Modules in Gender and Development

Lipa City Colleges
MODULES IN
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Lipa City Colleges

2023
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Pages
Introduction i
Module 1 Sex and Gender 1
Module 2: Social Construction of Gender 12
Module 3: Gender and Socialization 19
Module 4: Sexuality and Body Image 23
Module 5: Gender and Development 30
Module 6: Gender and Mainstreaming 37
Module 7: Women’s Issues and Concern 44
Module 8: Laws on Women 53
Bibliography 60
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INTRODUCTION
We cannot deny the use of GAD concepts was popularized in the academic
setting and various government agencies, hailed and acknowledged for jobs well done.
In contrast, when women began questioning the reasons for their invisibility in this
effort, they often encountered resistance and were told to keep their mouths shut.
Losing support, and experiencing violence, for stepping beyond the accepted realm of
development activities, women lag behind men. A firm believer in Development is for
All. This module came to life.
Gender and Development (GAD) concept brews from the women's consciousness
of the differences between men and women. Discussing and understanding these
differences is essential. It is common knowledge that no society can develop
sustainably without transforming the distribution of opportunities, resources, and
choices for men and women to have equal power to shape their lives. However,
addressing these women's exclusion from economic opportunity is a must. Building a
better understanding of what works for gender equality and significantly enriching
and expanding this knowledge to the young is relevant.
Therefore, this module address issues related to gender development.

Understanding, liberating, and empowering oneself is crucial in actively participating
in developmental activities or projects. As such, topics on sex and gender, the social
construction of gender, sexuality, and body image must be thoroughly tackled to
develop a person's capabilities and potential, enhance the quality of life, and facilitate
the realization of dreams and aspirations. Likewise, topics on gender and development,
gender mainstreaming, women's critical issues and concerns, and laws that protect
women's rights will be analyzed to deliberately address the gender issues and
concerns affecting the full participation of women in development. Thus, the module
introduces students to empowerment perspectives to study and implement
development issues and projects from a gender lens. Introducing students to the issues,
concerns, and debates in the field of gender and development is the general purpose of
this module.
MODE OF DELIVERY
The LCCian with Gender and Development is a 3- unit institutional course

offered to officially enrolled student of Lipa City Colleges. The main topics will be
covered through module learning along with LCCian modules using blended mode
of delivery.
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MODULE 1: SEX AND GENDER
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module students will be able to:
1. Differentiate the difference between sex from gender
2. Identify types of sex characteristics
3. Discuss the dimensions of gender
4. Explain sex and gender roles
5. Describe gender and sex- role stereotypes
Discussion:
'Sex' and 'gender' result in confusion because of repeatedly using it

interchangeably. There is a need to study gender and sex to stop skepticism. Moreover,
a demand to explore the student's emotions and ideas about these two ideas is
necessary for understanding the differences between men and women.
I. SEX
A. What is Sex?
Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females,

including primary sex characteristics and secondary characteristics. Individuals have
it since the day they are born. It is natural, universal, and has no variation from culture
to culture or time to time. Therefore, it is impossible to change. In addition, these
characteristics are not mutually exclusive because some individuals possess male and
female traits. These individuals are called intersex. “Intersex is an umbrella term that
describes differences in sex characteristics that do not fit the typically binary idea of
male or female. Sex characteristics include genitals, hormones, and chromosome
patterns.” (What does it mean to be Intersex? .2021.).
It means a person’s sex development is different from most other people. In other
words, it describes chromosomes, anatomy, or sex characteristics unclassified as male
or female because their traits vary. “These traits are visible at birth. For others, it
appears until the person reaches puberty. In some cases, persons may never know
they are intersex.”(What does it mean to be Intersex?.n.d.). As such, being intersex is
not an illness or disease. It is a natural variation occurrence in humans. Although
intersex does not affect an infant’s physical health, ultimately, it may cause
complications such as fertility issues.
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Sex can be determined through the following:
1. Genitalia
Genitalia refer to “the male or female reproductive organs. The genitalia include
internal and external structures. The female internal genitalia are the ovaries,
Fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina. The female external genitalia are the labia
minora and majora (the vulva) and the clitoris. The male internal genitalia are
the testes, epididymis, and vas deferens. The male external genitalia are
the penis and scrotum.”(Stoppler, n.d.)
2. Chromosomes
A chromosome is a structure that holds your genes. Your genes determine your
traits, such as eye color and blood type. The usual number of chromosomes inside
every cell of your body is 46 total chromosomes or 23 pairs. “You inherit half of your
chromosomes from your biological mother and the other half from your biological
father. Scientists have numbered the chromosome pairs from 1 to 22, with the 23rd
pair labeled X or Y, depending on the structure. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are
called autosomes. The 23rd pair of chromosomes are known as sex chromosomes
because they decide if you will be born male or female. Females have two X
chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y chromosome. A picture of all 46
chromosomes in their pairs is called a karyotype. A normal female karyotype is 46,
XX, and a normal male karyotype is 46, XY.” (What Are Chromosomes?, n.d.)
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Source: Chromosomes.[Determining biological sex in offspring].UpToDate.
https://www.uptodate.com/contents/image?imageKey=PI%2F76396
3. Hormones
Hormones affect people in different ways throughout their lives because they are
silent prime movers of behavior and personality. Hormone levels can rise drastically
at emotional or physical transitions; such the bride and groom are struck with a flash
of hormones as they exchange vows, a beauty pageant candidate expecting to win,
and a job applicant waiting for the interview result. The effect of hormones on these
individuals' behavior is complex because they are attached and dependent on the
situation where they are in. “Hormones’ main function is to communicate between
organs and tissues throughout the body to regulate physiology and behavior. This can
include regulating physical functions such as respiration, digestion, lactation, or
growth; hormones also have a hand in behavioral activities such as sleep, mood,
movement, and sexual function.” (Hormones, n.d.)
B. Types of Sex Characteristics
1. Primary sex characteristics
Primary sexual characteristics are present from birth because it is any of our body
parts directly concerned with reproduction, testes, ovaries, and external genitalia.
Talking about hormones, we tend to associate a predominance of estrogen with
females and a predominance of testosterone with males. It’s important to understand
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that every person has both of these hormones. Estradiol, the predominant estrogen
form, is critical to sexual function and a trusted source for people assigned male at
birth. Estradiol plays a significant role in sexual arousal, sperm production, and
erectile function. Although hormone replacement therapy is an option for Trans and
gender non-conforming people, a Tran’s man who isn’t on hormones, for example,
isn’t any less male than one who is.
2. Secondary sex characteristics
We usually focus on secondary sex characteristics because it is easily identifiable

such as vocal pitch, facial hair, and breast development. People tend to rely upon their
personal judgment about sex. However, secondary sex characteristics vary
enormously, regardless of whether someone identifies with the sex assigned at birth.
Take vocal pitch, for example. Some people who were assigned female at birth may
have a low-pitched voice which is unusual because females expected to have a
high-pitched voice, while some who were assigned male at birth may have a
high-pitched instead of low-pitched voice.
II. GENDER
A. What is gender?
Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are
socially constructed. This includes norms, behaviours and roles associated with
being a woman, man, girl or boy, as well as relationships with each other. As a social
construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time. (WHO,n.d)
It is not born with because you learned it. If you what to change, you can. Specifically,
it describes how societies determine and manage sex categories based on the cultural
meanings attached to both sexes' roles. “It influences how people perceive themselves
and each other, how they act and interact, and the distribution of power and resources
in society. ”.(Canadian Institute of Health Research, 2023). In addition, it defines how
individuals understand their identities of being a woman or man, intersex, transgender,
genderqueer, and other gender positions. It involves attitudes, social norms, and
activities that society believes are more appropriate for one sex over another.
Moreover, it is also determined by what an individual does and feels.
B. Dimensions of Gender
A person’s gender is the complex interrelationship between three dimensions: body,

identity, and social gender.
1. Body
We always believe that bodies are not as complex as they can be. However, it is
the opposite because female and male bodies are more complex than we thought.
Some bodies fit neither category. While we often think that bodies have one of two
forms of genitalia, which are classified as female or male, there are intersex traits that
manifest that sex exists across a continuum of possibilities. This level of natural
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biological occurrence variations should be enough reason to stop the simplistic notion
that there are just two body classifications based on sex. Bodies themselves are also
present in the context of cultural expectations. Masculinity and femininity are equated
with specific physical attributes, labeling us as more or less a man/ woman based on
the degree to which those attributes exist. This gendering of our bodies affects how
we feel about selves and how others perceive and interact with us.
2. Identity
Gender identity is our internal experience and goes beyond how we externally
present ourselves to others. It aligns with or differs from the sex assigned at birth. It is
an inherent aspect of a person’s makeup. Nevertheless, not confined to a binary
(girl/woman, boy/man) because it exists along a continuum and can change over time.
There is considerable diversity in how individuals and groups experience, understand,
and express gender through the roles they take on, the expectations put on them, their
relations with others, and the complex ways that gender is institutionalized by society.
In addition, the words someone uses to communicate their gender identity may
change over time. Thus, naming one’s gender can be a complex and evolving matter
because, with limited language for gender, it may take an individual quite some time
to explore and discover the language that best communicates their internal experience.
Likewise, as language evolves, a person’s name for their gender may also unfold.
3. Social Gender
Social gender is the third dimension that includes gender expression, the way we
communicate our gender to others through clothing, hairstyles, and mannerisms. Also,
society uses those to reinforce conformity to current gender norms. Practically,
everything is assigned a gender such as toys, colors, and clothes are some of the more
visible examples. We begin to teach children about gender from the very early age.
Given the prevalence of the gender binary, children face lots of pressure to express
their gender within narrow, selective, outdated, and stereotypical definitions of “boy”
or “girl”. Expectations regarding gender are strictly to be communicated through
every aspect of our lives, including family, community, culture, peers, schools, media,
and religion. Gender roles and expectations are so entrenched in our culture that
difficult to imagine things any other way.
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III. SEX and GENDER ROLES
A. Sex Role
A sex role is a function that a male or female assumes because of the primary
physiological or anatomical differences between the sexes. It is also a biologically
determined role done by only one of the sexes. For example, women give birth to
children while men make women pregnant. These roles are not exchangeable because
they are biologically determined.
Reproductive Function
Female Male
Gestation Ovum Fertilization
Child Bearing Sperm determine sex of child
Lactation
B. Gender Role
a. Gender roles are roles assigned to men and women based on their gender. It
refers to activities considered appropriate and acceptable for boys or girls, men or
women. It is part of gender norms. It is society’s evaluation of behavior as
masculine or feminine.
 Gender norms are the way society expects men and women to behave and the
different values associated with being a boy or a girl, man or woman.
 Gender-based behavior is socially constructed according to what they believe to

be differences in male/female behavior; transmit such beliefs to future
generations, with culture and society influencing mainstream views in
differentiating men and women.
b. Female gender roles are associated with appropriate concepts of Femininity and
traits such as submissiveness, modesty, and nurturance.
c. Male gender roles are associated with appropriate concepts of Masculinity and
traits such as dominance, assertiveness, and independence.
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Feminine Role Masculine Role
Cooking fishing
child care hunting
house care repair work
Gender Roles : Gender Division of Labor
Female Male
Reproductive Role Productive Role
Childbearing and child rearing Provider, joint responsibility
Organizing households
Community Role Community Role
Community managing Community politics
An extension of reproductive role into Organized at formal political level

community action ex. Traditional decision making
structures
Community politics
Leaders (often paid)
Tend to be leaders by the virtue of
relationship with other men.
Rank and file (voluntary)
Traditional gender roles divide women and men from each other. It denies
women access to the public world of work, achievement, power, and independence. It
denies men access to the nurturant and other-oriented world of domestic life and
being emotive. However, the good news is gender roles do change.
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Comparison between Gender Roles and Sex Roles
Sex Role Gender Role
Same in all societies,
Universal May differ from society to society
Never change with history Can change with history
Can be performed only one the sexes Can be performed with both sexes
Biologically determined Socially, culturally
d. Three Aspects of Gender Roles
1. Position within the social structure. Hierarchy indicating:
 where women and men belong
 are expected to belong
2. Behaviors prescribe for women and men
3. Proper relationship between roles
IV. GENDER STEREOTYPE
“Stereotypes refer to preconceived ideas and simplistic images that have a

negative influence on the way we see people, interact with them and treat them. In
other words, stereotypes impose limitations on the people they target, assign them
roles that are not necessarily suited to them and make it harder for them to be their
true selves.”(Effects of Stereotypes on Personal Development, 2023). On the other
hand, gender stereotyping is the tendency or attitude, to ascribe particular traits,
characteristics, and roles distinctly to men and traits, characteristics, and roles
distinctly to women. The assumption behind stereotyping is that the ascribed
attributes of men apply to all men and that of women apply to all women in a given
society. “A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s
capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and/or
make choices about their lives”.(Gender Stereotyping,n.d.)
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a. The confusion between sex and gender gives rise to such stereotypes as:
Women Men
Timidity, passivity, while emotionally Bravery, aggressiveness, independence,

dependent, demonstrative, loving, self and the ability to control emotions are
sacrificing and being peaceful are traits of traits of men.
women.
Physically weak, then, they need Physically stronger, then, they are better
protection from men. They are better engineers, architects, welders or
nurses, teachers, secretaries, and retail carpenters. They are the protectors of
salespersons. They need to be protected
by men. women.
Relationship both within and outside the Work is the center of their lives. Reason
family is the center of their lives. is the basis for decision-making.
Intuition is basis of decision-making. Decisive.
Whimsical and fickle minded
More fit to be leaders, head of families,

business enterprises, social and political
More fit to take secondary roles . organizations, states, armies and
communities.
V. SEX- ROLE STEREOTYPES
According to the Pocket Oxford Dictionary, a stereotype is a ‘person or thing seeming

to conform to a heavily accepted type. Sex-role stereotypes are defined as ‘the rigidly
held and oversimplified beliefs that MALES & FEMALES possess distinct (and similar)
psychological traits and characteristics.’ These beliefs tend to be carried out from
generation to generation in a given society
Feminine Females are thought to be Masculine

