Na Mlbio Ch22

22
CHAPTER
Plants
22.1 22.2 22.3
What Is a Plant? Plant Diversity Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds
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 INTERACTIVITY
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720 Chapter 22 Plants

CASE STUDY
How did plants conquer the land?

In 1988, a tremendous fire burned vast tracts of forest in Yellowstone National Park.
Many people were upset, thinking that a large area of the park had been permanently
destroyed. Forest rangers reminded the public that fire is a natural event and the forest is
adapted to survive fire. In fact, one type of tree in Yellowstone depends on fire to repro-
duce. This tree is the lodgepole pine. A resin seals the tree’s seeds within cones. The resin
only melts at the high temperature of a forest fire.
A few years after the Yellowstone fire, the water. Plants arose from green algae, which
forest floor was covered with tiny saplings of lived as single cells or clusters of cells that
lodgepole pines. Today, the Yellowstone perform photosynthesis. Over time, the traits
forests are filled with tall pines, and the of plants as we know them today evolved in
ecosystem is as diverse and healthy as ever. the descendants of green algae. Curiously,
The forests of Yellowstone provide merely once they had invaded the land, plants came
one example of the hardiness of plants on to dominate these habitats to an extent they
Earth’s land. When fire burns down a for- never achieved in marine environments, pro-
est, the trees eventually grow back. When a ducing great forests, jungles, and grasslands
parking lot is abandoned, grasses and weeds that shaped entirely new ecosystems.
eventually emerge from cracks in the asphalt. How did plants evolve from single-celled
Cacti and sagebrush thrive in deserts where algae to towering trees? How were plants
water and nutrients are scarce. In the far north able to colonize nearly all environments on
and on mountaintops, pines and spruces land, including places very hot and very cold,
withstand extreme cold. Other plants thrive in and very wet and very dry? What structures
rain forests where the temperatures are warm allow plants to take in water, perform photo-
and the climate is wet. The trees and vines of synthesis, and reproduce?
the rain forest compete with one another for Throughout this chapter, look for
sunlight and room to grow. connections to the CASE STUDY to help you
Much like other branches of life, the answer these questions.
evolutionary history of plants begins in the
Plant life regrows after a fire

in Yellowstone National Park.
Unit 6 Diversity of Life 721

22.1
LESSON
What Is a Plant?
KEY QUESTIONS
• What are the basic
needs of plants?
• How did plants adapt
to life on land?
• What feature defines
most plant life cycles?
HS-LS1-1: Construct an explanation

based on evidence for how the structure
of DNA determines the structure of
proteins which carry out the essential
functions of life through systems of
specialized cells.
HS-LS1-2: Develop and use a model to What color is life? Living things can be just about any color, of course.
illustrate the hierarchical organization of
interacting systems that provide specific
Now, imagine yourself in a place so abundant with life that living
functions within multicellular organisms. things blot out the sun. What color do you see? If you’ve imagined
HS-LS4-1: Communicate scientific
information that common ancestry and a thick forest or a jungle teeming with life, then just one color will fill
biological evolution are supported by
multiple lines of empirical evidence.
the landscape of your mind: green—the color of plants. You know
that plants dominate this planet. Have you ever wondered why?
VOCABULARY
alternation of generations
What Do Plants Need to Survive?
sporophyte Life is tough, especially for a plant that is literally rooted in just one
gametophyte place. As a result, plants have developed adaptations to their sta-
tionary lifestyle that enable them to fulfill each of their basic needs,
READING TOOL as shown in Figure 22-1. The lives of plants depend upon sun-
As you read this lesson, light, gas exchange, water, and minerals.
identify the things that
plants need to survive. Fill Sunlight Plants use the energy from sunlight to carry out photo-
in the graphic organizer synthesis. As a result, every plant displays adaptations shaped by the
in your Biology need to gather sunlight.
Foundations Workbook.
Gas Exchange Plants require oxygen to support cellular respira-
tion as well as carbon dioxide to carry out photosynthesis. Therefore,
they need to be able to exchange these gases with the atmosphere.
Water and Minerals Water is one of the raw materials of photo-

 INTERACTIVITY synthesis. So, land plants have evolved structures to draw water from
Explore what makes a plant the ground that also enable them to take in essential minerals from the
a plant. soil. Many plants have specialized tissues that carry water and minerals
upward from the soil and distribute them throughout the plant.
 READING CHECK Infer Why are plants not found in deep

underground caves?

Figure 22-1
Basic Needs of a Plant
All plants have the same basic needs:

sunlight, water, minerals, and a way to
exchange gases with the surrounding
air.  Observe Where do water and
minerals enter the plant?
The History and Evolution of Plants  VIDEO

For most of Earth’s history, land plants did not exist. Life was con-
centrated in oceans, lakes, and streams. Photosynthetic prokary- Investigate the interrelation-
ship between a changing
otes added oxygen to our planet’s atmosphere and provided food
Earth and major stages of
for consumers.
plant evolution.
Origins in the Water The fossil record indicates that the

ancestors of land plants were water-dwelling organisms similar to
today’s green algae. Most of these microorganisms were unicellu-
lar, but some were composed of multiple cells. At one time biolo-
gists classified green algae as protists. But since green algae have
cell walls and photosynthetic pigments identical to those of land
plants, they are now considered to be part of the plant kingdom.
The First Land Plants The oldest traces of land plants date
to 472 million years ago. These plants, such as Cooksonia, shown
in Figure 22-2, lacked leaves and roots and were only a few centi-
meters tall. The greatest challenge they faced was obtaining water.
They solved this challenge by growing close to the ground in damp Figure 22-2
locations. The demands of life on land favored the evolution A Fossilized Plant
of plants that were able to draw water from the soil, resist dry-
ing out, and reproduce without water. One of the earliest fossilized
vascular plants was Cooksonia,
The appearance of plants on land changed the rest of life on
which dates back 425 million
Earth. New ecosystems emerged, and organic matter began to
years. This fossil shows the
form soil. From the first pioneering land plants, one group devel- branched stalks that bore
oped into mosses. Another lineage gave rise to ferns, cone-bearing reproductive structures at
plants, and the most successful group of all—the flowering plants. their tips.
22.1 What Is a Plant? 723

Flowers; seeds
Seeds enclosed in fruit
True water-
Embryo conducting
Plant tissue
ancestor formation Green Algae:
33,500 species
Mosses and Relatives:

Flowering 18,500 species
Plants:
260,000 Ferns and Relatives:
 INTERACTIVITY species 12,000 species
Figure 22-3 Cone-Bearing Plants:

800 species
Plant Taxonomic
Diagram
There are five main groups of An Overview of the Plant Kingdom All plants are eukary-
plants in existence today. Note otes, have cell walls containing cellulose, and carry out photosynthesis
that the colors of the plant using chlorophyll a and b. Botanists divide the plant kingdom into five
groups in the circle graph cor- major groups based on four important features: embryo formation,
respond to the colors of the specialized water-conducting tissues, seeds, and flowers. The relation-
same groups in the cladogram. ship of these taxonomic groups to one another is shown in Figure 22-3.
 Ask Questions What ques- Plants that form embryos are often referred to as “land plants,” even
tions about plant evolution
though some of them now live in watery environments. Why was the
would you ask based on the
data in the graph? development of these four features so important to plant evolution?
• Embryos that develop within a plant have protection from harsh
elements on land.
• Plants with water-conducting tissue can draw water to greater
heights than allowed by simple diffusion, allowing them to grow
much larger.
• Seeds provide food and protection from drying out for the devel-
oping embryo. Seeds can be widely dispersed from the parent
plant to grow in new locations.
• The successes of flowering plants, as shown in the circle graph in
Figure 22-3, are due to the reproductive advantage they receive
from their flowers and from the fruits they form around their seeds.
Plant scientists classify plants into finer groups within these major
branches by comparing DNA sequences of various species.
 READING CHECK Review What are the five major groups in

the plant kingdom?

The Plant Life Cycle
Plants have a distinctive sexual life cycle that sets them apart from BUILD VOCABULARY
most other living organisms. The life cycle of plants has two Suffixes The suffixes -phyta
alternating phases—a diploid (2N) phase and a haploid (N) phase. and -phyte come from the
This shift between the haploid phase and the diploid phase is known Greek word phyton, which
as the alternation of generations. means “plant.”
The multicellular diploid (2N) phase is known as the sporophyte
(spoh ruh fyt), or spore-producing plant. The multicellular haploid (N)
phase is known as the gametophyte (guh mee tuh fyt), or gamete-
producing plant. Recall from Chapter 12 that haploid (N) organisms
READING TOOL
carry a single set of chromosomes in their cell nuclei, while diploid
(2N) organisms have two sets of chromosomes. After reading this page,
use Figure 22-4 to write
As shown in Figure 22-4, a sporophyte produces haploid spores
a paragraph in your own
through meiosis. These spores grow into multicellular structures words that describes
called gametophytes. Each gametophyte produces reproductive alternation of generations.
cells called gametes—sperm and egg cells. During fertilization, a Start your paragraph with a
sperm and egg fuse with each other, producing a diploid zygote. The sporophyte plant.
zygote develops into a new sporophyte, and the cycle begins again.
MEIOSIS
Spores Figure 22-4

(N)
Alternation of Generations
Gametophyte
Plant (N) Most plants have a life cycle with
alternation of generations in which the
haploid gametophyte phase alternates
Sporophyte with the diploid sporophyte phase.
Plant (2N)
Sperm
(N)
Haploid (N)
Diploid (2N)
FERTILIZATION Eggs
(N)
22.1 What Is a Plant? 725

