IEM Electrostatics

Lesson 1: Fundamentals in Electricity Electrostatics: study of stationary electric charges.

Electrons are free to travel, and protons are
Conversion of Energy
fixed within the nucleus.
The primary function of the x-ray imaging system is An object is said to be electrified if the object
to convert electrical energy into electromagnetic has too few or too many electrons.
energy. Electrification: created by contact, friction, and
Electric energy is supplied to the imaging induction.
system with a well-controlled electric current. Outer shell electrons are easily removed.
The conversion of electric energy takes place
Electron Charge
inside the x-ray tube.
Earth: an electrical charge ground; serves as a
Principles of Electricity
reservoir of stray electric charges.
This conversion follows the science of Electron: smallest unit of electric charge; too
electrostatics, electrodynamics, and small to be used as unit
electromagnetism. Coulomb (C): fundamental unit of electric charge
Electrostatics tackles on stationary electric Named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.
charges. 1C = 6.3 x 10¹⁸ electron charges
Electrodynamics on charges in motion.
Electromagnetism on how electrons in motion Coulomb’s Law
create magnetism. States that Electrostatic force is directly proportional
Electricity & Magnetism to the product of electrostatic charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.
Most of the energy is transformed into thermal Formula: F = k [ (Qₐ QB) / d2]
energy some into electromagnetic energy. Can be considered as the inverse square law
Magnetism became significant as a diagnostic tool adaptation of electrostatics.
because of the introduction of magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) Electrostatic Laws
Laws govern the nature of both electricity and I. Unlike charges attract, like charges repel.
magnetism. • Electric Field: associated with each
ELECTROSTATIC electric charge; positive points outward
towards negative.
Matter Has Electric & Magnetic Properties • Electrostatic Force: force of attraction
Matter: anything that occupies space, has mass, of unlike charges and repulsion of like
and made up of atoms. charges.
II. Electric charge distribution is throughout (on
Atoms are composed of fundamental particles
that exhibit electrical charges. the surface) of the conductor.
As these charges move within the atom, it III. Electric charge of a conductor is concentrated
exhibits characteristics of magnetism. along the sharpest curvature of the surface.