Males are thought to be
Emotional unemotional
not aggressive very aggressive
not good in making decisions very good in making decisions
Dependent independent
Gentle rough
Tactful blunt
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Stereotypes may reflect the generally observable characteristics of a particular sex
group. However, stereotypes can be unfair because it is judgmental and tends to
generalize. They are unfair to those people who do not possess those traits or
characteristics.
a. Effects of Sex Role Stereotype
There is always a big question of why women and men conform stereotype
behaviors despite a great deal of awareness raising made toward gender equality, and
this awareness is particularly evident in education settings. The following are two
main ways why people tend to conform to stereotypes.
The following are the main effects of sex-role stereotypes on individuals:
1. Impression Management
Person perception refers to the different mental processes we use to form

impressions of other people. It is not limited to how we create impressions, but the
different conclusions we make about others based on our ideas (Cherry, 2020,) On the
other hand Impression Management (IM), also called self-presentation, is the
conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence others’
perceptions of a person.(Impression Management: the theory and examples, n.d.)
Positive perceptions and impressions are crucial to be socially accepted. To gain
acceptance, women and men must behave according to stereotypes that portray their
respective sex. They should conform to negative stereotypes attached to them because
of societal expectations. In conclusion, people who accept stereotypes through
Impression Management do not necessarily believe in the stereotype but merely
follow stereotypes to impress others.
2. Self-fulfilling prophecy
The effect of sex-role stereotypes through self-fulfilling prophecy is more

damaging because conformity is deeply rooted. People tend to believe in the
stereotype as the best way to behave as females or males. For example, girls believe
they are not good at numbers, so mathematics is not for them. The boys, they think
the opposite. They are good in numbers even if they are not. Done unconsciously,
girls and boys do not realize they are fulfilling a stereotype. Through the different
means of conformity, there tend to be a lot of women and men who behave in
stereotyped ways.
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VI. LEARNING ACTIVITY
Pretest
Activity 1
A couple in their 40s struggles to conceive a child after the woman had two
miscarriages. The doctor advised the wife not to get pregnant because it was
life-threatening. However, the couple dreamed of having a child. They go to a
clairvoyant who tells them they will have a child, but only after deciding which sex
they want it to be.
Instructions:
1. Group into 5.
2. Imagine being in this situation.
3. After imagining, write down the sex you would choose for your child.
4. Share the reasons for choosing the sex into your group.
5. Summarize by counting down the number of those who chose girls and those who
chose boys, and list the reasons
6. Share it with the whole class.
Post-test
Activity 2
1. Recall your reasons for choosing the sex of your child you shared with the group.
2. Are you going to remain or change your choice? If you stand or change your
preference? State your reason in one paragraph with no more than six sentences.
3. Online Submission (TBA).
Activity 3
1. Watch the video entitled Berkekey Professor Explain Gender Theory/Judith

Butler at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UD9IOllUR4k
2. Why do you think Butler’s book Gender Trouble becomes a controversial book?
3. Answer must be in 2 paragraphs with 200 words, double-spaced with 12 font size,
and Times New Roman
4. Online Submission (TBA)
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MODULE 2 : SOCIAL CONTRUCTION OF GENDER
OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module students will be able to:
1. Understand that gender is socially constructed and transmitted through

socialization.
2. Recognize how socialization influences gender development.
3. Explain the influence of socialization on gender roles, stereotypes, and
discrimination.
4. Analyze the validity of the gender roles ascribed to women and men.
DISCUSSION:
The construction of gender happens through socialization which occurs
throughout one’s life. It is most severe during childhood and adolescence because this
is a time people learn about their roles and behave according to society’s
prescription.
I. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER
a. What is Social Construction of Gender?
The social construction of gender refers to the way gender roles are learned
through socialization and interaction with others. Gender is a socially constructed
concept. A social construction is an idea that is created and accepted by society.
Social constructions are built and shaped through shared social understandings,
experiences, and interactions with others. (Social Construction of Gender, n.d.)The
social construction of gender’s best feature is how the meanings we ascribe to genders
are socially and culturally reconciled. It determines attitudes about what men and
women are capable of doing, how they should behave, what kinds of role models and
images accorded to them, and who will occupy positions of power. Gender as a social
construct varies from society to society and is adaptable and can change over time.
How is gender socially constructed?
"Gender is thus “socially constructed” in the sense that, unlike biological sex,
gender is a product of society. If society determines what is masculine or feminine,
then society can change what is considered masculine, feminine, or anything in
between. No one needs to be locked into fixed gender categories. Any individual is
free to identify their gender as they see fit." (Mascolo, n.d.). Individuals' day-to-day
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interactions with society strengthen and consolidate it. “Most cultural scholars argue
that social construction occurs through language and signs. The words we choose and
the narratives we construct about the world reinforce and reiterate social norms and
ideals.” (Drew,2023).
Gender is socially constructed through the following ways:
1. Language
Speaking naturally about a topic, then we socially construct it. This process is
called linguistic determinism. It refers to the language one speaks and determines all
aspects of thought, including perception. The language determines the way a person
views the world. The structure of a specific language and the customary practices in
its use affect how the world is categorized, shapes memory, and affects perceptions.
So when people continuously describe men in masculine terms like men don’t cry and
women in feminine terms, ladies cry, we learn about desirable and normal gendered
behaviors.
2. Media
Dominant discourses in media socially construct reality as well. For instance, the
famous Filipino TV program "Ang Probinsyano" shows male actors their prowess in
the action genre. It tells stories of strong and heroic men saving sweet and helpless
women, and audiences see what kind of gendered identities are idealized and
accepted.
3. Discourse
This a a term used to describe social narratives seen as natural because it has
been cyclical. Normative gendered discourse is repeated over and over again
everywhere we look. We can also see evidence of social construction by looking at
how the topic changes across social contexts, such as:
a. Time - Across generations, definitions of masculinity and femininity change. The

idea of the stay-at-home father would have been shameful and ridiculous in the
fifties, but today is increasingly common. Similarly, the idea that a woman would
lead a country and be a president was out of the question before, but today it is a
known reality.
b. Culture - Social constructs also change across cultures. “But over the course of
history, societies across the globe started to bend towards a more patriarchal
structure, which is pervasive in most communities in modern times. However,
there are still surviving matriarchal societies to be found where women, literally,
are the dominant steering factor in all matters, social, political, and
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economical”.(Madaus, 2019). Some cultures see women as strong and
independent matriarchs. In India, the Khasi Tribe passed wealth and property
from mothers to their daughters, and descent through the mother's line. In China,
the Mosou women make most of the big decisions,control the household finances,
and pass the family name to their children.In Indonesia, the Minangkabau People,
the largest matrilineal society in the world, women's property, family name, and
land inherited from mother to daughter, while in Ghana, the Akan People are
composed of exogamous matrilineal clans. Members trace their descent from a
common female ancestor. n addition, Costa Rica’s Bribri tribal lineage is passed
through the mother.Likewise, knowledge and tradition are inherited by the
grandmother. However, there are other cultures where women are voiceless. They
are not allowed to speak outside and inside their homes. These differences
demonstrate differences in how gender is socially or constructed.
Examples of Social Construction Of Gender ( Drew, 2023)
1. Portrayal of Women and Men in Movies
Generally, women tend to portray damsels in distress in films. This portrayal is

always made worst by the misrepresentation that transpires when depicted. This
portrayal conveys messages that normalize and idealize a construction of femininity.
It encourages women to aspire toward their idols seen on the big screen. Likewise, it
encourages men to be attracted to that kind of woman. Meanwhile, men are still
commonly framed as brave, strong, and aggressive figures. Therefore, he is a savior
helping to reinforce the idea that men are at the top of the social ladder. He has power
and authority, and the ideal man is the strong protector of women. The repetition of
this narrative eventually reinforces a dominant discourse of desirable and acceptable
femininity and masculinity in society.
2. Parental Discourse
Parents know from the start the language they use teaches their children how they
should behave. They usually are more lenient towards their daughters by encouraging
them to play with dolls and use feminized language to describe them. In this manner,
daughters learn to be biased toward femininity. Boys are encouraged to play football
and use masculinized language to be rough with one another. In this situation, sons
adapt to lean into the gender roles that earn them praise and encouragement from their
parents.
3. Gendered Workplaces
My mother told me that when she was young and in school, her only dream was
to be an engineer. There were only two options for women to study during her time,
teaching and nursing. This option limitation was not challenged by women because of
fear of family exclusion and expectation to succeed. Individuals are expected to
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follow strict gendered job roles. This reality still exists today but in a more subtle way.
A woman is being laughed at for training to be a teacher because teaching is a
woman's work. Therefore, the language used about work for women and men drives
them toward gendered lifestyles to suit the norms of social expectations and
acceptance.
4. Patriarchal Social Construction
Today, our culture is still a patriarchal social hierarchy. It is still the norm to have
men as company heads or country leaders. Perhaps most known of this was that 2023
is still a man’s world: Men still dominate the most influential global companies. Men
still outnumbered women as political leaders. This patriarchal social structure sends
subtle messages about gender: men are leaders, and women are followers. More still,
there continue to be social narratives that humiliate women with careers, condemning
them for breaking the glass ceiling.
5. Subtle Discrimination
It refers to biased acts that cannot objectively establish as discriminatory because

it often goes unnoticed. An example is when choosing female and male equally
qualified candidates, the human resource director subtly discriminates by breaking
ties in favor of male candidates. This act helps retain social norms and the current
social construction of hegemonic masculinities. Therefore, it effectively blocks
women's movement into the highest positions in an organization.
6. Role Models
We always look up to someone we can emulate or admire because of their good

behavior and are efficient or skilled in their chosen field. These people are our role
models. They are necessary in the formative years because a positive role model can
help young persons see the various identities they can embrace as they grow older.
Admiring a woman in power could help a girl feels she can embrace a gender identity
that is strong, independent, and assertive. Similarly, if boys have male teachers, these
can be identified as their positive role models. However, it provides subtle messages
to children about what is and not considered an appropriate gender identity because
role model is also model gender.
7. Disney Films
From Cinderella to Snow White, Disney became one of the most influential
sellers of the Damsel in Distress storyline. But its storylines were heavily gendered
and strongly criticized. In response to this criticism, Disney moved toward a broader
range of gender constructions in their films, strong and independent girls depicted in
Brave. However, it backfired from cultural conservatives who thought Disney was not
trying hard enough to reconstruct gender to fit a “woke” image.
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8. Two Spirit
“Two-Spirit” is a term used within some Indigenous communities, encompassing