 Exploration Lab Guided Inquiry
Comparing Adaptations of Ferns and Mosses

Problem How are mosses and ferns able to survive on land?
In this lab, you will compare a moss and a fern to determine which
plant is better adapted to grow when conditions become dry.
You can find this lab in your digital course.
Figure 22-5 shows an important trend in plant evolution—the

reduction in size of the gametophyte and the increasing size of the
sporophyte. Although many green algae have a diploid sporophyte
phase, some do not; their only multicellular bodies are gameto-
phytes. Mosses and their relatives consist of a relatively large game-
tophyte and smaller sporophytes. Ferns and their relatives have a
Figure 22-5 small gametophyte and a larger sporophyte. Seed plants have an
Trends in Plant even smaller gametophyte.
Evolution
Haploid gametophyte (N)
An important trend in plant
Diploid sporophyte (2N)
evolution is the reduction in
size of the gametophyte and
the increase in size of the spo-
rophyte.  Interpret Visuals
How does the relative size of
the haploid and diploid stages
differ between mosses and
seed plants?
Mosses and Ferns and

Green Algae Relatives Relatives Seed Plants
HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS4-1
 LESSON 22.1 Review

KEY QUESTIONS CRITICAL THINKING
1. Why do plant cells need sunlight, carbon dioxide, 4. Construct an Explanation Most plants have
and water? their leaves aboveground and their roots buried
in the soil. How does this organization of struc-
2. How did the relative lack of water on land affect
tures help the plant survive?
how plants evolved?
5. Identify Patterns What pattern is formed
3. Use the terms sporophyte and gametophyte to
by sporophytes and gametophytes in plant
describe the alternation of generations in plants.
evolution?
6. CASE STUDY List and describe the four main
adaptations that helped plants to thrive on land.

22.2
LESSON
Plant Diversity
KEY QUESTIONS
• What are the
characteristics of
green algae?
• What factor limits the
size of bryophytes?
• How is vascular tissue
important?
• What adaptations
allow seed plants to
reproduce without
standing water?
Like the mosses clinging to the moist rocks in the photograph, the
HS-LS1-4: Use a model to illustrate
earliest land plants were seedless, were restricted to damp envi- the role of cellular division (mitosis)
ronments, and grew only a few centimeters tall. Even today, many and differentiation in producing and
maintaining complex organisms.
groups of seedless plants are still around. How do these plants
continue to thrive, and how do their reproductive patterns differ from
VOCABULARY
plants that produce seeds?
bryophyte
vascular tissue
Green Algae archegonium
What do you think of when you hear the word algae? As we use the antheridium
word today, the algae are not a single group of organisms. Some sporangium
tracheophyte
algae are prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, and some are protists,
tracheid
like the dinoflagellates. The green algae, however, are the ones that xylem
belong to the plant kingdom. phloem
seed
The First Plants Fossil evidence suggests that the green algae gymnosperm
appeared well before plants first emerged on land. Fossil formations angiosperm
pollination
from more than 550 million years ago during the Cambrian Period
ovule
show evidence of large mats of green algae. See Figure 22-6.
READING TOOL
Compare and contrast
the different types of
plants. List each plant’s
characteristics and describe
Figure 22-6
their similarities on the
Early Plants and Animals table in your Biology
Foundations Workbook.
Primitive green algae shared
the ocean floor with corals and
sponges in the Middle Cambrian
Period, about 500 million
years ago.
22.2 Plant Diversity 727
The green algae share many characteristics—including their pho-
tosynthetic pigments and cell wall composition—with larger, more
complex plants. Green algae are mostly aquatic. They are found
in fresh and salt water, and in some moist areas on land. Because
most green algae are single cells or branching filaments, they are
able to absorb moisture and nutrients directly from their surround-
ings. Therefore, most green algae do not contain the specialized
tissues found in other plants.
Life Cycle Like land plants, many green algae have life cycles
that switch back and forth between haploid and diploid phases. For
example, so long as living conditions are suitable, the haploid green
alga Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually by mitosis, as shown
in the left half of Figure 22-7. If environmental conditions become
unfavorable, Chlamydomonas can switch to a stage that reproduces
sexually, as shown in the right half of the figure.
Zoospores MITOSIS
Gametes
Mature cell Sexual

Reproduction Pairing of
Asexual gametes
Reproduction
MEIOSIS
Zygote
Figure 22-7
FERTILIZATION
Life Cycle of MITOSIS Release of
Chlamydomonas haploid cells
The green alga Haploid (N)

Chlamydomonas can switch
Diploid (2N)
from asexual to sexual repro-
duction as environmental con-
ditions change.  Interpret
Visuals Which form of repro- Multicellularity Many green algae form colonies, and they provide
duction includes a diploid a hint about how the first multicellular plants may have evolved. Two
organism that can survive examples of colonial algae are shown in Figure 22-8. The freshwater
harsh conditions? alga Spirogyra forms long, threadlike colonies constructed of fila-
ments. The cells of a colony are stacked almost like soda cans placed
end to end. Volvox colonies, shown on the right, are more complex
than those of Spirogyra, consisting of as few as 500 to as many as
50,000 cells arranged to form hollow spheres.
 READING CHECK Review How do green algae get moisture

and nutrients?

Figure 22-8
Multicellular Green
Algae
Colonial algae such as

Spirogyra and Volvox provide
evidence that multicellular
organisms could evolve from
single-celled versions.
Spirogyra (LM 80×) Volvox (LM 50×)
Mosses and Other Bryophytes

In the cool forests of the northern United States, the moist ground
feels almost like a spongy green carpet. Look closely, however, and
you will see clusters of short plants known as mosses. Mosses have a
waxy coating that resists drying and thin filaments known as rhizoids
(ry zoydz) that anchor them to the soil and absorb water and nutri-
ents. Figure 22-9 shows the common structure of a moss.
Mosses belong to a group of plants known as bryophytes
(bry oh fyts). Unlike algae, the bryophytes have specialized reproduc-
tive organs and grow from embryos. The bryophytes were among
the first plants to become established on land. In addition to mosses,
the bryophytes include two other groups, known as hornworts and
liverworts. Bryophytes are generally small and found only in damp
soil. This is because they lack water-conducting vascular tissue.
Vascular tissue makes it possible for other plants to draw water up
against the pull of gravity. The lack of vascular tissue limits the
height of most bryophytes to just a few centimeters.
Capsule
Sporophyte Figure 22-9

Stalk
Structure of Moss
In bryophytes, the gametophyte is

the dominant, more familiar stage of
the life cycle.
Leaflike
structure
Gametophyte
Stemlike
structure
Rhizoid

Life Cycle Like all land plants, bryophytes display alternation of
 INTERACTIVITY generations. In bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant stage
Design a park by plan- of the life cycle. It also carries out most of the plant’s photosynthesis.
ning which types of plants As shown in Figure 22-10, the sporophyte grows out of the body
will thrive in particular of the gametophyte and is dependent on it for water and nutrients.
ecosystems. When a moss spore lands in a moist place, it sprouts and grows
into a tangled mass of green filaments that develop into the familiar
green moss plants. Gametes are formed in reproductive structures at
the tips of the gametophytes. Eggs are produced in a type of organ
called archegonia (ahr kuh goh nee uh; singular: archegonium).
Sperm are produced in antheridia (an thur id ee uh; singular: anther-
idium) and need standing water to swim to the egg cells. When they
meet, sperm and egg cells fuse to produce a diploid zygote.
That zygote then grows into a sporophyte, capped by a spore
capsule called a sporangium (spoh ran jee um; plural: sporangia).
Inside the capsule, haploid spores are produced by meiosis. When
the capsule ripens, it opens, and haploid spores are scattered to the
wind to start the cycle again.
Figure 22-10
Moss Life Cycle  READING CHECK Cite Evidence Identify evidence that
supports the claim that the gametophyte carries out most of a
This life cycle shows the bryophyte’s photosynthesis.
dominance of the gameto-
phyte stage that is typical of
mosses and other bryophytes.
 Interpret Visuals In which Young gametophyte
structure are eggs found?
(N)
Spores Male
MEIOSIS
(N) gametophyte
Female
gametophyte
Mature
sporophyte
(2N)
Antheridia
Capsule Archegonia
(sporangium)
Sperm
Gametophyte (N)
Young
(N)
sporophyte
(2N)
Zygote
Sperm
(2N)
(N)
Gametophyte
(N) Egg
(N)
Haploid (N)
FERTILIZATION
Diploid (2N)

