76.

Materials used for castable ceramic

 Refractory Materials: Refractory materials are commonly used for castable ceramics that
require high-temperature resistance. Examples include alumina (Al2O3), zirconia (ZrO2),
magnesia (MgO), and silica (SiO2). These materials offer excellent thermal stability and
can withstand extreme heat.

 Binders: Binders are used to hold the ceramic particles together and provide strength to
the castable ceramic. Different types of binders can be used, such as organic binders
(e.g., polymers) or inorganic binders (e.g., colloidal silica, alumina, or phosphates). The
choice of binder depends on the desired properties and the firing process.

 Fillers: Fillers are added to improve the mechanical properties or to modify specific
characteristics of the castable ceramic. Common fillers include fibers (e.g., ceramic
fibers, carbon fibers), aggregates (e.g., alumina, silica, magnesia), or reinforcements
(e.g., silicon carbide, boron nitride).

 Plasticizers: Plasticizers are added to improve the workability and moldability of the
castable ceramic mix. They help to reduce the viscosity of the mixture, making it easier
to shape and mold. Examples of plasticizers include water, organic solvents, or specific
chemical additives.

 Additives: Various additives can be incorporated into castable ceramics to modify their
properties. For example, deflocculants can improve particle dispersion and reduce the
water content, while sintering aids can enhance densification during firing. Other
additives may include colorants, opacifiers, or stabilizers.

77. What are castable ceramics

Castable ceramics, also known as monolithic ceramics or refractory castables, are a type of
ceramic material that is formulated to be cast or molded into various shapes and then
hardened through a high-temperature firing process.

78. Is ceramic similar to glass

Dental ceramics and glass share some similarities, but they also have distinct differences.
Both dental ceramics and glass are inorganic materials that have non-metallic properties and
are used in various dental applications. However, their compositions, structures, and
properties differ.
 Composition: Dental ceramics are typically composed of a mixture of crystalline and
amorphous phases, which may include various oxides, such as aluminum oxide
(alumina), zirconium oxide (zirconia), or silica. They often contain additives and modifiers
to enhance specific properties. Glass, on the other hand, is primarily composed of silica
(silicon dioxide) or a combination of silica with other oxides, such as soda, lime, or boron.
 Crystalline Structure: Dental ceramics can have a crystalline structure, with the presence
of ordered arrangements of atoms in some areas. Glass, on the other hand, is
amorphous, lacking long-range atomic order. The absence of crystallinity gives glass its
characteristic transparency.
 Translucency and Opacity: Dental ceramics can exhibit a range of translucency or opacity,
depending on the specific formulation and intended application. Dental ceramics can be
designed to mimic the translucency and optical properties of natural teeth. Glass,
especially traditional soda-lime glass, is generally more transparent and lacks the ability
to mimic natural tooth translucency.
 Mechanical Properties: Dental ceramics are engineered to have specific mechanical
properties, including high strength, fracture resistance, and wear resistance. They are
designed to withstand the mechanical forces in the oral environment. Glass, while it can
be hardened and strengthened through various processes, is generally more brittle and
less mechanically robust compared to dental ceramics.
 Processing: Dental ceramics often undergo complex processing techniques, such as
sintering, firing, or milling, to achieve the desired shape and properties. Glass, on the
other hand, can be molded or shaped when it is in a molten or softened state and then
cooled to solidify.

79. What is dicor

Dicor glass ceramic is a type of dental material used in restorative dentistry. It is a highly
aesthetic material known for its natural-looking appearance and excellent mechanical
properties.

80. What are the names authos associated with dicor

81. Thickness of gingival retraction cord

The thickness of gingival retraction cord can vary depending on the specific clinical situation
and the preference of the dentist. Generally, gingival retraction cords are available in
different sizes, such as 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, etc., with varying thicknesses. These sizes are
indicated by different colors or markings on the cords.

82. Ideal thickness of gingival retraction cord

The ideal thickness of gingival retraction cord depends on the width of the gingival sulcus or
the depth of the gingival crevice. The goal is to achieve adequate displacement of the
gingival tissue without causing excessive trauma or damage. In general, a thickness that
allows for proper tissue displacement without excessive pressure is considered ideal.

