATION AND DEC ELERATION ERRORS
Acceleration and deceleration errors are caused by the pendulous suspension of the magnet
system. The effect of magnetic dip is to displace the centre of gravity (CG) from directly below the
pivot and acceleration forces acting on the pivot will move forward with the aircraft. A force equal in
strength but opposite in direction is experienced at the CG due to inertia. The two forces can
impart a turning motion to the compass needle on easterly or westerly headings, so that the
compass will indicate a slightly different heading to that actually being flown. Once the speed has
stabilised the compass will return to the correct heading. Deceleration has a similar effect except
that the compass will indicate a turn in the opposite direction.
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Private Pilot Licence
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AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM
Page 3-4
Heading West
(a) Constant speed (b) Acceleration (c) Deceleration

Heading 270° Heading decreases Heading increases
Figure 3-5: Acceleration and Deceleration Errors
In Figure 3-5, the aircraft is flying due west, ( 270°). An acceleration would cause the CG to lag
behind which, due to the orientation of the compass card, would indicate a turn to the south. A
deceleration would show a turn to the north. A similar effect will be noticed on easterly headings.
This error will not affect northerly or southerly headings because the C G and the pivot lie in the
same direction.
4. TURNING ERROR
This is caused by the pendulous system of suspension of the magnet, and the displacement of the
CG from under the pivot. In a balanced turn the CG is subject to centrifugal force (C F) causing the
compass magnets, and therefore the card, to lag behind the turn due to inertia. Depending on the
direction of the turn, the indication in the cockpit is that of either a less or more of a turn. The error
is maximum on North and South and can be compensated for, depending on the heading, by either
overshooting or undershooting the required heading. Simply remember the rule ONUS: Overshoot a
Northerly heading and Undershoot a Southerly heading. For example in the Southern Hemisphere if
you were turning, say, from 330° through north to 030° you should continue turning until the
compass indicates 050°,(0N - overshoot north) a delay of 20°. Similarly when turning through south
from, say, 1 60° to 200° you should roll out on a compass heading of 1 80°, (US - undershoot south).
In both cases here the lag or lead was 20°, which is a reasonable rule when turning onto headings
close to North or South. A lesser amount would be required when rolling out on headings closer to
East or West. See Figure 3-6.
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AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM
Page 3-5
Right Turn
1
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Left Turn
ONUS
OVERSHOOT NORTH
UNDERSHOOT SOUTH
Figure 3-6: Turning Error
No error occurs on East and West as the CF acts along the compass needle.

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QUESTIONS
Page 3-01
QUESTIONS
1 . Heading 235° (C). variation 23°W, deviation 2° east. The true heading is:
(a) 2W (T),
(b) 2 1 0° (T),
(c) 260° (T),
(d) 258° (T).
2. Heading 315° (C), variation 21°W, deviation 5° west. The true heading is:
(a) 299° (T),
(b) 001° (T),
(c) 331° (T),
(d) 289° (T).
3. Heading 1 85° (T), variation 25°W, deviation 3° east. The compass heading is:
(a) 21 3° (C),
(b) 1 63° (C),
(c) 20r (C),
(d) 1 57° (C).
4. Heading 015° (T), variation 20°W, deviation 4° west. The compass heading is:
(a) OW (C),
(b) 039° (C),
(c) 359° (C),
(d) 351° (C).
5. Compass deviation is the difference in degrees between:
(a) true north and magnetic north,

(b) true north and compass north,
(c) magnetic north and compass north,
1 (d) the compass heading and the directional gyro heading.
J
6. Whilst maintaining a heading of west in the southern hemisphere, the speed of an aircraft is
increased. The compass will:
(a) indicate a decrease in heading,
(b) indicate an increase in heading,
(c) continue to show the same heading but the direction indicator will show a turn to the right,
(d) continue to show the same heading but the direction indicator will show a turn to the left,
7. Whilst maintaining a heading of east in the southern hemisphere, the speed of an aircraft is
1
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(c) continue to show the same heading but the direction indicator will show a turn to the right,
8. Whilst maintaining a heading of south in the southern hemisphere, the speed of an aircraft is
(c) continue to show the same heading,
(d) indicate a heading of north.

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QUESTIONS
Page 3-02
9. Whilst maintaining a heading of west in the southern hemisphere, the speed of an aircraft is
decreased. The compass will:

(c) continue to show the same heading,
1 0. Whilst maintaining a heading of east in the southern hemisphere, the speed of an aircraft is
decreased. The compass will:
(c) continue to show the same heading.
1 1 . In order to compensate for turning error when making a turn on a magnetic compass from a
south easterly heading, through south, to a south westerly heading, the aircraft should:
(a) roll out of the turn exactly on the required heading,
(b) roll out of the turn before the required heading has been reached,
(c) roll out of the turn only once the required heading has been passed.
1 2. In order to compensate for turning error when making a turn on a magnetic compass from a
north easterly heading, through north, to a north westerly heading, the aircraft should:
(a) roll out of the turn exactly on the required heading,
(b) roll out of the turn before the required heading has been reached,
(c) roll out of the turn only once the required heading has been passed.
1 3. The following figures appear on a compass correction card:
FOR STEER
1 35 1 35
1 80 1 76
In order to fly a magnetic heading of 1 65° the aircraft should fly a compass heading of:
(a) 1 62° (C),

(b) 1 65° (C),
I (c) 1 68° (C),
J (d) 1 58° (C).
1 4. The following figures appear on a compass correction card:
FOR STEER
J
225 225
270 265
In order to fly a magnetic heading of 255° the aircraft should fly a compass heading of:
"
(a) 255° (C),
(b) 257 (C),
(c) 250° (C),
(d) 251 ° (C).

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ANSWERS
Page 3-A1
ANSWERS
1 . (a)
235° (C) +2° east = 237° (M) - 23°W = 2 1 4° (T)
2. (d)
31 5° (C) -5° = 31 oo (M) - 21 ow = 289° (T)
3. (c)
1 85° (T) + 25°W = 21 oo (M) -3° = 207° (C)
4. (b)
0 1 5° (T) + 20°W = 035° (M) + 4° = 039° (C)
5. (c)
See page 3-2, C. COMPASS ERRORS
6. (a)
Acceleration in a westerly direction will cause the compass to show a turn to the south, i.e. from
270° towards 1 80°, which represents a decrease in heading.
7. ( b)
Acceleration in an easterly direction will cause the compass to show a turn to the south, i.e. from
090° towards 1 80°, which represents an increase in heading.
8. ( c)
Acceleration errors only occur on westerly or easterly headings when the needle pivot and CG are
not in line. On northerly or southerly headings both needle pivot and CG lie in the same direction.
9. (b)
Deceleration in a westerly direction will cause the compass to show a turn to the north, i.e. from
270° towards 360° , which represents an increase in heading.
J 1 o. (a)
Deceleration in an easterly direction will cause the compass to show a turn to the north, i.e. from
090° towards 000°, which represents a decrease in heading.
1 1 . (b)
Apply the ONUS rule. Undershoot when turning through south, or roll out prior to reaching the
required heading.
1 2. (c)
Apply the ONUS rule. Overshoot when turning through north, or roll out after passing the required
heading.

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ANSWERS
Page 3-A2
1 3. (a)
45 magnetic degrees equals 41 compass degrees. Therefore 1 magnetic degree equals:
41 + 45 = .91 compass degree. C hange in magnetic heading = 1 65° - 1 35° = 30° x .91 o = 27° +
1 35° = 1 62° (C)
1 4. (d)
45 magnetic degrees equals 40 compass degrees. Therefore 1 magnetic degree equals:
40 + 45 = .88 compass degree. C hange in magnetic heading = 255° - 225° = 30° x .88° = 26° +
225° = 251° (C)

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THE NAVIGATION COMPUTER
CHAPTER 4 Page 4-1
THE NAVIGATION COM PUTER

A. INTRODUCTION
The navigation computer is a simple, yet ingenious device, which can be used to solve a wide variety
of calculations associated with practical navigation in a quick and easy manner. The navigation com
puter has two sides; the wind scale side and the circular slide rule side. A good understanding of
these calculations is a basic requirement for safe and efficient navigation.
B. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION PLANNING

1 . WIND
One of the first problems we are faced with in planning a flight is the effect of wind, which is
twofold:
(a) THE HEAD OR TAIL WIND
The effect here is relatively simple. Flying into a headwind will slow the aircraft down resulting in
a groundspeed (GS) which is less than the True Airspeed (TAS). Groundspeed simply means
the speed of the aircraft relative to the ground. It is the speed used to calculate flying time and
fuel requirements and is thus very important. A tail wind would result in a groundspeed which is
greater than the TAS, which is beneficial in that the aircraft would reach its destination quicker,
consuming less fuel in the process.
(b) THE C ROSS WIND
A wind which is coming from the side is referred to as a cross wind, and its effect is to push
the aircraft off its intended track. This effect is known as drift.
Clearly these effects are significant when planning a flight and it would be useful to calculate the
effect of the wind prior to flight, particularly the cross wind, so that some allowance can be
made. In considering the effect of the cross wind, the speed (TAS) of the aircraft is important
since the faster the aircraft is flying, the less time the wind will have to influence it. Calculations
of both drift and ground speed are achieved through the Triangle of Velocities.
2. THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES
The Triangle of Velocities or Vector Triangle comprises six components and providing four are
known, the remaining two can be found.
TR + GS
Figure 4·1: The Triangle of Velocities
Figure 4-1 shows three vectors and the three velocities associated with each one:
(a) HEADING AND TRUE AIRSPEED - HDG + TAS
The term heading is used to describe the direction in which the aircraft's nose is pointing. It is
in fact the proposed track that the aircraft wishes to follow plus a correction, or allowance, for
the effect of wind, or drift. TAS is the actual speed of the aircraft through the air. Hdg and TAS
are air components and always go together in calculations. In plotting terms, the vector is always
indicated by one arrow.

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(b) TRA C K AND GROUNDSPEED - TR + GS
Track is the term used to describe the aircraft's intended path over the ground. It does not
include a correction for wind. Groundspeed is the speed of the aircraft relative to the ground,
and as stated earlier is the TAS including the head or tail wind component. The vector is
indicated by two arrows in the direction of the proposed flight.
(c) WIND DIRECTION AND VELOCITY - W/V
The wind direction is the direction from which the wind is blowing, for example 030' means that
the wind is coming from a north easterly direction (030'). The velocity is the speed of the wind
in knots (nautical miles per hour). The vector is indicated by three arrows.
Note: The wind always blows from heading to track as shown in Figure 4-1. Remember that the
aircraft's nose is pointed into wind to correct for the drift.
C alculations involving the triangle of velocities are accomplished on the wind scale side of the
navigation computer.
D. WIND SCALE CALCULATIONS

The wind scale side of the computer has two components; a scale which slides up and down and
the rotatable scale graduated in degrees. See Figure 4-2.
ROTATABLE SC ALE
(a) The scale is calibrated in degrees starting from 0' or N (north) to 359'.
(b) A circle or hole indicates the centre of the transparent scale. This centre dot represents a
reference point for most calculations
(c) A soft pencil is necessary as marks will have to be made on the transparent scale; a hard pencil
will ultimately damage the surface.
(d) A fixed scale, measuring up to 50' either side of a black arrow labelled Index is used to apply
calculated drift values to either track or heading.
SLIDING SCALE
(a) The slide has two sides; a high speed scale and a low speed scale which, on some computers,
also has a square grid used for calculating crosswind components.
(b) A centre line runs from top to bottom on both sides. When moved, the centre line should always
be immediately in the centre of the centre dot of the transparent scale.
(c) Arcs of speed which usually start from 40 and are marked off in units of ten with bold lines on
the low speed side, are drawn on the face of the scale. Lighter type arcs indicate units of two.
The units used can be either kts, mph or km.
(d) Drift lines run from the top converging towards the bottom of the scale. They represent degrees
left or right of the centre line and are numbered every 5'.

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Page 4-3
Sliding
Scale
Rotating
Scale
l
Speed
Arcs
;
Square
Scale
Figure 4-2: Wind Scale Side of Navigation Computer
1 . SOLVING FOR HEADING (HOG) AND GROUNDSPEED (GS)
In order to calculate these two components, the following four must be known:
Track (TR), TAS and WN.
The track can be found simply by drawing a line between the two positions and measuring it with
a protractor. This will be explained in Chapter 5, Practical Navigation. The TAS can be determined
from the aircraft's performance graphs, or alternatively a standard speed applicable to the aircraft
type to be flown can be used. The WN can be obtained from the Met office. Remember that it
does vary at different levels, so decide which levels may be used before contacting the Met
Office.
The following components will be used for the sample problem:
EXAMP LE 1
Track 220° (T), WN 290°/20, TAS 1 1 0 k1s. Find the heading to steer and the groundspeed.
SOLUTION 1 - Figure 4-3.
Before attempting to solve the problem it is useful to get a picture of what to expect, for
example the wind is coming from the right (290° is to the right of 220°) by 70°, therefore the
Private Pilat Licence © Avex Air Training 08/2003

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I
Page 4-4
heading must be greater than the track (the aircraft must turn into wind). Also, the wind is
coming from slightly ahead, so the groundspeed must be less than the TAS.
Proceed as follows:
1 . Rotate the scale and place the wind direction (290°) under the index arrow.
2. Mark the wind speed (20 kts) up from the centre. P osition the centre dot at the intersection of
the centre line and any bold speed arc and simply count up two full divisions. Make a pencil
cross.
3. Rotate the scale and place the track (220°) under the index arrow.
4. Slide the scale card until the pencil mark lies on the TAS (1 1 0) arc. Be careful not to rotate the
scale!
5. Read the groundspeed under the centre dot (1 02 kts)
6. Read the drift between the centre line of the scale and the pencil mark (1 0° ) . The pencil mark
is to the right of the centre line so the drift must be added to the track to determine the
heading:
Figure 4-3: Solving for Heading and Groundspeed
EXAMPLE 2
Track 045, WN 360/1 5, TAS 1 00. Determine the Heading and Groundspeed.
SOLUTION 2
Use the step guide on the previous page, remember to remove the previous pencil mark! ! !
Get a picture before you start: the wind is from the left and ahead.
Groundspeed = 89 kts, Heading = Track 045° - 6° drift = 039° (T).
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EXAMPLE 3
Track 1 30°, WN 270°/10, TAS 1 05. Determine the Heading and Groundspeed.
Get a picture before you start: the wind is from the right and behind.
SOLUTION 3
Groundspeed = 1 1 2, Heading = Track 1 30° + 4° drift = 1 34° (T)
EXAMPLE 4
Track 232°, WN ogoo/18, TAS 1 20. Determine the Heading to steer and Groundspeed.
Get a picture before you start: the wind is from the left and behind.
SOLUTION 4
Groundspeed = 1 33, Heading = Track 232° - 5° drift= 227° (T)
2. FINDING HEADWIND AND CROSSWIND C OMPONENTS
Every aircraft has a maximum crosswind operation limit. It is specified in the Aircraft's Flight
Manual and is usually placarded within view of the pilot in the cockpit. The term crosswind
assumes a wind at goo to the runway, and is therefore critical in terms of take-off and landing.
Obviously the wind does not always blow at goo to the runway, so it is necessary to determine
the crosswind component from the surface wind provided. This is easily accomplished using the
navigation computer.
Two items are required:
I
(a) The runway in use.
(b) The surface WN. Remember that the runway direction is magnetic, and therefore the surface
wind direction is a/so magnetic.
Solutions to headwind and crosswind component calculations are achieved using the Crosswind
Correction Table located on the wind card. An example is given in Figure 4-4.
The table provides wind speeds in knots from 1 0 to 70, and angles between runway and wind
direction from oo to goo. For speeds or angles in between some interpolation will be necessary.
EXAMPLE 1
J
Runway 35, surface WN 030°/20
SOLUTION 1
1. Calculate the angle between the wind direction and the runway (030 - 350 = 40°).
2. Locate the wind speed (20 knots) in the vertical column.
3. Move horizontally to the 40° column.
4. Headwind = 1 5 knots.
5. Crosswind = 1 3 knots.