cultural, spiritual, sexual and gender identity.”(Two-Spirit, n.d.) There is a long
history of a two-spirit gender identity in some Native American cultures. This is a
gender identity where a person is born into a biological sex but embraces a gender
identity that doesn’t match the sex identification. Based on their traditional cultures,
two-spirit people often held respectable high positions as healers, councilors, and
matchmakers.
9. Children’s Toys
Children’s toys provide us with a notable understanding of how society constructs

gender. Toys for girls were associated with physical attractiveness, nurturing, and
domestic skills, for example, famous Barbie doll characters. It promotes an idealized
feminine body and a body desired by men. In the case of boys’ toys, it shows the
violent, competitive, exciting, risky, and dangerous characters we see in action heroes.
It shows that the idealized male gender is constructed as the active and tough guy.
Therefore, This is evidence that society sends us subtle gendered messages through
toys that shape and define our gender role
II. SOCIALIZATION
"Socialization is the process through which individuals become members of

society. It includes the processes of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs,
values, and behaviors necessary to function within society. Socialization begins at
birth and continues throughout life". (Nickerson, 2023). People learn how to behave
in a way acceptable to their culture.
Three primary goals of socialization (Wolf, n.d.)
First, socialization teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop a

conscience. This first goal is accomplished naturally: as people grow up within a
particular society, they pick up on the expectations of those around them and
internalize these expectations to moderate their impulses and develop a conscience.
Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain
social roles, occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as
marriage and parenthood. Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning
and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and
valued within a particular culture.
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1. Agents of Socialization
Agents of socialization are the people, groups, and social institutions that affect
one’s self-concept, attitudes, and behaviors and teach people what society expects of
them. They tell them what is right and wrong, and they give them the skills they need
to function as members of their culture.(Nickerson, 2023)
Gender socialization occurs through five main agents of socialization. Each agent
reinforces gender roles by creating and maintaining normative expectations for
gender-specific behavior.
1. Family
The family is the primary agent of socialization because it is the child's first and
closest social environment. With the family's assistance, the child gets into
society by learning the main aspects of the societal culture.
Four processes of Socialization within the Family

Type Description
molding, treating boys and girls differently from the moment
Manipulation they were born. Mothers tend to use more physical
stimulation for male infants and verbal stimulation for female
infants. Female infants tend to get more delicate handling.
Physical appearances/clothing are different for boys and girls,
shaping their self-perception.
directing children's attention to gender-appropriate objects.
Guns, cars, and aircraft are for the boys. Meanwhile, dolls,
Canalization pots, and pans are for the girls. Therefore, they
develop/prescribe different capabilities, attitudes, aspirations,
and dreams. Familiarity with certain objects directs their
choices
telling children what they are and what is expected of them.
Verbal Appellation Pretty and polite girls. Big and strong boys. Differences in the
way adults talk to boys and girls
familiarizing children with their gender-appropriate tasks.
Activity Exposure Exposure to traditional masculine and feminine activities.
Girls help mothers with domestic chores; boys accompany
fathers outside.
2. School
The secondary agent of socialization is school. The school is the social institution
in which formal or programmed learning occurs. It is an emotionally neutral
environment where objective treatment is given to the child. It provides a societal
norm that is generally accepted by everyone.
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3. Peer
Peers are also among the influential agents of socialization. They are composed
of people of the same age, similar social statuses, and shared interests. Peer
groups provide adolescents' first socialization experience outside the domain of
their families. They are an essential source of emotional support and
companionship, but peer pressure can influence individuals to behave in ways
they might ordinarily regard as unacceptable.
4. Mass media
Mass media, an agent of socialization, influences the individual's personal and

social development to become a member of society. It brought diverts cultures
and knowledge across the world near an individual because it presents and
manages how we view the various issues and happenings of the world. With this,
they became an instrument of social power and impacted us with their messages.
5. Religion
“Religions can be both formal and informal institutions and is an important
avenue of socialization for many people. Synagogues, temples, churches,
mosques, and similar religious communities teach participants how to interact
with their religion’s material culture.” (Nickerson, 2023). Likewise, religious
organizations provide affirmations of values taught in families and schools. Many
religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to their
enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that support
the family unit to power dynamics that nurture gender roles, organized religion
promotes a shared set of socialized values handed down from one generation to
another.
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MODULE 3 : GENDER SOCIALIZATION
1. What is Gender Socialization?
Gender socialization refers to the learning of socially approved

behaviors, gender norms, values, and attitudes that have been associated with a
biological sex. (Drew, 2023). The preparations for gender socialization begin even
before the birth of the child. Expectant mothers are usually asked about the sex of
their children by family and friends. In addition, birth preparations often focus on the
infant's sex. However, the most critical socialization stage is during childhood. It is
when adults instruct young children to behave accordingly, comply with social norms,
expectations, and imitate gender-specific behavior. Agents of socialization like family,
school, and media all have specific roles and intensities which affect the formation of
gender roles. Gender socialization occurs through five main agents of socialization.
Each agent reinforces gender roles by creating and maintaining normative
expectations for gender-specific behavior.
For instance, when I was about seven years old, I used to go out and play
basketball with my boy classmates. However, as I started attending secondary school
and turned to have crushes, I developed the concept of gender and began following
gender-appropriate behavior. I hung out with my girl classmates more because of the
expectation to be feminine. I become more conscious of my dressing style and choice
of leisure activities. Hence, boys and girls who do not conform to gender stereotypes
are usually excluded and looked down upon by same-age peers for being different. A
situation like this can lead to harmful effects, such as lower self-esteem. Wrongful
gender stereotyping is a frequent cause of discrimination against women.
Source: Drew,C.( 2023, July 13).Social Construction Of Gender: 10 Examples And

Definition.HelpfulProfessor.com.
https://helpfulprofessor.com/social-construction-of-gender/
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Gender Roles
Gender roles are stereotypes regarding attitudes, attributes, and actions imposed on
men and women based on gender. These kinds of preconceptions are usually harmful to
society — yet, understanding what they are and their history is crucial to overcoming
them. (Selemin, 2022). Gender roles are the social and cultural expectations for how
people should behave according to their assigned gender. These roles shape the
behaviors, attitudes, and responsibilities considered appropriate for men and women.
They evolve over time but still trend toward traditional and stereotypical notions of
masculinity and femininity, limiting and restricting people’s choices and prospects
based on gender and perpetuating gender inequality. As such, they can produce and
replicate gender roles as social facts and spread gender discrimination as a natural
issue. Therefore, gender roles develop gender stereotypes and reinforce gender
discrimination.
Gender stereotypes are generalizations about what men and women are like, and
there typically is a great deal of consensus about them. (Hentschel, et al., 2019).
These stereotypes are created and reinforced by gender norms. These “gender norms
are socially and culturally mediated principles that govern the expected behavior of
women, men, girls, and boys in a society”. (Jaliff , S.P., 2023). It is society’s
expectations, and rules regarding how men and women should behave, express
themselves and interact with others according to gender. Gender stereotypes can be
positive and negative, but they tend to fit rigid ideas of masculinity and femininity. So
this result in biased judgments and discrimination against individuals who do not
conform to them.
Gender Discrimination is when someone is treated unequally or

disadvantageously based on their gender but not necessarily in a sexual nature.
Gender discrimination is often rooted in preconceived, false societal and personal
notions about what gender is, how gender "should" look, or how gender is performed.
Gender discrimination can manifest itself at any level of society. On the other hand
Gender Bias is a behavior that shows favoritism towards one gender over another.
It’s the tendency to prefer one gender over another. It occurs because of personal
values, perceptions, and outdated, traditional views about men and women. It happens
when someone unintentionally attributes certain attitudes and stereotypes to someone
else.
Aside from experiencing discrimination and biases, women and men also
experience sexism. Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender. It
affects every level of society, from institutions and governments to personal
relationships. Sexism affects women and other marginalized genders most severely.
Indirectly, it also harms men. It is widespread globally and affects every aspect of a
person’s life.
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Level of Sexism
Level Description
Institutional sexism occurs when sexism affects the practices of a
Institutional whole institution or system, such as a university, healthcare system,
or legal system.
Interpersonal sexism occurs within personal relationships and social
Interpersonal interactions. Examples include catcalling, verbal insults, and abuse.
People can have internalized sexism, which refers to sexist beliefs
Individual about a person’s own sex or gender. This may cause them to
discriminate against others who belong to the same group.
Types of sexism include:
 Hostile sexism: This involves any overtly hostile attitudes about women, such
as the belief that women are manipulative, sinful, weak, or resentful, or that
they owe men sex. Hostile sexism is dangerous and fuels gender-based
violence.
 Benevolent sexism: This is based on the idea that women are naturally kind,
pure, and innocent. These may not seem like negative qualities, but they stem
from the opinion that women are weaker than men. This is what makes
benevolent sexism harmful.
 Ambivalent sexism: Ambivalent sexism is a combination of benevolent and
hostile sexism, which often work together as part of a system. For example, a
person might have benevolent sexist views about mothers, such as that they
always put their children first. If a mother enters the workforce, though, the
person might display hostile sexism by openly judging or punishing that
person for having a job.
Sexism can also occur alongside other forms of oppression, such as racism or ableism,
affecting people who belong to more than one marginalized group.
III. LEARNING ACTIVITY
Activity 1
Instructions:
1. Before reading the topic content of Social Construction of Gender, you are
required to watch the video entitled Socialization: Meaning, Purpose, and Process at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dCoLi6GrnNM
2. List down the word or group of words that deeply touched you most and why?
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3. If given a chance to produce an educational video on Socialization, what topic
would you like to produce and why?
4. Online submission (TBA).
Activity 2
1. Watch the video entitled Pantene ‘Labels Against Women’ Digital A at

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luLkfXixBpM
2. Critique the ad video using the following questions;

a. Who is the target audience? Explain why?
b. Were you captivated by the ad? Explain why?
c. What part of the ad presented that aroused your emotion? Explain why?
d. What is the cultural significance of the ad to Filipinos in particular?
3. Paper must be in an essay format

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MODULE 4: SEXUALITY AND BODY IMAGE
OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this module students will be able to:
1. Define sexuality and body image
2. Discuss how sexuality develops
3. Explain how body image is attached to sexuality
4. Employ wise, informed, and responsible decisions on sexuality matters.
Discussion:
We always shy away from conversations about sexuality because of fear, shame,
and judgment from others. Sexuality is complex and diverse. But it doesn't have to be
confusing and shameful. Sexuality should be understood, celebrated, and accepted.
Understanding sexuality and body image need accurate and evidence-based
information and skills to develop respectful relationships and enjoy their right to
bodily autonomy and integrity. Exploring our sexuality, rooted within the principles
of consent and sexual rights, is essential to our health and wellness.
Understanding the connections between body image and sexuality is significant

because body image is a crucial aspect of sexual health. Recently, these two words,
body image, turned the center of attraction in social media like Facebook, Tiktok, and
dating apps, positively or negatively presented. Do they exhibit feelings of security,
love, value, or shame, and a desire to self alteration in these apps? Difficult to answer
because we usually think that body image is the feeling we get when we look in the
mirror and how that makes us feel. We tend to build our feelings about our bodies on
what we see visually.
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I. SEXUALITY
“Sexuality is not about who you have sex with or how often you have it. Likewise,
it is your sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions, and behaviors toward others. Physical,
sexual, or emotional attractiveness is a part of your sexuality.”(Sexualityexplained
(n.d.) It is diverse and personal, an essential part of who you are. It is not easy to
figure out what sexuality fits you. It needs ample time because it is a long and arduous
way of exploration, discovery, and acceptance. However, some people undergo
discrimination and abuse due to their sexuality. Therefore, it is necessary to discover
your sexuality because it is much liberating, exciting, and positive experience.
A. Sexuality matters
It is significantly important to know that our sexuality allows us to connect with
others and form meaningful relationships. Exploring, discovering, appreciating, and
accepting your sexuality has mental health benefits because it minimizes stress, has
fewer mental health problems, and has less chance of self-destruction. It also removes
the pressure of keeping a secret of your true sexual identity and brings out the best in
you by increasing your self-esteem. Connections,belongingness, safety, and
unconditional love make you feel free and liberated. It allows you to live and create
the kind of life you want.
B. Types of Sexuality
We find it confusing sometimes to think about what type of sexuality suits us

