Neuroglia Functions: Pathogens Neurons
Neuroglia Functions: Pathogens Neurons
Neuroglia Functions: Pathogens Neurons
It is made up of cortical
bone and usually contains bone marrow and adipose tissue (fat).
It is a middle tubular part composed of compact bone which surrounds a central marrow cavity which
contains red or yellow marrow. In diaphysis, primary ossification occurs.
B).Neuroglia Functions
The bone remodeling process is controlled by various local and systemic factors, and their expression
and release, in a well organized manner. Calcitonin (CT), parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D3
[1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3] and estrogen are the major hormonal regulators of osteoclastic bone resorption.
Secretion of the first three is driven by the requirement to control the physiological serum calcium level.
In addition to systemic hormonal regulation, it has become more and more apparent that growth factors
such as IGFs, TGF-β, FGFs, EGF, WNTs, and BMPs play significant roles in regulation of physiological bone
D).
The axon hillock is a specialized part of the cell body (or soma) of a neuron that connects to
the axon. It can be identified using light microscopy from its appearance and location in a neuron
and from its sparse distribution of Nissl substance.[1]
The axon hillock is the last site in the soma where membrane potentials propagated from synaptic
inputs are summated before being transmitted to the axon
E).
After orgasm, both men and women experience a resolution stage. At this time, their
bodies “recover” from sexual excitement and return to their normal states. For men, the
penis becomes flaccid again and he goes through a refractory period.
During the refractory period, a man doesn’t think about sex or get aroused. His body does
not respond to sexual stimulation and he is unable to reach orgasm again until the period
is over. The length of the refractory period is different for every man. It may take a half
hour or more for his body to perform sexually again.
Younger men may need only a few minutes of recovery time, but older men usually have a
longer refractory period, sometimes between 12 to 24 hours. For some men, the refractory
period can last a few days.
F)*********** Neurons are highly polarized cells that consist of three main structural and
functional domains: a cell body or soma, an axon, and dendrites. These domains contain smaller
compartments with essential roles for proper neuronal function, such as the axonal presynaptic
boutons and the dendritic postsynaptic spines
G)
h).
What is hypogonadism?
Hypogonadism occurs when your sex glands produce little or no sex
hormones. The sex glands, also called gonads, are primarily the testes in men
and the ovaries in women. Sex hormones help control secondary sex
characteristics, such as breast development in women, testicular development
in men, and pubic hair growth. Sex hormones also play a role in the menstrual
cycle and sperm production.
Hypogonadism may also be known as gonad deficiency. It may be called low
serum testosterone or andropause when it happens in males.
I).
What Is a Vasectomy?
3.
Key points:
A resting (non-signaling) neuron has a voltage across its membrane
called the resting membrane potential, or simply the resting
potential.
The resting potential is determined by concentration gradients of ions
across the membrane and by membrane permeability to each type of
ion.
In a resting neuron, there are concentration gradients across the
membrane for \text {Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript and \text K^+K+start text, K, end text,
start superscript, plus, end superscript. Ions move down their gradients
via channels, leading to a separation of charge that creates the resting
potential.
The membrane is much more permeable to \text K^+K+start text, K, end
text, start superscript, plus, end superscript than to \text {Na}^+Na+start
text, N, a, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript, so the resting
potential is close to the equilibrium potential of \text K^+K+start text,
K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript (the potential that
would be generated by \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript if it were the only ion in the system).
Introduction
Suppose you have a dead frog. (Yes, that's kind of gross, but let's just
imagine it for a second.) What would happen if you applied an electrical
stimulus to the nerve that feeds the frog's leg? Creepily enough, the dead leg
would kick!
The Italian scientist Luigi Galvani discovered this fun fact back in the 1700s,
somewhat by accident during a frog dissection. Today, we know that the
frog's leg kicks because neurons (nerve cells) carry information via electrical
signals.
In this article, we'll see how a neuron establishes and maintains a stable
voltage across its membrane – that is, a resting membrane potential.
For a cell’s membrane potential, the reference point is the outside of the cell.
In most resting neurons, the potential difference across the membrane is
about 303030 to 909090 \text{mV}mVstart text, m, V, end text (a \
text{mV}mVstart text, m, V, end text is 1/10001/10001, slash, 1000 of a
volt), with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside. That is,
neurons have a resting membrane potential (or simply, resting potential)
of about -30−30minus, 30 \text{mV}mVstart text, m, V, end text to -
90−90minus, 90 \text{mV}mVstart text, m, V, end text.
Diagrams of voltmeters with one electrode inside the cell and one in the fluid
outside of the cell. The first voltmeter shows hyperpolarization: it reads -80
mV. The second voltmeter shows the resting potential: it reads -70 mV. The
third voltmeter shows depolarization: it reads +40 mV.
_Image modified from "How neurons communicate: Figure 2," by OpenStax College, Biology (CC BY 4.0)._
All of the electrical signals that neurons use to communicate are either
depolarizations or hyperpolarizations from the resting membrane potential.
Where does the resting membrane potential come
from?
The resting membrane potential is determined by the uneven distribution
of ions (charged particles) between the inside and the outside of the cell, and
by the different permeability of the membrane to different types of ions.
Some ion channels are highly selective for one type of ion, but others let
various kinds of ions pass through. Ion channels that mainly allow \
text{K}^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript to
pass are called potassium channels, and ion channels that mainly allow \
text{Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript to pass are called sodium channels.
[What about Cl- and organic anions?]