Ferns and Their Relatives
For millions of years, plants grew no taller than a meter because they
lacked vascular tissue. Then, about 420 million years ago, something
remarkable happened. The small, mosslike plants on land were joined
by new plants, some as large as trees. What happened? Fossil evi-
dence shows that these new plants were the first to have a transport
system with true vascular tissue. For the first time, plants were able to
grow high above the ground.
CASE STUDY
Figure 22-11
Vascular Tissue
Horsetails are among the most

primitive plant species to have
developed specialized vascular
tissue. These tissues are able
to carry water and nutrients
against the pull of gravity.
 Infer How can height be
an advantage to plants?
Evolution of a Transport System Vascular plants, such as the

horsetails shown in Figure 22-11, are also known as tracheophytes
(traey kee uh fyts). They are named after a specialized type of water-
conducting cell, called a tracheid (tray kee id). Tracheids are hollow
tubelike cells with thick cell walls strengthened by lignin. They are one
of the great evolutionary innovations of the plant kingdom.
Tracheids are found in xylem (zy lum), a tissue that carries water
READING TOOL
upward from the roots to every part of a plant. Tracheids are long,
slender cells with regions on the ends and sides known as pits. The Create a two-column chart
cell walls in pit regions are extremely thin, which allows water to pass that compares and contrasts
xylem and phloem. You
through from one tracheid to the next.
can add information to
Vascular plants also have a second transport tissue called phloem. this chart throughout the
Phloem (floh um) transports nutrients and carbohydrates produced chapter.
by photosynthesis. Like xylem, the main cells of phloem are long and
specialized to move fluids throughout the plant body. Vascular
tissues—xylem and phloem—make it possible for vascular plants
to move fluids through their bodies against the force of gravity.
Vascular plants can grow tall, but not indefinitely tall. One reason is
the limits of vascular transport. Scientists estimate that the tissues
can lift water to a maximum height of about 130 meters. That is
about the height of the tallest trees.
Figure 22-12 Seedless Vascular Plants Although the tracheophytes include
Fern Fronds and all seed-bearing plants, three groups of seedless vascular plants are
Sporangia alive today: club mosses, horsetails, and ferns.
The most numerous seedless plants, with 11,000 species, are
Fronds are the leaves of
the ferns. Ferns have true vascular tissues, strong roots, creeping
ferns. Sori, which are clus-
ters of sporangia, often or underground stems called rhizomes (ry zohmz), and large leaves
form on the underside of called fronds, shown in Figure 22-12. Ferns can thrive in areas with
a frond. little light. They are most abundant in wet, or at least seasonally
wet, habitats.
Life Cycle The large plants easily recognized as ferns are actually
the diploid sporophyte phase of the fern life cycle. The fern life cycle
is shown in Figure 22-13. Spores produced by these plants grow into
thin, heart-shaped haploid gametophytes, which live independently
of the sporophyte. As in bryophytes, sperm and eggs are produced
on these gametophytes in antheridia and archegonia, respectively.
Fertilization requires a thin film of water, so that the sperm can swim
to the eggs. The diploid zygote produced by fertilization develops
into a new sporophyte plant, and the cycle begins again.
 READING CHECK Cause and Effect Why are ferns able to

grow so much taller than bryophytes?
Figure 22-13 Sporangium

(2N) MEIOSIS
Fern Life Cycle
In the life cycle of a

fern, the dominant and Frond Young
gametophyte
recognizable stage is
(N)
the diploid sporophyte.
 Interpret Visuals
Are the spores haploid Spores
or diploid?
(N)
Mature
sporophyte Developing
(2N) sporophyte
(2N) Antheridium
Sperm
Gametophyte
(N) Egg
Sporophyte
embryo
(2N)
Haploid (N) FERTILIZATION Archegonium
Diploid (2N)

CASE STUDY Analyzing Data
Keeping Ferns in Check Number of Spores in Soil

Dennstaedtia punctilobula is a fern that grows Distance From Plot Before Disper- After Dispersal
on the forest floor and often crowds out tree of Ferns (meters) sal (July) (November)
seedlings, blocking efforts to regrow trees after 0 14 54
logging or other work in a forest. To under-
2 16 18
stand the fern better, scientists measured the
number of viable fern spores per square cen- 4 5 9
timeter of soil at various distances from a plot 10 10 17
of existing fern plants. They counted spores 50 2 7
in the soil in July, as the ferns were just begin-
ning to grow, and in November, after they had 3. Interpret Graphs Are spore numbers higher
released their spores. before dispersal or after dispersal? Explain.
1. Construct Graphs Place the data from the 4. Use Evidence to Construct an Argument Would
table on a scatterplot showing the number cutting down nearby clusters of ferns prevent
of spores per square centimeter versus ferns from invading patches of the forest that
their distance from the plot. Use different have just been cut for timber? Explain your rea-
colors for the before and after dispersal soning on the basis of the data.
data points.
2. Calculate What percentage of the spores
after dispersal are found within 4 meters of
the parent plants?
Seed Plants
Whether they are acorns, pine nuts, dandelion seeds, or the peas
shown in Figure 22-14, seeds can be found everywhere. What are
seeds? Are they gametes? Reproductive structures? Do they contain
sperm or eggs? The truth is that they are none of the above.
A seed is a plant embryo and its food supply encased in a pro-
tective covering. Each and every seed contains a living plant ready
to sprout as soon as it encounters the proper conditions for growth.
The production of seeds has been one key to the ability of plants
to colonize even the driest environments on land. The living plant
within a seed is diploid and represents an early stage of the sporo-
Figure 22-14
phyte phase of the plant life cycle.
Seeds
The First Seed Plants There exist fossils of seed-bearing
The seeds of pea plants develop
plants that lived almost 360 million years ago. These fossils docu-
in pea pods. If conditions are
ment several evolutionary stages in the development of the seed.
right, each pea could grow into a
The fossil record indicates that ancestors of seed plants evolved new new plant.
adaptations that enabled them to survive in many environments on
dry land. Similarities in DNA sequences from modern plants provide
evidence that today’s seed plants are all descended from common
anscestors. Unlike mosses and ferns, the gametes of seed plants do
not need standing water for fertilization. Adaptations that allow
seed plants to reproduce without standing water include a repro-
ductive process that takes place in cones or flowers, the transfer
of sperm by pollination, and the protection of embryos in seeds.

BUILD VOCABULARY Cones and Flowers In seed plants, the male gametophytes and
Word Origins The prefix the female gametophytes grow and mature directly within the spo-
gymno- comes from the rophyte. The gametophytes develop inside reproductive structures
Greek word gymnos, known as cones or flowers. In fact, seed plants are divided into two
meaning “naked.” The prefix groups on the basis of which of these structures they have.
angio- comes from the Greek
word angeion, meaning Gymnosperms (jim noh spurmz) bear their seeds directly on the
“vessel.” The suffix scales of cones. These were the first seed-bearing plants to appear in the
-sperm means “seed.” fossil record. Today, highly successful gymnosperms include trees such as
pine, spruce, and fir that grow in the great forests of North America.
Angiosperms (an jee oh spurmz), or flowering plants, bear their

Visual Summary seeds in flowers inside a special layer of tissue that surrounds and
protects the seed. Figure 22-15 compares the reproductive struc-
Figure 22-15
tures of gymnosperms and angiosperms. Flowering plants include
Gymnosperms and nearly all of the crops grown for food around the world, such as
Angiosperms wheat, corn, and rice, as well as fruits like apples and oranges. While
many flowers are large and colorful, others, like the flowers produced
The two major groups of seed
by grasses and many trees, have more subtle shapes and colors, and
plants can be distinguished by
their reproductive structures. are easy to overlook.
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Most flowers
produce both male
gametophytes
(pollen grains)
and female
gametophytes
in each flower.
Some species have
separate male and
female flowers.
Male cones Female cones Ovary

produce male produce female
gametophytes gametophytes. SEM 2633
(pollen grains).
Wind distributes
the pollen of some
species. But, in many
species, animals
carry pollen directly
to other flowers.
SEM 1753
Wind carries pollen After fertilization, female An ovary develops

to seed cones. cones bear seeds directly on into a fruit that
the inside surfaces of scales. protects the seeds.

Pollen The entire male gametophyte of a seed plant
is contained in a tiny structure called a pollen grain.
Sperm produced by this gametophyte do not swim
through water to fertilize the eggs. Instead, pollen
grains are carried to the female reproductive structure
by wind or animals such as insects. The transfer of
pollen from the male reproductive structure to the
female reproductive structure is called pollination.
Seeds After fertilization, the zygote contained

within a seed grows into a tiny plant—the sporophyte
embryo. A tough seed coat surrounds and protects
the embryo and keeps the contents of the seed from
drying out. Seeds can survive long periods of bit-
ter cold, extreme heat, or drought until it is time
to sprout.
Figure 22-16
The Life Cycle of a Gymnosperm The word gymnosperm Pollen Cone
actually means “naked seed.” The name reflects the fact that gymno-
sperms produce seeds that are exposed on the scales within cones. This pollen cone on a pine
Gymnosperms alive today include relatively rare plants such as tree is shedding pollen,
cycads and the much more abundant plants known as conifers, which which will be carried by
include pines and firs. wind to seed cones.
Pollen Cones and Seed Cones Conifers produce two types of

cones: pollen cones and seed cones. Meiosis takes place in pollen
cones—also called male cones—to produce pollen grains, as shown
in Figure 22-16. As tiny as it is, a pollen grain contains the entire
male gametophyte stage of the life cycle.
Seed cones are larger than pollen cones and produce the female
gametophytes. Near the base of each scale of the seed cones are  INTERACTIVITY
two ovules (ahv yoolz). Within the ovules, meiosis produces haploid Explore the variations in the
cells that grow and divide to produce female gametophytes. These reproductive cycles of the
gametophytes may contain hundreds or thousands of cells. When major plant groups.
mature, each gametophyte contains a few large egg cells, each
ready for fertilization by sperm.
Pollination and Fertilization The conifer life cycle, shown in