Electric Charge Electric Potential

Electric Charge: Physical property of matter that A system with PE has stored energy; if the said
exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the energy is released, then the system has the ability to
presence of other matter. do work.
Discrete units of positive or negative. Applying voltage to the circuit causes the electrons
Protons and electrons are the smallest unit of to flow.
electric charge. Volt/voltage (V) unit of electric potential.
 Volt = PE/ Unit charge = Joule / Coulumb Increasing resistance results in reduced
X-ray imaging system needs 220V or higher to electric current.
operate.
Units Used in an Electric Circuit
Electrodynamics
Ampere (A): you need to use for electric current;
Electrodynamics: study of electric charges at motion; proportional to # of electrons flowing in a circuit.
electric current is opposite to electron flow. 1 Ampere = 1 Coulumb per second
When electric potential is applied to a copper wire Volts (V): unit used for electric potential.
and electrons move along the wire, this is called Ohms (Ω): unit used for electric resistance.
electric current or electricity. Resistance: inhibition of electron flow through
Four Electrical States of Matter: a circuit.
Conductor, Insulator, Semiconductor,
Electric Resistance
Superconductor
The manner how electric current behave in an
Conductor
electric circuit is described by the Ohm’s Law
Any substance through which electrons flow easily. The Ohm’s Law
Variable resistance; obeys Ohm’s Law; requires States that the partial or total voltage of the
voltage. circuit is the product of its electric current and
E.g., Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al) resistance.
Formula: V = IR
Insulator
Electric Power
Any material that does not allow electron flow.
Higher resistance; necessary with high voltage Watt (W): measurement unit of electric power,
E.g., rubber, glass named after James Watt.
1 Watt is equal to 1 ampere of current flowing
Semiconductor
through an electric potential of 1 volt.
Under some (controlled) conditions behave as a Formula: P = IV or P = I(IR)
conductor or as an insulator:
Lesson 2: Fundamentals in Magnetism
Can be conductive and can also be resistive; the
basis for constructing circuit components of MAGNETISM
computers.
Origin of Magnetism
E.g., Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge)
William Shockley (1946): demonstrated the In Magnesia, discovered Magnetite, an oxide of
properties and effect of semi-conduction. iron (Fe3O4) used as Lodestones or leading stone.
Magnetism: named after the ancient village,
Superconductor
Magnesia where the stone was located.
Exhibit no resistance below a critical temperature. Magnetic field: created by any charged
No resistance: no electric potential required but particle in motion.
must be within extremely low temperatures.
Electron Spin
E.g., Niobium, Titanium (Ti)
Discovered in 1911 The clockwise/counterclockwise rotation of an
electron on an axis creating a magnetic field.
Electric Circuit
Created magnetic field is neutralized in
Modifying conductor size and inserting circuit electron pairs.
elements increases resistance. Having an odd number of electrons creates a
When resistance is controlled and the small magnetic field.
conductor has a closed path, an electric circuit
is made.mM
Atomic Magnetism The iron core greatly increases the magnetic field
intensity.
Magnetic Moment: creation of a nuclear magnetic
dipole caused by spinning electric charges. Magnetic States of Matter
Bipolar/Dipolar: has a North and South pole.
Like the electrical properties of matter, matter
Magnetic Dipole: small magnetic created by electron
can also be classified according to its ability to
orbit.
attract lines of magnetic field.
Magnetic Domain: accumulation of many atomic
Nonmagnetic
magnets with dipoles aligned.
Ferromagnetic
Matter & Magnetism Diamagnetic
Paramagnetic
Magnetic Permeability: the ability of a material to
attract lines of magnetic field intensity. Nonmagnetic Materials
Magnetic Susceptibility: the degree of material to be
Unaffected by lines of magnetic field.
magnetized.
Materials that are not attracted nor repelled
Hysteresis: “shortcoming”; lag or delay of a
by presence of magnetic field.
magnetic material relating to its magnetization
E.g., wood, glass
properties by which it firstly becomes
magnetized and then demagnetized; loss of Ferromagnetic Materials
magnetism.
Strongly attracted to lines of magnetic field.
Types of Magnets Able to be permanently magnetized.
E.g., Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co)
Magnets can be classified according to the origin of
Alnico: an alloy of aluminum, nickel, and
their magnetic permeability.
cobalt; one of the useful types of magnets.
Natural Magnet
Rare Earth Ceramics: considerable stronger
Artificially Induced Magnet
magnets.
Electromagnet
Diamagnetic Materials
Natural Magnet
Weakly repelled by both poles of a magnetic field.
Where each magnetic field occurred naturally
Cannot be artificially magnetized.
The perfect example is the earth.
Not attracted to magnets.
It is the earth's magnetic field that moved the
E.g., water plastic
hand of a compass.
Paramagnetic Materials
Artificially Induced Permanent Magnet
Lie between ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic.
Produced by aligning their domains in the field of an
Slightly attracted to magnets and loosely
electromagnet, usually made of iron (Fe).
influenced by magnetic fields.
Magnetism is lost when the domain alignment
Use as contrast agent for MRI, Gadolinium
is destroyed.
(Gd).
E.g., compass, horseshoe magnet
Laws of Magnetism
Electromagnet
Attraction – Repulsion: Unlike poles attract, like
Consist of a wire wrapped around an iron core.
poles repel.
Where electric current is conducted through the
Inverse Square Law: intensity of attraction is
wire that, in turn, creates a magnetic field.
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
The intensity of magnetic field is proportional to
from the dipole. (Explained by Maxwell's field
the electric current that passes through the
theory of EM radiation)
conductor.
Magnetic Poles: magnets always have a North and Luigi Galvani (1700s): I'm serious his dissected
South pole; magnetic field exits North Pole then frogs’ legs twitched when it touched two different
returns to the South Pole. metals.

