Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar

CE-330: Fluid Mechanics-II

Lecture 15
Forces on Immersed Bodies

5th Semester (3rd Year)

Civil Engineering
Fall 2021

Lecturer: Alamgir Khalil

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The wake of a Boeing 767 disrupts the top of a cumulus cloud

and clearly shows the counter-rotating trailing vortices.
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Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

▪ Understand the causes of drag and lift.

▪ calculate the drag and lift forces for various objects.
▪ explain the fundamental characteristics of a boundary layer, including
laminar, transitional, and turbulent regimes.
▪ calculate boundary layer parameters for flow past a flat plate.
▪ provide a description of boundary layer separation.

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Internal versus External Flow

➢ A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether
the fluid flows is confined space or over a surface.

✓ The flow of an unbounded fluid over a

surface such as a plate or a wire is
external flow. Example airflow over a ball.

flow over a tennis ball

✓ The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow
if fluid is completely bounded by solid
surfaces. Example water flow in a pipe.

Pipe flow
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Introduction

Fluid flow over solid bodies frequently occurs in practice, and it is responsible
for numerous physical phenomena such as

▪ the drag force acting on automobiles, power lines, trees, and underwater
pipelines;
▪ the lift developed by airplane wings;
▪ upward draft of rain, snow, hail, and dust particles in high winds;
▪ the transportation of red blood cells by blood flow;
▪ the entrainment and disbursement of liquid droplets by sprays;
▪ the vibration and noise generated by bodies moving in a fluid; and
▪ the power generated by wind turbines.

A fluid moving over a stationary body (such as the wind blowing over a
building), and a body moving through a quiescent fluid (such as a car moving
through air) are referred to as flow over bodies or external flow.
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Applications (Typical Examples)

✓ For objects moving through a fluid

(e.g., automobile, bird), determine
power requirements.

✓ For structures (e.g., bridge, sign,

tower), determine wind loads.

✓ For falling objects (e.g., pollen spore,

parachute), calculate terminal
velocity.

✓ For a wing, determine the lift force. Flow over bodies is commonly
encountered in practice

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Flow classification

The velocity of the fluid approaching a body is V

called the free-stream velocity and is denoted
by V.
(a) two-dimensional

Two-Dimensional: infinitely long and of

constant cross-sectional size and shape.
V

Axisymmetric: formed by rotating their cross-

sectional shape about the axis of symmetry. (b) axisymmetric

Three-Dimensional: may or may not possess a V

line of symmetry.
(c) three-dimensional

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External Flows

The shape of a body affects the flow

characteristics.

➢ Bodies subjected to fluid flow are

classified as being streamlined or bluff,
depending on their overall shape.

✓ A body is said to be streamlined if a

conscious effort is made to align its shape
with the anticipated streamlines in the
flow. streamlined bodies (i.e., airfoils,
racing cars, etc.) have little effect on the
surrounding fluid.

✓ A body (such as a building, a parachute,

etc.) tends to block the flow and is said It is much easier to force a streamlined
body than a blunt body through a fluid.
to be bluff or blunt.
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Drag and Lift Concepts

✓ A body meets some resistance when it is forced
to move through a fluid, especially a liquid.
✓ A fluid may exert forces and moments on a body
in and about various directions.
✓ Drag: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body
in the flow direction.
✓ The drag force can be measured directly by simply
attaching the body subjected to fluid flow to a
calibrated spring and measuring the displacement
in the flow direction.
✓ Drag is usually an undesirable effect, like friction,
and we do our best to minimize it. High winds knock down trees,
power lines, and even people as
✓ But in some cases drag produces a very beneficial a result of the drag force.
effect and we try to maximize it (e.g., automobile
brakes).
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Drag and Lift Concepts (cont.)

➢ Lift is a force that acts on an immersed body normal to the relative motion
between the fluid and the body.

✓ The most commonly observed example of lift is that of the airplane wing
supported in the air by this force.

Lift
Lift
Thrust

Thrust
Drag Drag

Weight

Weight

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Drag and Lift Concepts (cont.)

(a) A kite. (b) Forces acting on the kite due to the air flowing
over the kite.

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Drag and Lift Concepts (cont.)

𝐹𝐿
V
𝐹𝐷

Forces from the surrounding fluid on a two-dimensional object: (a) pressure force,
(b) viscous force, and (c) resultant force (lift and drag).

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Drag and Lift Concepts (cont.)

𝑑𝐹𝑥 = (𝑝𝑑𝐴) cos 𝜃 +(𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴)sin 𝜃

V
𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − 𝑝𝑑𝐴 sin 𝜃 + (𝜏𝑤 𝑑𝐴) cos 𝜃

The net and components of the force on the

Pressure and shear forces on a
object are,
small element of the surface of a body

𝐹𝐷 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑥 = න 𝑝 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

𝐹𝐿 = න 𝑑𝐹𝑦 = − න 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 + න 𝜏𝑤 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴

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Drag and Lift Coefficients

Drag and lift coefficients are dimensionless forms of drag and lift.

where A is ordinarily the frontal area (the area projected on a plane normal to the
direction of flow) of the body. In lift calculations of some thin bodies, such as airfoils, A
is taken to be the planform area, which is the area seen by a person looking at the
body from above in a direction normal to the body.