Figure 22-17, typically takes two years to complete. The cycle begins
in the spring as male cones release enormous numbers of pollen
grains carried away by the wind. Some of these pollen grains reach
female cones. There, the pollen grains are caught in a sticky secre-
tion produced by the ovules within the female cones and pulled
inside the ovules.
If a pollen grain lands near an ovule, the grain splits open and begins
to grow a pollen tube. Once the pollen tube reaches the female game-
tophyte, one sperm nucleus disintegrates; the other fertilizes the egg
contained within the female gametophyte. Fertilization produces a dip-
loid zygote, which grows into an embryo. The embryo is then encased
in a protective covering to form a seed that is ready to be scattered.
 ANIMATION
Figure 22-17
Pine Life Cycle Haploid (N)
Diploid (2N)
In the life cycle of pine trees
and other gymnosperms, the Seed Cone
mature sporophyte trees pro- cone scale Diploid cell
duce male and female cones
containing the gametophytes.
Ovule
Ovules Four
haploid
MEIOSIS
cells
Female
Pollen Pollen grains (N) gametophyte
cone (male gametophytes) (N)
Egg cells
Discharged
sperm nucleus
Mature
sporophyte Pollen tube
FERTILIZATION
Seedling
Gametophyte
Germinated Zygote (2N)
Seed tissue (N)
seed (new sporophyte)
Embryo (2N)
HS-LS1-4

KEY QUESTIONS 6. Classify Make a table with two columns—labeled
haploid and diploid—and assign each of the
1. Describe the characteristics of green algae.
following structures from the pine life cycle to
2. Why are bryophytes small? the appropriate column: pollen tube, seed cone,
3. How did the evolution of vascular tissue function embryo, ovule, and seedling.
in the success of land plants?
7. CASE STUDY How do seeds make angiosperms
4. What is a seed? and gymnosperms more fit to reproduce on land
CRITICAL THINKING than ferns and mosses?
5. Construct an Explanation Why are ferns com-

mon in damp forests, but not in grasslands,
deserts, and other dry environments?

22.3
LESSON
Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds
KEY QUESTIONS
• How are different
angiosperms
classified?
• What are flowers?
• How does fertilization
in angiosperms differ
from fertilization in
other plants?
• What is vegetative
reproduction?
• How do fruits form?
“Flower Power” may have been a slogan from the San Francisco HS-LS1-1: Construct an explanation based
on evidence for how the structure of
“hippie” movement of the 1960s, but to biologists, flower power is DNA determines the structure of proteins
which carry out the essential functions of
a real thing. As a result of it, flowering plants dominate the land and life through systems of specialized cells.
are the most abundant organisms in the plant kingdom. What are HS-LS1-2: Develop and use a model to
illustrate the hierarchical organization of
the secrets of their success? As you will see, it all has to do with the interacting systems that provide specific
functions within multicellular organisms.
unique way in which they reproduce. HS-LS1-4: Use a model to illustrate
the role of cellular division (mitosis)
and differentiation in producing and
Angiosperms maintaining complex organisms.
Angiosperms first appeared during the Cretaceous Period about

135 million years ago, making their origin the most recent of any VOCABULARY
phylum, plant or animal. Flowering plants originated on land and ovary • fruit • cotyledon
• monocot • dicot
soon came to dominate Earth’s plant life. Angiosperms make up the
• embryo sac • pollination
vast majority of plant species. • double fertilization
Angiosperms produce sexual reproductive organs known as • endosperm • vegetative
reproduction • dormancy
flowers. Flowers contain ovaries, which surround and protect the
germination
seeds. The presence of an ovary gives angiosperms their name:
Angiosperm means “enclosed seed.” After fertilization, ovaries
within flowers develop into fruits that surround, protect, and help READING TOOL
disperse the seeds. The angiosperm fruit is a structure containing Complete the chart in your
one or more matured ovaries. The wall of the fruit helps disperse the Biology Foundations
seeds inside it, carrying them away from the parent plant. Workbook to compare
and contrast monocots and
Angiosperm Classification For many years, flowering dicots.
plants were classified according to the number of seed leaves, or
cotyledons (kaht uh leed uns), in their embryos. Those with one seed  VIDEO
leaf were called monocots. Those with two seed leaves were called Learn about the two main
dicots. At one time, these two groups were considered classes within categories of flowering
the angiosperm phylum, and all angiosperms were placed in one plants.
class or the other.
22.3 Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds 737

Amborella Water lilies Monocots Magnoliids Eudicots
Ancestral
Angiosperm
Figure 22-18
More recent studies of plant genomes and new fossil discoveries
Angiosperm Clades
have shown that things are actually a little more complicated. Around
Five of the major clades of 135 million years ago, the oldest known angiosperm, Archaefructus,
angiosperms are represented whose name means “ancient fruit,” first appeared. While it is a true
here. Scientists are still working angiosperm, it is neither a monocot nor a dicot. Other evidence
out the relationships among suggests that Amborella, a plant found on the Pacific island of
these groups. New Caledonia, belongs to yet another lineage of flowering plants.
Information gained from the Amborella discovery led scientists to
place other plants, such as the water lilies, near the base of angio-
sperm evolution.
Figure 22-18 summarizes the modern view of angiosperm classifi-
cation. While the monocots form a single group, the dicots fall into a
number of different categories. This means, of course, that the term
dicot is no longer used for classification. However, it can still be used
to describe many of the characteristics of plant structure, and that is
how it is used in this book.
Angiosperm Diversity The people who work with plants, includ-

 INTERACTIVITY ing farmers, botanists, and foresters, categorize angiosperms according
Investigate the great diver- to a variety of characteristics. Angiosperms differ in the number of
sity of angiosperms. their seed leaves, the strength and composition of their stems, and
the number of growing seasons they live. An iris, for example, has a
single seed leaf, is a nonwoody plant, and may live for many years.
Monocots and Dicots Angiosperms are called either monocots

or dicots based on the number of seed leaves they produce. They
also differ in characteristics such as stem structure and the number
of petals per flower. Figure 22-19 illustrates the differences between
monocots and dicots. Monocots include plants such as corn, wheat,
lilies, orchids, and palms. Monocot grasses—especially wheat, corn,
and rice—are cultivated in mass quantities for food. Dicots include
roses, clover, tomatoes, oaks, and daisies.

Characteristics of Monocots and Dicots
Seeds Leaves Flowers Stems Roots
Single cotyledon Parallel veins Floral parts often Vascular bundles Fibrous roots
in multiples of 3 scattered throughout
stem
Monocots
Two cotyledons Branched veins Floral parts often in Vascular bundles Taproot
multiples of 4 or 5 arranged in a ring
Dicots
Woody and Herbaceous Plants Flowering plants also differ in Figure 22-19
terms of the woodiness of their stems. Woody plants are made pri- Comparing Monocots
marily of cells with thick cell walls that support the plant body. These and Dicots
include trees, shrubs, and vines. Shrubs are typically smaller than
trees, and vines have stems that are long and flexible. Herbaceous This table compares the char-
(hur bay shus) plants do not produce true wood, and therefore have acteristics of monocots and
nonwoody stems. Examples of herbaceous plants include dandeli- dicots.  Interpret Tables
How do the flowers of mono-
ons, zinnias, petunias, and sunflowers.
cots and dicots typically differ?
Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials If you’ve ever planted a

garden, you know that many flowering plants live for just a single
season while others grow year after year. The life span of plants is
determined by a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
The types of plant life spans—annual, biennial, and perennial—are Figure 22-20
described in Figure 22-20. Comparing Plants
by Life Span
 READING CHECK Review How do woody plants differ from
herbaceous plants? Categories of plant life spans
include annuals, biennials, and
perennials.
Annuals pass through their entire Biennials live for two growing Perennials regrow year after year.
life cycle in one growing season. seasons. Seeds and flowers form
in the second season.

Flower Structure
What makes a flower beautiful? Is it the symmetry of its petals, its
rich colors, or its fragrance? These things may matter to us, but to a
plant, the whole point of a flower is to bring gametes together for
reproduction and to protect the resulting embryo.
Flowers are an evolutionary advantage to plants because they
attract animals such as bees, moths, or hummingbirds. These
animals—drawn by the color, scent, or even the shape of the
flower—carry pollen with them as they leave. Because these animals
go directly from flower to flower, they can carry pollen to the next
flower they visit. This type of pollination is much more efficient than
the wind pollination of most gymnosperms.
Flowers are reproductive organs, and their beauty reflects the stun-
ning evolutionary success of the angiosperms. The basic structure of
a angiosperm flower is shown in Figure 22-21. Flowers are repro-
ductive organs that are composed of four different kinds of spe-
cialized leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.
Sepals The outermost portion of a flower consists of modified

leaves called sepals (see pulz). They enclose the bud before it opens
and protect the flower as it develops. Petals, which are often brightly
colored, are found just inside the sepals. The colors and shapes of
petals help to attract insects and other pollinators to the flower.
Petals generally fall off a flower after several days. Losing petals
also helps the plant reproduce. After pollination occurs, animal visi-
tors are not useful until much later in the process.
Quick Lab  Guided Inquiry
What Is the Structure of a ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE

Flower? 1. Observe Are the anthers in this flower
located above or below the stigma?
1. Examine a flower carefully. Make a detailed drawing of the
How could this location affect what
flower and label as many parts as you can. Note whether
happens to the pollen produced by the
the anthers are above or below the stigma.
anthers? Explain your answer.
2. Remove an anther and place it on a slide. While holding
2. Apply Concepts What structures did
the anther with forceps, use a scalpel to cut one or more
you identify in the anther? What is the
thin slices across the anther. CAUTION: Be careful with
function of these structures?
sharp tools. Place the slide on a flat surface before you
start cutting. 3. Apply Concepts What structures did
you identify in the ovary? What is the
3. Lay the slices flat on the microscope slide and add a
function of these structures?
drop of water and a coverslip. Observe the slices with the
microscope at low power. Make a labeled drawing of your 4. Draw Conclusions Which parts of the
observations. flower will become the seeds? Which
parts will become the fruit?
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with the ovary.