Inverse Cube Law

Alessandro Volta
If magnetic monopoles (individual magnetic charges”) Investigated if two different metals produce
existed, they would exhibit an inverse square law, just electric current if brought to contact: Zinc (Zi) and
like electrical charges. Copper (Cu) contact produced feeble electric
Magnets only come in dipoles. current.
Dipoles (of any kind) obey an inverse cube law Sandwiched multiple ZiCu plates produced a voltaic
in the far field (distances large compared to the pile, a source of electromotive force or electric
effective charge separation in the dipole). potential.
Voltaic Pile: stacked up ZiCu plates; precursor of
Maxwell’s Field Theory of Electromagnetic Radiation battery.
Theorized by James Clerk Maxwell joining the concept Cell: each ZiCu sandwich
of electric and magnetic forces. The Electric Potential
Stated that magnetic force is proportional to the
magnetic pole strengths divided by the square of the Electric Potential: measure in Volt (V) or Joules per
distance. Coulomb (J/C).
The Inverse Square Law of magnetism. The investigation of a source of constant
electric current gave rise to the investigation
Magnetic Induction on the link of electricity and magnetism.
Induction: means which materials can be made
Hans Oersted (1820)
magnetic.
The imaginary magnetic field lines are the magnetic Produce evidence of a direct link between electric
lines of induction. and magnetic phenomena.
Tesla (T): SI unit for magnetic field strength; named Stated that electricity (electrons in motion)
after Nikola Tesla; 1 Tesla = 10, 000 Gauss emits a magnetic field.
Earth’s magnetic field: 100 T at poles, 50 T at equator. Observed that a wire without electric current has
no magnetism, a wire with flowing current does.
Lesson 3: Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism
The Concept of Electromagnetism
Any charge in motion induces a magnetic field, like
Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of
electricity flowing through a wire.
electromagnetism, which tackles the study of charges
Right Hand Rule: thumb points the direction
and its associated forces and fields.
of electric current; fingers point that
They were long though to be separate forces until the
direction of magnetic field.
19th century that they were observed to have a similar
A wire with flowing electric current that is looped
characteristic.
concentrates its magnetic field in its very center.
Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity established their
Stacking even more loops creates an even
relationship that they are of one common
stronger magnetic field in the center.
phenomenon.
The Electromagnet
ELECTROMAGNETISM
Solenoid: a coil of wire; induces a magnetic field.
The Experiment that Shocked the World
Magnetic field is concentrated in its center.
Pre – 1900s: people believe that electricity and Iron Core: intensifies the magnetic field induced by
magnetism shape are separate effects. the solenoid, usually made of Iron.
 Magnetic Field can again be intensified if the TRANSFORMER
solenoid is coiled around a ferromagnetic
Transformer
material like iron.
A device that transforms electric potential and
Michael Faraday
current into a higher or lower intensity.
Demonstrated magnetic Field can be produce Does not convert one form of energy into
electricity. another.
Observed magnetic field without motion Changes the intensity of alternating voltage an
produces no electric current, magnetic field current.
with motion does.
Operation of the Transformer
Used an ammeter, a current -measuring
device. Functions only with changing electric current (AC),
Formulated the Faraday’s Law applying Faraday’s study.
Applying direct current (DC) to the primary
Faraday’s Law
coil will induce no current in the secondary
Faraday’s Law: states that magnitude of induced coil.
electric current depends on four factors: Follows the Transformer Law.
Strength of the magnetic field
Transformer Law
Velocity of magnetic field moving past the
conductor. States that change in voltage is directly proportional
Angle of conductor to the magnetic field to number of turns ratio of secondary coil do the
Number of turns of the conductor. number of turns in the primary coil.
Formula: VS/ VP = NS/NP
Production of Electricity By Magnetic Fields
Describes how electric current and voltage change
Actual physical motion of magnetic field is not from the primary coil to the secondary coil.
needed, only change in magnetic field intensity.
General Classifications of Transformers
Varying Magnetic field intensity induces an electric
current. That transformer device can be classified into two
main types depending on its voltage output. These
Contributions of Oersted & Faraday
are:
Oersted demonstrated that electricity can produce Step-Up Transformer
magnetism, Faraday demonstrated its vice versa. Step-Down Transformer