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Page 4-6
MII!:Jit: Dt:lWt:t:ll VVIIIU UJit:(jlJUI / i:111U nUf iWi:1Y
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
10
20
.!2
0
30
§
Headwindfll:71
� Crosswind
.s
" 40
"'
"'
cit
" 50
�
60
70
Figure 4-4: The Crosswind Correction Table

'
..
EXAMPLE 2
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Runway in use 1 7, surface wind 1 20'/25. Determine the headwind and crosswind components.
SOLUTION 2
The wind angle is 50° (1 70° - 1 20°), but this time interpolation between 20 and 30 knots is
required. Enter the 50° column and note the figures for 20 knots {H/W 1 3 and X/W 1 5). Now
make a note of the figures for 30 knots (H/W 1 9 and X/W 23). Interpolate for headwind first:
1 9 - 1 3 = 6. Since 25 is midway between 20 and 30, half of 6 = 3, so 1 3 + 3 = 1 6 knots
headwind.
The crosswind component is calculated in the same manner:

23 - 1 5 = 8 + 2 = 4 + 1 5 = 1 9 knots crosswind.
EXAMPLE 3
Runway in use 06, surface wind 1 35°/30. Determine the headwind and crosswind components.
SOLUTION 3
The wind angle is 75° (1 35° - 60°). This time Interpolation between 70° and 80° will be required.
First the headwind:
At 30 knots the headwind component for 70° is 1 0 knots and for 80° it is 5 knots. The difference
between the two is 5 knots, half of which is 2.5° so the headwind is 1 0 - 2.5 = 7.5 knots.
(NOTE: the headwind component will decrease with an increase in the angle between the wind
direction and the runway).
Calculate the crosswind in the same manner:
At 30 knots the crosswind for 70° is 28 knots and for 80° it is 30 knots, the difference being 2
knots, half of which is 1 knot so the crosswind = 28 + 1 = 20 knots.
The two functions described so far (ie Finding Hdg and GS, Finding Headwind and C rosswind),
are the most common uses for the wind scale side of the navigation computer and are regularly
used by pilots. However, the Triangle of Velocities can also be used to find the WN and the Track
and Groundspeed. Remember, if four components are known, then the remaining two can be
found.

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Page 4-7
3. FINDING WN
To find the wind direction and velocity (WN) the following must be known:
Heading, Track, TAS and Groundspeed.
EXAMPLE 1
Hdg 220', Tr 21 0', TAS 1 00, GS 1 1 0. Determine the WN.
As always try and get a picture: The Hdg is greater than the track, so the wind must be from
the right. The GS is greater than the TAS so there must be a tailwind.
1 . Rotate the scale and set the Hdg (220') under the Index arrow.
2. Slide the scale until the TAS is under the centre dot.
3. The drift is left (the aircraft will be pushed left if the wind is from the right) to the value of 1 0',
so make a pencil cross where the 1 0' left drift line cuts the GS (1 1 0) arc.
4. Rotate the scale until the pencil mark is on the centre line at the bottom of the computer.
5. Read the wind direction under the Index arrow (332' ).
6. Read the wind velocity between the centre dot and the pencil mark (21 kts).
Figure 4-5: Finding W/V
EXAMPLE 2
Hdg 335', Tr 345', TAS 1 20, GS 1 1 5. Determine the WN.
SOLUTION 2
Get a picture before you start: Heading is less, so the wind is from the left. Groundspeed is less
so there is a headwind. Remember, drift is to the right so make the pencil mark to the right.

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Page 4-8
W/V = 263°/20
EXAMPLE 3
Hdg 040°, Tr 050°, TAS 1 1 0, GS 1 1 5. Determine the W/V.
SOLUTION 3
WIV = 302°/20
EXAMPLE 4
Hdg 1 00°, Tr 090°, TAS 1 20, GS 1 30. Determine the W/V.
W/V = 21 0°/24
4. FINDING TRA CK AND GROUNDSPEED
To find Track and Groundspeed, the following must be known:
W/V, TAS, Hdg.
EXAMPLE 1
W/V 330°/20, TAS 1 20, Hdg 025° (T). Determine the Track and Groundspeed. See Figure 4-6 on
the next page.
SOLUTION 1
1 . Rotate the scale and place the wind direction (330°) under the Index.
2. Mark the wind speed (20 kts) down from the centre dot.
3. Rotate the scale and place the Hdg (025°) under the Index.
4. Slide the scale until the TAS (1 20) is under the centre dot.
5. Read the drift angle (9°) between the centre line and the pencil mark; wind is coming from
the left, so the track must be the Hdg plus the drift - 025° + go = 034°.
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6. Read the Groundspeed (1 1 0 kts) under the pencil mark.

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Figure 4-6: Finding Track and Groundspeed
EXAMPLE 2
W/V 270°/10, TAS 1 1 0, Hdg 325° (T). Determine the Track and Groundspeed.
SOLUTION 2
Track = 330°, Groundspeed = 1 04 kts.
EXAMPLE 3
W/V 0 1 0°/25, TAS 1 25, Hdg 1 1 5° (T). Determine the Track and Groundspeed.
SOLUTION 3
Track = 1 25° , Groundspeed = 1 34 kts.
EXAMPLE 4
W/V 1 30°/20, TAS 1 20, Hdg 005° (T). Determine the Track and Groundspeed.
SOLUTION 4
Track = 357° , Groundspeed = 1 33 kts.
E. SLIDE RULE SIDE CALCULATIONS

The slide rule side of the navigation computer provides a quick and simple method of calculating a va
riety of solutions to navigation problems. It comprises two graduated scales. However, care should be
taken especially with the selection of numbers. For example, the number 1 0, is also used as 1 ; 70 is
used as 7; 1 5 can be 1 .5, 1 5, 1 50 or 1 500 and so on. Also check the graduations as the value does
change; between 1 4 and 1 5, for example each graduation represents 1 , but between 1 5 and 1 6 it
changes to the value of 2.

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Page 4-1 0
The inner scale is usually referred to as the time scale, one hour being represented at the 60 by a
dark triangle.
The outer scale can be used for the units to be used in conjunction with the time scale. For example:
1 . SPEED, DISTANCE AND TIME C ALCULATIONS
Using the wind scale we would have calculated a groundspeed. If we know the distance we have to
fly, the flying time can be calculated in the following manner:
EXAMPLE 1
Groundspeed 1 34, distance to fly 1 95 nm. Determine the flying time.
SOLUTION 1
Using the slide rule side of the computer, align the GS (1 34) on the outer scale against the 60
on the inside scale. Without moving the computer, locate the distance to travel (1 95) on the
outer scale and immediately opposite it on the inside scale will be the flying time (87) in
minutes.
Figure 4-7: Calculating Flying Time
EXAMPLE 2
Groundspeed 1 1 4, distance 358 nm. Determine the flying time.
SOLUTION 2
Flying time = 1 88 minutes or 3 hours eight minutes.
EXAMPLE 3
Groundspeed 96, distance 82 nm. Determine the flying time.
SOLUTION 3
Flying time = 51 minutes.
EXAMPLE 4
G roundspeed 1 22, distance 273 nm. Determine the flying time.
SOLUTION 4
Flying time = 1 34 minutes or 2 hours 1 4 minutes.

Calculations involving speed, distance and time involve four components, providing three are known
the fourth can be calculated on the slide rule. So:
EXAMPLE 1
The distance between A and B is 1 96 nm, the flying time between A and B was 1 hour 1 7
minutes. Determine the groundspeed.
SOLUTION 1
Align the distance flown (196 nm) on the outer scale with the flying time (77 minutes) on the
inside (time) scale. Read the groundspeed over the 60 minute mark.
Groundspeed = 1 53 kts.

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Page 4-1 1
Figure 4-8: Finding Groundspeed

EXAMPLE 2
An aircraft flew from A to B in 2 hours 49 minutes at a groundspeed of 1 1 8 kts. Determine the

distance flown.
SOLUTION 2
Again, convert the flying time to minutes - its easier to work with. Align the groundspeed (1 1 8) on
the outer scale with the 60 minutes mark on the inner scale. Locate the flying time ( 1 69 minutes)
on the inner scale and immediately opposite read the distance flown (332 nm) on the outer scale.
Figure 4-9: Finding Distance Flown
2. CONVERSIONS
The slide rule also makes provision for conversions, ie kilometres into nautical or statute miles and
vice versa, litres into gallons - both Imperial (UK) and US, pounds weight (lb} into kilograms (kg),
feet into metres and so on. Simply locate the units required and enter the values to be converted.
EXAMPLE 1
Convert 700 km into nautical miles.
SOLUTION 1
On the outer scale at 1 0 is a marker indicating km-m-ltr (kilometres, metres and litres). Rotate
the inner scale to position 70 (representing 700) against the arrow at km-m-ltr. On the outer
scale between 50 and 55 is an arrow marked naut m. Without rotating the scale read off the
equivalent nautical miles (378) on the inner scale.
EXAMPLE 2
Convert 2 1 0 kg into lb.
SOLUTION 2
On the outer scale at 80 is an arrow marked kgs. Rotate the inner scale until 21 (21 0) is
positioned opposite the kgs arrow. Without rotating the scale locate the lbs arrow between 1 7
and 1 8 on the outer scale. Read off the equivalent weight in lbs (463) on the inner scale.
EXAMPLE 3
Convert 65 USG into litres.
SOLUTION 3
On the outer scale between 26 and 27 is an arrow marked us gal. Rotate the inner scale to
position 65 immediately opposite the arrow. Without rotating the scale, locate the ltr symbol on
the outer scale at 1 0 and read off the equivalent litres (246) on the inner scale.
3. CALCULATING TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)
The term "True Airspeed" refers to the aircraft's actual speed through the air. It is not, however, the
speed registered on the airspeed indicator or ASI. In order to determine the aircraft's TAS we need
to consider the following:

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(a) INDIC ATED AIRSPEED (lAS)
Indicated Airspeed is read from the ASI. It suffers from two errors:
(i) Instrument error - this is simply the wear and tear of age and use. The error is normally
ignored in light aircraft.
(ii) Position error - this refers to the position of the pilot tube in relation to the airflow. Situations
occur where the tube is not pointing directly into the airflow, in particular at high angles of
attack (low airspeed) and low angles of attack (high airspeed). The application of flap in
some aircraft can also contribute to position error in that the induced down wash deflects the
airflow slightly. A correction for position error can be established from a graph produced by
the aircraft's manufacturer. Figure 4-10 shows a typical Airspeed C alibration Graph which has
been entered with 70 kts lAS and from it is extracted a Rectified or Calibrated Airspeed
(RAS/CAS) of 75 kts.
170 J:j:j:j:j:j: AIRSPEED SYSTEM C ALIBRATION

GROSS WEIGHT 3200 LBS
90
75 kts
CAS
40 50 60 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 1 50 160 170 180
KIAS ZERO INSTRUMENT ERROR
Figure 4-10: Airspeed System Calibration
(b) RECTIFIED AIRSPEED (RAS)
Rectified Airspeed (RAS) or the American term, Calibrated Airspeed (C AS) is lAS corrected for
position error. Once the RAS has been extracted from the graph the next step in finding TAS can
begin.
(c) TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)
The error that must be corrected for at this stage is called density error and is a product of
both temperature and height, both of which cause a decrease in density. Less dense air
entering the pilot tube will cause a reduced airspeed indication. In order to complete the TAS
calculation, the outside air temperature (OAT) and altitude must be known. Most aircraft have an
OAT gauge and an altimeter! The three items can then be entered into the navigation computer
to determine the TAS.
In addition to the two scales we have been working with, the face of the slide rule side of the
navigation computer contains three windows. One is marked "Altitude", another "Air Speed" and
the third "Density "Altitude". TAS calculations require the use of the "Airspeed" window.

Revision: 08/2008
Page 4-1 3
On the top of the window is a scale of temperature in o C starting from 0 to -80 to the right and
to + 50 to the left. The graduation scale comprises short and long marks. The short mark
represents 5° and the long mark 1 0°. Rotate the face of the computer until figures appear in this
window. A graduated scale should appear starting from 2000 ft below sea level and numbered
from 0 every 5000 ft. It follows that 1 000 feet is represented by one mark. TAS is calculated in
the following manner:
EXAMPLE 1
Given: RAS 1 00, OAT + 1 0°, altitude 7000 ft. Determine the TAS.
SOLUTION 1
Rotate the dial until 7000 ft is lined up with + 1 0°. Make sure it is (+) and not (-)! Without
further rotating the scale, locate the RAS on the inside (time) scale, and immediately opposite
on the outside scale will be the TAS -1 1 3 kts. See Figure 4-1 1 .
�0
+ 1 0°
7000 ft
Figure 4-11: Calculating TAS
EXAMPLE 2
RAS 1 05, OAT oo C, altitude 9500 ft. Determine the TAS.
SOLUTION 2
TAS = 1 2 2 kts.
EXAMPLE 3
RAS 95, OAT + 5o C, altitude 8500 ft. Determine the TAS.
SOLUTION 3
TAS = 1 1 0 kts.
4. C ALC ULATING DENSITY ALTITUDE
Density altitude is the term used to describe the effect of temperature and altitude on air density. Air
density decreases with an increase in both altitude and temperature, if both factors are present at
the same time, for example Grand Central Airport (elevation 5327 ft) in mid-summer, then aircraft
performance is severely affected. Most aircraft performance graphs cater for the effect of both
temperature and altitude directly, so it is not normally necessary to calculate the density altitude.
However, this calculation can be done - perhaps not very accurately - on the navigation computer.
For this calculation we will use two of the windows; the "Airspeed" and "Density Altitude" windows.
EXAMPLE 1
Temperature +25° C, airfield elevation 5000 ft. Determine the density altitude.

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I
Page 4-1 4
SOLUTION 1
Enter the temperature ( +25) against the altitude (5000) in the Airspeed window in the manner
already described under TAS calculations. The density altitude can be read off in the Density
Altitude window which gives approximately 7500 ft. See Figure 4-12.
+ Z5
�
P.,IRSPEEO
�
5 10
of.NSITY ALTITUDE:
Figure 4-12: Calculating Density Altitude
EXAMPLE 2
Temperature + 30° C , airfield elevation 3500 ft. Determine the density altitude.
SOLUTION 2
Approximately 6000 ft.
A more accurate method of calculating density altitude requires the use of pressure altitude and
ISA temperatures.
(i) Pressure Altitude
A pressure altitude is the same as a flight level, in that it simply means what the altimeter is
indicating, either on the ground or in the air, with the standard setting of 1 01 3 hPa set on the
subscale. It can easily be calculated if we remember that one hectopascal is the equivalent of
30 ft in height.
EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the pressure altitude at Grand Central (elevation 5327 ft) if the QNH is 1 028.
SOLUTION 1
The difference between the QNH and standard setting is 1 5 hPa. 1 5 x 30 ft = 450 ft. Since
the subscale will be reduced from 1 028 to 1 0 1 3, the altimeter will also decrease in height,
so:
5327 - 450 = 4877 ft.
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the pressure altitude at Wonderboom (elevation 4095 ft). if the QNH is 1 01 0.
SOLUTION 2
This time the QNH is tess than the standard setting, so remember - increasing subscale,
increasing needles. 1 01 3 - 1 01 0 = 3 hPa x 30 ft = 90 ft. Since the subscale must be
increased from 1 01 0 to 1 01 3, the altimeter reading will increase by 90 ft. Therefore 4095 +
90 = 41 85 ft pressure altitude.
(ii) ISA Temperatures.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is used as a basis for measuring aircraft
performance and calibrating instruments. Because of variations in the atmosphere a standard
set of conditions is required and in the case of ISA, the following assumptions are made:
* the mean sea level temperature is + 1 5° C ;

* the lapse rate, or loss of temperature with altitude is 1 .98° C per 1 000 ft;
* air is dry and uniform throughout;

Revision: 08/2008
Page 4-15
* the mean sea level pressure is 1 0 1 3.25 hPa. Other factors include the values of gravity and
density.
The temperature according to ISA at any altitude can easily be calculated.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the ISA temperature at 8500 ft.
SOLUTION 1
For ease of calculation the lapse rate can be rounded up to 2', so:
8500 x -2' per 1 000 ft = - 1 7' C, but remember ISA starts from sea level at + 1 5' C, so:
-1 7' + 1 5' = -2' c.
If the temperature experienced at that altitude is not the same as ISA says it should be then
this is known as an /SA deviation. Let us assume that the actual temperature at 8500 ft is
+ 1 0' C . This is in fact 1 2' warmer than ISA says it should be and so it would be written as
/SA + 12'C.
EXAMPLE 2
The temperature at 9500 ft is ISA + 3'C . What is the temperature?
SOLUTION 2
According to ISA the temperature should be:
9500 x -2' = -1 9' C + 1 5' C = -4'C, now apply the correction:
-4' c + 3' c = -1' c.
(iii) Calculating Density Altitude.
EXAMPLE
Airfield elevation 5000 ft, QNH 1 030, temperature +25'C . C alculate the density altitude.
SOLUTION
To solve this, we will need the pressure altitude and the ISA deviation, so:
1 030 - 1 01 3 = 1 7 hPa X 30 = 5 1 0 ft.

