REDISCOVERING

BIOLOGY
Molecular to Global
Neurobiology
Perspectives
“ The human nervous system is probably the most intricately
organized aggregate of matter on Earth. A single cubic
centimeter of the human brain may contain well over
50 million nerve cells, each of which may communicate
with thousands of other neurons in information-processing
networks that make the most elaborate computer look
primitive. These neural pathways control our every
perception and movement and enable us to learn, think,
and be conscious of ourselves and our surroundings.”
C AMPBELL AND R EECE 1

The most striking differences between humans and other animals are
in the size and the complexity of our brains. With our big brains we
have acquired a rich culture, which far exceeds that of any other
species in scope and complexity. We have developed science to
understand how and why an immensity of things and processes work,
including those of our own brain. At the start of the twenty-first
century neuroscientists are increasingly able to explain the functions of
brain in molecular terms.
To understand how the brain works we first must consider what the
brain does. This can be broken down into three basic functions: (1)
take in sensory information, (2) process information between neurons,
and (3) make outputs. The neurons that take in information from the
environment are called sensory neurons. These are specialized to
respond to a particular stimulus, such as light, heat, chemicals, or
vibration — anything you might encounter from outside, or even
inside, the body. The processing within the brain can range from a
knee-jerk reaction — which takes place entirely in the spinal cord — to
the strategy adopted by a master chess player. In humans, we usually
call this “thinking.” The output is most often a body movement, which
results from the action of motor neurons. The brain is the link between
the outside world and behavior, and is thus crucial for survival. These
three basic functions are shared by organisms from humans down to
invertebrates like Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode that doesn’t
even have a true “brain” but a collection of about three hundred
neurons. (See the Genes and Development unit.)
But how does the individual neuron work to carry out these tasks?
Neurons’ unique systems capabilities arise from their cellular ability to
communicate with one another very rapidly, using both electrical and
chemical communication. Keep in mind, however, that the neuron is
not the only type of cell in the brain. The neuron may be the star of
the show but there are other supporting players. Indeed, neurons
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constitute only a small fraction of cells in the brain. For every neuron
there are about ten to fifty supporting cells, called glial cells, in the
brain. The word “glial” means glue, and these cells are the “glue” of
the nervous system. They perform many vital tasks, including removing
dead neurons and debris, releasing critical growth factors to neurons,
and acting as insulating material for the neurons.
The incredibly complex ways in which brains function exemplify the
importance of cell-cell interactions. Below we discuss the chemical and
electrical means by which neurons communicate, and describe how
various therapeutic and recreational drugs alter these processes at the
molecular level. We then turn to the molecular nature of memory and
learning. Finally, we describe recent studies that demonstrate that new
neurons are being produced continuously in us.

The Neuron as a Battery

The neuron is an extraordinarily specialized cell. Most neurons are
referred to as “bipolar”; they have a cell body and many small
extensions, called dendrites, at one end which receive information.
(Fig. 1) At the other end is its most striking feature: a long axon that
ends in “synaptic terminals,” which send signals to the dendrites of an
adjacent neuron. The longest axon in the human body, the one that
goes from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe, is about one
meter long. Early studies on the physiology of neurons examined those
from the giant axon of the squid, which is so big that it is visible with
the naked eye. Note that the neuron, in addition to its specialized
functions, carries out nearly all of the functions of a normal cell, except
for division.

DENDRITES

Figure 1. The parts of the neuron:

information is received by dendrites,
and action potentials are sent out
from the cell body down the axon
to the synaptic terminals.

CELL BODY

AXON

SYNAPTIC TERMINAL
Photo-illustration — Bergmann Graphics

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The neuron is an electric battery and works by changes in its voltage.

Compared with its surroundings, the inside of a “resting neuron” has a
lower concentration of sodium ions and a higher concentration of
potassium ions. Because of this imbalance of positively charged ions
across the membrane, the inside of the resting neuron is negative
relative to the outside. This difference in voltage is called the
membrane potential. A typical membrane potential for a neuron at
rest, the resting potential, is -0.07 volts, or -70 mV. Although this is a
rather modest voltage (about five percent of that of an AA battery),
consider that this voltage occurs across a miniscule length — that of
the cell membrane. If this were an electric field, the charge separation
would be about 100,000 volts per centimeter.
Note that the term “resting neuron” refers only to its electrical state.
The cell is really not at rest because, in addition to carrying out all of
the normal functions of the cell, the neuron has to maintain this ionic
imbalance. This is achieved by the sodium-potassium pump, which
actively transports potassium in and sodium out. The pump maintains a
negative voltage because it actually pumps three sodium ions out for
every two potassium ions it pumps in. The membrane potential of a
neuron at any given time is the product of many variables, including
the imbalance of ions across the membrane and the membrane’s
permeability to each ion. In addition to sodium and potassium,
chloride is an important ion in “setting” a neuron’s rest potential
because negatively charged chloride ions can pass through open “leak
channels” at rest. Another ion crucial for neural communication is
calcium, which acts as a powerful intracellular signaling molecule once
it enters through its ion channels.

