NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

Pre-Lab Activity 7
Introduction
◦ The nervous system is the part of an animal's body.
◦ It coordinates its voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits
signals between different parts of its body.
◦ Nervous system first arose in cnidarians about 550 to 600 million
years ago.
◦ In most animal species it consists of two main parts, the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Introduction
◦ The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists
mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or
axons that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.
◦ The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary movement.
◦ The autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic
nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. It
regulates involuntary functions, and the enteric nervous system,
which functions to control the gastrointestinal system.
◦
Objectives
◦ discuss the general characteristics and function of a neuron;
◦ identify the activities of neuron in response to its excitation; and
◦ review the neural transmission through synapses.
Evolution of Nervous System
◦ Nervous systems are found in most
multicellular animals, but vary
greatly in complexity
◦ Nervous system is absent in
unicellular protozoans and
multicellular sponges, placozoans,
and mesozoans.
◦ The nervous systems of the radially
symmetric organisms’ ctenophores
and cnidarians which consist of a
diffuse nerve net.
Evolution of Nervous System
◦ In most animal species have a
nervous system containing a brain,
a central cord and nerves
radiating from the brain and
central cord.
◦ The size of the nervous system
ranges from a few hundred cells
to around 100 billion cells
(humans).
◦ The central nervous system functions
to send signals from one cell to
others or from one part of the body
to others and to receive feedback.
History
Scientists of the 19th century studied
the propagation of electrical signals
in whole nerves (i.e., bundles of
neurons) and demonstrated that
nervous tissue was made up of cells,
instead of an interconnected network
of tubes or a reticulum.

Alan Hodgkin
Bernard Katz
History
◦ The 20th century was a golden era for electrophysiology. In 1949, Alan Hodgkin and
Bernard Katz refined Bernstein's hypothesis by considering that the axonal membrane
might have different permeabilities to different ions. They demonstrated the crucial
role of the sodium permeability for the action potential.
◦ In 1952, voltage clamp technique was used to determine the dependence of the
axonal membrane's permeabilities to sodium and potassium ions on voltage and
time, from which they were able to reconstruct the action potential quantitatively.
◦ The sodium–potassium pump was identified in 1957.
◦ Hodgkin and Huxley correlated the properties of their mathematical model with
discrete ion channels that could exist in several different states, including "open",
"closed", and "inactivated". Their hypotheses were confirmed in the mid-1970s and
1980s by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann.
Anatomy of Neuron
Anatomy of a Neuron
The main excitable cell is the neuron which also has the simplest
mechanism for the action potential.