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The term 𝜌𝑉 2 is the dynamic pressure.
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Friction and Pressure Drag

➢ The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on a body in the
direction of flow due to the combined effects of wall shear and pressure
forces.
✓ The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress 𝜏w is called the
skin friction drag (or just friction drag Ff ) since it is caused by frictional
effects.
✓ The part of drag that is due directly to pressure P is called the pressure
drag FP (also called the form drag because of its strong dependence on
the form or shape of the body).

Friction drag 𝐹𝑓 Pressure drag 𝐹𝑃

coefficient 𝐶𝑓 = coefficient 𝐶𝑃 =
1 2 1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝐴 2 𝜌𝑉 𝐴

Total drag, FD = Ff + FP
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Friction and Pressure Drag (cont.)

𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑓

𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑓
𝑉

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Friction and Pressure Drag (cont.)

➢ Drag is due entirely to friction drag

for a flat plate parallel to the flow.

➢ It is due entirely to pressure drag for a

flat plate normal to the flow.

➢ It is due to both (but mostly pressure

drag) for a cylinder normal to the flow.

The total drag coefficient 𝐶𝐷 is lowest for a parallel flat

plate, highest for a vertical flat plate, and in between
(but close to that of a vertical flat plate) for a cylinder.

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Measuring the Drag Coefficient of a Car

The drag coefficient of a car at the design conditions can be determined

experimentally in a large wind tunnel in a full scale test.

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Drag Coefficients

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Drag Coefficients
(cont.)

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Drag Coefficients (cont.)

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Drag on Three-Dimensional Bodies Total drag, FD = Ff + FP

The historical trend of streamlining automobiles to reduce their aerodynamic drag

and increase their miles per gallon

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Drag on Three-Dimensional Bodies

Sphere : 24
𝐶𝐷 = (𝑅 ≲ 1)
𝑅
𝜌𝑉 2 24 𝜌𝑉 2 24 𝜋𝐷2 𝜌𝑉 2
𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴 = 𝐴 = = 3𝜋𝜇𝑉𝐷
2 𝑅 2 𝜌𝑉𝐷/𝜇 4 2
which is known as Stokes law.

Stokes
(1819–1903)

Drag coefficients CD at low Reynolds

numbers (R ≲ 1 where R = VD/𝜈
and A = 𝜋D2/4).
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Drag on Three-Dimensional Bodies (cont.)

Sphere falling through the

fluid under the action of
gravity

W is the weight of the sphere

FB is the buoyant force
FD is the drag force

When Velocity V becomes

constant is known as
terminal (free-fall) velocity.

For free-fall conditions:

෍ 𝐹𝑍 = 𝑊 − 𝐹𝐵 − 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0
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Lift
➢ Lift is a force that acts on an immersed body normal to the relative motion
between the fluid and the body, and the lift coefficient is expressed as

𝐹𝐿 The most commonly observed example of

𝐶𝐿 =
1 2 lift is that of the airplane wing supported
2 𝜌𝑉 𝐴 in the air by this force.

Lift
Thrust

Drag

Weight

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Lift and Circulation

(a) Streamlines and (b) pressure distribution about a cambered airfoil,

at an angle of attack of α = 8.6°.

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Lift and Circulation (cont.)

Schematic superposition of circulation on a uniform rectilinear flow field. (a) Uniform rectilinear
flow field. (b) Circulation. (c) Net effect (sums of velocity vectors).

Life history of the starting vortex. 27

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Lift and Circulation (cont.)

At large angles of attack (usually larger than 15°), flow may separate completely from
the top surface of an airfoil, reducing lift drastically and causing the airfoil to stall.

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Internal vs. External Flow

• Internal flows are dominated

by the influence of viscosity
throughout the flowfield.

• For external flows, viscous

effects are limited to the
boundary layer and wake.
Wake
region

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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.) • No-slip condition: A fluid in

direct contact with a solid
``sticks'‘ to the surface due to
viscous effects.
• Responsible for generation of
wall shear stress 𝜏𝑤 , surface
drag D= ∫𝜏𝑤 dA, and the
development of the boundary
layer.
• The fluid property responsible
for the no-slip condition is
viscosity.
• Important boundary condition
in formulating initial boundary
value problem (IBVP) for
analytical and computational
fluid dynamics analysis.
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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.)

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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.)