Stamen Carpel
Anther Style
Stigma
Filament Ovary
LM 80x
Ovary
Ovule Petal
Sepal Embryo
Stamens and Carpels Inside the ring of petals are organs that Figure 22-21
produce male and female gametophytes. The stamens are the male The Parts of a Flower
parts of the flower. Each stamen consists of a stalk called a filament
with an anther at its tip. Anthers are the structures in which pollen This diagram shows the parts
grains—the male gametophytes—are produced. In most angio- of a typical flower. The flowers
sperm species, the flowers have several stamens. If you rub your of some angiosperm spe-
cies do not have all the parts
hand on the anthers of a flower, a yellow-orange dust may stick to
shown here.
your skin. This dust is made up of thousands of individual pollen
grains.
The innermost floral parts are the carpels, which produce female
gametophytes and, later, seeds. The carpels are fused into a broad
base, forming an ovary where the female gametophytes are pro-
duced. The diameter of the carpel narrows into a stalk called the
style. At the top of the style is a sticky or feathery portion known as
the stigma, which is specialized to capture pollen. Botanists some-
times call a single carpel or several fused carpels a pistil.
 READING CHECK Classify Make a two-column table with

the columns labeled Male and Female. Then list and define the
structures that make up a flower in the appropriate column.

Variety in Flowers Flowers vary greatly in shape, color, and
size, as shown in Figure 22-22. While most flowering plants produce
both male and female gametophytes, in some species the male and
female gametophytes are produced on different plants. In some
plants, many flowers grow close together to form a composite struc-
Figure 22-22
ture that looks like a single flower. Other flowers might attract a wide
Variety Among variety of pollinators.
Flowers
Flowers vary greatly  READING CHECK Form a Hypothesis How might it be an

in structure. Some flowers advantage for a plant to have many flowers clustered in a single
have adaptations that are structure? (Hint: Refer to the allium in Figure 22-22.)
so specific that they can
only be pollinated by one
particular animal.
Flower
Bract
Lobster Claw Heliconia Allium Wild Rose

Heliconia flowers are protected
within colorful leaf structures
called bracts.
Passion flower Kuri Squash

The Angiosperm Life Cycle READING TOOL
Like other plants, angiosperms have a life cycle that shows an alter- List the sequence of events
nation of generations. The diploid sporophyte produces haploid that occur during the life
gametophytes inside the tissues of the flower. cycle of an angiosperm.
Male Gametophytes Male gametophytes—the pollen grains—

develop inside anthers, as shown in Figure 22-23. First, meiosis
produces four haploid spore cells. Each spore then divides again
to produce two cells, a generative cell and a tube cell. The male
gametophyte with its two cells is then surrounded by a thick wall that
protects it from damage.
Female Gametophytes Female gametophytes develop inside

the carpels. The ovules—the future seeds—are enveloped in a
protective ovary—the future fruit. A single diploid cell goes through  ANIMATION
meiosis to produce four haploid cells, three of which disintegrate.
Figure 22-23
The remaining cell undergoes mitosis, producing eight nuclei. Next,
cells walls form, which produce a total of seven cells, six with one The Development
nucleus and a seventh with two nuclei. These seven cells are the of Gametophytes
female gametophyte, also known as the embryo sac. One of the
The diagrams show the develop-
eight nuclei, near the base of the gametophyte, is the actual egg ment of the male gametophyte
cell—the female gamete. If fertilization takes place, this egg cell will inside an anther and the devel-
fuse with the male gamete to become the zygote that grows into a opment of the female gameto-
new sporophyte plant. phyte inside a single ovule.
Male
Pollen grain
(Male gametophyte)
2N N
MEIOSIS MITOSIS
Inside the anthers, The nucleus of each pollen spore

meiosis produces four divides to produce a large tube cell
haploid spore cells and a smaller generative cell. These
called pollen spores. two cells are the male gametophyte.
Female Embryo sac

(Female gametophyte)
2N N
MEIOSIS MITOSIS
Inside the ovule, a single The remaining cell Seven cells form, one of
diploid cell undergoes undergoes mitosis, which contains two
meiosis, producing four producing eight nuclei. This is the embryo
haploid cells. Three of the nuclei. sac, which is the female
four cells disintegrate. gametophyte.

Figure 22-24
Pollination
The appearance of a flower

often indicates how it is pol-
linated. The flowers of an
animal-pollinated flower are
often large and brightly col-
ored. In contrast, the flowers of
a slender meadow foxtail are
typical of wind-pollinated flow-
ers in that they are small and
not very showy but produce
vast amounts of pollen.
Pollination The transfer of pollen to the female portions of the

flower is called pollination. Some angiosperms are wind pollinated.
BUILD VOCABULARY Most angiosperms, however, are pollinated by animals, such as the
bee in Figure 22-24, that carry pollen from one flower to another.
Related Word Forms Several
word forms are derived from Animal-pollinated plants have adaptations such as bright colors and
the word pollen. Pollination is sweet nectar to attract and reward animals. In turn, many animals
the transfer of pollen from one have evolved bodies that enable them to reach nectar deep within
flower to another. A pollinator certain flowers. For example, hummingbirds have long, thin beaks
is an animal that moves pollen. that can probe deeply into flowers to reach their nectar.
Insect pollination is beneficial to insects such as bees because it
provides a dependable source of food—pollen and nectar. Plants
benefit because these insects take the pollen directly from flower to
flower. The efficiency of insect pollination may be one of the main
reasons angiosperms displaced gymnosperms as the dominant land
plants over the past 130 million years. However, it also means that
many plant species are highly dependent upon insect pollinators.
When bee populations, for example, are threatened by diseases or
insecticides, it can adversely affect plant populations and lower the
productivity of agricultural crops.
Figure 22-25
Inside a Corn Kernel Fertilization When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower,
it begins to grow a pollen tube. One of the pollen grain’s two cells—
Distinct fertilization events the “generative” cell—divides and forms two sperm cells. The pollen
produce the two main parts
tube grows into the style, where it eventually reaches the ovary and
of the seed: the plant embryo
and the endosperm.
enters an ovule.
Inside the embryo sac, two distinct fertilizations take place in a
process called double fertilization. First, one of the sperm nuclei
Seed coat fuses with the egg nucleus to produce a diploid zygote that becomes
Endosperm
the new plant embryo. Second, the other sperm nucleus does some-
Embryonic thing truly remarkable—it fuses with two polar nuclei in the embryo
leaves sac to form a triploid (3N) cell. This cell will grow into a food-rich tis-
Embryo
Cotyledon sue known as endosperm, which nourishes the seedling as it grows.
Primary root The process of fertilization in angiosperms is distinct from that
found in other plants. Two fertilization events take place—one that
produces the zygote and the other that produces the endosperm
within the seed. The structure of a seed is shown in Figure 22-25.
Pollen grains (N)
Haploid (N) Anther (2N) (male gametophyte)
Diploid (2N)
Stigma
Pollen tubes
Style
MEIOSIS
Ovule (2N)
Haploid cell
(N)
Ovary
Ovary
(2N) Embryo sac (N)
(female gametophyte)
Egg cell
Sperm
Pollen tube
Polar nuclei
Endosperm
nucleus (3N)
Mature sporophyte Embryo
(2N)
FERTILIZATION
Seedling (2N)
(new sporophyte) Endosperm
Seed Zygote
Seed coat (2N)
Figure 22-26
Angiosperm Life Cycle
In the life cycle of a typical

angiosperm, the developing
seeds of a flower are protected
Double fertilization may be another reason why the angiosperms and nourished inside the
have been so successful. By using endosperm to store food, the ovary.
flowering plant spends very little energy producing seeds from
ovules until double fertilization has actually taken place. The energy
saved can be used to make many more seeds. Figure 22-26 summa-
rizes the life cycle of a typical angiosperm.
 READING CHECK Cause and Effect What are the products of

double fertilization?

Vegetative Reproduction
Many flowering plants can also reproduce asexually by a process
known as vegetative reproduction. This process takes place natu-
rally in many plants, and horticulturists also use it as a technique to
produce many copies of an individual plant. Vegetative repro-
duction is the formation of new individuals by mitosis. It does not
require gametes, flowers, or fertilization.
Sprouting potato Cholla cactus Strawberry plant
Figure 22-27 Vegetative reproduction takes place in a number of ways, as

shown in Figure 22-27. Because vegetative reproduction does not
Examples of Vegetative
involve seed formation, a single plant can reproduce quickly. In addi-
Reproduction
tion, asexual reproduction allows a single plant to produce genetically
Stem adaptations play a role identical offspring. This enables well-adapted individuals to rapidly fill
in the vegetative reproduction a favorable environment.
of these plants. A potato is an Horticulturists often take advantage of vegetative reproduction by
underground stem called a
using cuttings or grafting to make many identical copies of a plant or
tuber that can grow whole new
to produce offspring from seedless plants. A grower may simply cut
plants from buds, called eyes.
Some cacti can grow new a length of stem containing meristem tissue and bury it in a sterile
plants from existing stems that medium such as perlite or sand to encourage root formation.
fall from the plant. Strawberry Grafting is used to reproduce seedless plants and varieties of
plants send out long, trail-
woody plants that will not grow from cuttings. A grower cuts a
ing stems called stolons, or
piece of stem or a lateral bud from a parent plant and attaches it to
runners. Nodes that rest on
the ground produce roots and another plant, as shown in Figure 22-28. Grafting works best when
upright stems and leaves. the two plants are closely related, such as when a bud from a lemon
tree is grafted onto an orange tree.
 READING CHECK Apply Concepts Describe how asexual

reproduction might allow a plant to become rapidly established in a
Figure 22-28 new area.
Grafting
When just starting to bud, a

branch from a lemon tree is
grafted onto the branch of an
established orange tree. Months
later, the mature branch bears
lemon fruit. Grafting can lead to
a single plant bearing more than
one type of fruit.