since sexuality can change over time. It is exasperating to think that we might be
attached to men or women, to both or neither. No right or wrong choice in this
situation because what matters most is what’s suitable for us individually.
Common terms to describe different types of sexuality are the following;
1. Heterosexual and Homosexual
Heterosexual or straight - people are attracted to the opposite sex – boys who like
girls, and women who like men,
Homosexual - people are attracted to the same sex.
2. Fluid
Fluid individuals’ sexuality changes and is not fixed. Fluid individuals can also
utilize other sexual orientation terms to describe themselves or may feel they do not
resonate with any of them.
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3. LGBTQIA+
LGBTQIA+ is an abbreviation for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or

questioning, intersex, asexual, and more. These terms are used to describe a person’s
sexual orientation or gender identity. (What is LGBTQIA+, n.d.).
LESBIAN - A woman whose enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional

attraction is to other women. Some lesbians may prefer to identify as gay or as gay
L women.
GAY - The adjective describes people whose enduring physical, romantic, and/or
emotional attractions are to people of the same sex. Sometimes lesbian is the
G preferred term for women.
BISEXUAL - A person who can form enduring physical, romantic, and/or emotional
attractions to those of the same gender or more than one gender. People may
B experience this attraction in differing ways and degrees over their lifetime. Bisexual
people need not have had specific sexual experiences to be bisexual; they need not
have had any sexual experience at all to identify as bisexual.
TRANSGENDER - An umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or
gender expression differs from what is typically associated with the sex they were
T assigned at birth. People under the transgender umbrella may describe themselves
using one or more of a wide variety of terms— including transgender or nonbinary.
Some transgender people are prescribed hormones by their doctors to bring their
bodies into alignment with their gender identity. Some undergo surgery as well. But
not all transgender people can or will take those steps, and a transgender identity is
not dependent upon physical appearance or medical procedures
QUEER - An adjective used by some people whose sexual orientation is not
exclusively heterosexual or straight. This umbrella term includes people who have
Q nonbinary, gender-fluid, or gender nonconforming identities. Once considered a
pejorative term, queer has been reclaimed by some LGBTQIA+ people to describe
themselves; however, it is not a universally accepted term even within the
LGBTQIA+ community.
QUESTIONING- Sometimes, when the Q is seen at the end of LGBT, it can also
mean questioning. This term describes someone who is questioning their sexual
orientation or gender identity.
INTERSEX - An adjective used to describe a person with one or more innate sex
characteristics, including genitals, internal reproductive organs, and chromosomes,
I that fall outside of traditional conceptions of male or female bodies. Do not confuse
having an intersex trait with being transgender. Intersex people are assigned a sex at
birth — either male or female — and that decision by medical providers and parents
may not match the gender identity of the child. Not all intersex folks identify as
being part of the LGBTQIA+ community.
ASEXUAL - The adjective describes a person who does not experience sexual
attraction. Sometimes shortened to “ace,” it is an umbrella term that can also include
A people who are demisexual, meaning they do experience some sexual attraction;
graysexual, meaning those who may not fit the strictest definition of the word
asexual; and aromantic, meaning they experience little to no romantic attraction
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and/or has little to no desire to form romantic relationships.
+ PLUS - The ‘plus’ is used to signify all of the gender identities and sexual
orientations that letters and words cannot yet fully describe.
+
What does ‘closeted’ mean? The term “closeted” refers to those who have not
disclosed their gender identity or sexual orientation. There are many reasons why a
person might not wish to let others know their gender or sexual identity. For example,
they may fear how people around them will react. It is important to remember that no
one is under any obligation to disclose their gender identity or sexual orientation if
they do not wish to do so. It is also important never to reveal another person’s gender
identity or sexual orientation without their permission, which is an action that others
may refer to as “outing.”(What are the different types of sexualities?. 2022).
C. Sexual identity
Exploring, discovering and accepting sexual identity and sharing it with friends
and loved can be both exciting and challenging journey because “Sexual identity
terms refer to words and phrases used to describe human sexuality and orientation
including gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual. These terms are not related to
gender identity and may differ depending on the individual person or culture. In
addition, terminology changes over time and will continue to evolve into the
future.” (Cuncic,2023)
D. Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation is a term used to refer to a person's pattern of emotional,

romantic, and sexual attraction to people of a particular gender (male or female).
(Editorial Contributors, 2022). “But our idea of sexual orientation is more expansive
now, and very clear that sexual orientation exists on more of a continuum. Most
people think of sexual orientation as wrapped up in one thing: sexual attraction. And
certainly a big part of it! But sexual orientation doesn’t just refer to who you are
interested in having sex with. It’s also about who you are interested in having an
intimate emotional relationship with. This may mean sex, but sometimes there isn’t
any sex involved”.(Wisner, 2023). There is no need to identify as one type of sexual
orientation because sexual orientation changes. However, some individuals find it
helpful to choose a label for their sexual or romantic orientation to form communities
that share similar experiences.
II. BODY IMAGE
“Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and the
thoughts and feelings that result from that perception. These feelings can be positive,
26
negative, or both, influenced by individual and environmental
factors.”(McShirley,n.d.). Our bodies become a venue of satisfaction, happiness, and
conflict. The markings of positive and joyful memories and agonizing and hurtful
experiences are all reflected in our bodies, like facial wrinkles, laugh lines, and leg
scars. Having a positive body image is linked to higher sexual desire, arousal, and
higher sexual satisfaction. A negative impression of the body leads women to
experience less sexual pleasure and pleasure. In short, “It is the perception of how you
see yourself, despite what the reality may be. Those with a positive or healthy body
image may have a sense of appreciation, respect, or acceptance for their body and
what it can do.” (Collins, 2022)
According to McShirley, Body image is determined by 4 factors
Factors Description
SEEING This is not always a correct

representation of how you actually look.
For example, a person may perceive
themselves as overweight when they are
actually underweight.
This relates to the amount of satisfaction

FEELING or dissatisfaction you feel about your
shape, weight, and individual body parts.
THINKING This can lead to preoccupation with body

shape and weight..
BEHAVIOR Behaviors in which you engage as a

result of your body image.
Bodies are different to both gender identity and sexuality. Our identifies are informed
by our bodies and the experiences we have, but our bodies don’t define everything
about us.
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III. INFORMED CHOICE, AND CONSENT
Many young people are not comfortable engaging in healthy conversations on

sexuality and sexual and reproductive health with their parents. They prefer to talk to
their friends who are in the same situation. In this case, this is not helpful because if
only they have open communication with their parents, this help reduces their chances
of engaging in risky sexual behaviors that lead to unintended pregnancies and
abortion. Having open communication means more instances of discussion about
sexual and reproductive issues such as sex, pregnancy, sexually transmitted infection
prevention, and the use of contraception. Nevertheless, “Informed choice means that
patients and families make decisions that are consistent with their goals and
values.”(Brach, 2019). Thus, decisions must be consistent with their attitudes, values,
or preferences. On the other hand, “Consent is agreement or permission expressed
through affirmative, voluntary words or actions that are mutually understandable to all
parties involved, to engage in a specific sexual act at a specific time”.(What is consent,
n.d.). “It is important to have consent for any sexual activity with another person,
either verbal or nonverbal. However, when in doubt, it is best to ask as silence does
not equal consent". (Sandoval, 2022). Remember, Yes mean YES, and No mean NO.
So speak up and be heard. Embrace you sexuality and love your body.
IV. LEARNING ACTIVITY
a. Figure out the point of view of the person behind the quotation.
b. Discuss this point of view in a small break-out groups of 4 members.
c. Interpret your group's understanding of the quotation in an art form (song, dance,
poem, drawing, painting)
d. Rephrase the quotation, present and justify it to the class.
Mystery quotation:
1. “To ask a women to become unnaturally thin is to ask them to relinquish their
sexuality”. ( Noemi Wolf )
2. “Your body hears everything your mind says.” (Naomi Judd)
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Activity 2 - Hear My Song
1. Choose 2 Songs from the list
Beautiful - Christina Aguilera

Confident - Demi Lovato
Flowers - Miley Cyrus
Sissy that Walk - RuPaul
You need to Calm Down - Taylor Swift
Born This Way - Lady Gaga
2. Analyze the song by answering the following questions;

a. What is the theme of the song?
b. Was it written in a narrative form or statement?
c. Was the song's message effectively covey by the singer to the listeners?
d. When was it written? State the context (social, political, and economic) when it
was composed.
e. Was there any secret alternative meaning behind the song? Explain.
2. Answer must be in 2 paragraphs with 200 words.
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MODULE 5: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
1. Differentiate Women in Development and Women and Development from Gender

and Development.
2. Identify elements of Right-Based Approach
3. Discuss the right based approach to Development
4. Explain women as agent of development
Discussion
Women always have untapped capacity to do and capacity to be. These are their
capacities to perform things they want to do in pursuit of a better life and the
opportunity and resources to attain their aspirations for a better life. Any development
to be successful needs women's active participation in achieving sustainable economic
growth, social development, and environmental sustainability.
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1. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
The Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act No. 9710) “defines Gender and
Development Program (GAD) as the development perspective and process that is
participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from violence, respectful of
human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human potentials.
It seeks to achieve gender equality as a fundamental value that should be reflected in
development choices and contends that women are active agents of development, not
just passive recipients of development.” (Magna Carta of Women) It is also about
being faithful to the principle that Development is for all. Fairness and equity demand
that everyone in society, whether male or female, has the right to the same
opportunities to achieve a full and satisfying life. Nonetheless, GAD is about
recognizing that gender biases impede development because they prevent people from
attaining their full potential such as effective contributors to development. GAD is
towards women’s empowerment, and their full participation based on equality in all
spheres is fundamental for society.
II. DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES THAT WOMEN ACTIVELY

PARTICIPATED.
It is advantageous to understand some of the key terms used in development

discourse to explain the involvement of women’s rights and issues in the development
field. Four notable approaches are the following:
1. WID: Women in Development
“The WID approach was adopted pointing to the fact that women‟s contribution
for development is not recognized by the policy makers. Women are treated as
beneficiaries‟ of development, not as active agents of development. Prior to this,
however, women were brought into, development‟ policy on very sex-specific terms.
Men were seen as the heads of households and productive agents. Women were seen
as housewives, mothers and reproducers. Therefore development efforts targeted the
male population, while women were relegated to the marginal welfare sector”.(UNIT
6 WID-WAD-GAD – PART I. n.d.). Moreover, what is most striking about the WID
model is that it does not deal with the issues of disparities and power relations
between men and women.SoWID model is popularly known as the
"non-confrontational approach” because it does not confront these issues.WID (or
Women in Development) approach calls forgreater attention to women in
development policy and practice, and emphasises the need to integrate them into the
development process.
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2. WAD: Women and Development
“The WAD approach provides a more critical view of women‟s position than
WID. It is assumed that women‟s position will improve once international structures
become more equitable. However how these could change is not clearly explained.
According to this perspective, women were not a neglected resource but overburdened
and undervalued. Their substantial contribution to development needs to be
recognized, along with a redistribution of its benefits and burdens between men and
women. The WAD approach also demanded “affirmative action” by the State as
“Laissez Faire” in the market worsened already existing inequalities”. (UNIT 6
WID-WAD-GAD – PART I. n.d.). However, WAD, while perhaps more critical than
WID, also fails to dig deeper into the systemic problems associated with the
relationship between men and wom
3. GAD: Gender and Development
As stated at the Magna Carta of Women (RA 9710) Gender and Development
refers the development perspective and process that is participatory and empowering,
equitable, sustainable, free from from violence, respectful of human rights, supportive
of self-determination and actualization of human potentials. The focus of GAD is to
examine why women have been assigned systematically to inferior or secondary roles
and confront the questions of power and agency. However, the GAD implementation
of the GAD approach is exceptionally difficult for non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) because it seeks to challenge the root causes of gender inequality. A
remarkable shift that transpired between WID, WAD, and GAD, was the change in
language, from dealing with women in the context of development, to gender.GAD
(or Gender and Development) approach focuses on the socially constructed basis of
differences between men and women and emphasises the need to challenge existing
gender roles andrelations
a. Reasons to go for Gender and Development
GAD Sharpens the focus of development on people. It enhances the capacities of

women and men to contribute to the attainment of development goals. It reduces
social inequities that stem from unequal gender relations. So importantly,
gender-responsive development is crucial in attaining GROWTH with EQUITY
GROWTH because GAD empowers women to be effective as half of the national
producers of goods and services. EQUITY is needed because it aims to provide more
to those who have less according to their needs. First, women are half of the country’s
population. As such, they are half of the producers of economic goods and services
but they are in the invisible and marginalized sector or the so-called non-money
economy bearing and raising children domestic and unpaid economic labor
32
subsistence agriculture. Second, they are already in the money economy Informal
sector Wage employment Trading.Third, women have unique stakes, roles, and
insights to share to attain development objectives, such as sustaining the environment,
managing population growth and imparting values that have profound impacts on
human progress and economic development.
4. Empowerment Approach
The empowerment approach is a direct result of “Third World” women‟s social