83. Composition materials added to retraction cord

Gingival retraction cords are typically impregnated with medicated or non-medicated
materials to aid in tissue retraction and control bleeding. Some common composition
materials added to retraction cords include aluminum chloride, epinephrine, racemic
epinephrine, ferric sulfate, and astringent solutions.

84. How much retraction is required

The amount of retraction required depends on the specific restorative procedure being
performed and the condition of the gingival tissue. Generally, adequate retraction is
necessary to provide proper visibility and access for impression taking, crown preparation,
or other restorative procedures. The goal is to create a clear and dry field for accurate and
precise dental work.
85. Classification of dentin bonding agents based on smear layer

- Total Etch (or Two-Step) Bonding Agents: These bonding agents involve the use of
phosphoric acid (etching agent) to remove the smear layer and etch the dentin surface
before applying the adhesive. They provide effective bonding to both the dentin and
enamel.

- Self-Etch (or One-Step) Bonding Agents: These bonding agents contain acidic monomers
that simultaneously etch and prime the tooth surface. They are designed to penetrate the
smear layer and create a hybrid layer by chemically bonding to both the dentin and enamel.

86. Compositon of amalgam:

Amalgam consists of a combination of mercury and an alloy powder composed of silver, tin,
copper, and sometimes zinc. The alloy powder is mixed with liquid mercury to form a plastic
mass that can be packed into the prepared tooth cavity.

87. Properties of gallium alloy

Gallium alloy typically refers to a mixture containing gallium as the main component along
with other elements, such as indium and tin. The properties of gallium alloy can vary
depending on the specific composition. Some common properties associated with gallium
alloys include:
- Low melting point: Gallium alloys often have a low melting point, making them useful in
applications where low-temperature melting is required.

- Liquid at room temperature: Some gallium alloys remain in a liquid state at room
temperature, which can be advantageous for certain applications like thermal management
or flexible electronics.

- Good wetting ability: Gallium alloys exhibit good wetting ability on various surfaces,
making them useful for bonding or soldering applications.

- Low toxicity: Gallium alloys are generally considered to have low toxicity, which can be
beneficial for certain biomedical or electronic applications. However, it is important to
handle and use them responsibly according to safety guidelines.

88. Composition of alloy powder in the present day

89. Role of indium

 Indium-Based Dental Alloys: Indium can be incorporated into dental alloys used for
restorations such as inlays, onlays, and crowns. Indium-containing alloys may provide
specific properties like improved castability, strength, or biocompatibility. These alloys
are typically used in combination with other metals such as silver, gold, or palladium to
create specific characteristics and enhance the performance of the restoration.

 Soldering: Indium-based solder alloys may be used for soldering metal components
during the fabrication or repair of dental restorations. This can include soldering various
 types of metal frameworks, connectors, or attachments used in dental prosthetics like
removable partial dentures or implant-supported restorations.

 Indirect Restorations: Indium can be present as a component in the alloys used for the
fabrication of indirect restorations like crowns, bridges, or veneers. These restorations
are typically made in a dental laboratory and are cemented or bonded onto prepared
teeth. The inclusion of indium in the alloy formulation can contribute to specific physical
properties required for the restoration, such as casting characteristics, strength, or
compatibility with other materials.

90. Materials used in silver amalgam

 Silver (Ag): Silver is the primary component of dental amalgam, accounting for a
significant portion of its composition. It provides strength and durability to the amalgam
filling.
 Mercury (Hg): Mercury is used to bind the other components of the amalgam together
and give it a plastic consistency for easy placement and manipulation during the filling
procedure. It acts as a liquid matrix that binds with the metal particles to form a solid
filling.
 Tin (Sn): Tin is added to the amalgam mixture to improve its handling characteristics and
reduce the setting time. It helps control the expansion and contraction of the amalgam
during setting, reducing the risk of cracking or leakage.
 Copper (Cu): Copper is included in dental amalgam to enhance the physical properties of
the material. It improves the strength, corrosion resistance, and resistance to creep (slow
deformation) of the amalgam.
 Zinc (Zn): Zinc is sometimes added to dental amalgam to control the oxidation and
corrosion of other metals in the mixture, particularly copper. It helps maintain the
integrity and stability of the amalgam over time.