5000 - 51 0 ft = 4490, for ease of calculation we will use 4500 ft.
4500 ft x -2' C = -9'C + 1 5'C = + 6'C, according to ISA. But the actual temperature is
+ 25', so:
+25'C - +6'C = + 1 9'C .
An increase of 1 'C equals an increase in height of approximately 1 20 ft (an increase in

temperature decreases air density and air density decreases with altitude), so:
1 9' x 1 20 ft = 2280 ft + 4500 ft = 6780 ft density altitude.
In our example this simply means that because of the density altitude conditions, an aircraft
taking off at 5000 ft will only achieve the performance it would normally experience at 6780
ft.
5. C ALC ULATING TRUE ALTITUDE
The reference or datum used to calibrate instruments such as the altimeter is the International
Standard Atmosphere, or ISA. The assumptions made according to ISA include the temperature
structure of the atmosphere, ie a mean sea level temperature of + 1 5'C and a lapse rate of
approximately 2'C per thousand feet. Instances where these conditions do not exist lead to errors in
the instruments, in this case the altimeter. The errors are generally small at low altitudes but
increase with altitude. We should also remember that the altimeter is calibrated according to a
standard pressure and again if that pressure does not exist this will also lead to error. When we fly
we are effectively flying at an indicated altitude. To determine the true altitude we need to correct

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Page 4-1 6
this reading for the temperature and pressure. This is accomplished by using the navigation
computer.
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft is flying at F085, QNH 1 028, temperature + 1 0°C. Determine the true altitude.
SOLUTION 1
To solve this problem, three items are required:
Temperature, pressure altitude (flight level) and QNH altitude.
Two of these items have been given directly, ie temperature and pressure altitude. The QNH
altitude can be found as follows:
Flight level 85 is based on 1 01 3. If the QNH is 1 028 the difference in hectopascals is 1 5. A

change of one hectopascal is approximately 30 ft in height. Therefore 1 5 hectopascals = 450
feet. Since the QNH is higher than standard ( 1 0 1 3) the altitude must be higher. So:
Temperature = + 1 oo C,
P ressure altitude = 8500 ft
QNH altitude = 8950 ft
On the slide rule side of the computer locate the altitude window and align the pressure altitude
with the temperature. On the inside scale of the computer locate the QNH altitude and
immediately opposite on the outside scale read the true altitude - 9350 ft
� 8500
p.LTITUD£
Figure 4-13: Calculating True Altitude
6. FUEL CALCULATIONS
(a) FUEL REQUIRED
Fuel consumption can be expressed in US gallons per hour (US Gph), litres per hour (LPH),
pounds per hour (Lbs/hr) or kilograms per hour (Kg/hr). In American light aircraft US Gph is the
common method, so to find the fuel required we need the following:
Groundspeed, distance (or simply the flying time for the flight), reserve requirements and the fuel
flow (F/F).
EXAMPLE 1
Distance A to B, 205 nm, GS 1 22, F/F 8.0 US Gph, reserve 45 minutes. Determine the amount
of fuel to be loaded.
SOLUTION 1
C alculate the flying time using the navigation computer.
Flying time A - B = 1 hr 41 minutes. Since the total fuel required for the flight comprises
burn-off and reserve, it is easier to add the two together and do one calculation:

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1 :41 minutes + 45 minutes reserve = 2:26 or 1 46 minutes.
Align the F/F (8.0) on the outer scale with the 60 minutes mark on the inner scale. Locate 1 46
minutes on the inner scale and immediately opposite on the outer scale read the fuel required
in USG (19.5 USG).
Figure 4-14: Calculating Fuel Required
(b) ENDURANCE
The term endurance in the context of fuel calculations refers to the flying time that can be
obtained from a given quantity of fuel.
It follows, then, that if the amount of fuel on board the aircraft is known and the F/F is also known,
the endurance can be calculated.
EXAMPLE 1
Fuel on board is 40 USG, F/F 8.6 Gph. Determine the endurance.
SOLUTION 1
Rotate the scale and place the F/F (8.6) on the outer scale over the 60 minutes mark on the
inner scale. Locate the total fuel on board (40 USG) on the outer scale and immediately
opposite on the inside scale read the time (endurance) in minutes (280 minutes) or 4 hours 40
minutes.
40 86
28
Figure 4-15: Calculating Endurance
The endurance can also be calculated if the total weight of the fuel on board is given and the fuel
flow also in weight.
EXAMPLE 2
Usable fuel on board is 1 60 lbs. F/F 45 lbs/hr. Determine the endurance.
SOLUTION 2
Use Figure 4-15 as a guide but substitute weight for volume. Answer = 21 3 minutes (3hrs 33
minutes).
EXAMPLE 3
An aircraft flies from A to B, distance 245 nm, TAS 1 1 0 k1s, TR 230• (T), forecast WN 1 80./1 5,
cruise fuel flow 9.5 USG/hr. Calculate the fuel required for the flight plus 45 minutes reserve.
SOLUTION 3
In order to calculate the fuel required, we must first calculate the expected flying time. This is a
function of groundspeed and distance. Using the navigation computer, calculate the
groundspeed.
G roundspeed = 1 00 k1s. Flying time = 245 nm @ 1 00 k1s = 2 hours 27 minutes. Total fuel
required will be for the flight from A to B plus the reserve, so:
2 hours 27 minutes + 45 minutes = 3 hours 1 2 minutes @ 9.5 USG/hr = 30.4 USG.

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'
Taking this one step further let us assume that the pilot loads extra fuel and has 45 USG of
usable fuel on board. On reaching B, the weather has deteriorated and the pilot cannot land for
the time being. Since he has extra fuel on board the pilot decides to delay diverting to the
alternate and instead remain in the vicinity of the airport to see if the weather will clear.
A ssuming the same power setting is used, and therefore the same fuel flow, how long can the
pilot hold without infringing the reserve?
45 USG - 30.4 USG = 1 4.6 USG available to hold @ 9.5 USG/hr. Using the navigation
computer:
The pilot can hold for 92 minutes or 1 hour 32 minutes.
EXAMPLE 4
A n aircraft departs A for B with 34 USG of fuel on board, which includes 45 minutes reserve at
cruise fuel flow. Cruise TAS 1 25 kts, headwind component 1 0 kts, cruise fuel flow 1 0.6 USG/hr,
distance A to B 1 80 nm. Allow 3.3 USG for taxi, take-off and climb. Without infringing the
reserve fuel, how long can the aircraft hold over B?
SOLUTION 4
Again, fuel required is a function of flying time. In this example a TAS is given and instead of
the WN and track a headwind component is provided. If the TAS is 1 25 kts and there is a
headwind component of 1 0 kts, then the groundspeed is: 1 25 - 1 0 = 1 1 5 kts.
Flying time = 1 80 nm @ GS 1 1 5 = 1 hr 34 minutes.
Fuel required = 1 hours 34 minutes plus 45 minutes reserve = 2 hours 1 9 minutes @ 1 0.6
USG/hr = 24.6 USG. Remember now to add the 3.3 USG used for taxi, take-off and climb and
we will have the total fuel required: 24.6 + 3.3 = 27.9 USG.
Fuel remaining at B = 34 - 27.9 = 6.1 USG @ 1 0.6 GPH = 35 minutes.

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Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 4-01
QUESTIONS
1 . WN 220/20, Track 095° (T), TAS 1 50.
The heading and groundspeed is:
(a) 1 01 ° (T) and GS 1 61 ,

(b) 089° (T) and GS 1 61 ,
(c) 1 01 ° (T) and GS 1 50,
(d) 089° (T) and GS 1 50.
2. WN 285/20, TAS 1 00 kts, Track 230° (T), Variation 23° W, deviation 2° east, distance 1 83 nm. The
compass heading to steer and the flight time is:
(a) 255° (C) and 2 hours 1 0 minutes.

(b) 268° (C) and 1 hour 46 minutes.
(c) 248° (C) and 2 hours 1 2 minutes.
(d) 260° (C) and 2 hours 6 minutes.
3. WN 1 55/1 5, TAS 1 05 kts, Track 285° (T) , Variation 22° W, deviation 4° west, distance 2 1 5 nm. The
j
compass heading to steer and the flight time is:
(a) 295° (C) and 2 hours 5 minutes.
(b) 305° (C) and 1 hour 53 minutes.
(c) 29T (C ) and 1 hours 53 minutes.
(d) 301° (C) and 1 hours 53 minutes.
l
4. Hdg 005° (T), drift 1 0° Left, TAS 1 20, GS 1 1 0.
J
The WN is:
(a) 306/22,
(b) 0 1 5/1 8,
(c) 064/22,
(d) 355/1 8.
l
J 5. Hdg 238° (T), drift 8° right, TAS 1 00, GS 1 05.
The WN is:
(a) 1 33/1 5,
(b) 343/1 5,
(c) 1 44/1 2,
(d) 1 29/1 2.
6. WN 050/30, runway 1 1 in use.
The crosswind component is:
(a) 26 kts,
(b) 30 kts,
(c) 20 kts,
(d) 15 kts.
7. WN 080/1 5, runway 03 in use.
The crosswind component is:
(a) 9.5 kts,

(b) 1 2 kts,
(c) 1 1 .5 kts,
(d) 1 0.5 kts.

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l
Q UESTIONS
Page 4-02
8. F095, temperature ISA + 9°C, RAS 1 05.
The TAS is:
(a) 1 28 kt,
(b) 1 23 kt,
(c) 115 kt.
"l (d) 118 kt.
l
9. F085, temperature ISA + 2°C, RAS 95.
The TAS is:
(a) 112 kt,

(b) 1 05 kt,
(c) 1 oo kt.
(d) 1 08 kt.
I 1 0. The elevation of airfield A is 3400 ft. If the QNH is 1 028 the pressure altitude will be:
(a) 3850 ft,

(b) 3420 ft
(c) 2950 ft
(d) 2880 ft.
1 1 . The elevation of airfield A is 2900 ft. If the QNH is 1 005 the pressure altitude will be:
(a) 2660 ft,

(b) 2820 ft
(c) 3050 ft
(d) 3 1 40 ft.
1 2. The pressure altitude at airfield A is 5000 ft. If the QNH is 1 025 the airfield elevation will be:
(a) 5360 ft,

(b) 4640 ft
(c) 4750 ft
(d) 5500 ft.
1 3. The pressure altitude at airfield A is 3600 ft. If the QNH is 1 008 the airfield elevation will be:
(a) 3750 ft,
J
(b) 3450 ft
(c) 3370 ft
(d) 3650 ft.
1 4. The elevation of airfield A is 4250 ft, the QNH is 1 022 and the OAT +25°C. The density altitude is:
(a) 6 1 60 ft,
(b) 6350 ft,
(c) 5880 ft,
J (d) 5450 ft.
1 5. The elevation of airfield A is 3800 ft. the QNH is 1 023 and the temperature is ISA + 1 5°C. The
density altitude is:
(a) 4800 ft,

(b) 5 1 00 ft,
(c) 5580 ft,
(d) 5300 ft.

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QUESTIONS
Page 4-03
1 6. An aircraft flies from A to B, distance 235 nm, at a groundspeed of 1 05 kts. If the average fuel
flow is 7.3 USG/hr the trip fuel required will be:
(a) 1 4.8 USG,

(b) 1 5.6 USG,
(c) 1 6.3 USG,
(d) 1 7.3 USG.
1 7. An aircraft flies from A to B, distance 1 95 nm, at a groundspeed of 1 1 0 kts. If the average fuel
flow is 7.8 USG/hr the fuel required for the flight plus 45 minutes reserve will be:
(a) 1 9.6 USG,

(b) 2 1 .6 USG,
(c) 1 8.1 USG,
(d) 1 8.8 USG.
1 8. An aircraft was overhead airfield A at 0920. At 1 036 the aircraft is overhead airfield B. Distance
flown 1 38 nm. If the average tailwind was 9 kts, the TAS was:
(a) 1 1 8 kts,
(b) 1 09 kts,
(c) 95 kts.
(d) 1 oo kts.
1 9. An aircraft flies from A to B, a distance of 8 em on a chart the scale of which is 1 : 1 000 000 in 1 8
minutes. The groundspeed is:
(a) 1 38 kt,
(b) 1 08 kt,
(c) 1 43 kt,
(d) 118 kt.
20. An aircraft flies from airfield A to airfield B at a TAS of 1 1 5 kts, a distance of 1 30 n m in 1 hour 1 5
minutes. I n order to fly back to A i n 1 hour 1 8 minutes the required TAS is:
(a) 1 1 5 kts,
(b) 1 1 1 kts,
(c) 1 04 kts,
(d) 89 kts .
. l
Private Pilot Licence © A vex Air Training 08/2003

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 4-A1
ANSWERS
1 . (a)
See page 4-3, 1 . SOLVING FOR HEADING AND GROUNDSPEED
2. (d)
Hdg 239° (T) + 23° W = 262° (M) -2° east = 260° (C)
Distance 1 83 nm @ GS 87 kts = 2:06
3. (b)
Hdg 279° (T) + 22° W = 301 o (M) +4° west = 305° (C)
Distance 2 1 5 nm @ GS 1 1 4 kts = 1 :53
4. (c)
Drift left means that the aircraft is being pushed to the left of track, which means that to compensate
the aircraft will alter heading to the right, in this case by 1 0°. If the heading is 005°, then the track
must be 355°. With four items, Hdg, TR, TAS and GS, the remaining two elements of the triangle of
velocities, WN, can be found.
l
See page 4-7, 3. FINDING WN
5. (a)
J
Similar to the previous question, this time the drift is right so the heading correction will be to the
left, which means the track is 246°.
6. (a)
The angle between the wind direction and runway direction is 1 1 0 - 50 = 60°. This angle intersects
the wind speed (30 kts) to give a crosswind of 26 kts.
See page 4-5, 2. FINDING HEADWIND AND CROSSWIND COMPONENTS
7. (c)
The angle between the wind direction and runway direction is 080 - 30 = 50°. The wind speed of 1 5
kts falls between 1 0 kts and 20 kts in the table. Interpolate between the two:
l 50° and 20 kts

50° and 1 0 kts
1 5 - 8 = 7 kts
=
+
1 5 kts
8 kts.
2 = 3.5 kts + 8 kts = 1 1 .5 kts.
8. (b)
Be careful. The temperature given is an ISA deviation. Calculate the temperature at F095:
..J
I 9500 x -2/1000 ft = -1 9° + 1 5° = -4° +9° = +5°C. In the airspeed window align 9500 with +5°,
locate RAS 1 05 on the inside scale to read TAS 1 23 on the outside scale.
See page 4-12, (c) TRUE AIRSPEED
9. (d)
Again, the temperature given is an ISA deviation. Calculate the temperature at FOBS:
8500 x -2/1 000 ft = -1 T + 1 5° = -2° +2° = ooc. In the airspeed window align 8500 with 0°, locate
RAS 95 on the inside scale to read TAS 1 09 on the outside scale.
· J
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Private Pilot Licence
Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 4-A2
1 o. (c)
Pressure altitude is what the altimeter will indicate if 1 01 3 is set on the subscale.
1 028 - 1 01 3 = 1 5 hPa x 30 ft/hPa = 450 ft. Since the subscale setting must be reduced to set
1 01 3, the altimeter needles will also register a reduction in altitude.
3400 It - 450 It = 2950 ft.
See page 4-14, (i) PRESSURE ALTITUDE
1 1 . (d)
1 01 3 - 1 005 = 8 Hpa x 30 ft/hPa = 240 ft. This time the subscale must be increased to set 1 0 1 3
and the needles will also indicate a n increase i n altitude.
2900 It + 240 It = 3140 ft.
1 2. (a)
Be careful. This time we are working from pressure altitude to airfield elevation.
1 025 - 1 01 3 = 1 2 hPa x 30 ft/hPa = 360 ft. In this case the subscale will already have been
reduced from 1 025 to 1 01 3 to provide the pressure altitude. Therefore the subscale, and the
altimeter needles, will have to be increased to read airfield elevation.
5000 It + 360 It = 5360 ft.
13. (b)
Similar situation, but because the QNH is less than standard the subscale would have been
increased to read standard setting and pressure altitude.
1 01 3 - 1 008 = 5 hPa x 30 ft/hPa = 1 50 ft.
3600 It - 1 50 It = 3450 It
14. (a)
Density altitude can be found using a navigation computer, but it is too inaccurate. Where a QNH
has also been provided then the density altitude should be calculated.
First find the pressure altitude:
1 022 - 1 01 3 = 9 hPa X 30 It = 270 ft.

4250 It - 270 It = 3980 ft. For ease of calculation use 4000 ft.
Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for the temperature deviation from ISA.
4000 x -2°C/1000 It = -8° + 1 5° = +7°. The OAT at +25°C is 1 8° warmer than ISA. Adjust the
pressure altitude upwards by 1 20 It for each 1 oc above I SA.
1 8° X 1 20 = 2 1 60 ft + 4000 ft = 61 60 ft.
See page 4-15, (iii) CALCULATING DENSITY ALTITUDE
1 5. (d)
1 023 - 1 01 3 = 1 0 hPa x 30 ft/hPa = 300 ft. 3800 - 300 It = 3500 It pressure altitude.
In this case a temperature calculation is not necessary because the ISA deviation has been given.
1 5° X 1 20 ft = 1 800 ft + 3500 ft = 5300 ft.