Voltage-Gated Channels
The neuron, like all cells, possesses a cell membrane that is mostly lipid.
Ions like sodium and potassium cannot cross the lipid membrane on
their own. In all cells transport of ions, as well as some small molecules,
is carried out by channels, which are very tiny openings in the
membrane formed by protein pores. These channels are often gated —
that is, opened or closed — depending on the conditions of the cell.
When open, the ions can enter and pass through channels by diffusion.
Ions will always travel down their electrochemical gradient. For
example, sodium is much more plentiful outside the cell than inside. It
is also positively charged, while the inside of the cell is typically
negatively charged relative to outside. Thus, both the chemical and
electrical components of the gradient will drive sodium ions into the
cell when sodium channels open. Voltage-gated channels are those
in which the membrane potential of the cell determines whether they
are opened or closed. Other channels can be opened or closed by
various chemicals, such as neurotransmitters.
Channel proteins that span the cell membrane form the ion channels.
To determine the structure of proteins, scientists have often used
X-ray crystallography. (See the Proteins and Proteomics unit.) In
2003 Roderick MacKinnon and his colleagues used this technique to
examine the structure of a voltage-gated potassium channel from a
unicellular archaea. Previous studies have shown that ion channels
have a central ion-conduction pore. Like all proteins, ion channel
proteins are made up of amino acids, some of which are charged.
When voltage changes occur, these charged components of the protein

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make very small movements. This can result in more dramatic

conformational changes, causing the channels to open and close.
MacKinnon’s group found that “voltage-sensor paddles” surround this
pore. It appears that with voltage changes in the membrane, these
paddles will move and thus permit potassium ions across the
membrane.2 Further study of the structure of the different classes of
ion channels from other species will help elucidate the mechanisms by
which they allow ion transport.

The Action Potential

What is a nerve impulse? A nerve impulse, or an action potential, is a
series of electrical responses that occur in the cell. (Fig. 2) With the
appropriate stimulation, the voltage in the dendrite of the neuron will
become somewhat less negative. This change in the membrane
Figure 2. A cross-section of an axon,
potential, called depolarization, will cause the voltage-gated sodium
with an action potential (AP) moving
channels to open. Sodium ions will rush in, resulting in a rapid change
from left to right. The AP has not yet
in the charge. At the peak of the action potential, that area of the
reached point 4; the membrane there is
neuron is about 40 mV positive. As the voltage becomes positive, the
still at rest. At point 3, positive sodium
sodium channels close, or inactivate, and the voltage-gated potassium
ions are moving in from the adjacent
channels open. These potassium channels let potassium ions rush out
region, depolarizing the region; the
of the cell, causing the voltage to become negative again. The
sodium channels are about to open.
potassium channels remain open until the membrane potential
Point 2 is at the peak of the AP; the
becomes at least as negative as the resting potential. In many cases,
sodium channels are open and ions are
the membrane potential becomes even more negative than the resting
flowing into the axon. The AP has
potential for a brief period; this is called hyperpolarization. An
passed by point 1; the sodium channels
action potential typically lasts a few milliseconds.
are inactivated, and the membrane is
hyperpolarized.

Na+ Na+

4
1
2 3
-70 mV
-90 mV +40 mV -40 mV

ACTION
POTENTIAL

AXON
Photo-illustration — Bergmann Graphics

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How can this action potential be propagated along the neuron?

When the sodium channels are opened, sodium ions rush in; once
inside they cause nearby regions of the neuron to become
depolarized by moving laterally through the axon. This, in turn, causes
the opening of more voltage-gated sodium channels in those regions.
Thus, the sodium channel activation moves in a wave-like fashion: the
action potential is propagated down the length of the neuron, from
its input source at the dendrites, to the cell body, and then down the
axon to the synaptic terminals. How does the action potential
maintain this directional flow that is key to information processing?
The sodium channels have a mechanism that avoids “back
propagation” of the action potential, which would result in a
confused signal. After opening, the sodium channels become
inactivated as the potential becomes more positive, and they cannot
open again until they are “reset” by hyperpolarization at the end of
an action potential. This brief period of sodium channel inactivation,
called a refractory period, prevents bidirectional propagation of the
action potential, constraining it to go in only one direction.