V V V V

Note:: The boundary layer surrounding sea-going ships,

submarines, airplane wings and airships is mainly turbulent. 32
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Laminar and Turbulent boundary layers along a

Boundary Layer Theory (cont.) smooth flat plate (vertical scale greatly exaggerated)

V V
0.99V
V

0.99V

Boundary layer → a very thin layer of fluid adjacent to a surface, in which

viscosity is important, considering fluid outside this layer as frictionless or ideal.

Boundary layer thickness (𝛿) → the distance from the boundary to the point
where velocity is 99% of the undisturbed velocity.
This thickness increases with the distance from the leading edge of the surface. 33
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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.)

fluid layer which has had its velocity affected by the boundary shear
is called the boundary layer.
𝑅𝑐 𝑥𝑐 𝑅𝑐
= or 𝑥𝑐 = 𝐿
𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.)

Laminar Layer

0.664
𝐶𝑓, 𝑥 =
𝑅𝑥

Turbulent Layer

0.0587
𝐶𝑓, 𝑥 = 1/5
𝑅𝑥

The variation of the local friction coefficient for flow over a

flat plate. Note that the vertical scale of the boundary layer
is greatly exaggerated in this sketch.
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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.) 𝜌𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥

𝑅𝑥 = =
𝜇 𝜈
Laminar Boundary Layer

𝛿 4.91 𝜇𝑉 𝜇 1.328
= 𝜏𝑜 (𝑜𝑟 𝜏𝑤 ) = 0.332 𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑓 = 1.328 =
𝑥 𝑅𝑥 𝑥 𝜌𝑉𝐿 𝑅

Turbulent Boundary Layer

𝛿 0.377 𝑉 2 /2
= 1/5 𝜏𝑜 (𝑜𝑟 𝜏𝑤 ) = 0.0587𝜌 1/5
𝑥 𝑅𝑥 𝑅𝑥

0.0735 0.455
For 500, 000 < R < 107 𝐶𝑓 = For R > 107 𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅1/5 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅)2.58

0.455 1700
With transition at Rc = 500, 000 𝐶𝑓 = −
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅)2.58 𝑅
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Boundary Layer Theory (cont.)

0.445
𝐶𝑓 =
(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅)2.58

0.445 1700
𝐶𝑓 = −
1.328 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅)2.58 𝑅
𝐶𝑓 =
𝑅

R = VL/𝜈
Drag coefficients for a smooth flat plate. 37
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Boundary Layer Separation

V
Prandtl experiment of
boundary layer separation.

Increasing V

Further increasing V

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Prevention of Boundary Layer Separation

➢ The separation of boundary layer in a turbulent flow may be prevented in order to
have reduced drag. Many methods have been suggested.

(a) By providing slots near

leading edge

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Boeing 777 landing

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Prevention of Boundary Layer Separation (cont.)

(b) Rotating cylinder as
leading edge

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Magnus Effect
Lift Force

Magnus
(1802–1870)

Magnus effect, generation of a sidewise force on a spinning cylindrical or spherical solid

immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas) when there is relative motion between the spinning body
and the fluid. Named after the German physicist and chemist H.G. Magnus, who first (1853)
experimentally investigated the effect, it is responsible for the “curve” of a served tennis ball
or a driven golf ball and affects the trajectory of a spinning artillery shell.
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The phenomenon of producing lift by the rotation

Magnus Effect (cont.) of a solid body is called the Magnus effect.

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Magnus Effect

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Magnus Effect

Flettner
(1885–1961)

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The main reason why surface of

the golf ball is dimpled. A smooth
surfaced ball would have greater
overall drag and would travel only
about 60% as far when driven.

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Plan view of flow about a motor vehicle (delivery van). (a) Blunt nose with separated flow
along the entire side wall and a large drag coefficient CD = 0.75. (b) Round nose with
separation at the rear of the vehicle and smaller drag coefficient CD = 0.45. (Adapted from
H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, 4th ed., p. 34, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.)
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Problems
9.4 Find the shear stress and the thickness of the boundary layer (a) at the center and (b) at
the trailing edge of a smooth, flat plate 10 ft wide and 2 ft parallel to the flow, immersed
in 60 oF water flowing at an undisturbed velocity of 3 fps. Assume a laminar boundary
layer over the whole plate. Also, (c) find the total friction drag on one side of the plate.

Solution

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Problems (cont.)
9.9 An 85-m long streamlined train has 2.5-m-high sides and a 2.5-m-wide top. Compute the
power required to overcome the skin friction drag when the train is traveling at 40 m/s
through the ICAO standard atmosphere at sea level, assuming the drag on the sides and
top to be equal to that on one side of a flat plate 7.5 m wide and 85 m long.

Solution

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Problems (cont.)
9.12 A 20-mm-diameter harpoon 1.8 m long with a sharp tip, is launched at 6 m/s into 15 oC
water. Find (a) the friction drag; (b) the maximum thickness of the boundary layer.

Solution

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