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 4-A3
1 6. (c)
235 nm @ GS 1 05 kts = 1 34 minutes (2: 1 4) @ 7.3 USG/hr = 1 6.3 USG
See page 4-16, 6. FUEL CALCULATIONS
1 7. (a)
1 95 nm @ GS 1 1 0 = 1 06 minutes (1 :46) + 45 minutes = 2:31 @ F/F 7.8 USG/hr = 1 9.6 USG
1 8. (d)
Distance = 1 38 nm in 1 :1 6 = GS 1 09 kts. There is a 9 kt tailwind so the TAS must be less than

the GS by 9 kts.
1 9. (c)
Earth distance = 8 000 000 em + 1 85300 = 43 nm in 1 8 minutes = GS 1 43
20. (d)
A to B in 1 : 1 5 = GS 1 04 kts. The difference between TAS and GS is 1 1 kts and since GS is less
than TAS there is a headwind. On the return there will be an 1 1 kt tailwind. B to A in 1 : 1 8 = GS
1 00 kts 1 1 kts = TAS 89 kts.
-

Revision: 08/2008
PRACTICAL NAVIGATION
CHAPTER 5
Page 5-1
-1 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION
l A. INTRODUCTION
Navigation is probably one of the more enjoyable aspects of flying; more so if the ground preparation
has been properly completed. Planning the navigation flight involves several aspects including route se
lection, flight log completion, altitudes or flight levels to be used, weather forecast for en-route and
destination, the selection of possible alternates, fuel requirements, weight and balance calculations and
aircraft performance requirements. Items of equipment that will be required for the task will be the navi
gation computer, a square protractor, a scale ruler, dividers, soft pencil, eraser and a simple electronic
calculator.
B. ROUTE SELECTION
Obviously the desired route is known, but is it feasible? Considerations here include:
1 . AIRSPACE
Check for Controlled, Restricted or Prohibited areas.
2. DISTANCE
Measure the distance to see if it is within the fuel capabilities of the aircraft. If not, select an en-route
re-fuelling stop.
3. ALTITUDES OR FLIGHT LEVELS
Check en-route spot heights, remember to add 1 000 ft to determine the minimum safe altitude.
Airspace restrictions may require the use of altitudes instead of flight levels.
4. WEATHER REPORT
Call the Met office and obtain current en-route, destination and alternate weather data such as cloud
base, upper winds, expected changes and visibility.
5. FLIGHT LOG
This includes calculating groundspeeds, headings, estimates, fuel requirements etc. Also research
radio communication and radio navigation beacon frequencies.
6. WEIGHT AND BALANCE
This aspect is covered in detail in the separate manual Flight Performance and Planning.
7. AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE GRAPHS
Calculate the take-off distance required, rates of climb, en-route TAS and fuel burn as well as
landing distance required at destination and alternate. This is an important part of pre-flight planning
and is covered in the separate manual Flight Performance and Planning.
C. PRE-FLIGHT PLANNING
I
1 . NAVIGATION LOG
.J There are many types of navigation log in use, but despite the variations of format they all serve a
common purpose, namely to provide the pilot with an organised method of writing down the
information required for the navigation flight.
The example shown on the next page comprises three sections:
(a) General Information - comprising Loadsheet, Fuel Required, Radio Information and Airfield
Information.
(b) Flight Log - which allows calculation of headings, groundspeeds and flight times.
(c) In-Flight Log - used to calculate actual groundspeed and revised estimates.

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I PILOT Jzs- jTYPE

NAVIGATION LOG
DATE
LOADSHEET FUEL REQUIRED RADIO INFORMATION AIRFIELD INFORMATION

IMAUW lbs BURN OFF USG IELV F·
I EMPTY WT IRtw
lb! lbs
�
-
1 1��"1 11• LD -
lb• RESERVE USG IRtw
I FUEL REQ IELV
�
-
lb• lbs F:
I PILOT + LOAD -
lb• TOTAL USG IRtw
lbs �/W
FLIGHT LOG
FLT TR WN HDG VAR HDG G/S DIST LEG
TR (M) FROM TO TAS
LVL (T) (T) (M) TIME
IN-FLIGHT LOG
PT-PT PT-PTTIME EST NEXT ACTUAL REVISED FUEL

ACTUAL HDG POSITION
DIST POINT GS EST TIME
TIME (C) 1ST EST 2ND EST DEST REM
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. J

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2. MAP PREPARATION
Two charts are in common use in aviation, the 1 : 1 000 000 and 1 :500 000 scale charts which have
a topographical base with an aeronautical information overlay. The preferred chart for training is the
1 :500 000 scale which shows ground features in more detail than the 1 :1 000 000. The first step in
planning the flight is to draw in the track (TR) between the two airfields, ALPHA and BRAVO, to be
used. Use a soft pencil and ensure that the track is clearly visible. Both the bearing and distance of
the track can now be measured.
3. MEASUREMENTS AND CALCUlATIONS
(a) TRACK BEARING
The bearing of the track is measured with a square protractor by placing the centre of the
protractor on the track and aligning either the centreline of the protractor, or one of its grid lines,
with a meridian on the chart. The bearing is measured clockwise from the meridian which is our
true north reference, so ensure that the "N", or arrow, of the protractor is facing north! Remember
convergency? We cannot eliminate it, but by measuring the track at the mid-meridian we can
reduce its effect somewhat. Figure 5-1 shows how to measure the bearing of a track. In this
example three meridians are indicated, "A", "B" and "C", and the effect of convergency is clearly
visible. Meridian "B" is the mid-meridian and so this is where the track is measured.
Meri dian "A" d

Meri ian "B"
Mid-meridian
Figure 5-1: Measuring the Track Bearing
The bearing of the track is 1 06° (T) . It is important at this point to indicate the bearing as true with
a capital "T". This figure can now be entered in the TR (T} column of the Flight Log.
(b) TRACK DISTANCE
This can be measured using a scale ruler. Measure the distance from ALPHA to BRAVO,
between the centre of each circle, and as most scale rulers have various scales on them make
sure to use the correct one! For the purpose of this explanation we will assume a distance of
1 90 nm and this figure can also be entered in the "Dist" column of the Flight Log.

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(c) CALCULATING HEADING AND GROUNDSPEED
This has been covered in Chapter 4, so if necessary use the step guide. We will assume a
forecast wind of 050'/20 and a TAS of 1 20 kts. Enter these two figures in the relevant columns
of the Flight Log and complete the calculations.
Heading = 098' (T)

GS = 1 08 kts
(d) CALCULATING HEADING MAGNETIC
A true heading, 098' in this case, is of no use to us in an aircraft. To convert the true heading to
a magnetic heading we must apply the variation. This is shown on a chart by an isogonal, an
example of which is also given in Figure 5-1. Enter the variation (17' W) in the "VAR" column of
the Flight Log and complete the calculation, "West is best" so add the variation to the true
heading to obtain a magnetic heading of 1 1 5' (M), note the "M" is now used to indicate magnetic.
(e) CALCULATING THE FLIGHT TIME
Flying time is a function of groundspeed and distance, so:
GS = 1 08 kts, distance = 1 90 nm. Using the computer, the flying time is 1 06 minutes (1 hour 46
minutes). Enter this in the "Leg Time" column of the Flight Log.
(f) FLIGHT LEVEL
The last part of the Flight Log to be completed is the flight level to be used. Remember that flight
levels are based on the proposed magnetic track, so add the TR (T) to the Variation and
complete the TR (M) column of the Flight Log. According to the Semi-Circular Rule, this magnetic
track requires an odd flight level, plus 500 ft. So, assuming the highest point along track to be
6800 It, add the safety height of 1 000 It and the next usable flight level will be F095. Enter this in
the appropriate column. The completed log appears in Figure 5-2.
FLIGHT LOG
FLT TR WN HDG VAR HDG GIS DIST LEG
TR (M) FROM TO TAS
LVL (T) (T) (M) TIME
%
0
1 23 F095 ALPHA BRAVO 120 1 06 20 098 17 115 1 08 1 90 1 .46
Figure 5-2: Completed Flight Log
4. UPDATING INFORMATION
The information extracted so far is based on a forecast wind. Once airborne it is the task of the
pilot to keep track of where he is by map reading and at the same time update his estimates. This
is achieved in two ways.
(a) REVISED ESTIMATES
Our original estimated flying time was based on the groundspeed calculated by computer, using
a forecast WN provided by the Met office. In order to revise estimates, keep track of fuel
consumption etc, we need an accurate groundspeed. In Chapter 4 the method of using time and
distance to calculate speed was explained. We can put this to good use in the air, but some
pre-flight planning with this in mind is essential. Prior to take-off we will look along the track on
the map and locate two suitable checkpoints en-route. In selecting them, look for obvious
features; roads or railway lines cutting the track are a good choice. We must also consider the
fact that to calculate an actual groundspeed, we need to be in level flight at the selected
cruising TAS. The distance to the first checkpoint must allow for completion of the clirnb to our
cruising level/altitude. See Figure 5-3.

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ALPHA 061 5
0628
35 nm
25 n m
BRAVO
Figure 5-3: Calculation of Actual Groundspeed
Figure 5-3 shows the original track with two checkpoints "X" and "Y" now identified. To calculate
the aircraft's actual groundspeed in the air, we will take the time at checkpoint "X" and again at
checkpoint "Y", knowing the time between the two points and having measured the distance it is
a simple computer calculation to determine the groundspeed. For purposes of explanation,
assume the distance from ALPHA to "X" 35 nm, from "X" to "Y" 25 nm and from "Y" to
destination BRAVO 1 30 nm. These figures are now entered in the In-Flight Log section of the
navigation log. See Figure 5-4.
IN-FLIGHT LOG
PT·PT PT·PT TIME EST NEXT ACTUAL REVISED FUEL

ACTUAL l-OG POSITION POINT GS EST llME
TIME cl DIST
1st Est 2nd Est DEST F£M
0553 Set Heading ALPHA 0612

0615 Cross uxu 35 19 0629
�]
0628 Cross uyu 25 14 115 0736
Overhead BRAVO 1 30 72 68
Figure 5-4: In-Flight Log
The aircraft departs ALPHA at 0553, crosses "X" at time 061 5 and "Y" at 0628. These are actual
times and are therefore entered in the "Actual Time" column by the pilot as the aircraft crosses
each point. The column entitled "Pt-Pt Time" (point to point time) contains two columns; " 1 st
Est" contains estimates for each leg based on the forecast groundspeed and "2nd Est" is used
to calculate a second estimate based on the actual groundspeed. The column "Est Next Point"
is used to note the expected time at which the aircraft will cross the next checkpoint, for
example if the aircraft departed ALPHA at 0553 and the estimated flying time to "X" is 1 9
minutes ( 1 st Est column) the aircraft should cross "X" at 0612. I n fact, the aircraft crosses "X"
three minutes later at 0615, probably due to the climb. The estimated time to the next point "Y"
is 1 4 minutes and in the "Est Next Point" column the pilot enters the time at which he should
cross "Y" as 0629. The aircraft crosses "Y" at 0628 and so it has taken the aircraft 13 minutes to
fly 25 nm. Using the computer this equals a groundspeed of 1 1 5 kts, 7 knots faster than
originally calculated. The new or actual groundspeed is entered in the column provided. To
u pdate our ETA for B, use the new groundspeed of 1 1 5 kts and distance to go of 1 30 nm.
Flying time equals 68 minutes (1 hour and eight minutes), this is entered in the "2nd Est"
column and added to the time at "Y" to calculated the revised ETA for B, which is then entered
in the appropriate column.
(b) OFF TRACK CORRECTIONS
In the air, the pilot is able to map read his way along the proposed track and by reference to
various selected ground features is able to determine his position. However, if the aircraft has
been blown off track, the pilot needs a simple method to correct the track error and either regain
the desired track or alter heading direct to destination. Again, work done on the ground makes
the flying easy and various methods can be used.

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1 . 1 oo DRIFT LINES
It would be difficult, in flight, for the pilot to pull out a ruler, draw in a track on the map and
measure it with a protractor and still fly the aircraft at the same time. The 1 oo Drift Line method
is a means of determining the track error without the use of a protractor.
Prior to departure draw in lines at an angle of ten degrees either side of the track from both
ends as shown in Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-5: 1 oo Drift Lines
Now. once the pilot is airborne and map reading he obtains a fix by reference to suitable
ground features as indicated in Figure 5-6, and estimates he is T to the left of track. He now
has two options; either regain the track, or alter heading to destination.
REGAINING TRACK
This method may be desirable on long legs and is generally used if the halfway point has not
been reached. In the example shown, an alteration of heading of 7° would merely parallel the
track. If the track error (7°) is doubled and the aircraft alters heading to the right it will regain
the track. Theoretically, the time it takes to regain the track is the same as the time it took to
get off track. Obviously if this method was used after the halfway point the aircraft would only
regain the track after passing the destination.
Alteration byl"
will only parallel
track Double the track error
to regain the track
- - -
- - -
- -
- -
Figure 5-6: Using the 1 oo Drift Lines
ALTERING HEADING TO DESTINATION
This method is normally used on short legs, or when the halfway point has been passed. The
original track error of 7° is good, but now the angle from this point to destination must be
estimated and added to the track error to determine the final heading change. To this end, it is
useful to have a second set of drift lines drawn from the destination.
Figure 5-7 shows a situation where the aircraft has passed the halfway point and estimates the
track error as 7°. To alter heading by T will obviously just parallel the track. To double the track
error (1 4°) will mean that the aircraft will miss the destination because the heading change will
be too small. By estimating the angle from the fix to the destination and adding it to the first
track error we will arrive at the heading change required (1 9°) to reach the destination.

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'
-----
- ��,:� , � �
-----
o Heading change tor

1 2o destination = 19°
error 7°
angle 12°
Figure 5-7: Heading Change Required to Destination
2. ONE IN SIXTY RULE
The basis of the "1 in 60 Rule" is the fact that over a distance of 60 nm, if the aircraft is 1 nm
off track then the track error is 1 °.
Figure 5-8: One In Sixty Rule
Logically, then, if the aircraft is 5 nm off track after having flown 60 nm, the track error is 5°. In
reality we cannot fly 60 nm just to find the track error and so it is relatively simple to create a
formula for calculations of track error at distances other than 60 nm:
Track Error = Distance Off Track

Distance Flown x 60
EXAMPLE 1
After flying a distance of 1 56 nm an aircraft is 1 3 nm off track. The track error is:
SOLUTION 1
__1Q_
1 56 X 60 = 5°
1 3 nm
1 56 nm
Figure 5-9: Calculating the Track Error
An alteration of heading of 5° would merely parallel the track, so if the halfway point has not
yet been passed, we can double the track error to regain track. But as with the 1 0° drift line
method, once the halfway point has been passed, doubling the track error means we will
miss the destination. Another formula is used to calculate the angle to destination:
Distance Off Track

Distance To Go x 60
EXAMPLE 2
Using the same figures as Example 1 , assume a distance to go of 78nm.

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SOLUTION 2
1.9_
78 x 60 = 1 0°
The total heading change that the aircraft must make to reach destination is the sum of the
two calculations: 5° + 1 0° = 1 5°.
1 56 nm 78 nm
Figure 5-10: Calculating the Heading to Destination
5. OTHER INFORMATION
(a) I N-FLIGHT LOG
Two other uses of the In-flight Log concern the "Heading Compass" and "Fuel Time Remaining"
columns. The Heading Compass column allows the pilot to convert the heading from magnetic to
compass after checking the compass correction card in the aeroplane to be flown. The Fuel Time
Remaining column enables the pilot to keep track of fuel consumption. At the commencement of
the flight the usable fuel on board is converted into endurance (time) and entered in this column.
As the flight progresses the pilot can simply deduct the time elapsed, at each point along the
way, from the total fuel time thereby keeping a record of fuel left on board.
(b) LOADSHEET
This provides space for the pilot to calculate the weight of the loaded aircraft. The terminology
used and weight and balance calculations are covered more fully in the separate manual Flight
Performance and Planning. This section allows the pilot to check that he does not exceed the
maximum weight of the aircraft.
(c) FUEL REQUIRED
Three aspects are covered:
(i) Burn Off
This refers to the fuel required for the flight. Fuel volume (US gallons) and weight are entered.
(ii) Reserve
Fuel reserve requirements in volume and weight are entered.
(iii) Total Fuel Required
The totals of both volume and weight are entered. Fuel volume converted to weight is useful
when computing the weight of the loaded aeroplane.
(c) RADIO INFORMATION
This section comprises a convenient space for the pilot to write down the frequencies of the
relevant radio communication and radio navigation beacons to be used for the flight.
(d) AIRFIELD INFORMATION
In this section, space is provided for the basic information of two airfields to be inserted.
Elevations in feet, runway directions and length as well as surface can be entered as a quick
reference for the pilot. See Figure 5-1 1 .