91. Is mercury a metal

Mercury (Hg) is a metal. It is one of the few elements that exist as a liquid at room
temperature. Mercury is classified as a heavy, silvery-white metal and is commonly found in
liquid form due to its low melting point of -38.83 degrees Celsius (-37.89 degrees
Fahrenheit). It exhibits typical metallic properties such as high thermal and electrical
conductivity, malleability, and a shiny appearance.

92. Are there any mercury free alloys

There are mercury-free dental restorative materials available as alternatives to amalgam.
These materials are often referred to as composite resin or tooth-colored fillings. They are
composed of a mixture of resin-based materials, such as bisphenol A-glycidyl methacrylate
(Bis-GMA) or urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA), and inorganic fillers like glass particles or
ceramic particles.

93. Advantages of gallium alloy

1. Low Melting Point: Gallium alloys typically have low melting points, often below room
temperature. This property makes them suitable for applications where low-temperature
processing or flexibility is desired.
2. Good Wetting Ability: Gallium alloys exhibit excellent wetting ability on various surfaces,
allowing them to form strong bonds with materials like metals, glass, or ceramics. This
property is advantageous for applications such as soldering or bonding.

3. High Electrical Conductivity: Gallium alloys possess high electrical conductivity, which
makes them useful for applications in electronics, such as flexible or stretchable conductors,
sensors, or thermal management.

4. Non-Toxicity: Gallium alloys are generally considered non-toxic, which can be beneficial
for certain biomedical or electronic applications. However, it's important to handle and use
them responsibly according to safety guidelines.

94. Disadvantages of gallium alloy

1. Reactivity with Oxygen: Gallium alloys can react with oxygen in the air, forming oxide
layers that can affect their properties or cause issues with certain applications. Proper
handling and storage in inert environments may be required to prevent oxidation.

2. Limited Mechanical Strength: Gallium alloys are relatively soft and have low mechanical
strength compared to traditional structural materials like metals or alloys. This limits their
use in applications requiring high strength or load-bearing capabilities.

3. Sensitivity to Some Materials: Gallium alloys may exhibit corrosive behavior or interact
with certain materials, such as aluminum or certain polymers. Compatibility with other
materials needs to be considered for specific applications.

4. Limited Availability and Cost: Gallium is not as abundant as some other metals, and its
extraction and production can be costly. This can affect the availability and cost of gallium
alloys, making them less accessible for some applications.

95. Basic weakness of amalgam alloy

1. Aesthetics: Amalgam fillings have a metallic appearance, which can be considered less
esthetically pleasing compared to tooth-colored alternatives such as composite resin fillings.
This is particularly relevant for restorations in visible areas of the mouth.
2. Lack of Adhesion: Unlike composite resin fillings, amalgam fillings do not bond directly to
the tooth structure. They rely on mechanical retention and wedging within the prepared
cavity for retention. This lack of adhesion can result in marginal leakage over time,
potentially leading to secondary decay or discoloration around the filling.
3. Tooth Structure Removal: Amalgam restorations require more extensive tooth structure
removal during preparation compared to conservative options like composite resin fillings.
This is because amalgam requires specific dimensions and shapes for adequate strength and
longevity.
4. Sensitivity to Temperature Changes: Amalgam fillings can undergo thermal expansion and
contraction at different rates compared to natural tooth structure, potentially leading to
stress and microleakage at the filling margins. This can cause tooth sensitivity to hot or cold
temperatures.
5. Potential for Fracture: Amalgam is a relatively brittle material, and in areas with high
occlusal forces or in thin sections, it may be more prone to fracture compared to other
restorative materials like composite resin or ceramic.
6. Allergic Reactions: Although rare, some individuals may exhibit allergic reactions to the
metals present in amalgam, particularly mercury or other components such as silver or tin.
However, amalgam has been extensively researched and is generally considered safe for use
in dental restorations.
7. Corrosion and Discoloration: Over time, amalgam fillings can undergo corrosion or tarnish
due to chemical reactions with oral fluids, leading to discoloration of the filling material and
potential staining of surrounding tooth structure.