and grassroots movements and their realities and experiences of mainstream
„development‟. Its roots were in Latin American social movements where
educationists such as Paulo Frire and Evan Ilich used conseintization as a tool of
mobilizing oppressed sections. The approach emerged out of a critique of all other
approaches, which were based on the expert analysis of how and what “Third World”
women need to develop themselves and their communities. This approach gained
momentum in the 1980s and continues to be popular among social activists, feminist
researchers, NGOs and Aid agencies who are genuinely interested in the
transformatory potential of development initiatives. The empowerment approach
questions the notion that „women‟ can be addressed as a universal category. Further,
for the first time women‟s subordination was seen as a men‟s problem as well. The
empowerment approach broadened the scope of development theory by addressing
issues hitherto not considered relevant. These included oppressive gender relations,
ecological destruction, and the ethics of multinational control over the developing
countries and so on. Thus the empowerment approach became most threatening to
government and international agencies.(UNIT 6 WID-WAD-GAD – PART I. n.d.).
b. Gender Issues and Development
Gender issues affect all of us. They are deterrents to development because
“gender issues are the issues or problems affecting women and men that result from
society’s perceived generalizations and beliefs on characteristics, capabilities, and
behavior of women and men. These generalizations and beliefs usually limit our
understanding of what women and men can be and can do. This may happen
anywhere, in an organization, workplace, community, family/household, and other
groupings wherein people interact.” (Gender Issues, 2023). So it is significant to
address them in all areas of development. But instead of addressing them, we all
contribute to their perpetuation. However, believers in the vision of attaining full
and satisfying life for all must help pursue Gender and Development. We all have
the power, knowledge, skills, and resources to make development work for everyone.
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III. RIGHT-BASED APPRAOCH: AN APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT
The human rights-based approach focuses on the most marginalized, excluded, or

discriminated against. This often requires an analysis of gender norms, different forms
of discrimination, and power imbalances to ensure that interventions reach the most
marginalized segments of the population. (The Human Right-Based Approach,n.d.). It
requires human rights principles as a guide to focus and develop the capacities of
duty-bearers to meet their obligations and the right-holders to claim their rights.
a. Accountability
Raise the level of accountability in the development process by identifying claim

holders (and their entitlements) and corresponding duty-holders (and their
obligations). It takes into account the duties of relevant actors- individuals, states, P0s,
NGOs, donor agencies, and international organizations.Develop adequate laws,
policies, institutions, administrative procedures, practices, and mechanisms of redress
and accountability. Translate universal standards into locally determined benchmarks
to measure progress. The State should have the political will and the means to
guarantee the realization of all human rights. Constructive dialogue and cooperation
are encouraged between and amongst claim-holders and duty-holders.
b. Participation
Participation should be “ active, free, and meaningful.” (UN Declaration on the

Right to Development). People (esp. vulnerable and marginalized groups) should have
access to development processes, institutions, information, and redress mechanisms
c. Empowerment
Empowerment's goal gives people the power, capacities, and access needed to
transform their lives, improve their communities, and influence their destinies. Its
focus lies on its beneficiaries as the center of development. A gender lens is needed
to dissect the relationship between different these beneficiaries, their access to
resources, opportunities, and the challenges they face relative to each other. A gender
lens scrutinizes the differences between women and men when developing specific
approaches or programs. It empowers people to see how gendered power relations
permeate structures and institutions so that gender exists and is visible.
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d. Non-discrimination and attention to Vulnerable Groups
Ensure access and availability of resources by the disadvantaged or vulnerable

persons or groups living in poverty. They have little or no access to land, resources,
and social and economic services.
IV. WOMEN AS AGENTS TO DEVELOPMENT
“Throughout history, the central role of women in society has ensured the
stability, progress, and long-term development of nations.” (The Global Role of
Women-Caregivers, Conscience, Farmers, Educators and Entrepreneurs, 2019). As
UN Women Under-Secretary-General Michelle Bachelet said, when women are
empowered and can claim their rights and access to land, leadership, opportunities,
and choices, economies grow, and food security is enhanced development prospects
for current and future generations. They became agents of change and dared to
challenge gender stereotypes and traditional roles, paving the way for higher
representation of women in leadership positions through innovation, new perspectives,
and approaches to solving problems. Subsequently, “International studies demonstrate
that when the economy and political organization of a society change, women take the
lead in helping the family adjust to new realities and challenges". (The Global Role of
Women-Caregivers, Conscience, Farmers, Educators and Entrepreneurs, 2019).
Women embrace change and adapt effectively because of their positive attitude
toward accepting change. To be successful as contributors to change, "women should
become change agents in their communities and society at large because they have the
potential to bring about positive and transformative changes that can benefit everyone.
By harnessing their unique perspectives and experiences, advocating for gender
equality, serving as role models, and working together to create change, women can
help to build a better world for all.” (Monae, 2023)
V.LEARNING ACTIVITY
Activity 1 - Instructions:
1. Group work activity, so group yourself into 5. Choose and visit one women’s
organization or local women’s desk of a government agency in your area.
2. Make an interview with key officials and members
3. Write a short history of its emergence and analyze its interpretation of the terms of
gender and development.
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Activity 2
1. Watch the ad video entitled Pantene’Sorry, Not

Sorry’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TcGKxLJ4ZGI
2. Critique using the following guide questions;

a. Why was the commercial written, and who are the intended audience?
b. What was the core message, and was it thoroughly explained or only implied?
Was it a significant educational tool for empowerment? Why?
3. Submit your written critique.
4. Online Submission. (TBA)
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MODULE 6 : GENDER MAINSTREAMING
Objectives
1. Define gender mainstreaming.
2. Identify levels of gender mainstreaming.
3. Discuss the principles of gender mainstreaming.
4. Explain the importance of gender minstreaming.
Discussion
Mainstreaming gender is essential for various reasons.The concept of gender

mainstreaming was first introduced at the 1985 Nairobi World Conference on Women.
It was established as a strategy in international gender equality policy through
the Beijing Platform for Action, adopted at the 1995 Fourth United Nations World
Conference on Women in Beijing, and subsequently adopted as a tool to promote
gender equality at all levels. ‘The aim of gender mainstreaming is to take into account
these differences when designing, implementing and evaluating policies, programmes
and projects, so that they benefit both women and men and do not increase inequality
but enhance gender equality.”( What is gender mainstreaming?, n.d.) In conclusion,
mainstreaming gender in development work is the best thing to do.Gender
mainstreaming is a long term strategy that goes hand-in hand with specific policies for
the advancement of women
I. What is Gender Mainstreaming?
“Gender Mainstreaming” refers to the strategy for making women’s as well as

men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and
societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not
perpetuated. It is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any
planned action, including legislation, policies, or programs in all areas and at all levels.
(RA. 9710). PCW defines “Gender Mainstreaming or Gender and Development
(GAD) mainstreaming is the major global strategy for ensuring that the government
pursues gender equality in all aspects of the development process to achieve the
vision of a gender-responsive society where women and men equally contribute to
and benefit from development.”
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The Magna Carta of Women (Republic Act No. 9710) enacted on August 14, 2009,
pushes government action by adopting gender mainstreaming as a strategy to promote
and fulfill women's human rights and eliminate gender discrimination in government
systems, structures, policies, programs, processes, and procedures.
II. MAINSTREAMING GENDER EQUALITY ISSUES
Though we got closer to achieving gender equality, many obstacles are still
blocking the way in socio-political and economic areas. Gender equality issues need
mainstreaming at all stages of policy-making or program planning. Political will,
commitment to and awareness of gender equality issues, knowledge, resources
(including expertise), and availability of information are valuable and needed to
mainstream gender. It is, therefore, the responsibility of all actors to deal with the
needs of people at all levels. There is still hope that gender equality becomes a reality
by continuously mainstreaming gender equality issues in all development policies and
programs.
A. What is the Mainstream?

According to PCW, the “mainstream” is an interrelated set of dominant ideas,
values, practices, institutions, and organizations that determine “who gets what”
within a society. The ideas and practices of the mainstream tend to reflect and
reinforce each other and thus provide a rationale for any given allocation of societal
resources and opportunities.Becoming part of the mainstream means:
a. women and men have equitable access to resources, including opportunities and
rewards. It implies equal participation in influencing what is valued in shaping
options within society.
b. sharing equitably in the benefits of development.
c. offers the opportunity to influence who does what in a society, who owns (and
can own) what, who has access to jobs and income, who controls the society’s
resources and institutions, who makes decisions, and who sets priorities.
B. Entry Points of Gender Mainstreaming

In addition, PCW states that GAD mainstreaming requires interventions from
different stages of development planning processes, from planning to programming,
budgeting, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
C. Four critical entry points to GAD mainstreaming,
1. Policies
This refers to the official statements and pronouncements of support for gender
mainstreaming issued by the organization. These may be in the form of department
orders, special orders, administrative orders, memoranda, and executive orders that
spell out the commitment of an organization to pursue gender mainstreaming. It also
includes national and sectoral plans, specific guidelines, a manual of implementation,
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and the GAD Framework/Strategic Plan. Through these issuances, the organization
expresses its recognition and acceptance of gender mainstreaming as a critical and
legitimate concern, even in broad or general terms.
2. People
This refers to the relevant stakeholders who assume the task of gender
mainstreaming. The following are critical to the success of gender mainstreaming:
GAD champions among top management who actively support the gender
mainstreaming program; recognition of the GAD Focal Point System and staff
members as GAD experts; internal and external clients who can participate in the
planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of programs, activities, and
projects.
As an entry point, people share four complementary and distinct roles:
a. The Sponsor
“The individual or group who has the power to sanction or legitimize change.”
Sponsors consider the potential changes facing an organization and assess the changes
and opportunities. They decide which changes will happen, communicate the new
priorities to the organization, and provide the proper reinforcement to assure success.
They are also “responsible for creating an environment that enables these changes to
be made on time and within budget.”
In gender mainstreaming, the sponsors are the heads of the organizations. They
express support for gender mainstreaming by issuing policies or installing the
necessary enabling mechanisms such as approving the organization’s GAD Plan and
Budget. They also set the direction of the overall gender mainstreaming efforts of the
organization
b. The Change Agent. “The individual or group who is responsible for actually
making the change. The agent’s success depends on the ability to diagnose
potential problems, develop a plan to deal with these issues, and execute the
change effectively.”
The primary change agents are usually the GAD Focal Point System Members
because they facilitate the implementation of gender mainstreaming in the
organization.
c. The Target.
“The individual or group who must change or those who will benefit from
development.”The term “target” is used because these people are the focus of the
change effort and play a crucial role in the short- and long-term success of an
organization’s gender mainstreaming efforts. To increase the likelihood of success,
they must be educated to understand the changes that are expected to accommodate.
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They must also be involved in the implementation process. The targets of gender
mainstreaming are people in the bureaucracy, the field workers, and the clients of the
different organizations. The officials and members of the bureaucracy are given GAD
capability programs to engage in gender mainstreaming efforts.
d. The Advocate.
“The individual or group who wants to achieve change but lacks the power to
sanction it.” The presence of GAD advocates determines the success rate of sustaining
GAD mainstreaming initiatives. The presence of GAD advocates helps lay a solid
foundation built on an appreciation of GAD as a rights-based approach to
development. The rights-based approach means achieving a positive transformation of
power relations among the different development actors.
3. Programs and Projects (PAPs)