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LOADSHEET FUEL REQUIRED RADIO INFORMATION AIRFIELD INFORMATION
MAUW lbs BURN OFF USG I ELV Ft
Runway
EMPTY WT -
lbs lbs R/W F
USEFUL LD -
lb RESERVE USG R/W
� Aunway
F
FUEL REQ -
lb lbs
IELV Runway
Ft
PILOT + LOAD -
lb TOTAL USG R/W F
Runway
Ibs R/W F
Figure 5-11: Information Section of The Navigation Log
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RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS
CHAPTER 6
Page 6-1

A. VHF DIRECTION FINDING (VDF)
INTRODUCTION
VHF Direction Finding is one of the easier systems in use to help pilots who may be unsure of their
position or who require assistance with routing. The only equipment required in the aircraft is a VHF
radio capable of transmitting and receiving on aeronautical radio frequencies.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The system operates on the principle that VDF ground-based equipment can determine the bearing
of an aircraft's radio transmission and calculate the direction of the transmitter from the receiver. The
ground equipment consists of a directional antenna system and a VHF radio receiver. The VDF
receiver display indicates the magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground station each time the
aircraft transmits.
FREQUENCY
It operates on the VHF range of 1 1 8 to 135.95 MHZ.
CLASSIFICATION AND ACCURACY OF BEARINGS
Bearings from DF stations are classified as follows:
Class A - Accurate within plus or minus 2°

Class B - Accurate within plus or minus 5°
Class C - Accurate within plus or minus 1 oo
Class D - Accuracy less than Class C
Being VHF, the accuracy of VDF bearings may be reduced by:
1 . Site Errors, which are caused by the reflection of the transmissions from buildings, high ground,
vehicles or aircraft.
2. Propagation Error, which is the effect of the influence of different types of terrain on
transmissions, particularly over longer distances.
3. Range is limited, like all VHF systems, to line of sight, but can be increased if the aircraft is able
to climb to a higher altitude.
The formula for finding the maximum range is:
Range in nm = 1.25 Transmitter + 1.25 Receiver

Height AMSL Height AMSL
DF stations have the authority to refuse to give bearings, headings or positions when conditions are
unsatisfactory or when bearings do not fall within the calibrated limits of the station, stating the
reason at the time of refusal.
USING THE SYSTEM
VDF stations should be capable of providing an aircraft with a magnetic bearing to the station
(QDM), magnetic bearing from the station (QDR) and a true bearing from the station (QTE). The
most likely request would be for a QDM to enable the aircraft to fly directly to the station.
An aircraft which requires a series of bearings or headings, should call the DF station on the
appropriate frequency and request the service by using the expression " ...... request QDM". The
controller would then provide the pilot with the magnetic heading to steer to reach his station.
Because this is essentially a zero wind bearing, the pilot should make allowance for drift and
continue to request a QDM to ensure that the path is being maintained.

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AVAILABILITY OF VDF STATIONS
Ground stations which are capable of providing a VDF service are listed in the Aeronautical
Information Publication (AlP), South Africa, Part 3, Aerodromes, under ATS Communication Facilities,
or on the 1 :500 000 or 1 : 1 000 000 aeronautical charts in the aerodrome information boxes.
0_ VHF OMNI DIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR)

Operating in the VHF band the VOR has, for many years, been used as a fairly reliable and accurate
short range navigation aid.
1 . PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION
The basis of VOR bearing propagation is phase comparison. Two signals are transmitted by the
VOR station; the first is known as a reference signal, which is omni-directional (transmitted in all
directions), whilst a second signal, the directional signal, is added and it is the phase difference
between these two signals which determines the bearing of an aircraft from the station. To make
matters easy for the pilot, the bearing is corrected for variation at the station to make it a magnetic
bearing. The bearing thus received by the aircraft is known as a radial, and since it is presented in
degrees, there are 360 of them.
2. FREQUENCY
VOR operates in the VHF band in the frequency range between 1 08 and 1 1 7.95 MHZ.
3. RANGE AND ACCURACY
Because it is a VHF system the range of a VOR is dependant on the power of the transmitter and
line of sight limitation. In the case of most light aircraft the usable range will probably be between
50 and 70 nm. Certainly, the higher we can fly the better coverage will be obtained. Accuracy is
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very good, with a combined error between ground and airborne systems of around s• it is
considered a primary short range navigation system.
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4. ERRORS
SITE ERROR
1
J Reflected radio waves from buildings or terrain in the close vicinity of the transmitter can affect
phase difference resulting in incorrect bearing information.
l
J PROPAGATION ERROR
Terrain error affects the signals throughout their passage to the aircraft. Multi path reception is the
biggest enemy of VOR signals at a distance from the transmitter. Multi path refers to two signals,
one received directly from the transmitter and the other reflected from a hill or other large
obstruction. The two signals arrive at different times and different phase, thus interfering with each
other, resulting in a distorted signal. Multi path distortion causes a CDI needle to wander, or
oscillate. This effect is called Scalloping.
5. VOR MONITORING
Transmissions from VOR stations are automatically monitored for accuracy and signal strength. If
any malfunction occurs, the !DENT and navigational components are removed from the carrier wave,
thus no bearing information is received.
When the main transmitter fails or is shut down, a standby transmitter is brought into operation. It
takes time for the transmissions to stabilise and become fully operational. During this time the
/DENT is removed to indicate that the bearing information may be unreliable or incorrect.
The /DENT is also removed during routine maintenance.
6. !DENT
Normally VOR's transmit a 3 letter morse code group at least once every 1 0 seconds. In South
Africa the last letter of this group is always the letter "V", for example PEV, JSV, CTV etc.
7. PRESENTATION
The VOR indicator, or Course Deviation Indicator (CDI), in an aircraft consists of a rotatable dial, a
left/right needle and a TO/FROM window which also contains a red and white "unserviceable" flag.

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This may be displayed when a ground station is unserviceable, the station is out of range or when
the aircraft crosses the station. A row of dots either side of centre indicates the number of degrees
of needle deflection. Full scale deflection of the needle is 1 0°, on a five dot (either side) indicator,
each dot represents 2°. Some indicators only have four dots either side, one dot representing 2S.
u ro u
window
1
. l
OBS knob /
Left Right
needle
Figure 6-1: VOR Indicator with Five Dots
An Omni Bearing Selector (OBS) knob allows the pilot to rotate the dial in order to determine his
present bearing from or to the station, or to select a pre-determined radial that he wishes to
intercept and maintain. See Figure 6-1, which shows a typical VOR indicator, with radial 300
selected.
8. USING THE VOR
The VOR can be used in several ways. One method is to use the VOR to provide position lines to
fix position or provide groundspeed checks. To do this we must determine our present radiaL Step
one is to ensure the set is switched on and the correct frequency selected and identified. Once this
has been established, we simply rotate the OBS until the from flag appears in the window and
continue turning the knob until the needle is centred. The radial can then be read under the arrow
at the top of the diaL Figure 6-2 shows the aircraft steering a heading of 270° crossing radial 300.
Radial 300
Aircraft Hdg 270°
VOR Station
Figure 6-2: Crossing a radial
To use this bearing as a position line we obviously have to draw it on a map, but remember a radial
is magnetic! And we cannot draw magnetic bearings on a true map. To correct from magnetic to

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true we simply look on the map at the location of the VOR station and determine the local variation.
Subtract this from the radial and we have a true bearing.
9. Q CODES
Some of the Q codes will already be familiar. Those which are pertinent from a navigation point of
view are the following:
QDM Magnetic heading to a station

QDR Magnetic bearing from a station
QUJ True heading to a station
QTE True bearing from a station
Once variation has been subtracted from the radial the bearing is called a QTE.
1 0. PLOTTING A QTE
To plot the QTE, place a square protractor over the station making sure that the centre line of the
protractor is lined up with the closest meridian (remember convergency?) and plot the relevant
bearing. Use a pencil to draw the bearing from the station.
EXAMPLE
Radial 300, station variation 1 7° W.
300° - 1 7° = QTE 283.
Figure 6-3 shows how the resultant QTE is plotted.
/ Meridian
QTE 283°
Radial 300°
- 1 7" W
QTE 283°
Figure 6-3: Plotting a QTE
1 1 . CREATING A FIX
Now, if we were to take a bearing from a second VOR at the same time, convert it to a QTE and
plot it as well we would be able to create a fix from the intersections of the two radials.
EXAMPLE
AT 0930 an aircraft obtains the following radials:

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Radial 2 1 7 from VOR BBV
Radial 300 from VOR AAV
Variation at both stations is 1 7° W
Plot the aircraft's position at 0930.

Remember that radials are magnetic, so:
21 7 -1 7° W = QTE 200 VOR BBV

300 - 1 7° W = QTE 283 VOR AAV
Plot each QTE in turn and the resultant fix is shown in Figure 6-4.
VOR BBV
Fix at 0930
QTE 283°
VOR MV
QTE 200°
Figure 6-4: Plotting a Fix
B. AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF) and NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NOB)

The ADF is the airborne receiver/indicator system that works in conjunction with the ground based Non
Directional Beacon (NOB) which operates in the Low Frequency (LF) and Medium Wave (MW) bands.
The advantage of this system in comparison to the VOR is that transmissions can be received at
greater distance, depending on the power of the transmitter.
1 . PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The ADF receiver in the aircraft incorporates a direction finding "loop" antenna combined with a
sense antenna. The loop aerial is able to determine the maximum and minimum signal strength of
the incoming radio wave. In practice the minimum strength is more clearly defined and is used to
determine the direction of the beacon, however a 1 80° error is present and this is resolved by the
sense aerial. The signal obtained from the NOB is shown on the ADF indicator in the form of a
relative bearing, or the angle between the nose of the aircraft and the NOB.
2. ERRORS AND ACCURACY
The disadvantage of this system lies in the errors that it is subjected to:
TERRAIN OR MOUNTAIN EFFECT
Mountains or terrain can reflect the signal and can cause multi path reception. The direct
transmission from the NOB is received plus one or more indirect reflections resulting in errors. Error
reduces with increased altitude.
COASTAL REFRACTION
As a radio wave passes from one medium to another its velocity can change and the signal can
bend towards the medium with the higher density. The error depends on the angle at which the
radio wave crosses the coast. Zero error at 90 degrees, the error increasing as the angle becomes
acute. The error reduces with increased altitude or by selecting an NOB near the coast.

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NIGHT EFFECT
At night sky waves, which are reflected back to earth by the ionosphere, will mix with the ground
waves causing excessive oscillations of the AOF needle and therefore vague and incorrect bearings.
Night effect can be minimised by:
(a) Selecting lower NOB frequencies.

(b) Selecting stronger NOB's.
(c) Selecting NOB'S close to the aircraft's position.
(d) Avoid using the AOF at dawn or dusk.
STATIC INTERFERENCE
Large errors can occur in the vicinity of thunderstorms as a result of static discharge, (lightning) the
AOF needle may even point to the thunderstorm rather than the NOB. Precipitation (rain) static also
effects the bearing accuracy and range as does static build up on the aircraft's airframe and the
consequent discharge.
STATION INTERFERENCE
The MF band is congested not only with NOB's but also commercial broadcast stations and errors
can occur if two NOB'S are on the same, or similar, frequencies. The AOF needle will tend to point
to the position which is in fact the resultant of the field strengths of two different transmissions. This
problem is exacerbated at night. There is no effective solution, but some relief can be found by
using a facility only when well within its effective service area and by not placing a heavy reliance
on the use of ADF, particularly at night.
QUADRANTAL ERROR
The aircraft's metal structure (wings and fuselage) act as a good reflector of the incoming radio
wave, which tends to bend and align itself with the aircraft's electrical axis, generally lying in the
longitudinal axis. These signals will mix with those entering the loop causing erroneous ADF
indications. Signals which arrive at the loop from the aircraft's cardinal points (right angles to the
airframe) are unaffected, but those arriving from the quadrantal points (45° to the airframe) suffer the
maximum effect.
3. RANGE
TRANSMISSION POWER
Since we are dealing with MF transmissions, range will be a function of power, but the power
used by the transmitter depends on the purpose of the NOB; a long range navigation aid would
require greater power (perhaps as much as 3 kW) than a locator beacon, (perhaps as low as 30
watts), which may be provided to assist an arriving aircraft to line u p with the runway. However,
doubling the range of the beacon would require the transmitter power to be increased fourfold.
FREQUENCY
At a given power, a lower frequency will increase range because of its longer wavelength.
TERRAIN
Range over the sea is greater than land because of better conductivity.
4. PRESENTATION
The AOF indicator, or more correctly, the Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI), comprises a graduated
scale card, very similar to the Direction Indicator. It is orientated so that the "0" or north always
faces the nose of the aircraft. A needle is mounted in the centre of the face of the dial, which allows
it to rotate freely.
5. USING THE ADF
The required NOB frequency must be selected in the ADF receiver and identified. Once the ADF
needle is activated the needle will turn and point in the direction of the beacon. The graduated scale
card enables the pilot to determine this as a relative bearing, in other words the angle between the
nose of the aircraft and the NOB, measured clockwise. See Figure 6-5.

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Specialised Aviation Services
Figure 6-5: Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI)
Figure 6-5 shows a typical ADF indicator, with the needle showing a relative bearing of 1 20°. In
order to fly directly to the selected beacon the aircraft, in this case, would turn to the right and alter
heading by 120°, or in other words until the needle points straight ahead. This is called homing on
a beacon. If the aircraft was steering a heading of 200° initially, then the heading to the beacon
would be 320°. If, however, we wish to use the ADF to determine a position line, or create a fix,
then an additional calculation is required. Remember, a position line is a bearing drawn from a
beacon. A relative bearing is simply an angle, it is not true, magnetic or compass. However, the
heading to steer will be magnetic, since the aircraft's heading is magnetic. This is not a problem in
the air, but if we wish to draw the position line on the map, it will be. Magnetic bearings cannot be
drawn on a True map. So, we will have to remove the variation (and deviation if it is present) from
the aircraft's heading.
EXAMPLE
Aircraft heading 1 90° (M), relative bearing 045°, variation 1 7° W. What is the aircraft's true
heading to the beacon.
SOLUTION
1 90° (M) - 1 7° W = 1 73° (T) + 045° = 218° (T).
The problem now is to draw the line from the aircraft to the beacon - we need the position of the
aircraft, which we might not know. However, we do no where the beacon is because it is indicated
on the map! So reverse the bearing and plot it from the station: 218° - 1 80° = 038° (a QTE). This
is plotted in the same way as the VOR bearing shown in Figure 6-3.
SOME POINTS TO REMEMBER
1 . A relative bearing is an angle. It is not True, magnetic or compass.

2. Variation/deviation must be removed from the aircraft's heading before adding the relative
bearing.
3. Variation at the aircraft's position must be subtracted, not the variation at the NDB.
4. Relative bearings are always measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft.
5. If the sum of the aircraft's heading and the relative bearing exceed 360°, then subtract 360°
from the total, for example:
Aircraft Heading 31 oo (M), variation 1 5° W, relative bearing 290°. Determine the QTE.
31 oo (M) - 1 5° W = 295° (T) + RB 290° = 585° - 360° = 225° (QUJ) - 1 80° = QTE 045°
6. THE RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)
The RMI, when fitted in an aircraft, is much easier to use to interpret ADF bearings. Basically it is an
ADF receiver, combining the ADF needle with the aircraft's Direction Indicator (DI). In this case the

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QDM or QDR can be read directly from one instrument. A further benefit is that in some cases an
RMI incorporates both ADF and VOR needles. See Figure 6-6.
' VOR
Figure 6·6: Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
Figure 6-6 shows an RMI indicating a QDM of 1 50 and a QDR of 330. The VOR indications shows
the 240 radial.
E. DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

-' Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a system which utilises secondary radar to determine the dis
J tance of the aircraft from a DME ground station. Often co-located with VOR and occasionally with ILS,
(Instrument Landing System) , it is ideal for providing the pilot with a simultaneous fix, ie radial and
DME range. The range provided is, however, the slant range and not the ground range.
DME utilises secondary radar. Both aircraft and ground station transmit and receive radar pulses
using two different frequencies in the same frequency band, the aircraft receives the responses to its
own transmissions and, because the speed of radio waves is known, converts this to a slant range
in nautical miles. A DME station is able to respond to up to 1 00 aircraft only. Above this number the
DME is said to be saturated.
2. FREQUENCIES
J
The system operates in the UHF Band between 962 MHZ and 1 21 3 MHZ
3. VOR/DME FREQUENCY PAIRING
VOR frequencies are paired with DME channels or frequencies. Each VOR has a corresponding DME
frequency assigned to it. When a pilot selects a VOR frequency the corresponding DME frequency is
automatically selected by the equipment. Radio facility charts show the paired VOR frequency, not
the DME frequency.
The term VOR/DME is used to indicate that a VOR is co-located with a DME and co-located means
that the VOR and DME aerials are less than 1 00 feet apart and will use the same I DENT. This is of
no real significance to a VFR pilot, but for an IFR pilot the co-located facilities will provide the
accuracy to carry out an instrument approach procedure at the airfield.
4. ACCURACY AND ERRORS
DME is very accurate, in the order of + 0.5 nm. Errors are nil - DME does not suffer from night
effect, static, thunderstorms, refraction, site errors or propagation errors.
5. PRESENTATION
Various types are available, the more modern being a slim-line digital display box which allows the
pilot to select the VOR frequency required and read from it both the range in nautical miles and the

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aircraft's groundspeed. The latter is only valid if flying directly to or from the ground station. The
unit will also convert the range into time using this groundspeed.
6. USING DME
Finding the range is relatively easy. Using the range with the radial from the VOR is a useful and
fairly quick method of obtaining a fix.
EXAMPLE
Radial 330, station variation 1 6' W, range 35 DME
Calculate the QTE. 330' - 1 6' = 3 1 4'. Plot the QTE from the station and using dividers or a scale
ruler measure 35 nm from the station along the QTE. See Figure 6-7.
35 DME
Radia/ 330
(QTE 3 14)
Figure 6-7: Plotting a Radial and DME Fix
F. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

The Global Positioning System, or GPS as it is more commonly known, is a radio navigation system
which uses satellites to provide global coverage to a limitless number of suitably equipped users either
on the ground, water or in the air. It was originally developed by the United States Department of De
fence for military use throughout the world and has since been made available for civilian use, al
though some of the features are still unavailable to non-military users.
1 . THE GPS SYSTEM
(a) COMPONENTS
The complete system comprises three clearly defined segments:
SPACE SEGMENT
The space segment currently comprises a group, or constellation, of 24 satellites orbiting the
earth in six dedicated orbits, each containing four satellites, which are inclined at 55' relative to
the earth's equator at an altitude of 20, 200 km or 1 0, 898 nm above the surface of the earth.
Global coverage is achieved with only 21 of the satellites, which means that the three
remaining satellites could be considered as spares that can be used in case of failure. Each
satellite contains a very accurate atomic clock.
CONTROL SEGMENT
The control segment comprises a Master Control Station (MCS) in the USA, and a group of
five unmanned monitor stations located around the world. A monitor station is simply a very
accurate radio receiver, the function of which is to monitor the satellites within its area (up to
1 1 simultaneously), collect range and other data and transmit it to the MCS for processing.
Here, the information is used to predict the satellites orbit and timing errors. Corrections are
then sent by one of four ground antennas located at each monitoring station to the satellite.