The Induction Motor Step-Up Transformer

Induction Motor: the type of motor used in the A transformer reached turns ratio greater than 1.
construction of X-ray tubes. Has two primary parts: increases or steps-up the voltage from the primary
Rotor: rotating part; a shaft made of bars of to the secondary side.
copper and soft iron fabricated in one mass.
Step-Down Transformer
Stator: stationary part; several fixed
Electromagnets that supply external magnetic A transformer with turns ratio less than 1.
fields. Lowers voltage from the primary to the secondary
side.
The X-Ray Tube
Transformer Law Effect on Current
Electric current is supplied to the rotor by means of
induction. Formula: IS/IP = NP/NS = IS/IP = VP/VS
Unlike a conventional motor, electric current is The inverse relation of voltage and current also
supplied to the external magnets through applies to transformer law.
conduction not to the rotor.
 Change in voltage is inversely proportional to Lesson 4: X-Ray Imaging System: Control Console
current.
The X-Ray Imaging System
A step-up transformer induces a lower
current, thus a higher voltage than denotes Provide a controlled flow of electrons enough to
lower current. produce an x-ray beam appropriate for imaging.
Diagnostic Range: 30kVp – 150kVp
Types of Transformers
Must perform with precision of what technical
Aside from voltage output, Transformers can be factors selected, and what output quality of the
classified depending on its appearance and beam.
confinement of magnetic fields. These include: Should be operated by a learned, licensed
Close core transformer personnel.
Shell type transformer
Main Components of the X-Ray Imaging System
Autotransformer
The construction of the machine is divided into
Closed Core Transformer
three major components:
Appears as if it is a square donut, consisting of Operating Console: means to operate the
ferromagnetic material (usually Iron). machine.
Made up of laminated layers of Iron. High Voltage Generator: means to provide
Primitive design of transformers. power supply to the machine.
X-Ray Tube: venue of producing an x-ray
Shell-Type Transformer
beam.
Confines even more of the magnetic field lines of the
THE X-RAY DEPARTMENT
primary winding, wrapped around the secondary
winding of solenoid. The X-ray Department
Essentially two close cores fused together, more
An X-ray examination room has sub-venues
efficient than its closed-core counterpart.
dedicated for patient preparation, image
Most currently used transformer type.
processing, and radiation exposure.
Autotransformer Typical eye-catchers in the exposure room include
the:
Consist of an iron core and a winding of wire; the
Examination Table
single winding acts as both primary and secondary
Control Booth
winding.
Connections are made at different points, Examination Table
generally smaller than the other types.
Purpose: supports the patient while performing a
Restricted only to small step-up or -down.
(tabletop) x-ray procedure.
Cannot be used as a high voltage transformer.
Specifications:
PRACTICAL APPLICATION Must be flat with uniform thickness: allows
the decubitus positioning more convenient.
Practical Applications of Electromagnetism
As radiolucent as possible: carbon fiber is
Electric Motor: shows an electric current is capable commonly used due to its strength and low X-
of producing mechanical motion. ray absorption.
Electric Generator: shows mechanical motion
Mechanisms of the examination Table
produces electric current.
Transformer: shows alternating electric current Floating: has a step-watch, unlocking the grip and
and potential can be transformed in intensity. allows easy moving of the table.
Motor-Driven: allows manipulation of the table
through the use of remote control.
 Tilting: available in systems with fluoroscopy imaging Kilovoltage Peak: controls the electric voltage
capabilities (e.g., 90/30) (potential) applied to the tube.
Exposure Time: controls the duration of x-ray
Construction of the Exposure Room
emission.
The X-ray tube is located in the examination area. mAs: available for systems that incorporate
The high voltage generator is always close to the automatic exposure control (AEC).
tube, due to the limitations warranted by wiring
Line Compensation
concerns.
The control console is in an adjoining room Line compensation: measures the voltage provided
separated by a protected barrier. to the imaging system, adjust the voltage to precisely
220volts.
Shielding of the Room
Voltage provided to the unit must not vary
Protective Barrier more than 5%, such variation will be
7-feet high (min), lined with Lead (Pb) to detrimental to the beam.
protect the technologist from scatter Today's unit have automatic line
radiation. compensation, therefore, a meter is no longer
Has a window (also lined with Lead) to allow needed.
the viewing of the patient during the
AUTOTRANSFORMER
examination.
Wall: 6-inch thick (min) concrete, or wood lined with The Autotransformer
1.5mm Pb coating.
Composed of a single winding and an iron core.
THE CONTROL CONSOLE Designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament
into the high-voltage circuits.
The Control Console
Used when only a very small step-up or step-
The most familiar part of the imaging system to the down voltage is required.