Myelin Speeds Up Thought

Most neurons have a fatty outer layer called myelin, which insulates
and protects the axons of neurons. In this way, myelin is like the plastic
that surrounds electric wires. Myelin is actually made up of two special
classes of glial cells, called the oligodendroglia and Schwann cells,
which wrap themselves around the axon much like a jellyroll. Between
these cells there are small gaps in the myelin sheath called the Nodes
of Ranvier. Action potentials are able to jump from one node to the
next one down the neuron incredibly rapidly. For this reason, impulses
will travel down a myelinated neuron faster than they will across an
unmyelinated neuron. In myelinated neurons, action potentials usually
travel at over 100 meters per second, which is about half the speed of
sound. In about one-hundredth of a second, an action potential can
travel from the brain to the base of the spinal cord of an adult.
Though seemingly instantaneous, this rate is still on the order of a
million times slower than electricity.
Several degenerative diseases are due to the loss of myelin in certain
neurons. The loss of muscle coordination that people with multiple
sclerosis face is due to the degeneration of the myelin sheath in classes
of neurons that are involved in the movement of muscles. The disease
is suspected to be an autoimmune disorder — the immune system
attacks the myelin sheaths. While MS is usually strikes first in early
adulthood, many other diseases that are due to myelin degeneration
occur in infancy or early childhood.

Across the Synapse

How is information transferred from one neuron to the next?
Neurons communicate at their meeting points, called synapses; the
small gaps separating the neurons are referred to as the synaptic
space. These synapses are not merely gaps but are functional links
between the two neurons. Signals are transferred in only one
direction across the synapse. The neuron that transmits information
when it fires is called the presynaptic neuron. The synaptic
terminals of the presynaptic neuron are on one side of the synapse;
the dendrites of the other neuron, the postsynaptic neuron, are on

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the other side. Presynaptic and postsynaptic are relative adjectives; a Figure 3. Synaptic vesicles fuse with
postsynaptic neuron at one synaptic connection can be a presynaptic the presynaptic membrane to release
neuron at another synapse. neurotransmitter into the synaptic
space. Here, they bind with
Synapses can be either chemical or electrical. An electrical synapse is
neurotransmitter receptors in the
what is often called a “gap junction,” in which the membranes of two
postsynaptic membrane.
neurons are continuous at tiny spots, making the cells electrically
contiguous. Gap junctions, which are not unique to neurons, allow for
even more rapid communication. No chemical intermediary is involved
in an electrical synapse. In the case of chemical synapses, however,
chemicals called neurotransmitters are released from a presynaptic
neuron, and dock with receptor proteins on the postsynaptic neuron. PRESYNAPTIC MEMBRANE

Such binding causes the shape of the protein to change and ion
channels to open, much like the voltage-gated channels open in
response to membrane potential changes (Fig. 3). We will discuss SYNAPTIC VESICLES
neurotransmitters in more detail below. Neurons are typically separated
by about twenty to thirty nanometers in chemical synapses. Electrical
synapses are more rapid than chemical ones but chemical synapses are
easier to modulate. In vertebrates and many invertebrates, chemical
synapses are more common than are electrical ones. NEUROTRANSMITTER

The action of the presynaptic neuron is referred to as an “all or none”

response. A neuron can only fire or not fire; there is no “slightly
activated” signal from a neuron. Whether or not a neuron will fire an POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE

action potential — that is, send a signal down its axon to be received NEUROTRANSMITTER RECEPTOR
by other neurons — depends on how many inputs it is receiving. It also
depends on the nature of each input signal — excitatory or inhibitory
Photo-illustration — Bergmann Graphics
— at each synapse. The sort of “net total” result of those signals
determines whether the neuron will become excited, or depolarized,
enough to fire an action potential and release neurotransmitter from
its axon terminals.
Also recall that a signal traveling through the brain often involves
many neurons, each making so many connections. This
interconnectedness gives rise to the extraordinary complexity of the
brain. The activation of a single sensory neuron could quickly lead to
the activation or inhibition of thousands of neurons.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors

Neurotransmitters are usually small molecules, such as amino acids
(e.g., glutamate and aspartate) and amines (e.g., dopamine, serotonin,
and histamine). Some neurotransmitters stimulate neurons to fire,
while others inhibit firing. The effect of the neurotransmitter comes
about by its binding with receptor proteins on the membrane of the
postsynaptic neuron. Each neurotransmitter binds specifically in a lock-
and-key mechanism to its type of receptor. Neurons in different
pathways will often have different types of receptors in a given family.
For example, dopamine binds to dopamine receptors, but there are
about a dozen subtly different dopamine receptors. Neurobiologists
think that the human nervous system uses at least fifty
neurotransmitters, but about ten carry out most neurotransmission.
Many of these neurotransmitters are highly conserved in other
organisms. Most neurons release only one type of neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitters are released in a process called exocytosis. When
the action potential reaches the end of an axon the depolarization
causes calcium channels to open. The calcium causes synaptic vesicles