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USER SEGMENT
The user segment is simply the receiver operated by a GPS user on the ground, water or in
the air. The receiver processes satellite radio signals to provide remarkably accurate time,
position and velocity information.
2. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
GPS position fixing is based on a principle called time of arrival, or TOA, ranging which utilises the
transmission of radio signals and the accurate timing of transmission and arrival. Accurate position
fixing is achieved by using three distances from three different satellites.
The signal transmitted by each satellite contains the exact time the message is sent and the GPS
receiver, containing its own clock, compares the time of arrival of the signal with the time it was
sent. Knowing, as we do, the speed of radio waves it is a simple matter to convert time to distance.
The range thus calculated is referred to as pseudo range since the calculation of the distance
contains certain errors that must be corrected later. Like DME the distance from the satellite is a
circle, called a surface of position, the distance being the radius of the circle with the satellite at its
centre. Figure 6-8 shows the surface of position generated by one GPS satellite.
Figure 6-8: Single Surface of Position
Since the GPS system ensures that there are always six satellites visible at any time, a second
pseudo range can be measured, producing a second surface of position, from the next satellite
received. The two circles intersect at two points, thus placing the receiver in one of two positions.
See Figure 6-9.
Figure 6-9: Two circles of Position
The actual position of the receiver is resolved once the signal from a third satellite is received, since
its surface of position will only intersect at one of the two previous positions. See Figure 6-10.

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The position found by the intersection of the three position spheres relates to the geographical
co-ordinates (latitude and longitude) on the surface of the earth. For 3D navigation, the aircraft's
altitude must also be included. This either involves the use of a fourth satellite or in lieu thereof, the
manual insertion of the aircraft's altitude AMSL.
Figure 6-10: GPS Receiver Position Using Three Satellites
Whilst the principle appears fairly simple, the accuracy of the receiver's position is only as accurate
as the position of the satellites and the accuracy of the clocks. This can be seen in Figure 6- 10,
where the receiver's position, triangular in shape, is referred to as a "cocked hat" (see also Figure
6-1 1) . There are several other factors which also contribute to position accuracy.
3. FREQUENCIES
Continuous satellite transmissions are made on two different frequencies, referred to as L, and L,, in
the L-band. The L, frequency is 1 575.42 MHZ and carries a secondary 50 Hz navigation message
which provides the receiver with information on satellite orbits, clock corrections and other data. The
L, frequency is 1 227.6 MHZ. Satellite control is achieved by S-band transmissions from the MCS via
. a ground antenna (GA).
4. ERRORS
(a) SATELLITE ERROR
The distance, or to be more correct, the pseudo-range of the receiver from the satellite is based
on the time taken by the signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. If the position of the
satellite is different to what it is assumed to be then clearly there will be an error. Without getting
too involved in orbital dynamics we should understand that to keep a satellite in a fixed orbit is
not easy, the physics of which is beyond the scope of this manual. To maintain a satellite in
orbit a balance must be achieved between the earth's gravitational force and the natural
centripetal force of the satellite which would try to drive it into space. Imagine a weight tied to a
piece of string. Swing it around and the weight will follow a circle. Let go of the string and the
weight will disappear in a straight line.
Although assumed to be constant, the earth's gravitational force varies simply because the earth
is not a perfect sphere. It is oblate, which means that it is slightly flattened at the poles and thus
influences the gravitational force. The difference in equatorial and polar diameters is so small that
it is not normally a matter of concern, except that GPS is required to provide exceptional
accuracy and even minor fluctuations in the force of gravity must be corrected. Remember that a
satellite makes two orbits of the earth each day and if the orbit is allowed to vary each time the
error will accumulate. This phenomenon of a satellite not being where it is supposed to be in its
orbit is referred to as ephemeris error. As mentioned earlier, ground based stations monitor
each satellite's orbit to determine the error and pass the information to the user segment in the
form of ephemerides (predicted satellite positions) to enable mathematical corrections. Ultimately
distortions in a satellite's orbit are corrected via a ground station, which transmits a signal to the
satellite activating its rocket motors thus restoring it to its correct orbit. Because the fuel on
board is limited and cannot be replaced, this is only done when really necessary. Finally, it must
be emphasised that the satellite orbits are indeed quite stable, with only small variations.

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(b) CLOCKS AND TIMING
With the position of the satellites now confirmed all that is required is the accurate measurement
of the time of the transmitted and received satellite signals to establish position, and therein lies
the next problem. Radio waves travel at the speed of light: 300 000 000 metres per second, or if
you prefer, 1 62 000 nautical miles per second. At that speed you can imagine the error even if
the timing is milliseconds out. Two clocks are involved.
SATELLITE CLOCKS
Because of the accuracy capability of the GPS system, incredibly accurate timing is essential
and is met in part by installing atomic clocks in the satellites. The reliability of the system is
achieved by installing not one, but four of these clocks in each satellite. Despite their accuracy,
atomic clocks do tend to drift; one publication quotes a gain or loss of one second every
1 60,000 years! This might not have any serious consequences in every day life but, again,
considering the accuracy potential of GPS it is critical. It is also vital that each of the satellite
clocks report the exact same time. Through the monitoring station (MS) system each of the 24
satellite clocks are checked and compared to the GPS master clock located at the Master
Control Station (MCS). Any observed drift is corrected through data signals sent back to the
satellites via the Ground Antenna (GA) system and is subsequently transmitted with the satellite
navigation message as a satellite clock bias error. This process is carried out twice every day.
The timing system used by GPS is called GPS Time and differs marginally from UTC (Universal
Co-ordinated Time).
RECEIVER CLOCKS
Cost, size and weight as well as other considerations make installing similar clocks in GPS
receivers impractical. The solution is to supply each receiver with a quartz crystal clock which is
both light and inexpensive. However, they do lack in accuracy causing an error called receiver
clock bias error which is a direct result of the difference in time between the satellite and
receiver clocks. This difference is calculated by the data processor in the receiver using the
pseudo range of a fourth satellite, creating four equations which can be solved mathematically
to determine the actual position of the receiver. The cocked hat type position, shown in Figure
6- 1 1 , now becomes an accurate fix.
i
I
I
I
II
--------\........ ""
\ .......... /
\ .... //
\
,....,..
.,
�--..... '
'\
·-
------ ',
', \
1 ',
.J
(a) Cocked hat position created by (b) Fix created by three satellites after
three pseudo ranges removal of clock bias error
Figure 6-11: Fix Correction for Clock Bias Error
(c) PROPAGATION ERROR
Electro-magnetic (radio) waves travel at a constant speed; the speed of light or 300 000 000
metres per second. More correctly this figure applies only if the medium through which the radio
wave is passing is a vacuum. Satellite signals, obviously emanating from space, spend a great
deal of their time travelling in a vacuum so the figure holds true. However, once the signals enter
the earth's atmosphere they are slowed down very slightly and a resultant tropospheric time
delay becomes evident. The error is exacerbated if, for example, the GPS receiver is on the
surface of the earth as opposed to being in the air in an aeroplane, or if the satellite transmission
comes from a position fairly low on the horizon where the angle is such that the portion of the
atmosphere through which it must travel is much thicker. A mathematical correction is applied at
the receiver to resolve this error. Another option is for the user to impose a mask angle below
which satellite signals will not be used. Signals below this angle, typically between 5' and 1 0',
are automatically ignored by the receiver.

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Figure 6-12: Mask Angle
Figure 6-12 shows satellites 1 and 6 below the mask angle and are therefore not usable.
A second error now also becomes apparent. As the signals enter the ionosphere they are also
bent slightly, the resultant deviation from a straight line also results in a time delay called
ionospheric delay. This error is resolved by using two frequencies (L1 and 1..,) instead of one.
(d) MULTIPATH INTERFERENCE
This is caused by the reflection of satellite signals from objects close to the receiver; in the case
of an aeroplane from the wings or fuselage. This introduces multiple signals which are slightly
shifted in time thus reducing the accuracy of pseudo-range measurements. Advanced processing
units are capable of detecting these signals and compensating for them.
(e) DILUTION OF PRECISION (DOP)
Dilution of precision, or DOP, is a geometric error based on the relative positions of the user
and its selected satellites an refers to the angle of intercept of the position lines. Position lines
whose angles are close together will not create as clearly defined a fix as one where larger
angles exist, which is a basic principle of navigation plotting as indicated in Figure 6-13.
(a) Position lines close together

X
(b) Position lines at a greater angle to each other
create poorly defined fix create clearly defined fix
Figure 6-13: Geometric Error
(f) GEOMETRIC DILUTION OF PRECISION (GDOP)
GDOP combines geometric error with clock bias error resulting in a condition similar to that
shown in Figure 6-13 (a) . If the angles of inclination of the position lines were smaller the error,
or cocked hat, would be greater. GDOP errors are minimised by the receiver selecting the four
best (in terms of position) satellites available.
5. SYSTEM AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY
(a) MINIMUM SATELLITES
Three satellites are required to determine a two dimensional (2D) position (latitude and longitude
only). For three dimensional (3D) use (latitude, longitude and altitude) four satellites are required.
Accuracy in predictable horizontal positions of 1 00 metres or better should be available on 95%
of occasions and 300 metres or better on 99.9% of occasions.
(b) SIGNAL INTEGRITY MONITORING
Most ground-based radio navigation systems have a form of signal monitoring to ensure reliability
and the same holds true for GPS. The "health" of each satellite is incorporated into each
satellite's transmissions as part of the message to users but considering that a GPS navigation
message takes some 1 2'12 minutes to transmit, and further that the message is only u pdated

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twice each day it would take an unacceptably long time for notification of a failed satellite to be
included in the message. Two systems are currently used to improve reliability of service:
(i) Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
RAIM comprises analyses of GPS signals carried out independently by the GPS receiver.
Bearing in mind that four satellites are required for 3D navigation, if a fifth is added it can be
used by the receiver to confirm the calculation of its position. If a single satellite produces a
significant pseudo-range error it can be isolated and since the remaining four are accurate,
GPS integrity is not compromised. Since continuous RAIM is required, six satellites should
always be in sight, so that if one is faulty five can continue 3D and RAIM service.
In a situation where barometric altitude is used to · augment RAIM the number of satellites
required for the RAIM function may be reduced by one.
In airborne systems which link GPS into an integrated navigation system, such as FMS, either
the GPS is required to provide RAIM or the system itself should be capable of providing a
level of integrity of service equivalent to that of RAIM. This is mandatory for flights under IFR.
(ii) GPS Integrity Broadcast (GIB)
This system relies on ground-based, continuous satellite monitoring linked to satellite

communications systems. Errors in range are made available to the GPS receiver which
evaluates the errors and then selects from the available satellites those that are able to
provide correct information. If this is not possible a warning is provided to the user that
proper GPS service is not available.
6. AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
Our interest in GPS relates to aircraft and air navigation and so the user segment discussed earlier
now becomes the aircraft cockpit. The function of the user segment is to use the satellite information
to determine accurate position (latitude, longitude and altitude) and velocity. The GPS receiver
basically comprises three components:
l
(a) the antenna to receive the satellite signals,
(b) the receiver/processor which performs the navigation solution,
(c) the control/display unit which provides the information to the pilot.
. '
7. GPS POSITIONS
Given the type of accuracy that GPS can provide, an accurate map co-ordinate system is necessary.
It was mentioned earlier that the earth is not an exact sphere but is slightly flattened at the poles
giving rise to the term oblate spheroid. If accurate altitude is to be provided by GPS then the
radius of the earth must be known and must be accurate - the polar diameter is approximately 23
nautical miles less than the equatorial diameter. GPS accuracy requirements can not accept such an
error. A model earth must accurately reflect the true shape of the earth and therefore the WGS-84
earth model, which uses the centre of the earth as its point of origin, produced by the World
Geodetic Survey of 1 984 forms the basis of GPS positioning. Very simply it is a map co-ordinate
system based on an oblate spheroid and then partitioned into a standard latitude and longitude grid.
8. DIFFERENTIAL NAVIGATION
If we consider civilian GPS use, then the accuracy of the system is subjected to errors such as
ionospheric delay, which can be corrected to a degree but not totally eliminated, and selective
availability (SA) which cannot be overcome by the GPS receiver alone. Differential GPS, or DGPS, is
a method which was developed to bypass SA and greatly increase GPS accuracy. Very simply it
includes the used of ground based GPS receiving, or reference, facility located at a very precise
fixed point determined by WGS-84 map co-ordinates. The reference facility is able to track all the
satellites that are visible (in range}, download the ephemeris data and compute corrections based
on it real-time measurements and actual position. These corrections can then be broadcast to users
I
J
to increase the precision performance of their GPS receivers.
9. AIRCRAFT VELOCITY (GROUNDSPEED)
Determination of the aircraft's velocity, or groundspeed, is achieved by the GPS receiver through a
carrier tracking loop which allows the receiver to generate a carrier frequency which differs from the
incoming carrier frequency due to Doppler shift effect. Doppler shift or Doppler effect can be
explained using an example of the sound generated by an approaching aeroplane to a stationary
observer on the ground. As the aeroplane approaches the sound of its engines appears to rise in
pitch until, as it passes and flies away, the pitch appears to fall. This is as a result of the sound

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waves being shortened in one direction and lengthened in the opposite. A similar effect is created
by carrier waves. The carrier tracking loop in the GPS receiver is able to adjust the carrier frequency
generated by the receiver until it is the same as the incoming carrier frequency, the difference
between the two carrier frequencies is proportional to the relative velocity between the receiver
(aircraft) and the satellite. The GPS processor uses the relative velocity of four satellites to determine
the aircraft's velocity.
G. GROUND RADAR
When radio energy is transmitted from an antenna and directed at a predetermined area it is reflected
in all directions from objects within this area, a phenomenon which is called scattering. This results in
some of this reflected electro-magnetic energy being sent back to the transmitter where it is picked up
by a receiver. The presence of an object or target, as it is commonly called, in a beam of radio en
ergy is detected by the backscattering, or echo, of the reflected radio waves which would otherwise
continue indefinitely. In addition, by measuring the elapsed time between the transmitted radio energy
and the echo the distance of the target from the transmitter can be determined.
PRIMARY RADAR
Using one transmitter, one receiver and one frequency, Primary Radar uses the pulse technique to
determine both the range and bearing of an object. It operates in the VHF and higher frequencies.
BEARING MEASUREMENT
Through a rotating antenna, aligned with a suitable reference point, ie True or Magnetic north, a
transmitter sweeps a narrow beam of pulses through 360°, the effect being similar to a rotating
searchlight. Pulses which are reflected by a target and returned to the receiver as an echo will
therefore indicate the bearing of the object. The width of the beam is made as narrow as possible,
either by utilising a larger aerial or using a shorter wavelength, in order to increase the accuracy of
bearings and identification of targets.
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Distance measurement is achieved by timing the interval between the transmission of the pulse and
"its return as an echo. We know that radio waves travel at a constant speed of 300 000 000 metres
1 per second, or 1 62 000 nm per second and so the formula:
.l Distance = Speed x Time
would normally apply. However, since the time measured is the time taken by the pulse out and
back, the formula must be slightly re-arranged to determine the distance of the object:
Distance = Speed x Time

l 2
J RANGE OF PRIMARY RADAR
Range depends on many factors, including:
I
)
1 . Transmission Power
Clearly, an increase in power will increase the range. But remember that with primary radar, the
pulse has to travel to the target and return as an echo. With radio, the power must be increased
4 times just to double the range, but with radar the power must be increased 1 6 times to double
the range.
2. The Nature of the Reflecting Target.
The strength of the reflected echoes is dependant upon the size, shape and material of the
target. Clearly metal is a far better reflecting agent than a softer material such as wood or plastic.
3. Target and Transmitter Altitude
Given that VHF and higher frequencies are used by radar the same problems associated with line
of sight transmissions apply. The formula for calculating range used earlier may also be used
with radar. Logically, then, any intervening high ground would also reduce the effective range of
radar.