This refers to the flagship programs or activities and projects that serve as a
strategic entry point to gender mainstreaming in an organization. It is the most
practical entry point since it involves the actual implementation of the mandate of an
organization. PAPs can be reviewed and the issuance of revised GAD policies,
application of gender analysis tools, the conduct of GAD advocacy, and regular
updating of GAD mechanisms such as the GAD database.
4. Enabling Mechanisms
This refers to the systems and mechanisms installed in the organization and the
funds allocated for GAD activities such as the GAD Focal Point System and
Knowledge Management System. The success of any gender mainstreaming efforts
depend, to a large extent, on the resources allocated and the mechanisms that are
institutionalized to implement it. Enabling mechanisms can be the GAD Funds Audit
of the Commission on Audit, which greatly helped in ensuring institutional
compliance to the minimum 5% utilization of the GAD budgets of government
agencies and local government units.
a. What is GAD Budget?
The GAD Budget is the total amount provided in the General Fund Budget of the
LGU to finance PPAs under the GAD Plan. At least 5% of the LGU’s total annual
appropriation is set aside for GAD-related activities and attributed to the existing
PPAs of the LGU budget. “Using the 5% GAD budget for gender mainstreaming is a
way for agencies to influence the entire agency program, plan, and
budget.”(PCW-NEDA Joint Circular No. 2012-01)
5. Levels of Gender Mainstreaming

In the course of implementing gender mainstreaming, an organization may progress
through the following levels: (PCW, Gender Mainstreaming)
40
Source: PCW Gender Mainstreaming (https://pcw.gov.ph/gender-mainstreaming/)
Level 1: Foundation Formation

This is the initial stage, where the level of gender awareness of an organization is
heightened through raising people’s awareness and generating support for gender
mainstreaming. The challenge at the onset of any change effort is getting people to
understand, appreciate and imbibe the need for change. This level also sets the tone
for appreciating the value added in committing to GAD as one of the priority thrusts
of the organization.
Level 2: Installation of Strategic Mechanisms

This marks the transition of the organization toward gender mainstreaming. Some
of the enabling conditions created and established by top management to support
GAD are:
• Putting key people, necessary policies, support structures, systems and mechanisms
in pace to facilitate and sustain gender mainstreaming
• Initial application of GAD concepts and tools
Level 3: GAD Application

This is the period where GAD-related activities are already institutionalized
within the organization. Interventions are usually based on a strategic GAD agenda
that guides GAD planning and budgeting implementation. The GAD planning and
budgeting have become more strategic in terms of applying gender analysis in regular
programs that result in either increased attribution of the GAD budget and/or more
gender responsive programs.
Level 4: Commitment Enhancement and Institutionalization

At this level, the organization has already institutionalized gender mainstreaming
and is focused on sustaining its efforts. It also challenges other organizations to
continuously evaluate and improve their efforts. After all, the long-term goal is to
41
improve the government’s ability to respond to gender issues and concerns on a
sustained basis.
Level 5: Replication and Innovation

When an organization reached this level, it means that GAD has been fully
mainstreamed into its mandate and is being recognized by others as a model in gender
mainstreaming. The GAD Focal Person System members of the organization do not
only serve as internal experts but are also invited by other organizations as GAD
technical assistance providers. GAD-related mechanisms established by the
organization are also certified as learning hubs by national and/or international
organizations.
III. THE FIVE PRINCIPLES OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING
Five principles hold for all gender mainstreaming activities and implementation
measures. (Five Principles of Gender Mainstreaming, n.d.) These are the following;
1. Gender-sensitive language texts referring to or addressing both women and men

must make women and men equally visible. This applies to, amongst others, forms,
documents, telephone directories, texts on the intranet and the internet, advertising for
events, folders, posters, and films.Attention must also be paid to a gender-sensitive
choice of images when preparing public relations material.
2. Gender-specific data collection and analysis

Data must be collected, analyzed, and presented by gender. Social dimensions, such
as age, ethnicity, income, and level of education should also be reflected where
possible.Gender-specific analysis of the initial situation must provide the basis for all
decisions. A Gender-sensitive statistics is a must.
3. Equal access to and utilization of services

Services and products must be assessed as to their different effects on women and
men.
4. .Women and men are equally involved in decision making

There are binding targets for a balanced gender ratio at all levels of decision-making.
Measures and strategies geared towards a balanced gender ratio must be taken at all
levels of decision-making.
5. Equal treatment is integrated into steering processes

Steering instruments include quality management and gender budgeting, amongst
others.
IV. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SGD)
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Achieving gender equality and women's empowerment is integral to part of each
of the seventeen (17) goals. Only by ensuring the rights of women and girls across all
the goals will we get to justice and inclusion, economies that work for all, and
sustaining our shared environment now and for future generations.
Sustainable Development Goal No. 5 “achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls.” Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a
necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world," specifically
aimed at achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls. Thirteen (13)
other goals, no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education,
clear water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic
growth, industry, innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities
and communities, climate action, peace, justice, and strong institutions and
partnerships establish clear commitments towards equality between men and women.
V. LEARNING ACTIVITY
Activity 1
Analyze the gender responsiveness of student organizations in your school.

1. Work on your own or in a group of 3
2. Choose a student organization you are a member of, if not an organization you
know well.
3. Think about the organizational structure that is in place
4. Draw an organizational chart showing the officials and committees, and members
( sex-segregated data)
5. Submit a proposed organization project for gender equality and empowerment in
your school.
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MODULE 7 : WOMEN’S ISSUES AND CONCERNS
Objectives:
1. Identify 12 areas of concern
2. Discuss the importance of Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
3. Explain the feminization of poverty
4. Critique cultural influences on the treatment of girl children
DISCUSSION:
The Beijing Platform for Action identified 12 critical issues of concern for
women. Violence against women and women's rights are just two of the twelve issues
identified. These two issues are under the heading of women’s issues. As such, they
are now a buzzword and willfully crafted. On the other hand, there are issues less
talked about, if not presented with a demeaning, contentious undertone that is
frustrating. The lack of effort to recognize these issues is prevalent in political settings
unless affected by it. We should make it part of our comprehensive effort to address
these issues and concerns of women. We would not lose sight of our goal to achieve
gender equality.
I. THE BEIJING DECLARATION AND PLATFORM FOR ACTION
“The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action is a visionary agenda for the
empowerment of women. It is also one of the reference frameworks to analyse the
situation of women around the world and to assess the efforts of States in support of
women’s empowerment.”(UNESCWA, n.d.). PCW states that the Beijing Declaration
and Platform for Action is a landmark document for advancing women’s rights and
gender equality globally. This document was agreed upon during the 4th World
Conference on Women in 1995. It also laid out concrete ways for countries to bring
about change. The BPfA affirmed the principles that would govern future actions and
strategies for women and firmly established an agenda for empowering women by
integrating their concerns into national plans and policies.”Beijing Conference
broadened the discussions on women’s rights to include violence against women,
women’s leadership and political participation, and economic concerns. It connected
what was previously regarded as women’s issues with other pressing concerns on the
44
environment, human rights, population, and armed conflict. The country also adopted
gender mainstreaming as a strategy to advance women’s rights in the country. “In
2019, the State submitted the BPfA+25 Progress Report, which includes an
assessment of current challenges that affect the implementation of the agreements
enshrined in the BPfA. It also highlighted major achievements on gender equality and
women empowerment and its contribution towards the full realization of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development through a gender perspective. The Report was
launched officially in August 2019 as part of the 10th-anniversary celebration of the
passage of the Magna Carta of Women.”( Beijing Platform for Action. n.d.)
II. TWELVE (12) CRITICAL AREAS OF CONCERN
1. Women and Poverty

“Women constitute a majority of the poor and are often the poorest of the poor.
The societal disadvantage and inequality they face because they are women shapes
their experience of poverty differently from that of men, increases their vulnerability,
and makes it more challenging for them to climb out of poverty. In other words,
poverty is a gendered experience — addressing it requires a gender analysis of norms
and values, the division of assets, work and responsibility, and the dynamics of power
and control between women and men in poor households.” (Gupta, n.d)Moreover,
they face double discrimination, on account of their gender and economic situation.
Women, their families, communities, and economies suffer as a result.
Feminization of poverty
According to the Council of Europe, feminization of poverty means women have

a higher incidence of poverty than men, their poverty is more severe than that of men,
and poverty among women is rising.
Causes of the feminization of poverty
1. Structure of family and household

2. Employment
3. Sexual violence
4. Education
5. Climate change
6. Economics
7. Health.
The cycle of poverty is an inter-generational issue. It refers to the phenomenon that

women and children are disproportionately represented among the world’s poor and
are more likely than men to live below the poverty line.
45
1. Education and Training of Women
Education is essential for women to reach gender equality and become leaders of
change. While women and girls today are far more educated than ever before, gaps
remain. Educated women benefit entire societies, contributing to flourishing
economies and improved health, nutrition, and education of their families. Education
and training are also tools to help change harmful gender stereotypes. “The Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action for Equality, Development, and Peace (BPfA)
1995 establishes that education is a human right and an essential tool for achieving the
goals of equality, development, and peace. Equality of access to, and attainment of,
educational qualifications is necessary if more women are to become agents of change.
Discrimination in girls' access to education persists in many areas, owing to
customary attitudes, early marriages, and pregnancies, inadequate and gender-biased
teaching and educational materials, sexual harassment, and lack of adequate
physically and otherwise accessible schooling facilities”.(Education and Training of
Women. n.d.). Establishment of an educational and social environment, where equal
treatment for women and men, girls and boys are practiced should be prioritized.
Encouraged to achieve their full potential, respecting their freedom of thought,
conscience, religion, and belief, and promoting non-stereotyped images of women and
men should be done to eliminate the causes of discrimination against women and
inequalities between women and men.ducation and training of Women
2. Women and Health

Women need to be healthy in order to realize their full potential. This includes
proper nutrition, sexual and reproductive rights, and mental health, as well as freedom
from violence.Women’s health is a broad category that includes health issues that are
unique to women, such as menstruation and pregnancy, as well as conditions that
affect both men and women, but that may affect women differently, such as heart
disease and diabetes.
3. Violence against Women
According to Republic Act 9262 or the Anti-Violence Against Women and their
Children Act of 2004, VAW is “any act or a series of acts committed by any person
against a woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the
person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has a common
child, or against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate, with or without the
family abode, which result in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological
harm or suffering, or economic abuse including threats of such acts, battery, assault,
coercion, harassment or arbitrary deprivation of liberty.”
VAW includes, but not limited to, the following acts:

1. Physical violence or the act that includes bodily or physical harm
46
2. Sexual violence or the act that is sexual in nature, committed against a
woman or her child
3. Psychological violence or the act or omission that causes or likely to cause
mental or emotional suffering of the victim
4. Economic abuse or the act that makes or attempts to make a woman
financially dependent
Impacts of VAW
1. VAW strikes the personhood of women

It does not only affect women’s physical and reproductive health, but specially their
mental and emotional state. It has caused women to feel ashamed and to lose their
self-esteem. It threatens women’s personal security.
2. VAW limits human development

It jeopardizes women’s health and curbs their capacity to participate in social
development. Working women’s productivity decreases due to frequent absences
resulting from VAW. VAW is responsible for one out of every five healthy days of
life lost to women of reproductive age.
3. VAW further drains the country’s financial resources

The Philippines spent an estimated P6 billion pesos in 2002 to treat VAW survivors.
This amount covered the medical treatment of VAW injuries, psychological therapies
and programs for survivors, maintenance of shelters, cost of legal and court
proceedings to prosecute perpetrators, training costs of service providers, and other
indirect social costs to family members of VAW survivors and perpetrators.
4. VAW is an issue of governance

A state promotes good governance when it makes available effective remedies to
eliminate VAW in the homes, in the communities and in the state.
4. Women and Armed Conflict

Wars and armed conflict destroy families and society and put women and girls
vulnerable to violence. It affects the survival chances of women and children through
malnutrition, physical injuries, infectious diseases, poor mental health, and poor
sexual and reproductive health. Sexual violence during armed conflict places women
and girls at high risk because it is a war tactic. Women survivors of armed conflict
instantly become household heads and breadwinners, taking responsibility for various
activities traditionally carried out by men. But these women are often not equipped for
these new roles because of a lack of access to education and training, employment,
and other resources such as land and credit. However, some women are capable actors
and gained from the opportunity the conflict situation provided them through
economic and political responsibilities and freely investing in income-generating
activities. As survivors, they put up their businesses like restaurants, dress shops, and
more. Roles played by women during Armed Conflict are the following, victims,
47
combatants, peace activists, formal peace politics (negotiators), coping and surviving
actors, and household heads.
5. Women and the Economy