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that carry the neurotransmitter to fuse with the cell membrane. This
fusion allows the neurotransmitter to be released into the synapse.
Although exocytosis occurs in many cell types, neurons use a
specialized form in which calcium causes a chain of events that
culminates in fusion of the vesicles.
There are two general categories of receptor proteins: ionotropic and
metabotropic. Activation of ionotropic receptors causes membrane ion
channels to open or close. In contrast, activation of metabotropic
receptors involves an intracellular biochemical cascade. Such a cascade
may end with the opening or closing of ion channels or other
intracellular effects.
As long as the neurotransmitter remains in the synapse, it will continue
to bind its receptors and stimulate the postsynaptic neuron. At some
point the signal is no longer needed. Moreover, continual stimulation can
injure some neurons. So, halting the stimulus is just as important as the
appropriate starting of the stimulus. How does the neurotransmitter
leave the synapse? There are several ways, such as diffusion away from
the synapse or breakdown of the neurotransmitter by specific enzymes.
Another common mode, called reuptake, involves specialized
molecules present on the membrane of the presynaptic neuron. These
molecules, called neurotransmitter transporters, have receptor sites
that will bind to the neurotransmitter and actively transport it out of
the synapse, back to the presynaptic neuron. That neuron can then
reuse the neurotransmitter. The action of several drugs takes place at
the reuptake stage.

Neurotransmitters, Psychoactive Drugs,

and the Reward Pathway
Drugs that have effects on the central nervous system are known as
psychoactive drugs. The mode of actions of both therapeutic drugs
(e.g., Ritalin, Prozac, and Paxil) and recreational drugs (e.g., alcohol,
cannabis, cocaine, and nicotine) affect the firing of certain neurons by
changes in various neurotransmitters or receptors. Not all drugs have
specific modes of action; alcohol, for example, has many and varied
effects. We will focus, however, on a few examples of those drugs that
have specific effects.
Humans and many other animals engage in many activities from which
they derive pleasure. Researchers working with various animals have
shown that there are regions of the brain, such as the ventral
tegmental area, that are more active when animals engage in
pleasurable acts. When researchers stimulate these areas
experimentally, the animals will perform various tasks in order to
receive further stimulation. Hence, the neural pathway comprises those
regions has been called the reward pathway.
Like many drugs, nicotine from tobacco products acts on the reward
pathway. This drug, however, is unusual in that it directly affects the
dopamine receptor in the reward pathway’s neurons. Unlike the action
of most drugs, no intermediary steps are involved: nicotine binds to
the receptor and stimulates the postsynaptic neuron. The
overstimulation of the postsynaptic cell, however, also has effects at
the cellular level. Over time, it leads to a decrease in the number of
dopamine receptors being expressed and inserted to the membrane, as
well as a change in the shape of the cell. The reduction of receptors is

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referred to as desensitization. When the nicotine is removed, because

there are fewer receptors on the postsynaptic cell, more dopamine
than normal is required for proper stimulation of postsynaptic neuron.
Addiction can result because nicotine becomes needed just to maintain
the normal stimulation of the postsynaptic cells.
Allelic variation at the dopamine receptor gene appears to affect one’s
likelihood of becoming addicted to nicotine. Individuals who have the
A1 allele have fewer dopamine receptors than those that do not have
the allele. These individuals also have more difficulty in quitting
smoking and are more likely to exhibit other addictive and compulsive
behaviors. The genetic components of many types of addiction are the
topic of intensive research — and often heated debate.
Cocaine also works on dopamine and the reward pathway but does so
in a different way. Recall that some neurotransmitters are normally
taken up by the presynaptic neuron by reuptake receptors, or
transporters, in the presynaptic membrane. (Fig. 4) The molecular
structure of cocaine is such that it can block the binding site for Figure 4. Left: Dopamine in the
dopamine on its reuptake receptor. Because this cell is now impaired in synaptic space binds to dopamine
the reuptake of dopamine, an excess of dopamine builds up in the receptors on the postsynaptic cell.
synapse. This excess leads to overstimulation of the postsynaptic Dopamine transporters in the
neuron. Because the action is occurring in the reward pathway, presynaptic membrane take up the
overstimulation leads to euphoria. The effects of overstimulation of dopamine molecules from the synaptic
the postsynaptic cell by cocaine are much the same as those of cleft and return them to the presynaptic
nicotine: the reduction of the number of receptors leads to cell. Right: Cocaine blocks the reuptake
desensitization and the possibility of addiction. of dopamine, leading to molecular
changes that contribute to addiction.