We'll start out with \text{K}^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus,
end superscript at a higher concentration inside the cell than in the
surrounding fluid, just as for a regular neuron. (Other ions are also present,
including anions that counterbalance the positive charge on \text K^+K+start
text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript, but they will not be
able to cross the membrane in our example.)
Starting state:
If K+ can cross via channels, it will begin to move down its concentration
gradient and out of the cell. (Channels are shown opening, potassium is
shown moving from the interior to the exterior of the cell through channels.)
For ions (as for magnets), like charges repel each other and unlike charges
attract. So, the establishment of the electrical potential difference across the
membrane makes it harder for the remaining \text K^+K+start text, K, end
text, start superscript, plus, end superscript ions to leave the cell. Positively
charged \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript ions will be attracted to the free negative charges on the inside of
the cell membrane and repelled by the positive charges on the outside,
opposing their movement down the concentration gradient. The electrical and
diffusional forces that influence movement of \text K^+K+start text, K, end
text, start superscript, plus, end superscript across the membrane jointly form
its electrochemical gradient (the gradient of potential energy that
determines in which direction \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript will flow spontaneously).
Eventually, the electrical potential difference across the cell membrane builds
up to a high enough level that the electrical force driving \text{K}^+K+start
text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript back into the cell is
equal to the chemical force driving \text{K}^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript out of the cell. When the potential
difference across the cell membrane reaches this point, there is no net
movement of \text{K}^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript in either direction, and the system is considered to be in
equilibrium. Every time one \text{K}^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript leaves the cell, another \text{K}^+K+start
text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript will enter it.
At equilibrium:
Right panel: Same setup, but with A and B having a much slighter difference
in concentration of the ion of interest (B slightly less concentrated than A). In
this case, the voltage is only slightly negative. This is analogous to the case
where we have a very high place and a slightly lower place and are exerting a
force to keep a boulder from rolling down this not-very-steep hill.
If you know the \text{K}^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript concentration on both sides of the cell membrane, then you can
predict the size of the potassium equilibrium potential.
In neurons, however, the resting membrane potential is close but not identical
to the \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript equilibrium potential. Instead, under physiological conditions
(conditions like those in the body), neuron resting membrane potentials are
slightly less negative than the \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript equilibrium potential.
What does that mean? In a neuron, other types of ions besides \text
K^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript must
contribute significantly to the resting membrane potential.
[What experiment would you do to figure this out?]
Both \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript and \text
{Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript contribute to
resting potential in neurons
As it turns out, most resting neurons are permeable to \text {Na}^+Na+start
text, N, a, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript and \text{Cl}^-
Cl−start text, C, l, end text, start superscript, minus, end superscript as well
as \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript.
Permeability to \text{Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start superscript,
plus, end superscript, in particular, is the main reason why the resting
membrane potential is different from the potassium equilibrium potential.
Let’s go back to our model of a cell permeable to just one type of ion and
imagine that \text{Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start superscript, plus,
end superscript (rather than \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript) is the only ion that can cross the
membrane. \text{Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start superscript, plus,
end superscript is usually present at a much higher concentration outside of a
cell than inside, so it will move down its concentration gradient into the cell,
making the interior of the cell positive relative to the outside.
Starting state:
At equilibrium:
The energy for this "uphill" movement comes from ATP hydrolysis (the
splitting of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate). For every molecule of
ATP that's broke down, 333 \text{Na}^+Na+start text, N, a, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript ions are moved from the inside to the
outside of the cell, and 222 \text K^+K+start text, K, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript ions are moved from the outside to the
inside.
1. Three sodium ions bind to the sodium-potassium pump, which is open
to the interior of the cell.
2. The pump hydrolyzes ATP, phosphorylating itself (attaching a
phosphate group to itself) and releasing ATP. This phosphorylation
event causes a shape change in the pump, in which it closes off on the
inside of the cell and opens up to the exterior of the cell. The three
sodium ions are released, and two potassium ions bind to the interior of
the pump.
3. The binding of the potassium ions triggers another shape change in the
pump, which loses its phosphate group and returns to its inward-facing
shape. The potassium ions are released into the interior of the cell, and
the pump cycle can begin again.
_Image modified from "The sodium-potassium exchange pump," by Blausen staff (CC BY 3.0)._
INTRODUCTION
CONCLUSION
5.
Key Points
The ovarian cycle refers to the series of changes in the ovary during which the
follicle matures, the ovum is shed, and the corpus luteum develops.
The follicular phase describes the development of the follicle in response to follicle
stimulation hormone ( FSH ). As luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and FSH levels
increase they stimulate ovulation, or the release of a mature oocyte into the
fallopian tubes.
In the luteal phase, the corpus luteum forms on the ovary and secretes many
hormones, most significantly progesterone, which makes the endometrium of the
uterus ready for implantation of an embryo.
If implantation does not occur, the corpus luteum will be degraded, resulting in
menstruation.
If implantation occurs the corpus luteum is maintained.
Key Terms
ischemic phase: The final part of the secretory phase. The endometrium
becomes
pale and arteries constrict due to lower hormone release by the disintegrating
corpus
luteum.
granulosa cells: These cells produce
hormones and growth factors that interact with the oocyte during its
development.
menstrual cycle: The recurring cycle of physiological changes in the females of
some animal species that is associated with reproductive fertility.
luteal phase: The latter part of the menstrual cycle that occurs after ovulation, in
which the corpus luteum secretes progesterone to prepare the endometrium for
the implantation of an embryo.
follicular phase: The phase of the estrous cycle that involves follicular maturation
within the ovary and, controlled by the hormone estradiol.