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4. Rain and Cloud
Water droplets in cloud and falling rain have the effect of absorbing and scattering radiation at
wavelengths of less than 3 em thus reducing radar range.
ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY RADAR
1 . One antenna can be used for both transmission and reception.

2. A ground installation using primary radar can achieve very narrow and therefore accurate beams
by substantially increasing the size of the antenna.
DISADVANTAGES
* A very powerful transmitter is required to ensure effective returns from targets

* Because of the high power requirement, reflections from terrain and precipitation can cause
"clutter" on radar screens
* In order to identify which aircraft is the target, the controller will request the aircraft to carry out
several manoeuvres, i.e. heading changes.
DISPLAY
The information produced by radar is displayed on a radar screen, which is a cathode ray tube
(CRT) using the same principle as television.
Rotating electronic beam
Range marks
Figure 6-14: Radar Screen
The screen contains range marks (circles) to assist in estimating the distance of the target, a blip or
paint leaving a following trace indicates the path of the target and the rotating antenna is
represented by an electronic beam.
USES OF GROUND RADAR
Air Traffic Control (ATC) and other organisations associated with aviation make extensive use of ground
I radar for monitoring and controlling aircraft, or for providing weather information. Some of the radar
J services available include:
1 . LONG RANGE RADAR
Primary radar capable of providing range and bearing, and in some cases secondary radar (SSR) , is
used in control areas and/or airways. The range can be up to 300 nm.
2. MEDIUM RANGE RADAR
Common in South Africa for providing control in the Terminal Control Area (TMA) or Control Area
(CTR) with which they are associated. Primary radar, and in most cases, SSR is used to provide
coverage up to 75 nm.

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3. PRECISION APPROACH RADAR
Provides extremely accurate azimuth and elevation guidance along the approach path to a runway.
Used mostly by the military to "talk down" aircraft, it is not approved for use by civil aircraft in South
Africa.
4. SURFACE MOVEMENT RADAR
This service would be provided at very large airports in conditions of poor visibility to direct aircraft
on runways, taxiways and aprons. The range is very limited, possibly 2 - 3 nm.
5. WEATHER RADAR
This is used extensively by Weather Offices, particularly in conditions of thunderstorm activity and
movement, to advise pilots of serious adverse weather conditions and possible routing.
H. SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR

Unlike Primary radar which requires only one transmitter, one receiver and one frequency,
Secondary Surveillance Radar or SSR requires the active co-operation of an aircraft in that it must
be equipped with an air traffic control (ATC) transponder. The system is similar to DME. In this
case, however, the ground based transmitter/receiver is the interrogator and the aircraft the
transponder.
The interrogator radiates pulse energy from a directional antenna that is synchronised with the
direction and timing of the primary surveillance radar antenna to which it is attached. The
interrogation triggers a response from an aircraft equipped with a transponder which radiates a
coded, pulsed reply from an omni-directional antenna. On the ground the coded reply is decoded
and appears on the air traffic controllers radar screen as a clear indication of the aircraft's bearing,
range and, in most cases today, its altitude. The system can also be used to display emergency
messages.
2. FREQUENCIES
The ground interrogator transmits on 1 030 MHz and receives on 1 090 MHz. The aircraft
transponder receives on 1 030 MHz and transmits on 1 090 MHz. The frequencies are in the UHF
band.
1
3. ADVANTAGES
' j * SSR requires less transmitter power
l
* An aircraft can be positively identified:
its call sign, code and even altitude will appear on the screen
* Emergency situations can be clearly indicated (see "Special Codes")
* There is less degradation due to weather and clutter.
4. TYPES OF OPERATION
Transponders operate in different Modes. The basic function, that of indicating the allocated four
digit code next to the aircraft trace on the radar screen is referred to as Mode A.
Mode C transponders provide the radar station with altitude information, based on the standard
pressure setting of 1 013.25 hPa. Such transponders are linked to a special altitude encoding
altimeter.
5. TRANSPONDER FEATURES
I
Monitor light
.}
/dent button
Figure 6-15: Typical Transponder Control Panel

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CONTROL KNOB FUNCTIONS
SBY - STANDBY
The transponder is kept on standby until an ATC request.
ON
When this position is selected the transponder will operate in Mode A only.
ALT
Automatic altitude transmission of the aircraft's pressure altitude or flight level. Mode C.
TEST
When turned to the test position the monitor light illuminates continuously if the transponder is
serviceable.
/DENT
When the !dent button is pushed, a special pulse is generated by the transponder which allows
the aircraft's display to remain on the radar screen for a longer period, allowing easier
I identification. It is used only when requested by ATC.
J MONITOR LIGHT
l
The monitor light will illuminate at every reply to an interrogation.
J 5. PHRASEOLOGY
The word "squawk" is used by ATC to issue instructions to a pilot regarding the use of the
transponder, for example:
SQUAWK 2435 Select code 2435
J
SQUAWK I DENT Depress !DENT, remain on existing code
SQUAWK STANDBY Return to Standby
SPECIAL CODES - "ICE"
1 I Interference Code 7500 Hijack

J c Communication Code 7600 Loss of communication
E Emergency Code 7700 Declaration of emergency
These codes are displayed to the controller as distinctive symbols and activate visual and aural
alarm signals.

Revision: 08/2008
RADIO NAVIGATION
CHAPTER 7 Page 7-1
RADIO NAVIGATION
A. RADIO NAVIGATION AND PLOTTING
1 . PLOTTING CHARTS
This Chapter is dedicated to the consolidation of the skills learnt so far, encompassing basic
navigation calculations and the use of radio beacons to find position. Plotting charts have been
provided for use. These charts differ from the VFR navigation maps in normal use in that they
contain no ground feature other than a coast line. The scale is 1 :5 000 000, Isogonal, parallels of
latitude and meridians of longitude are shown as well as radio beacons. They are easy to use, but a
few basic rules must be remembered. The chart projection is the Lambert's Conic Conformal.
(a) Scale is not constant. It is correct at the two standard parallels.

(b) Distance must be measured using dividers and the latitude scale, (i.e. vertically along a
meridian). A scale ruler cannot be used.
"1 (c) Convergency is present and is more easily noticeable than on the 1 :500 000 or 1 : 1 000 000
J charts used so far. Track bearings must be measured at the mid-meridian.
2. MEASURING TRACKS AND DISTANCES
(a) TRACKS
Track measurement is achieved by aligning a protractor with a meridian and measuring the
angle clockwise from True North. Referring to the plotting chart, A 1 , on the next page and the
route KLEINSEE to MASERU, it can be seen that if the initial track is measured (091 °T) and
compared to the final track (087°T), there is a significant difference W). Clearly the effect of
convergency. To reduce this effect, the track should always be measured at the mid-meridian, ie
the meridian as near as possible to halfway (089°T) .
(b) DISTANCE
Scale rulers are not to be used! Remember, the scale contracts between the two standard
parallels and expands outside them. The correct way to measure distance on this chart is with a
pair of dividers. Look at the right hand side of the plotting chart and observe the graduated
scale running north/south identified by a large black arrow. This line is a meridian, longitude
27°E. The parallel lines cutting it are parallels of latitude, starting at the top of the chart with
2rs, also a graduated scale. The next parallel is unnumbered, as is the next, and is without a
graduated scale. Each one does, however, represent one degree of latitude and therefore 60 nm.
Looking at the graduated scale on the meridian, it can be seen that each graduation represents
5' of latitude and therefore 5 nm. 30', or half a degree is clearly marked as is 1 5'. See Figure
l 7-1 .
J
1° of latitude = 60 nm
Figure 7-1: Measuring Distance

Revision: 08/2008
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RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 7-3
Having drawn in a track between two points, set the dividers to 60 nm (1 degree of latitude) and
arc off along the track to determine the distance. It is important to set the dividers in the area in
which you are working. If the track runs north/south then set the dividers at the mid-latitude. A
little practice will soon improve your skills.
3. PLOTIING A POSITION
The location of a position can be given, or found, by making use of latitude and longitude.
(a) PLOTIING CO-ORDINATES
The position of an airfield is given as 30' 20' S 20' 1 5' E. In order to plot this position we can
use either a straight edge or dividers.
Remember that latitude is always given first, so we will first plot the latitude of the position. Find
latitude 30' S on the chart and then locate longitude 20' E. Using dividers or a straight edge,
perhaps a protractor, measure 20' (four graduations on the plotting chart) down from 30' S.
Align the straight edge with the corresponding latitude on the next graduated scale to ensure
accuracy and draw a line between the two. Then repeat the process with the longitude of the
position. Find 20' E and using a straight edge find 1 5' (three graduations) further right, align the
straight edge with the corresponding longitude on the next graduated scale and draw a line
between the two. The position of the airfield is where the two lines cross. See Figure 7-2.
20' 1 5' E
20'E
30'S
Position of Airfield
31°S
Figure 7-2: Plotting Co-Ordinates
4. CHART SYMBOLS
J
(a) ISOGONAL
l' These are easily identified on the chart as the broken curved line running across the chart. Each
J will have the value of variation written on it. If crossing several, work with the average unless the
initial or final magnetic heading is required. If working between two Isogonal, use the one
towards which you are flying.
(b) RADIO BEACONS
VORs and NDBs are represented on the chart. In both cases the identifying letters are located
next to the beacon. The traditional VOR symbol of a compass rose is used and a flagged line
running from it indicates magnetic north. Do not trust these flags. Always calculate the true
bearing and then plot it. Where a VOR and a NDB are located at the same position, only the
VOR symbol is used. Both station identifying letters will be shown, however. See SUTHERLAND
SUSLV (32°25'S 20'40'E). NDBs are shown as a small circle, see CLANWILLIAM CW just west of
SLV.

Revision: 08/2008
RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 7-4
(c) AIRPORTS
Airports are identified by the name of the airport, rather than the name of the town or city. See
D.F.MALAN (33'58'S 1 8'33'E) (Cape Town) CTV.
5. SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Use the charts provided at the end of this chapter.
EXAMPLE 1
Determine the magnetic heading and elapsed (flying) time from ALEXANDER BAY - ABV
(28'33'S 1 6'30'E) to BLOEMFONTEIN - BLV - J B M HERTZOG (29'1 D'S 26'20'E), WN 240'/20,
TAS 1 70.
SOLUTION 1
Track 094'(T), Heading 098'(T), Variation 1 9'W, Heading 1 1 7'(M)

Distance 51 6 nm, GS 1 86, flying time 2 hrs 46 mins.
EXAMPLE 2
An aircraft departs PORT ELIZABETH PEV (33'58'S 25'40'E) at 0645, TAS 1 60, WN 320'/15.
Deviation +2'. Determine the heading (C) and ETA for N IEUWOUDTVILLE NW (31 '22'S
1 9'05'E).
SOLUTION 2
TR = 295'(T) , HOG = 297'(T) + 22'W = 31 9'(M) - 2' = 31 7'(C). Distance 365 nm, GS 1 46,
flight time 2 hrs 30 + 0645 = 0915)
6. PLOTTING RADIO BEARINGS
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft was overhead MASERU (29'25'S 27'35'E) at 0723 en route VICTORIA WEST VWV
(31 '23'S 23'08'E). At 0802 the aircraft crosses Radial 354 BDV (30'57'S 26'15'E). The ETA for
VWV is:
METHOD
No wind, no TAS and no groundspeed given. How can we calculate an ETA? Find where the
aircraft is at 0802 and use the distance and time from Maseru to this fix to calculate the
groundspeed. Measure the remaining distance to go and use the calculated groundspeed to
calculate the flying time.
SOLUTION 1
(i) Draw in the track from Maseru to Victoria West. Don't waste time measuring it with a
protractor, we do not need a track!
(ii) To plot the radial, subtract station variation.

At BDV variation is 21 'W. Radial 354 - 2 1 ' = QTE 333'.
Place the protractor over BDV and measure 333' very carefully and accurately.
J
(iii) Observe that this bearing cuts the track at 90 degrees. Measure the distance from Maseru to
the fix = 1 02 nm. Time taken = 39 minutes, therefore GS = 1 57 k1s.
(iv) Measure the distance from the fix to VWV = 1 57 nm at GS 1 57 = 1 hour.

Answer : 0802 + 1 hour = 0902.
EXAMPLE 2
An aircraft was overhead PEV (33'58'S 25'40'E) at 1 043 en route to VWV (31'23'S 23'08'E),
heading 353'(M). At 1 1 01 it obtains a relative bearing of 080' COOKHOUSE NOB (32'45'S
25'46'E). The ETA for VWV is:

Revision: 08/2008
RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 7-5
METHOD
The procedure to follow here is the same as Example 1 , the only difference is that instead of a
radial, a relative bearing has been given.
SOLUTION 2
(i) Draw in the track from PEV to VWV.
(ii) Subtract the average variation (22°W) from the aircraft's magnetic heading = 331 °(T)
(iii) Hdg 331 ° + RB 080° = QUJ 051° + 1 80° = QTE 231°
(iv) Plot 231 from CH. Observe that it cuts the track at 90 degrees.
(v) Measure the distance from PEV to the fix = 52 nm in 1 8 mins = GS 1 73.
Distance to go = 1 45 nm at GS 1 73 = 50 mins
Answer : 1 1 01 + 50 mins = ETA 1 1 51 .
In both of the examples, the position line that we plotted cut the track at 90 degrees. This is, of
course, the most accurate method to determine a ground speed. But do not always expect the
position line to be at 90 degrees!
In addition to VOR and ADF bearings, DME distances may be used to fix position.
7. FIX WITH VOR AND DME
EXAMPLE
An aircraft obtains a fix at 50 DME on the 088 Radial CTV (33°58'S 1 8°33'E)). The Track (M) to
GEORGE GGV (34°00'S 22°23'E) is:
SOLUTION
(i) Subtract station variation from the radial to calculate the QTE. 088° - 23°W = QTE 065°.
(ii) Plot 065° from CTV. Set the dividers to 50 nm and mark off along the QTE.
(iii) From this position, draw in the track to GGV and measure it with a protractor = 099°(T).
Add the variation of 23°W
Answer : 099° (T) + 23° = 1 22° (M).
When working with the plotting chart, remember the basic rules:
(i) Measure tracks at the mid meridian.
(ii) Measure distances at mid latitude.
(iii)Work very carefully and as accurately as possible. Learn the technique slowly, build up
speed by practise.
8. FIX WITH TWO RADIALS
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft departs WELKOM (28°00'S 26°42'E) at 09.36 for SISHEN (27°40'S 23°00'E). At 1 0. 1 8
it obtains a fix with Radial 320 BLV (29°1 0'S 26°20'E) and Radial 01 0 KMV (28°48'S 24°43'E).
Determine the aircraft's position at 1 0 . 1 8.
SOLUTION 1
(a) Draw in the track from WM - SS. At this stage it is not a requirement for the solution to the
problem, but it helps with orientation.
(b) Find the two VOR stations and determine the variation of each. Subtract the variation from
each radial to convert to a QTE.

Revision: 08/2008
RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 7-6
KMV
...Q.1Q_
- 1 8°
QTE 301 QTE 352
(c) Plot each QTE in turn as accurately as possible. Where they cross is where we are. Plot the
co-ordinates.
This question could be expanded. For example, instead of the position required, it could read:
what is the ETA for SISHEN?
SOLUTION
(a) Plot the position as we have done.
(b) To calculate an ETA we need two items; groundspeed and distance to go. Ground speed, in
this case, can be calculated by measuring the distance from WM to the fix and working out
the flying time.
Distance = 1 07 nm, flight time = 1 0. 1 8 - 09.36 = 42 mins.