ACTIVE DOPAMINE BLOCKED DOPAMINE

TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER

DOPAMINE COCAINE

DOPAMINE RECEPTOR

Photo-illustration — Bergmann Graphics

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There have been concerns that Ritalin (methylphenidate), used for

treatment of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), is
chemically similar to cocaine. Indeed, Ritalin increases dopamine levels
by interfering with reuptake. Moreover, Ritalin and cocaine compete
for the same receptor site. One crucial difference between these two
drugs is that Ritalin acts much more slowly than cocaine. While
cocaine’s effects on dopamine levels occur within seconds, the response
from Ritalin (when administered in pill form) takes about an hour.
Some studies suggest that, far from leading to addiction, Ritalin
treatment in childhood may be associated with decreased risk of drug
and alcohol use later on. Other studies, however, suggest that Ritalin
may be a gateway drug: by using it, teens may be more willing to
experiment with other drugs. As of 2003 the consequences of Ritalin
treatment remain unresolved. (Fig. 5)

O
N
Figure 5. The chemical structures of
dopamine, Ritalin, and cocaine are O
structurally similar: they all bind at the
dopamine transporter, affecting
reuptake of dopamine.

O O
OH H O
N
O
NH2 OH

Dopamine Ritalin Cocaine

Illustration — Bergmann Graphics

Prozac and Serotonin Reuptake

Soon after it was released to the market in 1988, Prozac (fluoxetine
hydrochloride) became the most prescribed drug to treat depression. It
and several other antidepressants inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, a
neurotransmitter that affects mood, sleep, and appetite. These drugs
are called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) because,
unlike older antidepressants, they have little effect outside of
serotonin reuptake. By inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, Prozac
and SSRIs increase the level of serotonin in the synapses. The increased
levels of this neurotransmitter generally result in an improved mood.
Depressed patients often had lower than normal levels of serotonin.

Cannabis, the Cannabinoid Receptors,

and Endocannabinoids
The active ingredient of marijuana, from the cannabis plant, is THC
(delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol). This chemical exerts its effects on the
brain by binding to receptors called the cannabinoid receptors.
Scientists have identified two cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2),
and evidence suggests that there may be others. Although CB1 is
found in many regions of the brain, CB2 is present only in certain cells

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of the immune system. Because the receptor is present in several brain

regions, THC can have manifold effects. For instance, THC may affect
memory formation. CB1 is prevalent in the hippocampus, a region of
the brain strongly associated with memory. By binding to and
activating CB1, THC decreases activity of neurons in the hippocampus
and interferes with the proper function of that region, which may
translate to an interference with memory formation.
The human body does not produce THC, so why would there be
receptors that can bind it? During the 1990s researchers discovered
that the body makes chemicals, such as anandamide, that can bind to
the cannabinoid receptors. The function of these chemicals, called
endocannabinoids, and their receptors is still unknown. To investigate
the role of the CB1 receptor, scientists have studied mutant mice that
lack the receptor. Compared with normal mice, these mice have a
decreased appetite, are less active, and have a reduced lifespan;
however, the mice have an enhanced memory.
The CB receptors have recently been associated with some beneficial
actions, such as pain relief and extinguishing some fear behaviors. THC
has even been prescribed as medication in some states for pain relief
for various diseases, including glaucoma, AIDS, and cancer.3

The Molecular Basis of Learning

and Memory
It is clear that an understanding of mechanisms at the level of the
synapse explains changes in our behaviors, like movements. But
what about longer-term changes associated with learning and
memory? Can they be understood in molecular terms, too? Memory,
and thus learning, involves molecular changes in the brain. During
the last few decades, researchers have started to map the molecular
processes involved in memory formation. They have been
increasingly able to link the ability to remember with physical
changes in the structure of neurons.
One important change that occurs in memory formation is long-term
potentiation (LTP). This phenomenon involves the long-term
modification of the synaptic communication. Under normal
circumstances the rate at which a postsynaptic neuron fires depends on
how much stimulation it receives from presynaptic neurons. Once the
increased stimulation has stopped, the postsynaptic neuron will return
to its normal rate of firing. In LTP, however, the postsynaptic neuron
will continue to fire at an elevated rate, even after the increased
stimulation has subsided. It seems to become more sensitive — or gives
a bigger reaction by firing more action potentials — to a given
stimulus. How does this happen?
Glutamate is the neurotransmitter involved in LTP. Glutamate can bind
to several different types of ionotropic receptors, including the NMDA-
(N-methyl-D-aspartate) and AMPA- (amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-
isoxazolepropionate) type glutamate receptors, each of which opens a
specific type of channel within the receptor proteins. Both channels are
involved in memory formation. The NMDA channel requires both
glutamate and depolarization from another source to open. Why? The
molecular mechanism is as follows. Normally, at negative potentials,
positively-charged magnesium ions plug the pore of the NMDA
channel. While glutamate may “open” the pore, the ions cannot travel