The situation has changed over the last 25 years, but, we are far from achieving
equal access to economic resources, even if women today are farmers, factory
workers, CEOs of companies, scientists, engineers, doctors, and hold many other jobs
that may have. Women have vast and positive impacts on the economy, in business,
agriculture, and industry, and as domestic workers, market vendors, migrant workers,
and through their unpaid care work. Despite some progress, obstacles to women’s full
and equal participation, including the lack of an enabling environment, persist. e has
been unthinkable in the past.Despite solid evidence that the realization of women’s
economic rights, especially in terms of work and income, advances economies and
sustainable development, women remain disproportionately affected by poverty, lack
of land and inheritance rights, discrimination and exploitation in the labor market,
early and child marriages, and access to education, has negative impacts on women’s
lives and well-being, as well as their human potential and economic contributions.
6. Women in Power and Decision-making

“The Beijing conference agreement, known as the Platform for Action,
dubbed women in power and decision-making one of 12 critical areas of concern. It
made two essential commitments to change. First, it called for measures ensuring
women’s equal access to and full participation in power structures and
decision-making. Political quotas or positive measures are examples of these. By
reserving seats or candidacies for women, they have driven dramatic increases in the
number of women leaders in some countries. Second, the Platform urged steps to
increase women’s ability to participate. Training on leadership, public speaking, and
political campaigning, for instance, grooms women to compete, win and be good
leaders who can inspire others.”(Women in Power and Decision-making.n.d.).The
active participation of women is fundamental to democratic governance. But women
still have far to go towards equal representation in positions of power and leadership.
The absence of women in corporate boardrooms or presidential cabinets is visible.
They are under-represented as voters and in top positions, whether in elected office,
the civil service, corporate boardrooms, or academia. Discriminatory laws and
practices hold women back, as do limits on education, income, and time away from
caregiving. While women have made inroads in many areas, at the current pace of
change, we won’t see gender parity in governments, parliaments, or peace tables until
the next century. Women have a right to equal participation. Once in leadership roles,
they can make a difference that benefits whole societies.
7. Institutional Mechanisms
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Powerful and effective policies and laws combined with stronger mechanisms to
coordinate various actors and ensure their effective enforcement and implementation
can push the agenda.The role of institutional mechanisms or national machinery, in
promoting the status of women, acquired international relevance during the World
Conference on the International Women's Year, held in Mexico in 1975, which called
for their establishment. The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action for Equality,
Development, and Peace (BPfA) 1995 (p. 84) not only identified institutional
mechanisms for the advancement of women as one of the 12 critical areas of concern.
8. Human Rights of Women

Women and girls are entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of all of their human
rights. The Beijing Platform for Action confirms that protection and promotion of
human rights is the first responsibility of governments and core to the work of the
United Nations.Women’s Rights are Human Rights. We cannot have a free and equal
society until everyone is free and equal. Until women enjoy the same rights as men,
this inequality is everyone’s problem because upholding the human rights of women
still faces many obstacles. The protection and promotion of human rights for women
and girls remain an important duty for governments and societies around the world.
Protecting women’s rights makes the world a better place According to the UN,
“gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls is not just a goal in itself,
but a key to sustainable development, economic growth, and peace and security”.
Research has shown this to be the case – society gets better for everyone when
women’s rights are upheld and taken seriously.According to Amnesty International,
the following are some examples of the rights which activists throughout the centuries
and today have been fighting for, Women’s Suffrage, Sexual and Reproductive Rights,
and Freedom of Movement.
9. Women and the Media
The media plays a significant role in perpetuating and challenging social norms
that condone discrimination or violence against women. It can objectify women but
also showcase strong women leaders and protagonists who can become role models
for their audience. As a woman media practitioner, you are susceptible to stereotypes
that perpetuate gender discrimination. Because women in all types of media tend to be
thin and sexualized. They talk less than men. They have fewer opinions. And they are
far less likely, in the entertainment industry, to play roles as leaders or professionals,
or even as women who work for a living. Print, radio, and television headlines and
news stories, uphold gender stereotypes. While women represent half of the world’s
population, less than one-third of all speaking characters in the film are female.
Cyberviolence has extended the harassment and stalking of women and girls to the
online world.Twenty years ago, 189 UN Member States recognized the central role of
media in shifting the gender stereotypes that influence how we think and act. They
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made women and media one of 12 critical areas of the Beijing Platform for
Action and called on media everywhere to make a far greater contribution to women’s
advancement.
10. Women and the Environment
‘Women play a critical role in managing natural resources on family and

community levels and are most affected by environmental degradation.”(Owren, n.d.)
Globally and culturally, women play critical roles in their natural environment. As the
family's chief resource managers for natural resources, biodiversity, and ecosystems,
their experiences and perspectives are essential to sustainable development,
policymaking, and actions at every stage for years to come. However, since dependent
on available natural resources for food, fuel, and shelter, they can be particularly
vulnerable to environmental changes or threats. When drought, erratic rainfall, or
severe storms affect access to these basic resources, women, and their families' lives
can be intensely affected. Studies have shown that natural disasters disproportionately
hit women, lowering female life expectancy rates and killing more women than men,
especially where levels of gender equality are low. Meanwhile, they became voiceless
and ignored in environmental planning and management. They also have less access
to land and productive resources. However, their efforts and contributions are
significant for achieving a sustainable future. Their unique perspectives and
extraordinary knowledge and skills to conservations can’t be ignored because women
are the prime movers in environmental conversation and importantly, the agents of
change.
11. The Girl Child

“The girl child” is one of the critical areas of the 1995 Beijing Platform for
Action; girls’ rights are codified within the U.N. Convention on the Rights of the
Child and include non-discrimination, protection from harm and abuse, and full
participation in family, social, and cultural life. Barriers to realizing these rights
include practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM), sex-selective abortions,
and child marriage. “In many cultures and societies, the girl child is denied her human
rights and sometimes her basic needs. She is at increased risk of sexual abuse,
exploitation, and other harmful practices that negatively affect her survival,
development, and ability to achieve her fullest potential. Because girls are particularly
vulnerable, they require additional protection. The girl child is one of the 12 critical
areas in the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action, which recommends the elimination of
all forms of discrimination and abuse of girls and the protection of their
rights.”(Haarr.n.d)
Cultural Influences on the Treatment of Girl Children
Discrimination and harmful practices against the girl child vary depending upon
cultural context. The following are some of the harmful practices.
50
a. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
“Female genital mutilation (FGM) refers to all procedures involving partial or

total removal of the female external genitalia or other injury to the female genital
organs for non-medical reasons. It is most often carried out on young girls between
infancy and age 15. In every form in which it is practiced, FGM is a violation of girls'
and women’s fundamental human rights, including their rights to health, security, and
dignity.”(UNICEF, 2023). It is a practice that is handed from generation to generation
because of the belief that it is a rite of passage, suppresses a girl’s sexuality or ensures
chastity before marriage, and requirement for marriage or inheritance. It is not a
religious practice either from Islam or Christianity. Community ostracism and fear of
daughters not being eligible for marriage are reasons parents reject or abandon it. It
is not an Islam or Christian practice but religious texts usually use it to justify it.
b. Breast Ironing
“ Breast ironing, sometimes referred to as breast flattening, is a harmful practice

that generally involves the repetitive pounding, pressing, ironing, rubbing, or
massaging of a pubescent girl’s breasts, often using hard or heated objects, in order to
attempt to stop or delay them from growing or developing, make them flatter, or make
them disappear. The practice can include the use of a variety of objects, such as
heated grinding stones, cast-iron pans, ladles, hammers, wooden pestles or spatulas,
spoons, brooms, or electric irons. Other objects that may be utilized include pits of
black fruits, coconut shells, plantain peels, and certain leaves or plants (which are
believed to possess medicinal or healing qualities). Breast ironing may also involve
tightly wrapping or tying bandages, elastic compresses, cloths, or belts around young
girls’ chests.”( Amahazion, 2021)
c. Sex selective abortion
Prenatal sex selection is usually performed through abortion after a scan has revealed
the sex of the fetus.
d. Female Infanticide
Female infanticide is the intentional killing of infant girls.
e. Child labor
“Child labor is the exploitation of children who are deprived of their childhood by
work that prevents them from attending school or causes physical, mental, or social
harm. Children are especially vulnerable to injuries in their early developmental years,
even though physical and mental health problems may not be evident for years.”
(Child labor: Facts, FAQs, and how to end it.,2023.)
51
The worst forms of child labor as defined by the ILO’s Convention No. 182 are
the following:
 Slavery or similar practices

 Child trafficking
 Forced recruitment into armed conflict
 Prostitution and pornography
 Drug production and trafficking or other illegal acts
 Debt bondage
 Hazardous work that can cause injury or moral corruption
f. Child Marriage.
According to UNICEF Child marriage refers to any formal marriage or informal

union between a child under the age of 18 and an adult or another child.
III. LEARNING ACTIVITY
Video to Watch:
1. Runaway Child Brides- Ang Kuwento ng mga Tumakas sa Buya: Stand for
Truth, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxnnoaCb_rc
2. Most Dangerous Ways to School: Philippines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=di_PKpeSmtY
Instructions:
Select one video to watch. Pay attention to the overall themes, and mark the main
scenes when viewing the video. Watching and discussing video documentaries with
classmates is strongly encouraged. Each must submit an essay with at least 500 words
that elaborates on the following questions
1. What does the title tell you about the video?
2. What is the main idea of the video? List three things (people, activities, places)
from the video that support the main idea.
3. Identify and describe a scene in the video that struck you most, why it matters, and
explain how the core message was covey to viewers.
52
MODULE 8 : LAWS ON WOMEN
Objectives:
1. Identify the Commonwealth Acts that protect women

2. Explain national laws that address abuse and violence against women
3. Discuss Women’s Priority Legislative Agenda
4. Describe International Laws and policies to prevent and intervene in violence
against women
DISCUSSION:
To start, under the law, women need to understand their rights and that equality in
law is critically significant for gender equality. Laws and policies frame women and
girls' realities in all aspects of their lives and societal narratives. The truth is laws can
be instruments to protect, promote and fulfill the rights of women and girls, where no
woman or girl is left behind. However, laws can also deny rights to women and girls
and impede the thought of living a satisfying life. It obstructs the attainment of a just,
inclusive, and equal society. Laws, policies, and institutions that improve women’s
well-being require more attention and priority.
I. Commonwealth Acts
“The enactment of the Jones Law of 1916 and the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934
by the U.S. Congress paved the way for the creation of a transition government for the
Philippines. This government would give the Philippines ten years wherein it would
gradually accustom itself to the benefits and rigors of independence and self-rule.
These two laws would establish the Commonwealth government with the right to
formulate and promulgate its own constitution. By virtue of these powers, the 1935
Constitution was enacted and thus initially changed the legislature into a unicameral
body. However, the bicameral system was restored pursuant to a constitutional
amendment in 1940.The life and effectivity of the Commonwealth government was
eventually cut short with the outbreak of World War II and the Japanese Invasion.
Laws enacted by the Commonwealth Congress are denominated as “Commonwealth
Acts” and are cited as “C.A. No.___”. It enacted a total of 733 statutes. There are
reports of 750 laws promulgated during the period of January 1, 1936 to December 31,
1941.” (Commonwealth Act, 2023).However, only four Commonwealth Acts protect
women.
53
1. Commonwealth Act No. 647: An Act to Grant Maternity Leave to Married
Women Who are in the Service of the Government or of any of its
Instrumentalities
Married women who are permanently or temporarily appointed in the service of
the Government, or in any of its branches, subdivisions, agencies, or instrumentalities,
including the corporations and enterprises owned or controlled by the Government,
shall, in addition to the vacation and sick leave which they may enjoy now, be entitled
in case of pregnancy to a maternity leave of sixty days subject to the following
conditions.
2. Commonwealth Act No. 625: An Act Providing the Manner in Which the
Option to Elect Philippine Citizenship Shall be Declared by a Person Whose
Mother is a Filipino Citizen
The option to elect Philippine citizenship in accordance with subsection (4),
Section 1, Article IV, of the Constitution shall be expressed in a statement to be
signed and sworn to by the party concerned before any officer authorized to
administer oaths, and shall be filed with the nearest civil registry. The said party shall
accompany the aforesaid statement with the oath of allegiance to the Constitution and
the Government of the Philippines.
3. Commonwealth Act No. 613: The Philippine Immigration Act of 1940

A Bureau of Immigration [now Commission on Immigration and Deportation] is
established under a Commissioner of Immigration, who shall have two assistants, a
First Deputy Commissioner of Immigration [now Associate Commissioner of
Immigration] and a Second Deputy Commissioner of Immigration [now Associate
Commissioner of Immigration]. For administrative purposes, the Bureau of
Immigration [now Commission on Immigration and Deportation] shall be under the
supervision and control of the Department of Labor [now Department of Justice] or of
any other executive department which the President may subsequently determine.
4. Commonwealth Act No. 473: Revised Naturalization Law