96. Is there anything new in the tooth preparation for amalgam alloy
There haven't been significant advancements in cavity design specifically for amalgam
restorations in recent years, the principles of cavity preparation for amalgam remain
consistent. some general considerations that can contribute to more successful amalgam
restorations:
1. Minimally Invasive Approach: With the emphasis on preserving natural tooth structure, a
minimally invasive approach is preferred. This involves removing only the decayed or
damaged portions of the tooth while conserving healthy tooth structure. This can be
achieved through precise caries detection techniques and the use of appropriate dental
instruments.
2. Proper Extension and Retention: The cavity design should provide adequate extension
into healthy tooth structure to ensure the retention and resistance of the amalgam
restoration. The specific design may vary depending on the size and location of the cavity,
but typically involves creating an appropriate outline form and providing retention features
such as undercuts or grooves.
3. Cavity Cleansing and Disinfection: Thorough removal of debris and bacteria from the
cavity is essential for successful amalgam restorations. Proper cleansing techniques, such as
using appropriate irrigants and disinfectants, can help minimize the risk of recurrent decay
and improve the longevity of the restoration.
4. Ideal Proximal Contours: When restoring proximal surfaces, achieving proper contact and
contour with adjacent teeth is crucial. This helps maintain proper interproximal contacts,
which promote oral hygiene and prevent food impaction between teeth.
5. Lining or Base Materials (if necessary): In cases where additional protection or insulation
is required, such as deep cavities or near the pulp, a liner or base material may be placed
before the placement of the amalgam. This can help provide a barrier against bacterial
penetration and potential pulpal irritation.

97. Why has the depth of preparation been increased and width decreased
in modern restorative dentistry, there has been a shift towards more conservative
approaches that aim to preserve natural tooth structure whenever possible. This may
involve reducing the depth and width of cavity preparations for certain restorations, such as
composite resin or ceramic fillings, rather than specifically for amalgam restorations.

The rationale behind this conservative approach includes the following considerations:
 Minimally Invasive Dentistry: Minimally invasive dentistry focuses on preserving as much
healthy tooth structure as possible. By reducing the depth and width of cavity
preparations, more natural tooth structure can be conserved, leading to better long-term
tooth health and strength.

 Preservation of Tooth Integrity: Maintaining a greater amount of sound tooth structure

helps to preserve the overall strength and structural integrity of the tooth. This reduces
the risk of cuspal fractures and potential complications that may arise from extensive
tooth structure removal.

 Improved Bonding and Adhesion: With advancements in adhesive techniques and

materials, restorations such as composite resin or ceramic fillings can bond effectively to
the remaining tooth structure. Therefore, less invasive cavity preparations can be made
while still achieving a strong and durable bond.

 Aesthetics: Conservative cavity preparations allow for more conservative restorative

materials to be used, such as tooth-colored composites or ceramics. These materials can
closely match the natural tooth color and provide better esthetic outcomes, particularly
in visible areas of the mouth.

98. Percentage of copper in amalgam

 High Copper Amalgam: High copper amalgam contains a higher percentage of copper
compared to low copper amalgam. Typically, high copper amalgam contains around 13-
30% copper by weight. The higher copper content improves the physical properties and
performance of the amalgam, including increased strength, reduced corrosion, and
enhanced resistance to marginal breakdown.

 Low Copper Amalgam: Low copper amalgam, also known as conventional or traditional
amalgam, contains a lower percentage of copper compared to high copper amalgam.
Generally, low copper amalgam contains around 6-12% copper by weight. These
amalgam formulations have been used for many years and have a long clinical track
record.

99. How do you differentiate between 1st, 2nd, 3rd on one side and 4th, 5th, 6th generation
bonding agents on the other
1st, 2nd, and 3rd Generation Bonding Agents:
- Etch-and-Rinse Technique: These bonding agents, also known as "total-etch" or "three-
step" adhesives, require separate etching of the tooth surface with phosphoric acid,
followed by the application of a primer and a bonding agent.
- Three-Component System: They consist of a separate primer, bonding agent, and adhesive
resin.
- Enamel and Dentin Etching: These adhesives typically involve etching both enamel and
dentin surfaces to create a micro-mechanical bonding effect.
- Higher Technique Sensitivity: The application process involves multiple steps and requires
careful attention to detail and moisture control.
- Good Bond Strength to Enamel and Dentin: These generations of adhesives have shown
good bond strength to both enamel and dentin, although bond durability over time may
vary.