Fruits and Seeds
Would it surprise you to learn that if you ate a meal of corn on the
cob and baked beans, from the point of view of a biologist, you were
actually eating fruits? The development of the seed, which protects
and nourishes the plant embryo, contributed greatly to the success
of plants on land. But the angiosperm seed, protected by a fruit, was
an even better adaptation, as we will see.
Fruit and Seed Development Once fertilization of an angio-

sperm is complete, nutrients flow from the vascular system into
the flower to support the growing embryo within the seed. As
angiosperm seeds mature, ovary walls thicken to form a fruit
that encloses the developing seeds. A fruit is simply a matured
angiosperm ovary, usually containing seeds. An exception is found
in commercially grown fruits that are selectively bred to be seedless,
such as some varieties of grapes. Examples of fruits are shown in
Figure 22-29.
Figure 22-29
In everyday language, the term fruit applies to sweet plant products
such as apples, grapes, and strawberries. However, think about foods
Variety Among Fruits
such as string beans, corn, beans, cucumbers, and tomatoes, which we Like the flowers from which
commonly call vegetables. Since these vegetables contain the seeds they develop, fruits vary in
of plants, they are also fruits. The ovary wall surrounding a fruit may be structure.
fleshy, as it is in grapes and tomatoes, or tough and dry, like the shell
that surrounds peanuts. The peanuts themselves are seeds.
While fruits and seeds are developing, it generally benefits the
plant to keep animals away. Bright flower petals have fallen away,
and the appearance of the remains of the flower generally blends
in with the rest of the plant. The developing fruits and seeds are
also not especially tasty. In many cases, they are tough and bitter.
Many fruits, including tomatoes, oranges, and bananas, begin with
green rinds that match the colors of the plant leaves. When they
ripen, they take on brighter colors.
Pomegranate
Maple
Plum
Lychee
Peanut

Seed Dispersal Fruits are not there to nourish the seedling—the
 INTERACTIVITY endosperm does that. So why should plants have seeds that are
Investigate the conditions wrapped in an additional layer of nutrient-packed tissue? Think of
that could make flowers the blackberries that grow wild in the forests of North America. Each
suddenly bloom in a hot, seed is enclosed in a sweet, juicy fruit, making it a tasty treat for all
dry landscape. kinds of animals. What good is such sweetness if all it does is get the
seed eaten? Well, believe it or not, that’s exactly the point.
The seeds of many plants, especially those encased in sweet,
fleshy fruits, are often eaten by animals. The seeds are covered with
tough coatings, allowing them to pass through an animal’s digestive
system unharmed. The seeds then sprout in the feces eliminated
CASE STUDY from the animal. These fruits provide nutrition for the animal and
Figure 22-30 also help the plant disperse its seeds—often to areas where there is
less competition with the parent plant. Several mechanisms of seed
Mechanisms of
dispersal are shown in Figure 22-30.
Seed Dispersal
Animals are not the only means by which plants can scatter their
Angiosperm seeds are dis- seeds. Seeds are also adapted for dispersal by wind and water. A
persed in a variety of ways. dandelion seed, for example, is attached to a dry fruit that has a
 Construct an Explanation parachute-like structure. This adaptation allows the seed to glide
How did the adaptations
that lead to a variety of seed
a considerable distance away from the parent plant. Some seeds,
dispersal methods contribute like the coconut, are dispersed by water. Coconut fruits are buoyant
to the success of angiosperms enough to float in seawater for many weeks, enabling them to reach
on land? remote islands.
Birds and other animals may drop seeds as they eat the The wind carries the tiny seeds of dandelions.
fruit.
Palm trees colonize tropical islands because of their The burrs on this goat are the fruits of the burdock
floating fruit—the coconut. plant. The sticky fruits hitch a ride to new places.
Corn (monocot) Bean (dicot)
Foliage Foliage
leaves leaves
Young
shoot Cotyledons
Young
shoot
Seed
coat
Germinating Primary Germinating Primary
seed root seed root
Figure 22-31
Germination:
A Comparison
Seed Germination All seeds contain plant embryos in a state
of dormancy, during which the embryo is alive but not growing. The monocot corn seedling (left)
Germination takes place when growth of the embryo resumes and grows directly upward, protected
by a sheath of tissue that sur-
the seed sprouts into a plant. The seeds of some plants may remain
rounds the developing leaves. In
dormant for many weeks or even months. The timing of germina-
contrast, the garden bean (right)
tion can be critical for a plant, especially in climates where growing forms a hook in its stem that
conditions change with the seasons. The seeds of many temperate gently pulls the new plant tissues
plants, for example, germinate only in the spring, when conditions out of the soil.
are best for growth. In some species, the seeds depend on a period
of cold temperatures. The seeds are dormant while cold, and then
begin growing when temperatures warm. Dormancy also can allow
for long-distance seed dispersal, making it possible for seeds to
germinate under ideal conditions.
When germination does begin, the growing plant unfolds its first
leaves, the cotyledons. Some cotyledons, like those of garden beans,
store nutrients during dormancy. Then they transfer the nutrients to
the rest of the plant as the seed germinates. Figure 22-31 compares
germination in a monocot and a dicot.

KEY QUESTIONS CRITICAL THINKING
1. Describe three general ways that angiosperms 6. Construct an Explanation How does the life
may differ from one another. cycle of some angiosperms depend on animals?
Include two specific examples to support your
2. What are the functions of stamens and carpels?
answer.
3. Describe the features of fertilization that are char-
7. Compare and Contrast How is vegetative
acteristic of angiosperms.
(asexual) reproduction similar to sexual reproduc-
4. What is the result of vegetative reproduction? tion in angiosperms? How is it different?
5. Describe how fruits form.

CASE STUDY WRAP-UP
How did plants

conquer the land?
A forest fire may kill thousands of trees all at once, but the
destruction is not permanent. Trees, like other plants, have a
variety of adaptations that allow them to survive on land—and to
repopulate the land when the opportunity arises.
HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.2, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1
Make Your Case

Green algae are small organisms that live only in the water or very
moist environments. However, step by step, the descendants of
algae became towering trees, vines with delicious fruit, and all the
other diverse plants that live across the land today. The adaptations
that evolved in plants are an amazing story. The story also involves
the evolution of animals. Many plant parts, such as showy flowers
and sweet fruits, are adaptations for attracting help in reproduction.
Construct an Explanation
1. Compare and Contrast How do the structures and functions of a typi-
cal land plant, such as a lodgepole pine, compare and contrast with
green algae?
2. Synthesize Information Based on your knowledge of plants, and
additional research if necessary, describe in order the important events
in the evolution of plants. Include at least five events in your history.

Recovery can be slow after a devastating
Society on the Case
natural disaster such as a volcanic Of Lawns and Elms
eruption. Some areas of Mt. St. Helens
are still recovering decades after the When Europeans began settling North America,
1980 eruption. they brought their ideas about lawns with them.
Today, grassy lawns surround houses and other
buildings across the United States. Lawns can be
attractive, but they displace the natural ecosys-
tem, which may have been a forest, prairie, wet-
land, or desert. Lawns also require maintenance
that has consequences for the environment. In
hot, dry climates, a healthy lawn might require
Careers on the Case watering as often as once a day. The fertilizer
that is spread on lawns may wash into lakes and
Work Toward a Solution streams where it can spur the growth of algae.
In natural ecosystems, plants are distributed and Fertilizer can also pollute groundwater.
grow in patterns that nature determines. In some Some popular plants in landscaping have led
careers, however, people work with plants directly. to unintended results. For example, elm trees
were once very popular for lining city sidewalks.
Landscaper
The tall, arching branches of the elms formed
Landscapers apply their own ideas to choose green canopies over the streets. By 1930, North
and arrange plants. They work to place plants in America was home to more than 70 million elm
yards and parks, along trees. Then they were ravaged by Dutch elm dis-
sidewalks, and in other ease. Beetles spread this fungal-borne disease
public spaces. To be from tree to tree. By 1989, more than three quar-
successful, land- ters of the elms in North America were dead.
scapers need to
combine a sense The best way to make a landscape sustainable
of design, and a is to use plants that are native to the region. In
knowledge of a California and Arizona this could mean planting
variety of plants native succulents, which are plants that have fleshy
and how they grow. parts that hold water. Southern Florida is home to
many native grasses that grow in the sandy soil
without excess fertilizer. Many people who live by
forests choose to forgo any type of a lawn at all.
 VIDEO
They let the forest grow around their houses and
Learn more about landscaping and clear trees only when they pose safety hazards.
related careers.
Case Study Wrap-Up 751

CHAPTER 22
STUDY GUIDE
Lesson Review
Go to your Biology Foundations Workbook for longer versions of these lesson summaries.
22.1 What Is a Plant? 22.2 Plant Diversity