An act to provide for the acquisition of Philippine citizenship by naturalization, and to
repeal acts numbered twenty-nine hundred and twenty-seven and thirty-four hundred
and forty-eight
II. NATIONAL LAWS
The Philippines has a handful of legislation that address the problems of abuse
and violence against women. However, the current situation says more. Women still
have to face numerous difficulties and challenges like violence and gendered division
of labor despite the enactment of laws on women’s rights and welfare.
54
The following are Philippine women-related laws:
RA 11313: The Safe Spaces Act (Bawal Bastos Law) of 2019 - covers all forms of
gender-based sexual harassment (GBSH) committed in public spaces, educational or
training institutions, workplace and online space.
RA 11210: 105-Day Expanded Maternity Leave Law of 2019 - extends the previous
60-day (78 days for caesarian section delivery for women workers in the private sector)
paid maternity leave to 105 days. The law also entails an option to extend for an
additional 30 days of unpaid leave. Additional 15 days paid maternity leave shall also be
granted to female solo parents.
RA 10906: The Anti Mail-Order Spouse Act of 2016 - prohibits the business of
organizing or facilitating marriages between Filipinas, colloquially called "mail-order
brides", and foreign men. It replaced a 1990 law, the Anti Mail-Order Bride Law,
enacted by the Congress of the Philippines as a result of stories in local media about
Filipinas being abused by their foreign husbands.
RA 10354: The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of

2012provides for a national policy on responsible parenthood and reproductive health.
The Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012, known as RH
Law, is a groundbreaking law that guarantees universal and free access to nearly all
modern contraceptives for all citizens, including impoverished communities, at
government health centers. The law also mandates reproductive health education in
government schools and recognizes a woman’s right to post-abortion care as part of
the right to reproductive healthcare.
RA 9710: Magna Carta of Women of 2009 - is a comprehensive women's human rights

law that seeks to eliminate discrimination through the recognition, protection,
fulfillment, and promotion of the rights of Filipino women, especially those belonging
in the marginalized sectors of the society. It conveys a framework of rights for women
based directly on international law. Pursuant to this law is Executive Order 273 that
states the approval and adoption of Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive
Development, 1995-2025.
RA 9262: Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 – provides
protective measures for victims, prescribing penalties, recognizes the need to protect the
family and its members particularly women and children, from violence and threats to
their personal safety and security. Under this law, the state also recognizes the need to
protect the family and its members particularly women and children, from violence and
threats to their personal safety and security.
55
RA 9208: Anti-Trafficking in Person Act of 2003- establishes the necessary institutional
mechanisms to protect and support trafficked persons and provide penalties for its
violations.
RA 8505: Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of 1998- declares the policy of the
State to provide necessary assistance and protection for rape victims.The government
shall coordinate its various agencies and non-government organizations to work hand in
hand for the establishment and operation of a rape crisis center in every province and city
that shall assist and protect rape victims in the litigation of their cases and their recovery.
RA 8353: Anti-Rape Law of 1997 - states that any person having carnal knowledge of a
woman through force, threat, or intimidation or by means of fraudulent machination or
grave abuse of authority will be punished.Depending on the severity of the case, the
offense may be punishable reclusion perpetua or life imprisonment.
RA 7877: Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 - addresses the issue of sexual

harassment committed in employment, education or training environment. It was signed
into law on February 14, 1995, under former President Fidel Ramos'
administration.Sexual favors made as a condition in the employment or granting
promotions or privileges; or the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in limiting,
segregating or classifying the employee which in any way would discriminate, deprive or
diminish employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect is punishable by law..
RA 7882: Assistance for Small-Scale Women Entrepreneurs of 1995-seeks to provide all

possible assistance to Filipino women in their pursuit of owning, operating and managing
small business enterprises.RA 7882, or the act that states the Provision of Assistance to
Women Engaging in Micro and Cottage Business Enterprises, and for other purposes,
was approved in February 1995.
RA 6949: National Women's Day (1990) - declares the eighth day of March every year
as a special working holiday.
RA 6725: Prohibition on Discrimination Against Women of 1989- prohibits

discrimination with respect to terms and conditions of employment solely on the basis of
sex.Under this law, any employer favoring a male employee over a female in terms of
promotion, training opportunities, and other benefits solely on account of sex is
considered discrimination.
III. WOMEN’S PRIORITY LEGISLATIVE AGENDA (WPLA)
“The Women’s Priority Legislative Agenda is a set of proposed subjects of bills,

developed through public consultation, that seeks to amend or repeal the
discriminatory provisions of existing laws and pushes for the formulation and
adoption of new legislation that promote, protect, and fulfill women’s rights and
empowerment.To ensure that the said mandate is efficiently implemented, the PCW
56
developed the Women’s Priority Legislative Agenda (WPLA) as a tool to intensify
efforts for the enactment of laws to amend or repeal discriminatory provisions of
existing laws and to advocate for the formulation and adoption of new laws that
promote women’s empowerment and gender equality.”(PCW, n.d.)
The following GAD-related Legislations were enacted during the 17th and 18th
Congress
 Republic Act No. 1148: Kalusugan at Nutrisyon ng Mag-Nanay Act (approved

on November 29, 2018)
 Republic Act No. 11210: 105-Day Expanded Maternity Leave Law (approved
on February 20, 2019)
 Republic Act No. 11313: Safe Spaces Act (approved on April 17, 2019)
 Republic Act No. 11596: An Act Prohibiting the Practice of Child Marriage
and Imposing Penalties for Violations Thereof (approved on December 10,
2021)
 Republic Act No. 11648: Special Protection of Children Against Abuse,
Exploitation and Discrimination Act (approved on March 4, 2022)
 Republic Act No. 11861: Expanded Solo Parents Welfare Act (lapsed) (lapsed
into law -June 4, 2022)
 Republic Act No. 11862: An Act Strengthening the Policies on
Anti-Trafficking in Persons, Providing Penalties for Its Violations, and
Appropriating Funds Therefor, Amending for the Purpose Republic Act No.
9208, As Amended, Otherwise Known As the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act
of 2003, and Other Special Laws (approved on June 23, 2022)
 Republic Act No. 11930: Anti-Online Sexual Abuse and Exploitation of
Children (OSAEC) Law (lapsed into law – July 30, 2022)
For the 19th Congress, eleven (11) proposed legislative measures comprise the
women’s priority legislative agenda to be pursued for adoption and enactment by both
the House of Representatives and the Senate.
1. Ensuring Women’s Equal Rights in Marriage and Family Relations

2. Amending Article 55 of the Family Code to Include All Forms of Violence as
Defined in RA 9262, as Ground for Legal Separation
3. Reinstituting Divorce in the Philippines
4. Amending the Anti-Rape Law
5. Amending the Discriminatory Provisions of Article 247 of the Revised Penal
Code
6. Eliminating Gender Bias in Adultery and Concubinage
7. Enacting SOGIE Equality Act
8. Enacting a Law Upholding the Rights of Women Deprived of Liberty
9. Enacting a Women’s Political Participation and Representation Law
10. Enacting a Magna Carta of Workers in the Informal Economy
11. Amending the Safe Spaces Act Providing Penalties for Gender Based Sexual
Harassment in Educational and Training Institutions and the Workplace
IV. INTERNATIONAL LAWS
57
Lists human rights conventions and declarations that obligate countries that have
ratified these conventions to treat violence against women as a human rights violation
and to incorporate international standards into their domestic legislations.
(VAWnet.n.d.)
Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Adopted in 1948 by 58 member states of the
United Nations, UDHR defines human rights as fundamental to all human beings and
requires governments to take actions to protect human rights of all beings.
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW)- Among the international human rights treaties, the Convention takes an
important place in bringing women into the focus of human rights concerns. The
present document spells out the meaning of equality and how it can be achieved..
Known as the International Bill of Rights of Women, Convention on the Elimination of
all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) was adopted by the United
Nations in 1979 and took effect on 3 September 1981. The Philippines signed the
CEDAW on 15 July 1980 and ratified it on 5 August 1981, the first ASEAN country to
do so. As of May 2015, the Convention has been ratified by 189 states.
UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
Adopted in 1993 by the UN General Assembly, this declaration defines violence

against women. As a consequence of the declaration, the Commission on Human
Rights adopted Resolution 1994/45 that appointed a Special Rapporteur on violence
against women.. Adopted in 1993 by the UN General Assembly, this declaration
defines violence against women. As a consequence of the declaration, the
Commission on Human Rights adopted Resolution 1994/45 that appointed a Special
Rapporteur on violence against women.
Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences- The
Special Rapporteur has four mandates, which includes seeking information on
violence against women, and recommending measures, ways, and means to eliminate
VAW.
International Framework for Action to Prevent Trafficking in Persons Protocol This

framework is a technical assistant tool designed to support UN member states to
effectively implement the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in
Persons, which is a protocol that obligates its ratifying states to prevent and combat
trafficking in persons.
Explanatory Report to the Council of Europe Convention on Action Against

Trafficking in Human Beings.-Council of the European Convention provides
definitions and information about prevention and protection measures, victims rights,
investigation and prosecution, and other international instruments.
Domestic Violence Legislation and Its Implementation: An Analysis for ASEAN

Countries Based on International Standards and Good Practices -This document
58
analyzes domestic violence legislation in ASEAN countries with reference to
international standards, specifically the CEDAW and UDHR.
UNFA Strategy and Framework of Action to Addressing Gender Based Violence

2008-2011- This framework identifies eight priority areas in which UNFPA should
strategically direct programming to address gender based violence.
V. LEARNING ACTIVITY
ESSAY
Instructions:
1. Write a short essay with five paragraphs (300 words)and find sources that be
needed and relevant to your selected legislative measure.
2. Handpick one of the 11 proposed legislative measures you would support for its
passage into law.
3. State your reasons for supporting it.
4. Lastly, your grade will be based on this rubric

(https://www.readwritethink.org/sites/default/files/Essay%20Rubric.pdf)
59
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Lipa City Colleges

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Lipa City Colleges

Module 1 Sex and Gender 1

Module 2: Social Construction of Gender 12

Module 3: Gender and Socialization 19

Module 4: Sexuality and Body Image 23

Module 5: Gender and Development 30

Module 6: Gender and Mainstreaming 37

Module 7: Women’s Issues and Concern 44

Module 8: Laws on Women 53

Therefore, this module address issues related to gender development.

The LCCian with Gender and Development is a 3- unit institutional course

1. Differentiate the difference between sex from gender

2. Identify types of sex characteristics

3. Discuss the dimensions of gender

4. Explain sex and gender roles

5. Describe gender and sex- role stereotypes

'Sex' and 'gender' result in confusion because of repeatedly using it

Sex refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females,

B. Types of Sex Characteristics

1. Primary sex characteristics

2. Secondary sex characteristics

We usually focus on secondary sex characteristics because it is easily identifiable

A person’s gender is the complex interrelationship between three dimensions: body,

Gestation Ovum Fertilization

Child Bearing Sperm determine sex of child

 Gender-based behavior is socially constructed according to what they believe to

child care hunting

house care repair work

Gender Roles : Gender Division of Labor

Reproductive Role Productive Role

Childbearing and child rearing Provider, joint responsibility

Community Role Community Role

Community managing Community politics

An extension of reproductive role into Organized at formal political level

Rank and file (voluntary)

Sex Role Gender Role

Same in all societies,

Universal May differ from society to society

Never change with history Can change with history

Biologically determined Socially, culturally

d. Three Aspects of Gender Roles

1. Position within the social structure. Hierarchy indicating:

 where women and men belong

 are expected to belong

2. Behaviors prescribe for women and men

3. Proper relationship between roles

IV. GENDER STEREOTYPE

“Stereotypes refer to preconceived ideas and simplistic images that have a

Timidity, passivity, while emotionally Bravery, aggressiveness, independence,

More fit to be leaders, head of families,

V. SEX- ROLE STEREOTYPES

According to the Pocket Oxford Dictionary, a stereotype is a ‘person or thing seeming

Feminine Females are thought to be Masculine

a. Effects of Sex Role Stereotype

The following are the main effects of sex-role stereotypes on individuals:

Person perception refers to the different mental processes we use to form