4th, 5th, and 6th Generation Bonding Agents:

- Simplified Adhesive Systems: These bonding agents are also known as "self-etch" or "one-
step" adhesives, as they combine etching, priming, and bonding into a single step.
- Two-Component System: They typically consist of a single bottle containing a combined
primer and bonding agent.
- Mild or Selective Etching: These adhesives use mild acids or functional monomers to
selectively etch and prime the tooth surface simultaneously.
- Reduced Technique Sensitivity: The application process is simplified compared to earlier
generations, resulting in reduced technique sensitivity and improved ease of use.
- Varying Bond Strength to Enamel and Dentin: The bond strength to enamel is generally
comparable to earlier generations, while the bond strength to dentin may vary depending on
the specific product and clinical technique used.
- Improved Moisture Tolerance: Some of the later generation adhesives exhibit improved
resistance to moisture contamination during the bonding process.

100. Constituents of 4th generation bonding agents

Fourth-generation dentin bonding agents, also known as total-etch adhesives, typically
consist of the following constituents:

 Primer: The primer is the first component applied to the prepared tooth surface. It is
responsible for conditioning the dentin and enamel, removing the smear layer, and
creating a micro-mechanical bonding surface. The primer contains solvents, such as
ethanol or acetone, and acidic monomers, such as phosphoric acid or 10-
methacryloyloxydecyl dihydrogen phosphate (MDP), which interact with the tooth
structure.

 Bonding Agent: The bonding agent, also known as the adhesive resin, is applied after the
primer. It forms a bond between the tooth structure and the restorative material. The
bonding agent contains resin monomers, such as bisphenol A-glycidyl methacrylate (Bis-
GMA) or urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA), which can polymerize and crosslink when
exposed to light. It also includes initiators, accelerators, and stabilizers to facilitate the
polymerization process and enhance the bonding properties.

 Silane Coupling Agent: In some cases, a silane coupling agent may be included in the
bonding agent formulation. Silane is used when bonding to materials like ceramics or
glass fibers, as it promotes adhesion between the inorganic surface and the organic resin
matrix. The silane coupling agent facilitates a chemical bond between the restorative
material and the resin-based adhesive.

 Fillers: Some bonding agents may contain inorganic fillers to improve handling
properties, viscosity, and mechanical strength of the adhesive layer. These fillers can
enhance the overall physical properties of the bonding agent.
101. To what extent can you get the etched patten in dentin
The depth of the etched pattern in dentin can vary depending on several factors, including
the type and concentration of the etchant, the duration of application, and the
characteristics of the dentin itself. Typically, the etched pattern in dentin can penetrate the
surface by a few micrometers.

The specific depth of the etched pattern in dentin is challenging to quantify with an exact
numerical value because it can vary depending on the aforementioned factors and individual
variations in dentin composition and structure. However, studies have shown that the depth
of the etched pattern in dentin can range from approximately 1 to 5 micrometers.

It's important to note that the primary objective of etching dentin is to remove the smear
layer, open dentinal tubules, and create a roughened surface to facilitate micromechanical
bonding with the adhesive system. The goal is not to remove a specific depth of dentin but
to create an appropriate surface for bonding.

101. Bonding depends upon thickness of hybrid layer or length of the resin tags
The hybrid layer is formed by the infiltration of resin-based adhesive materials into the
demineralized dentin. It is important for bonding because it forms a transitional zone
between the resin-based adhesive and the underlying dentin. It provides mechanical
interlocking and improves the adhesion between the adhesive and the dentin surface. The
thickness of the hybrid layer is typically in the range of a few micrometers.
Resin tags are created by the penetration of adhesive resin into the dentinal tubules. Resin
tags, on the other hand, are small projections of adhesive resin that penetrate into the
dentinal tubules. They enhance the micromechanical retention of the adhesive and help
create a stronger bond between the adhesive and dentin. The length of the resin tags can
vary, but typically ranges from 10 to 50 micrometers.