Ground speed = 1 53 kts.
(c) Measure the distance from the fix to SS.
= 95 nm at GS 1 53 = 37 mins.
ETA = 1 0. 1 8 + 37 mins = 1 0.55.
A diversion could also be asked.
At 1 0. 1 8, what is the track magnetic and ETA for UPINGTON (28°23'S 21°17'E).
METHOD
We have already calculated the ground speed, so:
(a) Draw in the track from the fix to UPINGTON and measure the distance
= 1 80 nm at GS 1 53 = 1 hr 1 1 mins.
ETA = 1 0. 1 8 + 1 hr 1 1 mins = 1 1 .29
(b) To find the TR (M), simply measure the true track, 267° (T) and add the variation,
1 8°W = 285° (M).
9. FIX WITH A RADIAL AND A RELATIVE BEARING
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft was overhead ELV (33°03'S 27°53'E) at 09.20, Hdg 290° (M). A 1 0.26 it obtains a fix
with a relative bearing of 1 53° CH (32°45'S 25°46'E) and Radial 335° PEV (33°58'S 25°40'E) At
1 0.26 the Track (M) and ETA GGV (34°00'S 22°23'E) is:
SOLUTION 1
Hdg 290° (M) - 23°W = 267° (T) + RB 1 53° (CH) = 420° - 1 80° = QTE 240°.
Radial 335° PEV - 23°W = QTE 3 1 2°
Distance to fix = 1 62 nm in 1 hr 06 mins = GS 147.
Distance to go = 1 25 nm at GS 1 47 = 51 mins + 1 0.26 = ETA 1 1 . 1 7
Track from fix to GGV = 249° (T) + 23°W = 272° (M).
B. PLANNING A DESCENT
Planning a descent, particularly from a fairly high flight level or altitude to a much lower one, is an im
portant aspect of navigation planning. Passenger comfort is just one consideration that requires a con
trolled rate of descent to arrive overhead the destination at the correct altitude. An acceptable rate of
descent in unpressurised aircraft is 500 feet per minute (fpm). If we know the rate of descent to be
used, and how much height is to be lost it is a simple calculation to determine how long it will take.
For example, to lose 4000 ft at 500 fpm will take 8 minutes. Taking this one step further, using the

Revision: 08/2008
RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 7-7
time taken for the descent and the descent ground speed we could calculate the distance out, and
therefore the time, at which descent must be commenced.
EXAMPLE 1
An aircraft departs A for B at 0830 maintaining FL095, distance 1 80 nm, cruise GS 1 20 kts, descent
GS 1 00 kts, destination airfield 1 500 ft, QNH 1 01 3. At what time must the aircraft commence
descent to arrive overhead B at 2500ft?
SOLUTION 1
Sometimes a sketch is quite useful.

t-LU::tb, �\:I 1 �U KTS '
Descent 500 fpm, GS 1 00
2500 ft
1500 ft, QNH 1013
In this case the QNH at destination is the same as the standard setting, so no corrections will be
required for altimeter settings. The aircraft must descend through 7000 ft at 500 fpm, which will take
1 4 minutes. We can now calculate the distance covered during the descent:
1 4 minutes at GS 1 00 = 23 nm, therefore the distance covered during the cruise will be 1 80 nm -
23 nm = 1 57 nm. The ETA for top of descent (TOD) will be:
1 57 nm @ GS 1 20 = 1 hour 1 9 minutes + 0830 = 0949.
EXAMPLE 2
An aircraft departs A at 0645 for B, maintaining FL085, distance 215 nm, Cruise GS 1 1 5 kts, descent
GS 95 kts, destination airfield 800 ft, QNH 1 023 hPa. At what time must the aircraft commence
descent to arrive overhead B at 1 800ft?
SOLUTION 2
Use the sketch in Example 1 as a guide. The only difference in this case is the altimeter setting.
During the descent the altimeter will have to be re-set from 1 01 3 hPa to 1 023 hPa, a change of 1 0
hPa, which at 30 ft per hPa = 300 ft. If the subscale is increased from 1 0 1 3 to 1 023 the altimeter
will show an increase, so the aircraft will have to descend an extra 300 ft.
8500 ft - 1 800 ft = 6700 ft + 300 ft (altimeter change) = 7000 ft at 500 fpm = 1 4 minutes
1 4 minutes @ GS 95 kts = 22 nm. ETA = 2 1 5 nm - 22 nm = 1 93 nm @ GS 1 1 5 kts = 1 hour 41

minutes + 0645 = 0826.

Revision: 08/2008
RADIO NAVIGATION
Page 7-8
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Revision: 0812008
RADIO NAVIGATION
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RADIO NAVIGATION
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Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 7-Q1
QUESTIONS
1 . An aircraft departs Maputo VMA (825° 55' E032° 34') at 0839 for Gaborone GBV (824°32' E025° 55'),
HDG 313° (M). At 0952 it obtains a fix using relative bearings of 226 CL NDB (826° 06' E030° 04')
and 262 NL NDB (825° 55' E028° 59'). At 0952 the aircraft's position is:
(a) S24° 00' E029° 00',

(b) 824° 25' E029° 35'
(c) 824° 45' E029° 05',
(d) 824° 54' E029° 1 0'.
2. An aircraft was overhead A (26° 1 8' S 020° 35°E) at 0715 en route to B (28° 32'S 020° 35' E).
At 0827 the aircraft is overhead B. The groundspeed was:
(a) 112 kts,

(b) 1 08 kts,
(c) 116 kts,
(d) 1 20 kts.
3. Overhead GGV (834° 00' E022° 23') at 0815 en route BDV (830° 58' E026' 17'). At 0930 the aircraft
obtains a fix at Radial 350 and 50 DME PEV (833° 58' E025° 40'). The ETA for BDV is:
(a) 1 0 :40,
(b) 1 0:33,
(c) 1 0:47,
(d) 1 1 :02.
1
4. An aircraft was overhead Kroonstad (827° 40' E027° 1 5') at 0743 en route Durban DNV (829° 58'
E030° 58'). At 0903 it obtains a fix using the 219 radial LYV (828° 36' E 029° 42') and the 285 radial
NHV (829° 22' E030° 31 ') and diverts to Richards Bay (828° 45' E032' 05'). At 0903 the track (M)
and ETA Richards Bay is:
(a) 075° (M) and ETA 1 01 5,

(b) 084° (M) and ETA 1 01 8,
(c) 098° (M and ETA 1 01 5,
(d) 094° (M) and ETA 1 021 .
5. An aircraft was overhead CTV (833° 58' E018 33') at 0735 en route to VWV (S31 o 23' E023 08'). At
0900 it obtains a fix with radial 1 32 SLV (832° 26' E020° 38') and Radial 003 GGV (834° 00' E022°
23'). The aircraft's position is:
(a) 31 °55'8 21°1 O'E,

(b) 32°45'8 21 °50'E
(c) 33°00'8 21 °13'E :
(d) 32°01 'S 21 °1 5'E
6. An aircraft is on track from BDV (830° 58' E026° 1 7') to GGV (834° 00' E022° 23'), Hdg 239° (M). At
0930 it obtains a relative bearing of 223 from CH NDB (832° 45' E025° 46') and diverts to PEV (833°
58' E025° 40'). The track magnetic required will be:
1 (a)
(b)
(c)
094°
1 1 7°
1 42'
(M)
(M)
(M)
(d) 1 05° (M)
7. An aircraft, TAS 1 30, is inbound to Richard Bay (828° 45' E032° 05'). At 0825 it obtains a fix at 75
DME, radial 360 DNV (829° 58' E030° 58'). Forecast W/V 1 50/15. The ETA for Richard's Bay is:
(a) 0906,
(b) 0858,
(c) 091 1 ,
(d) 0915.

Revision: 08/2008
QUESTIONS
Page 7-02
8. An aircraft departs Alexander Bay ABV (828° 33' E016° 30') at 1 0 1 8 for Upington UPV (828°25'
E015'), TA8 1 25, WN 030/1 0. The ETA for UPV and heading magnetic to steer is:
(a) 1 225 and 1 03° (M),

(b) 1 224 and 1 1 1° (M),
(c) 1 230 and 084° (M)
(d) 1 220 and 1 08° (M).
9. An aircraft, TA8 1 20, is flying from BLV (829° 07' E026° 1 8') to ELV (833° 03' E027o 50'). At 1 425 it
obtains a visual fix at 31 °30'8 27°45'E. Forecast WN 31 0/20. The ETA for ELY is:
(a) 1 500,
(b) 1 51 2,
(c) 1 506.
(d) 1 51 5.
1 0. An aircraft flies from Welkom WM (828° 00' E026° 40') to Maputo VMA (825° 55' E032° 34'), TA8
130, WN 270/1 5, Fuel flow 9.4 U8G/hr. Allow 2 U8G for taxi, take-off and climb and reserve fuel of
45 minutes. The total fuel required is:
(a) 26 U8G,
(b) 31 U8G,
(c) 36 U8G.
(d) 27 U8G.
1 1 . An aircraft is overhead A at 0715 for B FL065, distance 1 48 nm, cruise G8 1 1 0 kts, descent G8 95
kts, rate of descent 500 fpm, destination airfield elevation 500 ft, QNH 1 01 3 hPa. The ETA for top
of descent is:
(a) 0818,
(b) 0825,
(c) 0829,
(d) 0820.
1 2. An aircraft departs from 8kukuza airfield, elevation 1 000 ft, en route to Johannesburg and is
required to be at 40 nm at or above 8000 ft in order to avoid high ground. Climb TA8 1 00 kts,
mean climb tailwind 9 kts. The ROC required is:
(a) 420 fpm,

(b) 366 fpm,
(c) 331 fpm,
(d) 3 1 8 fpm.
1 3. Determine the mean magnetic heading and elapsed time from Cape Town CTV (833° 58' E018 33')
to East London ELV (833° 03' E027° 50') TA8 1 20 WN 330/15:
(a) Hdg 076° (M) and time 3:26,

(b) Hdg 083° (M) and time 3:46,
(c) Hdg 1 06° (M) and time 3:26,
(d) Hdg 099° (M) and time 3:46.
1 4. 06.30 overhead Alexander Bay ABV (828° 33' E016° 30') en route Victoria West VWV (83 1 ° 23'
E023 08'), RA8 1 00 kts, Temp +5°C, WN 1 60/20, F095. The ETA VWV is:
I
'
(a)
(b)
(c)
1 0:22,
1 0:02,
1 0: 1 6
(d) 09:55.

Revision: 08/2008
I
ANSWERS
Page 7-A1
ANSWERS
1 . (b)
3 1 3' (M) - 1 5' W = Hdg (T) 298'

298 + 226 = 524 - 1 80 = QTE 344 CL
298 + 262 = 560 - 1 80 = QTE 020 NL
824' 25' E029' 35'
2. (a)
Distance = 2'14' = 1 34 nm in 1 :1 2 = GS 1 1 2
3. (c)
Radial 350 - 23'W = QTE 327.

1 45 nm in 1 : 1 5 = GS 1 1 6,
1 50 nm to go @ GS 1 1 6 = 1 :1 7 + 0930 = 1 0:47
4. (d)
2 1 9 Radial LYV = QTE 200 285 radial NHV = QTE 265

l Distance to fix = 1 55 nm in 80 mins = GIS 1 1 6
J
Distance to go = 1 5 1 nm @ 1 1 6 = 1 : 1 8
Track = 075' (T) + 1 9'W = 094' (M)
ETA = 09:03 + 1 :1 8 = 1 0:21
5. (b)
Convert the two radials into QTE's:
SLV GGV
1 32 003
- 22'W -23'W
QTE 1 1 0 QTE 340
I Plot the fix.

J
6. (c)
Draw in the track BDV - GGV. Hdg 239' (M) - 22'W (average variation) = 217' (l)
2 1 7'
+ RB 223 CH
l
.J
= 440
1 80
= QTE 260'
Plot the QTE 260 from CH NOB to cut the track BDV - GGV. From this fix draw in the track to PEV.
Track = 1 1 9' (T) + 23' W = 1 42' (M)
7. (a)
Convert the radial to a QTE: R360 - 20' W = QTE 340'. Draw in and measure along the QTE 75 nm
to plot the fix. From this fix draw in the track to Richards Bay: 091 ' (T), TAS 1 30, WN 1 50/1 5,
distance 84 nm. Calculate the GS using a computer: GS 1 22 kts. Distance 84 @ GS 1 22 = 0:41 +
08:25 = ETA 09:06

Revision: 08/2008
ANSWERS
Page 7-A2
s. (a)
Draw in the track ABV - UPV: distance 251 nm, Track ass• (T) , TAS 1 25, WN asa;1 a. Calculate Hdg
and GS: Hdg as4• (T), GS 1 1 9 kts. Hdg as4• (T) + 1 9• W = 1 as• (M). Distance 251 nm @ GS 1 1 9
= 2:a7 + 1 a : 1 S = ETA 1 2:25
9. (c)
Plot the fix and then draw in the track to ELV: 1 76• (T), distance 9a nm. Calculate GS using TAS
1 2a, WN 31 a/2a, TR 1 76: GS 133. Distance 9a nm @ GS 1 33 = a:41 + 1 4:25 = 1 5:a6
1 a. (b)
Draw in the track WM - VMA: 335 nm, a59• (T). Calculate GS using TR a59• (T), TAS 13a, WN
27a/1 5: GS = 1 44 kts. Leg time = 335 nm @ GS 1 44 = 2:2a.
Fuel required = trip fuel 2:2a + reserve a:45 = 3:a5 @ F/F 9.4 USG/hr = 29 USG + 2 USG taxi,
take-off and climb = 31 USG
1 1 . (b)
The aircraft must descend from Fa65 to 5aa ft 6aaa ft + 5aa fpm = 1 2 minutes @ descent GS
-
95 = 1 9 nm. 1 4S nm - 1 9 nm = 1 29 nm @ GS 1 1 a = a1 : 1 a + a7: 1 5 = as:25 ETA TOD.
1 2 . (d)
4a nm @ GS 1 a9 = 22 minutes. 7aaa + 22 = ROC 3 1 S fpm.
1 3. (d)
TR ass• (T), Hdg a75• (T) , Var 23• W, Hdg a99• (M). Distance 472 nm, GIS 1 25, time 3:46
1 4. (c)
Tr 1 1 6• (T) , TAS 1 1 7, G/S 1 a2, Dis! 3S5 nm, EET 3:46 + a6.3a = 1 a: 1 6

Revision: 08/2008

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NAVIGATION

CHAPTER PAGE SUBJECT

1 1-1 - 1-8 THE EARTH

2 2-1 - 2-6 AERONAUTICAL CHARTS

3 3-1 - 3-5 AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM

4 4-1 - 4-18 THE NAVIGATION COMPUTER

5 5-1 - 5-9 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION

6 6-1 - 6-18 RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS

7 7-1 - 7-10 RADIO NAVIGATION

Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 08/2003

Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) 6.5

Calculating Actual Groundspeed .4.1 0

) Calculating Density Altitude ......................................................................................................... 4 1 3 . .

Calculating True Airspeed ........................................................................................................... 4 1 2 . .

Calibrated Airspeed ..................................................................................................................... 4 1 2 . .

Chart Symbols 2.3

Compass Correction Card 3.2

Creating a Fix 6.4

Crosswind Component .4.5

Density Altitude ............................................................................................................................ 4 1 3 . .

Distance Flown .4.1 1

Finding Heading and Groundspeed .4.3

Finding Headwind and Crosswind .4.5

Finding Track and Groundspeed .................................................................................................. 4 8 . .

Flight Level 5.4

Flight Log 5.4

Fix with Radial and Relative Bearing 7.6

Fix with Two Radials 7.5

Fix with VOR and DME 7.5

Fuel Calculations .4. 1 6

Fuel endurance .4. 1 7

Global Positioning System (GPS) 6.9

Great Circle Track ...................................................................................................................... ..... 1 3 .

Indicated Airspeed ................................................................................................................... .... 4 1 2 . .

In-Flight Log 5.5

International Standard Atmosphere .4. 1 4

Lambert's Conformal Conic Projection 2.1

Local Mean Time 1 .6

Measuring Distance 7.1

Navigation Computer .4.1

Navigation Log 5.1

Off Track Corrections 5.5

Official Night .................................................................................................................................... 1 8 .

One in Sixty Rule 5.7

Plane of the Ecliptic .

Planning a descent 7.6

Plotting Charts 7.1

Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 08/2003

Rhumb Line Track .

Ten Degree Drift Lines ............................................................................... .... ............................... . . 5.6

j Private Pilot Licence

l B. THE FORM OF THE EARTH

N = 000° (T), E = 090° (T), S = 1 80° (T), W = 270° (T)

0 THE GREAT CIRCLE (GC)

@_THE SMALL CIRCLE

Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 08/2003

� E arth s' Axis

Figure 1-1: Latitude and Longitude

Private Pilot Licence © Avex Air Training 08/2003

G re atCi rcle Rhumb Line