technologies; the imaging system is primarily Operates on the principle of electromagnetic
controlled through the console. self-induction.
Allows tube current/voltage manipulation:
Characteristics of the Autotransformer
Current controls radiation quantity.
Voltage controls radiation quality. Has a single winding in an iron core.
Designed to supply a precise voltage to the filament
Radiation Quality & Quantity
and high voltage circuits.
Radiation Quantity Used when only a very small step-up or step-down
Refers to the number of x-ray, beam voltage is required.
intensity. Operates on the principle of electromagnetic self-
Expressed in milliRoentgen (mR) or induction.
mR/mAs.
Autotransformer Law
Radiation Quality
Refers to penetrability of the beam; beam The autotransformers follows the “Autotransformer
energy. Law” and is the same as the Transformer Law.
Expressed in kilovolt peak (kVp) or hald- States that the change in voltage is directly
value layer (HVL) proportional to the ratio of the number of turns
(winding) of the secondary coil to the number of
Control Factors
turns in the primary coil.
Milliamperage: controls the electric current (# of Formula: VS/VP = NS/NP
electrons) that flow through the tube circuitry.
Notes on the Autotransformer Law The filament material must be able to
withstand tremendous heat to maintain its
Voltage is directly proportional to the Turns Ratio,
integrity.
and inversely proportional to current.
The close core and shell type transformer Filament Circuit
work in EM mutual induction, unlike the
Filament Circuit: a dedicated circuit where the tube
autotransformer in EM self-induction.
current is controlled.
Adjustment of Kilovoltage Peak (kVp) Precision Resistors: use the reduce (limit) the voltage
according to the selected amperage.
In older consoles, there is a major and minor
Results in a fixed mA station of 100, 200, 300, etc.
adjustments.
Major kVp: adjustment increments of 10. Filament Transformer
Minor kVp: adjustment increment of 1 or 2.
AKA Filament Heating Isolation Step-Down
The minor kVp adjustment “fine tunes”
Transformer.
the selected kVp technique.
reduces the voltage/current of 150V 0.5 – 1.0A
Technique factors can be selected with a/an:
(input on primary) to 12V 5.0 – 8.0A (output on
Adjustment knob, push button, or touch
secondary)
screen.
Also follows the effect of transformer law.
The selected technique is viewed through a kVp
States that the electric current is inversely
meter.
proportional to the turns ratio.
Connected across the output terminals of the
Formula: IP/IS = NS/NP
autotransformer.
Pre-Reading kVp meter: monitors voltage EXPOSURE TIMERS
before exposure.
Principle of Exposure Time
Reading the Output Voltage
The technologies initiate the exposure, the timer
The kVp meter actually reads the voltage, not the stops it.
kilovoltage potential. Guard Time: terminate an exposure after a
However, it is registered kVp because of the prescribed time (approx. 6s).
factory defaulted multiplication factor of turns Time Circuit: acts to “make & break” the high
ratio. voltage across the tube.
Usually installed on the primary side of the high
Adjustment of Milliamperage (mA)
voltage transformer where the voltage is usually low.
Tube current, traveling from cathode to anode, is
Types of Timing Circuits
measured in milliamperes (mA).
The amount of electrons emitted by the Precision is essential to ensure the quality of images
filament is determined by filament and maintenance of patient dose. this is ensured by
temperature. a well-functioning timer, usually:
Increasing the mA factor increases the Synchronous timer
filament temperature, thus, more electrons Electronic Timer
produced. mAs timer
Automatic Exposure Control
Thermionic Emission
Synchronous Timer
Filament current is measured in amperes (A).
The hotter the filament the more electrons are Has an electric motor, a synchronous motor,
released through thermionic emission. designed to drive a shaft at precisely 6orps.
Thermionic emission: the process of releasing Used as timing mechanisms.
ions (electrons) from a heated filament. Minimum Exposure Time: 1/60s (17ms)
 Must reset after every exposure, cannot be
used for serial exposures.

Electronic Timer

The most sophisticated, complicated and accurate of

timers used in exposure.
Based on the time required to charge a
capacitor through a variable resistance.
Minimum Exposure Time:1ms
Controlled by a microprocessor, can be used
for rapid serial exposures.

mAs Timer

Mainly used in falling load and capacitor discharge

imaging systems.
Monitors the product of mA and exposure
time, terminates the exposure when the
desire mAs is attained.
Designed to provide the highest, safe tube
current at shortest exposure time.

Automatic Exposure Control

Automatically terminates the exposure when the

image receptor has received the required intensity.
An imaging system with AEC must be
calibrated.
Unreliable, sometimes does not respond to
examination that you use low kVp.

Types of AECs

Ionization Chamber
Radiation creates ionization in the chamber and
creates a charge, then stops the exposure when
the appropriate charge is reached.
Solid-State Detector
Operates with a very accurate internal clock
based on a quartz-crystal oscillator.