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through the channel due to the magnesium block. When the Figure 6. Two hippocampal neurons,
membrane is depolarized, however, the inside of the cell becomes labeled with green fluorescent protein,
more positive, and the magnesium ions are no longer driven into the viewed with confocal microscopy. Such
channel. Thus, the block is relieved, allowing sodium and calcium ions neurons release and sense glutamate,
to flow in. and engage in long-term potentiation
(LTP). Note the synaptic connections
So, this mechanism allows the NMDA-type glutamate receptor to act as
between the lateral processes of the
a “coincidence detector.” When the neuron receives input from only
two neurons.
one source — another neuron — glutamate binds to and opens both
NMDA- and AMPA-type receptors. (Fig. 6) Because the
neurotransmitter arrives at a resting, negatively charged, postsynaptic
membrane, magnesium ions prevent flow through NMDA channels.
When, however, stimulation of a neuron occurs simultaneously from
more than one source — say several other neurons — some glutamate
will bind NMDA receptors in parts of the neuron that are already
depolarized, or less negatively charged.
Where does this voltage change come from? Recall that once an action
potential has started, it spreads from its source throughout the entire
membrane of the neuron in a wave-like fashion; thus, other dendrites
may be “pre-depolarized” before glutamate binds. In this cas, the
block by magnesium is relieved and the NMDA channel also passes
ions. While AMPA channels can pass only sodium ions in, NMDA
channels also pass calcium. This calcium permeability gives the NMDA
channel its ability to trigger LTP.
Courtesy of Rick Huganir, PhD.
Now that we have examined the requirements for LTP, what is the
effect? When calcium ions rush in, they set off an intracellular
signaling cascade that can involve dozens of molecules. Speculation
about the identity and functions of these molecules has been the
subject of intense scientific inquiry since the early 1990s — it was
perhaps the most studied aspect of neuroscience during that “decade
of the brain.”
So how could this intricate electrical mechanism act to form new
memories? LTP, like learning, is not just dependent on increased
stimulation from one particular neuron but on a repeated stimulus from
several sources. It is thought that when a particular stimulus is
repeatedly presented, so is a particular circuit of neurons. With
repetition the activation of that circuit results in learning. Recall that the
brain is intricately complicated. Rather than a one-to-one line of
stimulating neurons, it involves a very complex web of interacting
neurons. But it is the molecular changes occurring between these
neurons that appear to have global effects. LTP can lead to strengthened
synapses in a variety of ways. One such way, as discussed in the video, is
by the phosphorylation of glutamate receptor channels, which is
accomplished by a calcium-triggered signaling cascade. This results in
those channels passing more ions with subsequent stimulation,
strengthening the signal to and from the neuron.
But more permanent changes — long-term memory — require the
synthesis of new proteins. In a variety of organisms, including flies
(Drosophila) and humans, one enzyme, CREB (cyclic-AMP response
element binding protein), seems to be involved in the steps that
facilitate this new protein expression. When calcium flows in through
NMDA channels, one of the molecules it activates is CREB. In turn,
activated CREB acts as a transcription factor (see the Genes and
Development unit) that activates the expression of other genes. This

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gene expression can lead to the production of more ion channel

receptors, as well as structural proteins like actin, which cement the
synaptic connection between two repeatedly communicating neurons.
Mutant mice lacking the NMDA receptors show severe deficiencies in
memory tasks. On the other hand, researchers have genetically
engineered (see the GMOS unit) mice that have more of the NMDA
receptors. These mice, dubbed “smart mice” by the popular press, are
substantially better at several memory tasks than are normal mice.