Both the hybrid layer and resin tags contribute to the overall bond strength and durability of
the adhesive interface.Both the thickness of the hybrid layer and the length of the resin tags
are important for bonding strength. However, it's important to note that the optimal
thickness and length can vary depending on factors such as the adhesive system used, the
specific clinical situation, and the manufacturer's recommendations. Achieving an
appropriate and effective hybrid layer and resin tags is a balance between ensuring sufficient
penetration and avoiding over-etching or excessive removal of dentin.

102. Hybridization of dentin

Hybridization of dentin refers to the process of creating a hybrid layer at the interface
between dentin and a resin-based adhesive material during dental bonding procedures. It is
a crucial step in adhesive dentistry and plays a significant role in achieving a durable and
reliable bond between the tooth structure and restorative materials.
The hybrid layer is formed by the infiltration of resin-based adhesive into the demineralized
dentin surface. Here is a general overview of the hybridization process:

1. Acid Etching: The first step in hybridization is the acid etching of dentin using an acid,
typically phosphoric acid or self-etching primers. The acid dissolves the smear layer and
exposes the collagen network and dentinal tubules, creating a microporous surface.
2. Resin Infiltration: After the acid etching, a resin-based adhesive is applied to the etched
dentin surface. The adhesive penetrates the demineralized dentin, filling the spaces created
by the acid etching process. It infiltrates the exposed collagen network and dentinal tubules.

3. Polymerization: The adhesive material is then light-cured or chemically cured, initiating

the polymerization process. This results in the formation of a resin matrix that surrounds
and binds to the collagen fibers within the dentin.

The hybrid layer is composed of a combination of infiltrated adhesive resin and collagen
fibers. The resin infiltrates the dentin, creating a mechanical interlocking effect with the
tooth structure. The collagen fibers within the hybrid layer are stabilized by the resin,
creating a strong bond interface between the adhesive and dentin.

The hybrid layer provides several benefits, including improved adhesion, reduced
microleakage, and increased bond strength. It acts as a transitional zone that helps distribute
stress, provides a tight seal, and enhances the overall longevity of the restoration.

103. Why do you want to etch dentin

 Smear Layer Removal: During tooth preparation and instrumentation, a smear layer
consisting of debris, microorganisms, and organic material is generated on the dentin
surface. This smear layer can act as a barrier and hinder the bonding process. Etching
dentin helps to dissolve and remove this smear layer, exposing the underlying dentinal
tubules and collagen fibers.
 Surface Activation: Etching creates a microporous surface on dentin, increasing its
surface energy and wettability. This promotes the infiltration and adhesion of the
adhesive material, improving the interfacial bond strength.
 Dentin Conditioning: The etching process chemically modifies the dentin surface,
demineralizing the hydroxyapatite crystals and exposing the collagen network. This
conditioning of dentin enhances the micromechanical interlocking between the adhesive
material and the collagen fibers, creating a strong bond.
 Hybrid Layer Formation: Etching dentin facilitates the formation of a hybrid layer. The
hybrid layer is a zone composed of infiltrated adhesive resin and collagen fibers. It
provides a transitional zone between the dentin and the adhesive material, enhancing
the bond strength and sealing the interface.
By etching dentin, the bond strength and longevity of adhesive restorations can be
significantly improved. However, it's important to note that proper etching techniques,
including appropriate etchant concentration and application time, should be followed to
ensure effective smear layer removal and dentin conditioning without excessive removal of
tooth structure.

104. Role of acetone

 Removal of Residual Adhesive: Acetone is commonly used to remove residual adhesive
from the tooth surface or other dental substrates. After bonding procedures, excess
adhesive or adhesive flash may remain on the tooth structure or restorative material.
Acetone can effectively dissolve and remove these residual adhesive remnants, helping
to achieve a clean and aesthetically pleasing restoration.
 Surface Cleaning and Decontamination: Prior to adhesive procedures, it is important to
ensure that the tooth surface is clean and free of contaminants. Acetone is often used as
a surface cleanser to remove debris, oils, and moisture from the tooth surface. This helps
to optimize the bonding process by providing a clean and uncontaminated surface for
the adhesive material to adhere to.