Plants depend upon sunlight, gas exchange, water, Fossil evidence suggests that the first plants were
and minerals. Plants use the energy from sunlight similar to modern-day green algae. The first land
to carry out photosynthesis. They require oxygen plants were bryophytes, which include mosses,
to support cellular respiration as well as carbon hornworts, and liverworts. Because they lack water-
dioxide to carry out photosynthesis. Plants also conducting vascular tissue, they grow in damp soil
need a way to access water and minerals. and low to the ground.
Over time, the demands of life on land favored About 420 million years ago, plants with true
the evolution of plants more resistant to the drying vascular tissue evolved. Vascular plants are known
rays of the sun, more capable of conserving water, as tracheophytes, because they contain tracheids.
and more capable of reproducing without water. Tracheophytes include all seed-bearing plants
as well as seedless vascular plants: club mosses,
Most plant life cycles have two alternating phases, horsetails, and ferns. Seedless vascular plants
a diploid and a haploid phase. The multicel- produce spores. They require a thin film of water
lular diploid phase is the sporophyte, or spore- to carry out fertilization.
producing plant. The multicellular haploid phase is
the gametophyte, or gamete-producing plant. The Gymnosperms and angiosperms are seed plants. A
cycle is known as the alternation of generations. seed is a plant embryo and food supply encased in
a protective covering. In seed plants, the male and
• alternation of generations female gametophytes grow and mature directly in
• sporophyte the sporophyte, within structures known as cones
• gametophyte or flowers. Gymnosperms bear their seeds in
cones. Angiosperms bear their seeds in flowers.
• bryophyte • xylem
• vascular tissue • phloem
• archegonium • seed
• antheridium • gymnosperm
• sporangium • angiosperm
• tracheophyte • pollination
• tracheid • ovule
 Interpret Visuals Identify each of the labeled  Identify Patterns D oes this life cycle follow the
needs of a plant and explain the function of each.
pattern of green algae, seedless plants, or seed
plants? Explain.

22.3 Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds As angiosperm seeds mature, the ovary walls
thicken to form a fruit that encloses the develop-
Scientific classification best reflects evolutionary
ing seeds. The seeds contained within the fruit
relationships among flowering plants. However,
are often dispersed by animals. Other methods of
people that work with flowering plants, or
seed dispersal include wind and water.
angiosperms, categorize them in different ways.
Angiosperms are often grouped by the number of
• ovary
their seed leaves—plants with one seed leaf are
• fruit
called monocots; those with two seed leaves are
• cotyledon
called dicots. Flowering plants can have woody or
• monocot
herbaceous stems (which are smooth and non-
• dicot
woody). Angiosperms are also classified by their
• embryo sac
life span. Annuals grow, flower, and die in one
• pollination
season; biennials grow over two seasons before
• double fertilization
they die; perennials continue to flower from year
• endosperm
to year.
• vegetative production
• dormancy
Flowers are reproductive organs that are com-
• germination
posed of four different kinds of specialized leaves:
sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals pro-
tect the bud before it opens and protect the flower A B C
while it is developing. Petals are the bright-colored
leaves that attract pollinators. The stamens are the
male part of the flower and contain the anthers.
Carpels are the innermost part of the flower that
houses the ovules.
The process of fertilization in angiosperms is dis-

tinct from that found in other plants. Two fertiliza-
tion events take place—one produces the zygote
and the other a tissue, called the endosperm,
within the seed.
Vegetative reproduction is the formation of new

individuals by mitosis. It does not require gametes,
flowers, or fertilization.
 Infer E xplain how the three lettered structures

are involved in fertilization.
Organize Information
Complete the table by indicating if each group of plants exhibits the
listed characteristics.
Mosses and Ferns and Cone-bearing Flowering

Group of plant Green algae relatives relatives plants plants
Seeds? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Vascular tissue? 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Fruit? 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Study Guide 753

PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT
Keeping the
Buzz On
Communicate a Solution
HS-LS4-6, HS-ETS1-2, CCSS.ELA.LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1, CCSS.ELA.LITERACY.WHST.9-10.7
STEM Do you like almonds? They’re healthy Researchers think that a number of factors may
and they taste great, but did you be contributing to colony collapse disorder.
know they couldn’t be produced without the These include climate-induced changes in the
help of insects? Central California produces growing season, loss of natural habitat, parasitic
80 percent of the world’s supply of almonds. mites that attack the bees’ nervous systems, and
Each year, millions of bees are transported to the use of a class of pesticides known as neonic-
that region to pollinate the almond groves. otinoids. Worries about the survival of these criti-
Honeybees also pollinate scores of other food cal insects have prompted governments around
crops throughout the country, from tomatoes the world to propose programs of habitat con-
and peppers to watermelons and cantaloupes. servation and to consider banning pesticides that
But all is not well in the world of bees. may be dangerous to bee populations.
Increasingly, honeybees in North America are

threatened by colony collapse disorder, a condi-
tion in which worker bees abandon their hives
and eventually die. According to the Department
of Agriculture, nearly 42 percent of U.S. bee
colonies died off in 2015, many due to colony
collapse disorder. Concern is now so great that a
Presidential Task Force was established to recom-
mend a plan to prevent the loss of these essential
insects and the crops that depend upon them.
A honeybee heads for

an almond flower.

SCIENCE PROJECT
This mobile apiary is transporting bees to

a grove or farm that needs pollinators.
4. Develop an Argument Choose the possible

Possible Causes of Colony Collapse Disorder
cause that you think is a likely explanation for
Possible Cause Leads to … colony collapse disorder. Then, based on the
evidence you researched, develop an argument
Pesticides (specifically, Death of some bees that
neonicotinoids) consume pollen or nectar to support the explanation, as well as an action
tainted with the pesticide plan to address the problem.
Climate change Alteration of seasonal timing 5. Communicate Present your argument in a

for flowering speech to classmates. Try to convince them
that your action plan is worthwhile. Be sure to
Habitat loss Reduction in the abundance
describe the following:
of wildflowers and other
sources of nectar for bees • The specific nature of the threat to the bee
Parasitic mites (such as Death of bees by infestation
population
Varroa) • Areas of the United States where this threat
Stress from beekeeping Weakened bees that are may be most severe
practices such as transpor- more susceptible to other • How your plan of action would counteract this
tation across the country stressors
threat, and help to improve the health of bees
and other pollinating insects
1. Define the Problem What food crops depend on
bees and other pollinating insects? What would As you listen to the arguments of classmates,
be the result if these pollinators disappeared? evaluate their points of view, reasoning, and use
of evidence and rhetoric. Try to identify any faulty
2. Ask Questions W hat actions have U.S. government
reasoning or distorted evidence.
agencies, such as the Department of Agriculture,
taken to study colony collapse disorder?
3. Conduct Research Use print and online refer-
ence sources to research the possible causes
of colony collapse disorder, as well as possible
solutions. Be sure to evaluate the credibility and
accuracy of the reference sources.
Performance-Based Assessment 755
CHAPTER 22
 ASSESSMENT
KEY IDEAS AND TERMS 22.2 Plant Diversity

HS-LS1-4
22.1 What Is a Plant? 7. Which answer describes a reason that bryophytes
HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS4-1 need to live in moist areas?
1. The ancestors of land plants likely evolved from a. Bryophytes need the extra water for
a. mosses that lived in the water. photosynthesis.
b. an organism similar to green algae. b. The sperm of bryophytes need water to swim to
c. a protist that lived on land. an egg.
d. prokaryotes that carried on photosynthesis. c. Gas exchange is more efficient in wet areas.
2. Recent changes in the classification of the plant d. Without moisture, rhizoids cannot anchor
kingdom are based on the plants.
a. studies comparing DNA sequences. 8. Water is carried upward from the roots to every
b. comparison of physical structures. part of a vascular plant by
c. differences and similarities in life cycles. a. rhizoids.
d. whether or not a plant uses seeds to reproduce. b. phloem.
3. What is the basic difference between a sporophyte c. cuticle.
and a gametophyte? d. xylem.
a. A sporophyte is a reproductive structure, while a 9. Seed-bearing plants differ from all other plants
gametophyte is not. in that
b. A sporophyte undergoes sexual reproduc- a. they have only xylem and no phloem.
tion, while a gametophyte undergoes asexual b. they have a gametophyte generation.
reproduction. c. their gametes do not require water for fertiliza-
c. A sporophyte is the diploid phase, while a tion to occur.
gametophyte is the haploid phase of the plant d. they have true roots, stems, and leaves.
life cycle. 10. In the life cycle of a moss, what environmental
d. A sporophyte is much smaller than a conditions are necessary for fertilization?
gametophyte.
11. How was the ability to produce lignin significant to
4. What do plants need to survive? the evolution of plants?
Use the following diagram to answer questions 5 and 6. 12. Why does the conifer life cycle take two years
to complete?
13. Describe a fern gametophyte.
22.3 Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds

14. In angiosperms, the structures that produce the

male gametophyte are called the
a. anthers. c. pollen tubes.
Flowers; b. sepals. d. stigmas.
Seeds seeds 15. The process in which a single plant produces many
Plant True water- enclosed
Embryo offspring genetically identical to itself is
ancestor conducting in fruit
formation tissue a. sexual reproduction.
b. agriculture.
c. dormancy.
d. vegetative reproduction.
5. Which group of plants is most closely related to 16. The thickened ovary wall of a plant may join with
the ancestor of all plants? other parts of the flower to become the
a. fruit. c. endosperm.
6. What distinguishes the mosses group from the
b. seed. d. cotyledon.
fern group of plants?