1. Neurons are electrically excitable cells.

2. It is composed of one or more dendrites, a single soma (cell body), a
single axon and one or more axon terminals.
3. Dendrites are cellular projections whose primary function is to receive
synaptic signals.
4. They have a high concentration of ligand-gated ion channels.
5. The dendrites extend from the soma, which houses the nucleus, and
many of the "normal" eukaryotic organelles
Anatomy of a Neuron
Anatomy of a Neuron
◦ The surface of the cell body is populated by voltage activated ion
channels. These channels help transmit the signals generated by the
dendrites.
◦ Emerging out from the soma is the axon hillock. This region is characterized
by having a very high concentration of voltage-activated sodium channels.
In general, it is considered to be the spike initiation zone for action
potentials.
◦ Multiple signals generated at the spines and transmitted by the soma all
converge here.
◦ The axon is insulated by a myelin sheath. Myelin is composed of either
Schwann cells (in the peripheral nervous system) or oligo dendrocytes (in the
central nervous system.
Anatomy of a Neuron
• glial cells are not involved with the
transmission of electrical signals, they
communicate and provide important
biochemical support to neurons.
• myelin wraps multiple times around the
axonal segment, forming a thick fatty
layer that prevents ions from entering
or escaping the axon.
• At the extreme end axon divided into
several axon terminals called pre
synaptic terminals or synaptic boutons.
Properties of Nerve Fiber
1. Excitability: When nerve fiber is stimulated by a stimulus, it comes
in a state of local excitation.
2. All or None principle: The amplitude of an action potential is
independent of the amount of current that produced it. In other
words, larger currents do not create larger action potentials.
3. Differential permeability: The cell membrane of neuron
separates the cytoplasm from extra cellular fluid (ECF). Both
extra cellular fluid (ECF) and cytoplasm (neuroplasm) has
different properties.
4. Conductivity: When nerve fiber is stimulated by an adequate
stimulus the polarity of neuron is reversed.
Properties of Nerve Fiber
5.Refractory period: After an excitation, nerve fiber undergoes a
recovery period in which it regains its original ionic distribution and
prepares itself for the next stimulation.
6. Summation: Nerve fiber fails to evoke the response if applied
stimulus less than the threshold stimulus.
Mechanism of Nerve impulse
conduction:
The most accepted theory for nerve impulse conduction was
given by Hodgkin and Huxley. This theory states that nerve impulse
is an electro chemical event governed by differential permeability
of neurolemma. It can be studied under following steps.
◦ Step I: Generation of nerve impulse.
◦ Step II. Repolarization of nerve fiber.
◦ Step III. Propagation of nerve impulse:
◦ Step IV. Saltatory conduction.
◦ Step V. Conduction of nerve impulse through a synapse.
Step I: Generation of nerve impulse:
◦ The cell membrane of neuron separates the cytoplasm from extra cellular fluid
(ECF). Both extra cellular fluid (ECF) and cytoplasm (neuroplasm) has different
properties.
◦ When a nerve fiber is stimulated by an adequate strength it gets excited.
◦ At the point of stimulation the membrane potential increases. It is more
permeable to Na+ than K+.
◦ Na+ ions diffuse rapidly from outside to intra cellular fluid by active transport.
As a result, the neuron becomes electro positive inside.
◦ This takes for less than 1/1000 of a second. A nerve fiber can conduct about
1,000 impulses per second.
Step I: Generation of nerve impulse
◦ When one electrode is placed inside a neuron and the other outside, the voltometer is
measuring the difference in the distribution of ions.
◦ During RMP (Resting Membrane Potential) stage nerve fiber has -90 mV negative
potential. But in Depolarized nerve fiber the potential increase first to zero, then rise to
+45 to 50+ mV.
◦ The action potential travels as a wave of depolarization along the length of a nerve
fiber in a particular direction is called nerve impulse.
◦ The nerve cell membrane also contains special passageways for these two ions that
are commonly referred to as gates or channels.
Step I: Generation of nerve impulse
◦ These gates represent the only way that these ions can diffuse through a nerve cell
membrane.
◦ Overall, therefore, there are lots of positively charged potassium ions just inside the
membrane and lots of positively charged sodium ions plus some potassium ions on the
outside.