Memory and the Hippocampus

Psychologists have long argued that there are many different types of
memory. These can be classified by many criteria, based on decades of
experimental research and the different memory defects seen in people
who have suffered brain damage. Scientists have agreed that memory
can be viewed in temporal terms; that is, there is a short-term memory,
with a limited capacity for about a dozen items, and a long-term
memory, to which these items are presumably transferred for
“storage.” Short-term memory seems to be much more vulnerable to
loss due to trauma than does long-term memory: people may even lose
the ability to form new memories, while their ability to remember their
entire lives before an accident remains intact. This memory defect is
exemplified in the movie Memento (2000), in which a widower avenges
his wife’s murder — during which he suffered brain damage — over
and over again. Such individuals with this condition of “anterograde
amnesia” usually have severe damage to their hippocampus. As
Kempermann points out, the hippocampus is not the equivalent of the
brain’s hard drive but rather a gateway, “a structure, through which all
information must pass, before it can be memorized.”4
It is widely agreed that while the hippocampus is undeniably
important for memory, the “recording” of information into long-term
memory involves plasticity, or physical changes, in multiple regions
throughout the entire nervous system. Another interesting distinction
that scientists have made in types of memory is between declarative
memory, which allows you to remember facts and is extremely
complex, and reflexive memory, which usually consists of learning by
repetition and often involves motor learning. While declarative
memory can be reported, reflexive memory is exhibited by
performance of a task and cannot be expressed verbally. It is now
thought that the two types of memory may involve two entirely
different neuronal circuits.
The hippocampus plays a major role in spatial learning and memory in
a number of animals. Research with black-capped chickadees and other
species of birds has shown that when the hippocampus is removed, the
birds still store food but cannot recall where they stored it. Moreover,
bird species that rely heavily on stored food as a winter resource in
general have larger hippocampi than those species that don’t.
Studies of cab drivers in London have provided fascinating information
about the role that the hippocampus plays in spatial memory. London
cab drivers are known for their navigational skills and knowledge of
the streets of London. To learn how to navigate the streets of the city,
would-be cab drivers undergo “the Knowledge,” a rigorous training
that can take two years to complete. Recent studies using magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrate that the hippocampi of the

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London cab drivers are somewhat different. Specifically, the posterior

region is significantly larger and the anterior region is significantly
smaller in the cabbies when compared with control subjects. Other
studies have found that the posterior region is active during tasks
involving spatial memory. It is possible that the cabbies come
disproportionately from those individuals with excellent spatial
memories and corresponding larger posterior regions of the
hippocampus. There is further evidence, however, that suggests that
the memory work of the cabbies has altered their hippocampi. Those
cab drivers that have been working the longest tend to have larger
posterior hippocampi than more recently hired cabbies. Furthermore,
other imaging studies show that the right hippocampus is activated in
the cab drivers when they are asked to remember complex travel
routes but not when they are asked to provide information about
famous landmarks.5

Neuronal Stem Cells

What neuronal processes have led to the changes in the hippocampi of
London taxi drivers? Perhaps this is achieved by neurons migrating from
one region to the posterior hippocampus? Another intriguing possibility
is that the changes are the result of new neurons going to the region.
New neurons? Don’t we have our complete store of neurons by early
childhood? That previous dominant paradigm had been found
incorrect. In the past two decades, researchers have shown that
neurons are continually produced in a variety of animals, including
humans. It isn’t that neurons divide. They don’t. Instead, the brain
maintains a reservoir of stem cells that are capable of generating new
neurons (neurogenesis). One area of the brain where stem cells have
been found is the hippocampus.
The discovery of stem cells and neurogenesis began with basic research
with songbirds. During each breeding season male songbirds need to
recall their mating song. Starting in the 1980s researchers noted that
the number of neurons in certain areas of the brain (especially the
hippocampus) would increase in male birds around the start of the
breeding season. The number of neurons in these areas would
decrease after the mating season. This striking evidence led other
researchers to look for neurogenesis in the brains of mammals. Studies
on rats found substantial neurogenesis. In one part of the
hippocampus alone nearly 10,000 new neurons are generated each day
in adult rats. Starting in the 1990s Elizabeth Gould of Princeton
University found that the adult brains of several species of monkeys
also undergo considerable neurogenesis.
Following these animal studies researchers examined whether humans
have the capacity for neurogenesis. They studied postmortem brain
tissue from humans, using various stains to determine whether new
neurons were being generated from dividing progenitor cells. They
were able to find such new neurons in the hippocampus, showing that
neurogenesis proceeds throughout life in at least some regions of the
human brain.
Engaging in mental and physical activity is one important way elderly
people can maintain their mental acuity. This aspect of conventional
wisdom has been vindicated by medical research. Mental and physical
activity reduces the risk of neurodegenerative disorders and improves