17. What is a carpel? Where is it located in a typical 27. Apply Scientific Reasoning How is it helpful for
flower? vascular plants to have two transport systems—
18. What are the products of double fertilization? xylem and phloem—instead of just one system?
Describe them. 28. Construct an Explanation Why are seeds not
19. Give examples of seed dispersal by animal, wind, classified as the reproductive structures of a plant?
and water. 29. Cite Evidence During the age of the dinosaurs,
20. What is the function of dormancy? the vast majority of land plants were ferns and
mosses. Today, the vast majority of land plants
21. The diagram shows the parts of a typical flower. are seed plants. Cite evidence from the text and
a. Inside which structure is pollen produced? provide an explanation for this change based on
b. What structure does label A represent? What is the basic requirements of plants.
its function?
30. Apply Concepts A friend of yours lives in one
c. In which structure do seeds develop?
of the desert areas of New Mexico and wants to
d. What is the name of structure G?
grow a garden of bryophytes. What environmental
conditions would your friend need to provide the
B garden for it to be successful?
C
A E
D 31. Construct an Explanation The seeds of lupines,
a tundra plant, can remain dormant for thousands
of years, and still germinate when conditions are
favorable. How might this trait provide an advan-
tage to lupines in their environment?
32. Revise Models A student is developing a model
of the life cycle of gymnosperms. The model
includes a pine cone, such as the one shown here.
How could adding a second pine cone improve
the model?
F G H
CRITICAL THINKING
22. Classify How do botanists classify the five major

groups of plants?
23. Draw Conclusions If all you know about a plant
is that it lives almost all of its life as a multicellular
haploid organism, what can you conclude about
the kind of plant it is?
24. Construct an Explanation How does alternation
of generations differ among the various types of 33. Predict Some plants form flowers that produce
plants, such as mosses and flowering plants? stamens but no carpels. Could fruit form on one
of these flowers? Cite textual evidence to support
25. Compare and Contrast How are green algae your answer.
similar to other plants? How are they different?
34. Integrate Information Pollen and seeds are the
26. Compare and Contrast Moss plants are small, most reliable plant-related evidence at archaeo-
but ferns can grow as tall as small trees. Explain logical sites and at modern-day crime scenes
why this is so. because they are long-lasting. Relate this quality
to their structure and function in living plants.
Chapter Assessment 757

CHAPTER 22
 ASSESSMENT
CROSSCUTTING CONCEPTS For several years, a homeowner notices moss grow-

ing in the backyard in areas where grass otherwise
35. Structure and Function At first glance, an oak would grow. Half of the yard receives direct sunlight,
tree and a zebra hardly seem similar in any way.
while the other half is shady. The table shows the data
Describe the characteristics that they do share.
that the homeowner collects. Use the table to answer
What are the characteristics of the oak tree that
questions 39 and 40.
distinguish it from organisms in the other king-
doms of living things?
Growth of Moss in Sun and Shade
36. Stability and Change Compare the benefits and
drawbacks of sexual reproduction and vegetative Year
reproduction for a plant.
1 2 3 4 5 6
MATH CONNECTIONS Area of Moss

0 0 1 2 1 1
in Sun (m2)
Analyze and Interpret Data Area of Moss
0 2 5 7 6 9
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.MP2, CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSS.IC.B.6 in Shade (m2)
Refer to the text and data table to answer ques-
tions 37 and 38. In a laboratory experiment, fruits
from 5 different types of trees were dropped from a 39. Draw Conclusions What conclusion about the
height of 4 meters. The falling time was measured and growth of moss does the data support?
recorded in the data table shown here. Assume that 40. Apply Scientific Reasoning The area of moss in
for every second that a fruit falls, the wind carries it the shade ranges from none to 9 square inches.
1.5 meters away from the parent tree. What are some possible explanations for this
range of values?
Fruit Type Versus Dispersal Time
LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTIONS
Average Time (s)
Type of Tree
for Seed to Fall 4 m
Write About Science
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.2
Norway maple 5.2
41. Write Explanatory Texts Describe how seeds
Silver maple 4.9 form from a process of double fertilization.
42. Write Procedural Texts Write a step-by-step
White ash 3.1 procedure for distinguishing the major types of
plants: green algae, mosses and their relatives,
Shagbark hickory 0.9 ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.
Red oak 0.9 Read About Science

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.2
37. Analyze Data Given the same wind, which of the 43. Summarize Text Trace the text’s explanation
fruits shown in the table is most likely to be carried of why flowers are the key to the evolutionary
farthest from the parent tree? Explain. success of the angiosperms.
38. Draw Conclusions Based on the data and illustra-
tions of the fruit structures, which of the following
conclusions is most reasonable?
a. Winged seeds carry more nutrition for the grow-
ing embryo than seeds without wings.
b. Wind is not very effective in carrying seeds away
from the parent plant.
c. Acorns are more likely to germinate if they fall
close to the parent plant.
d. Red oak and hickory depend on factors other
than wind to achieve dispersal.
CHAPTER 22
END-OF-COURSE TEST PRACTICE

Questions 1–2 3. Mosses and other bryophytes never grow taller
than a few centimeters. The height of bryophytes
Style Stigma is limited because they lack which of these
Anther structures?
A. Haploid gametophytes
B. Diploid sporophytes
C. Flowers and cones
Filament D. Cells that perform photosynthesis
E. Vascular tissue
4. The life cycle of a plant includes two alternating
phases: a diploid (2N) phase and a haploid (N)
phase. As plants evolved in many stages from
green algae to seed plants, what trend occurred in
the alternating phases?
A. The haploid phase became larger.
B. The diploid phase became larger.
C. The two phases became more alike.
D. The two phases each became smaller.
E. The two phases became less dependent on
1. A student wants to determine whether or not the
one another.
flower is pollinated by an animal, such as an insect
or bird. Which property of the flower would be 5. When the first seed plants evolved, they became
most useful for making this inference? the first plants to complete which of these tasks?
A. Number of stamens A. Transporting water against gravity
B. Location of the style B. Growing directly out of the soil
C. Color and shape of the petals C. Reproducing without flowers
D. Location and size of the ovary D. Reproducing without cones
E. Amount of pollen that it produces E. Reproducing without standing water
2. In an experiment, Marlene removes the six anthers 6. A cucumber is often called a vegetable because of
from the flower shown here. What best describes the way it is used as a food. What property of the
the ability of the altered flower to form seeds? cucumber shows that it is properly classified as a
A. The flower cannot form seeds because it fruit?
cannot be pollinated. A. It has a rounded shape.
B. The flower cannot form seeds because it B. It develops aboveground.
cannot produce male gametophytes. C. It has a fleshy, edible center.
C. The flower may form seeds because the stigma D. It contains the seeds of the plant.
produces pollen. E. It develops from the sepals of a flower.
D. The flower may form seeds if it receives pollen
made by another flower.
E. The flower may form seeds if it receives
enough nutrients from the soil.  ASSESSMENT
For additional assessment
practice, go online to access
your digital course.
If You Have Trouble With…

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6
See Lesson 22.3 22.3 22.2 22.1 22.2 22.3
End-of-Course Test Practice 759

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22

HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-4, HS-LS4-1,

720 Chapter 22 Plants

How did plants conquer the land?

Plant life regrows after a fire

Unit 6 Diversity of Life 721

HS-LS1-1: Construct an explanation

Water and Minerals Water is one of the raw materials of photo-

 READING CHECK Infer Why are plants not found in deep

722 Chapter 22 Plants

All plants have the same basic needs:

The History and Evolution of Plants  VIDEO

Origins in the Water The fossil record indicates that the

22.1 What Is a Plant? 723

Mosses and Relatives:

Figure 22-3 Cone-Bearing Plants:

 READING CHECK Review What are the five major groups in

724 Chapter 22 Plants

Spores Figure 22-4

22.1 What Is a Plant? 725

Comparing Adaptations of Ferns and Mosses

Figure 22-5 shows an important trend in plant evolution—the

Mosses and Ferns and

HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS4-1

 LESSON 22.1 Review

726 Chapter 22 Plants

Mature cell Sexual

The green alga Haploid (N)

 READING CHECK Review How do green algae get moisture

728 Chapter 22 Plants

Colonial algae such as

Spirogyra (LM 80×) Volvox (LM 50×)

Mosses and Other Bryophytes

Sporophyte Figure 22-9

In bryophytes, the gametophyte is

22.2 Plant Diversity 729

730 Chapter 22 Plants

Horsetails are among the most

Evolution of a Transport System Vascular plants, such as the

 READING CHECK Cause and Effect Why are ferns able to

Figure 22-13 Sporangium

In the life cycle of a

732 Chapter 22 Plants

Keeping Ferns in Check Number of Spores in Soil

22.2 Plant Diversity 733

Angiosperms (an jee oh spurmz), or flowering plants, bear their

Male cones Female cones Ovary

Wind carries pollen After fertilization, female An ovary develops

734 Chapter 22 Plants

Seeds After fertilization, the zygote contained

Pollen Cones and Seed Cones Conifers produce two types of

Pollination and Fertilization The conifer life cycle, shown in

 LESSON 22.2 Review

5. Construct an Explanation Why are ferns com-

736 Chapter 22 Plants

Angiosperms first appeared during the Cretaceous Period about

22.3 Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds 737

Angiosperm Diversity The people who work with plants, includ-

Monocots and Dicots Angiosperms are called either monocots

738 Chapter 22 Plants