 Solvent for Adhesive Systems: Acetone is utilized as a solvent for certain adhesive
systems, such as dentin bonding agents and resin cements. It helps to dissolve and
disperse the adhesive components, facilitating their application and improving their flow
and penetration into the tooth structure. Acetone also aids in the evaporation of
solvents and volatile components, leaving behind a stable and polymerized adhesive
layer.

105. Water chasers

Water-chasing ability refers to the ability of primers to displace and repel water from the
dentin surface, creating a dry bonding substrate.

106. How do water chasers work

The water-chasing ability of primers in dentin bonding is primarily achieved through the
interaction between the primer and the dentin surface. This interaction involves a
combination of physical and chemical processes that work together to displace and repel
water from the dentin surface. Here is a general overview of the mechanisms involved:

1. Wetting and Penetration: When a primer is applied to the dentin surface, it initially wets
and spreads over the surface. The primer contains solvents that help in the wetting process,
allowing it to penetrate the dentin tubules and create a uniform layer.

2. Solvent Evaporation: After the primer is applied, the solvents in the primer begin to
evaporate. As the solvents evaporate, the primer undergoes a phase change from a liquid to
a solid or semi-solid state. This process is crucial for achieving a dry bonding substrate.

3. Hydrophobic Component Interaction: Primers used in dentin bonding often contain

hydrophobic components, such as resin monomers or functionalized methacrylates. These
hydrophobic components have a natural affinity for the resin-based adhesive materials used
in dentin bonding.

4. Water Displacement: As the hydrophobic components in the primer come into contact
with water or moisture on the dentin surface, they repel and displace the water. The
hydrophobic nature of the primer creates a barrier that prevents water from penetrating
into the adhesive interface.

5. Formation of Hybrid Layer: The primer also interacts with the exposed collagen fibrils in
the dentin. It forms a hybrid layer by infiltrating and partially impregnating the collagen
network. This hybrid layer provides a stable interface for bonding the adhesive material to
the dentin.
The combined effect of wetting, solvent evaporation, hydrophobic interaction, and collagen
infiltration helps in displacing and repelling water from the dentin surface, creating a dry
bonding substrate. This dry surface allows for optimal adhesion and bonding between the
adhesive material and the dentin, resulting in a reliable and durable bond.

107. What happens to substrate when water chasers or drying agents are used
1. Moisture Control: Water chasing or drying agents help to remove excess moisture from
the dentin substrate. Dentin contains a high percentage of water, and the presence of
moisture can interfere with the bonding process and compromise the bond strength
between the adhesive and the dentin.

2. Dehydration of Dentin: The drying agents within the bonding agents act by absorbing or
evaporating the moisture present on the dentin surface. This process dehydrates the dentin,
reducing the water content and creating a dry surface for the bonding agent application.

3. Increased Bond Strength: By creating a dry bonding surface, water chasing or drying
agents improve the bond strength between the dentin and the adhesive. Excess moisture
can weaken the bond by interfering with the penetration of the adhesive into the dentin
tubules and compromising the polymerization process. A dry dentin surface allows for better
adhesion and a stronger bond.

4. Minimization of Collagen Swelling: Dentin contains collagen fibrils that can swell when
exposed to moisture. This swelling can affect the adaptation and sealing of the adhesive to
the dentin substrate. Water chasing or drying agents help minimize collagen swelling,
ensuring a more intimate contact between the adhesive and the dentin surface.

5. Reduction of Microleakage: Microleakage refers to the seepage of fluids and bacteria

along the interface between the adhesive and the dentin. By controlling moisture, water
chasing or drying agents help to reduce microleakage, preventing the ingress of
contaminants and minimizing the risk of postoperative sensitivity or secondary caries.