ACTION POTENTIAL An action potential is a very rapid change in membrane

potential that occurs when a nerve cell membrane is stimulated. Specifically, the
membrane potential goes from the resting potential (typically -90 mV) to some positive
value (typically about +50 mV) in a very short period of time
Step II.Repolarization of nerve fiber
◦ After the peak action potential (spike potential) the permeability of
membrane to Na+ decreases while it becomes more permeable to K+ ions. So
K+ ions rapidly diffuse from neuroplasm to extra cellular fluid (ECF) to maintain
electrochemical gradient.
◦ Soon, at this point the membrane regains its original polarity and becomes
electro positive on outside and electronegative inside. This is called
repolarization and nerve fiber is called repolarized nerve fiber.
◦ It has more K+ outside and more Na+ inside. A repolarized nerve fiber
undergoes a refractory period of few milli seconds during which it restores the
original ionic distribution. Na+ ions sent out and K+ ions are in by active
transport.
Step III.Propagation of nerve impulse
◦ The nerve fiber has the ability to transmit this action potential
along the length in a particular direction. It is conducted by
local circuits in which a depolarized area causes the
depolarization of next area and so on.
◦ During this conduction, negative charge present on outer
surface of depolarized area attracts the positive charge from
outer surface of next polarized area.
◦ While positive charge present on inner surface of next
depolarized area is attracted by the next polarized area.
Step IV.Saltatory conduction
◦ In non-myelinated nerve fiber, the action potential over the
membrane all along the length of nerve fiber flows as a wave.
◦ But in myelinated nerve fiber, the medullary sheath is
impermeable to ions. So, action potential occurs only at some
points called nodes of Ranvier. So, the action potential is
conducted from node to node in a jumping manner. This
conduction is 20 times faster than in non-myelinated nerve
fiber.
◦ This mode of jumping transmission of nerve impulse is called
salutatory conduction.
Step V.Conduction of Nerve impulse
at Synapse
◦ There is no continuity between the neurons. A small space of
200A° is present between neurons. It is known as synaptic cleft.
◦ The nerve impulses are conducted across the synapse always
from axon to Dendron through a chemical (neurotransmitter).
So it is also called as chemical transmission.
◦ When nerve impulse reaches the terminal knobs of the axon,
the synaptic vesicles secrete a neuro transmitter (acetyl
choline/adrenalin) in the synaptic cleft.
Step VI.Chemoreception
◦ In this step, the neurotransmitter is recognized by some special
protein molecular sites, called chemoreceptors on the
membrane dendrites of the next neuron.
◦ The chemoreception causes depolarization of the membrane
and initiates a new action potential.
Threshold stimulus and potential
◦ Action potentials occur only when the membrane in stimulated
(depolarized) enough so that sodium channels open
completely. The minimum stimulus needed to achieve an
action potential is called the threshold stimulus.
◦ If the membrane potential reaches the threshold potential
(generally 5 - 15 mV less negative than the resting potential),
the voltage-regulated sodium channels all open. Sodium ions
rapidly diffuse inward and depolarization occurs.
Refractory periods
1. ABSOLUTE
◦ During an action potential, a second stimulus will not produce a second
action potential (no matter how strong that stimulus is).
◦ corresponds to the period when the sodium channels are closed (typically
just a millisecond or less).
Refractory periods
2. RELATIVE
◦ Another action potential can be produced, but only if the stimulus is
greater than the threshold stimulus
◦ corresponds to the period when the potassium channels are open
(several milliseconds)
◦ the nerve cell membrane becomes progressively more 'sensitive' (easier to
stimulate) as the relative refractory period proceeds.
◦ The absolute refractory period places a limit on the rate at which a
neuron can conduct impulses, and the relative refractory period permits
variation in the rate at which a neuron conducts impulses.
Conduction Velocity
◦ Impulses typically travel along neurons at a speed of anywhere from 1 to 120
meters per second.
◦ The speed of conduction can be influenced by:
1. the diameter of a fiber
2. the presence or absence of myelin
◦ Neurons with myelin (or myelinated neurons) conduct impulses much faster
than those without myelin.
◦ Schwann cells (or oligodendrocytes) are located at regular intervals
along the process. Fat (myelin) acts as an insulator. So membrane coated
with myelin will not conduct an impulse.
Types of neurotransmitters
◦ Excitatory: Neurotransmitters that make membrane potential less
negative (via increased permeability of the membrane to
sodium) and, therefore, tend to 'excite' or stimulate the
postsynaptic membrane.
◦ Inhibitory: Neurotransmitters that make membrane potential
more negative (via increased permeability of the membrane to
potassium) and, therefore, tend to 'inhibit' (or make less likely) the
transmission of an impulse. One example of an inhibitory
neurotransmitter is gamma amino butyric acid (GABA).
Medically, GABA has been used to treat both epilepsy and
hypertension. Another example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter
References:

◦ Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2007). Human anatomy & physiology. Pearson education.
◦ Reddy, P.. (2015). Dr.P.B.Reddy’s TEXT BOOK OF ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.
10.13140/RG.2.1.4807.9441.