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the prognosis of stroke patients. Yet, we know little about the

molecular mechanisms behind this effect. Studies in mice of
neurogenesis in the hippocampus, however, point to one possible
reason for why activity keeps the mind sharp. Mice who were exposed
to an enriched environment for the second half of their lives showed a
dramatic increase in neurogenesis in the hippocampus as compared
with control subjects. The hippocampi from the mice that received the
enriched treatment also appeared like those of younger animals. These
results strongly suggest that activity maintains the proper function of
the brain by increasing neurogenesis in the hippocampus.
Elizabeth Gould and other researchers studying neurogenesis think
that the new neurons generated in the hippocampus are involved in
modulation of the stress response as well as learning. There are some
complications, however. Learning enhances neurogenesis but only
under certain conditions. Moreover, experimental blockage of
neurogenesis interferes with some types of learning but not others.
Our understanding of neurogenesis remains far from complete. Yet,
tremendous progress has been made during the last two decades and
further progress is expected. In addition to what these studies tell us
about how the brain works, they may also pave the way toward
treatment of degenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s as
well as brain trauma.

References
1) Campbell, N. A., and J. B. Reece. 2002. Biology. 6th ed., 1002 San
Francisco: Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
2) Jiang, Y., A. Lee, Y. Chen, V. Ruta, M. Cadene, B. T. Chait, and R,
MacKinnon. 2003. X-ray structure of a voltage-dependent K+ channel.
Nature. 423:33–41.
3) Sullivan, J. M. 2002. Cannabinoid receptors. Curr. Biol. 12:R681
4) Kempermann, G. 2002. Why new neurons? Possible functions for
adult hippocampal neurogenesis. J. Neuroscience. 22:635–38.
5) Maguire, E., R. Frackowiak, and C. Firth. 1997. Recalling routes
around London: Activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers.
J. Neuroscience. 17:7103–10.

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Further Reading
Books
Calvin, W. H., and G. A. Ojemann. 1995. Conversations with Neil’s brain:
The neural nature of thought and language. Perseus Publishing.
Building from case examples, a neurobiologist and a
neurosurgeon describe the workings of the brain.

Drickamer, L. C., S. H. Vessy, and E. M. Jakob. 2002. Animal behavior:

Mechanisms, ecology, and evolution. 5th ed. McGraw-Hill.
A university-level textbook on animal behavior that has an
excellent section on the neurobiology of behavior.

Timmons, C. R., and L. W. Hamilton. Drugs, brains & behavior.

www.rci.rutgers.edu/~lwh/drugs/.
A short e-book detailing the neuropharmalogical effects
of drugs.

Article
Sullivan, J. M. 2002. Cannabinoid receptors. Curr. Biol. 12:R681.
A short guide to recent research on cannabinoids and
their receptors.

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Glossary
Action potential. The nerve Phosphorylation. The addition
impulse, or “firing,” of a neuron. of a phosphate group to a
A traveling wave of depolarized molecule, such as a protein.
voltage that is propagated along a
Postsynaptic neuron. At a given
neuron. Results in the release of
synapse, the postsynaptic neuron
neurotransmitter and the
is the receiving neuron at its
movement of information to
dendritic end.
another neuron.
Presynaptic neuron. At a given
Depolarization. The state in
synapse, the presynaptic neuron
which the inside of a neuron
is the transmitting neuron, its
becomes more positive in voltage
axonal synaptic terminal forms
than it is at rest.
the synapse.
Hippocampus. A region of the
Resting potential. The resting
brain associated with memory
membrane potential of a neuron;
formation.
it is about -70 mV.
Hyperpolarization. A state in
Reuptake. The recapture of
which the membrane potential is
neurotransmitters from the
more negative than is the resting
synapse back into the presynaptic
potential; occurs transiently at the
neuron; accomplished by
end of an action potential.
transporters.
Ionotropic receptors. Receptors
Reward pathway. A pathway
for which neurotransmitter
in the brain that is stimulated
binding results directly in an ion
when an animal is engaged in
channel opening or closing.
pleasurable activities.
Long-term potentiation. An
Synapse. A functional
enduring increase in the strength
connection between two
of the connection between two
neurons where information can
neurons, which results from
be exchanged in the form of
repeated stimulation of a given
electrical or chemical energy.
input pathway.
Transcription factor. A protein
Membrane potential. The
that influences transcription of
difference in voltage between the
another gene by binding to DNA.
inside and the outside of a
neuron; the outside is always zero. Voltage-gated channels.
Ion channels in the cell membrane
Neurogenesis. The formation
that open or close in response to
of new neurons from precursor
changes in the membrane voltage.
stem cells.
X-ray crystallography.
Neurotransmitter. A molecule
A method for determining the
that travels across the synapse
structure of a molecule, such as
and binds to its receptor on the
a protein, based on the diffraction
postsynaptic neuron, influencing
pattern resulting from focused
its probability of firing.
X-ray radiation onto pure crystals
of the molecule.

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