108. Mechanism of bonding

 Micromechanical Retention: The etching of dentin creates microporosities and increases
the surface area, allowing the adhesive to penetrate and mechanically lock onto the
dentin surface.
 Chemical Bonding: The adhesive resin forms chemical bonds with both the primer and
the restorative material, ensuring a stable and durable bond.
 Hybrid Layer Formation: The primer infiltrates and partially impregnates the collagen
network, forming a hybrid layer that provides additional mechanical interlocking and
enhances bond strength.
 Moisture Control: Adequate moisture control during the bonding process is crucial to
prevent contamination, maintain bond integrity, and minimize postoperative sensitivity.

109. What is enamel bonding

Enamel bonding process relies on micromechanical retention and adhesive bonding
principles. The acid etching creates micro-porosities on the enamel surface, increasing the
surface area and creating mechanical interlocking with the bonding agent. The bonding
agent forms a chemical bond with the enamel surface and establishes a strong bond with
the restorative material.

110. What is decalcification

Enamel decalcification, also known as enamel demineralization or white spot lesions, refers
to the loss of minerals from the outer layer of the tooth enamel. It appears as white or
chalky spots on the tooth surface and is considered an early sign of tooth decay or dental
caries.

111. What happens to the material used for enamel bonding

 Material Application: The adhesive resin or bonding agent is applied to the prepared
enamel surface. This material is typically in a liquid or gel form, allowing for easy
application and adaptation to the tooth structure.

 Wetting and Penetration: The liquid or gel material wets the enamel surface and
infiltrates the micro-porosities created by the acid etching process. It penetrates the
enamel structure and forms a close interface with the tooth surface.

 Polymerization: The material is then subjected to a polymerization process.

Polymerization can be initiated by light activation (light-cured materials) or a chemical
reaction (self-cured or dual-cured materials). Polymerization causes the material to
harden and solidify, forming a stable and durable bond with the enamel.

 Bonding and Adhesion: The polymerized material establishes a bond with the enamel
surface. It forms both a micromechanical bond and a chemical bond with the enamel.
The micromechanical bond occurs due to the penetration of the material into the micro-
porosities of the enamel and the interlocking with the tooth structure. The chemical
bond is formed between the adhesive resin and the hydroxyapatite crystals present in
the enamel.

 Integration with Restorative Material: In restorative procedures, such as composite resin

restorations, the polymerized material acts as a bonding agent between the enamel and
the composite resin. The restorative material is placed onto the bonded enamel surface
and adapts to the tooth structure. The bonding agent facilitates the adhesion between
the enamel and the restorative material, creating a strong and stable restoration.

The materials used for enamel bonding undergo chemical reactions, polymerization, and
bonding processes to create a durable and long-lasting bond with the tooth enamel. They
provide mechanical strength, resistance to forces during mastication, and protection against
microleakage and postoperative sensitivity.

112. Why is there no filler used in enamel bonding agents

Enamel bonding agents typically do not contain fillers because the primary purpose of these
agents is to facilitate the adhesion between the enamel surface and restorative materials,
such as composite resin or ceramic.
113. Latest generation of bonding materials

8th generation: G-Premio Bond (GC)

The 8th generation bonding agent is compatible with total-etch, self-etch, and selective etch
techniques. It provides excellent versatility and perfectly adapts to all direct restorations and
can also be used to repair indirect restorations without the use of a primer, and also in
combination with a silane when repairing glass or hybrid ceramic and is also ideal for
hypersensitivity.

A unique combination of three functional monomers (4-MET, MDP, and MDTP), notably
excluding HEMA, confirms its excellent stability and good bond strengths not just to tooth
tissue but to all indirect substrates, including composites, precious and non-precious metals,
zirconia, and alumina for all repair cases.

The 8th generation bonding agent was applied to tooth structure using a micro brush and
left undisturbed for 10 s after application, followed by thoroughly air drying for 5 s under
maximum air pressure and light-cured for 10 s.

114. What is 4th generation bonding agent, name it

4th Generation: Kerr OptiBond FL Adhesive System with Fluoride Release
The fourth generation of dental bonding agents consists of 3 steps as separate components:
etch, prime, and adhesive. Using each of these individually can provide you with a greater
amount of control over the process as well as well as a higher level of trust that each step
has been done properly. This is the oldest technique and involves the most amount of steps.

115. How is synaptic sprint used