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1. What do you understand by “grammatical structure of a language”?

The grammatical structure of a language refers to the set of rules and principles
that govern how words are organized and combined to form meaningful sentences
in that language. It encompasses the syntax, morphology, and semantics of a
language.

1. **Syntax:** Syntax deals with the arrangement of words to create well-formed

sentences. It involves understanding the order of words, phrases, and clauses to
convey meaning. Different languages have distinct syntactic rules governing word
order, sentence structure, and the relationships between various elements.

2. **Morphology:** Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words

and how they are formed. It includes the analysis of morphemes, which are the
smallest units of meaning in a language. Morphemes can be roots, prefixes,
suffixes, or inflections that contribute to the overall meaning of words.=

3. **Semantics:** Semantics involves the meaning of words, phrases, and

sentences. It explores how individual words combine to convey a particular sense
and how different linguistic elements contribute to overall meaning. Semantic rules
guide the interpretation of language at various levels, from individual words to
entire texts.

Understanding the grammatical structure of a language is essential for effective

communication. It enables speakers and writers to construct sentences that are
grammatically correct and convey the intended meaning. Moreover, it allows
language users to comprehend the structure of sentences when reading or listening
to others. Different languages may have distinct grammatical structures, reflecting
their unique linguistic properties and cultural influences.

2. What are the most important characteristic features of adjectives?

The most important characteristic features of adjectives include:

Descriptive: Adjectives describe or modify nouns and pronouns by providing more

information about their qualities, characteristics, or attributes. For example,
"beautiful" in "a beautiful sunset."
Limiting: Adjectives can limit or specify the noun they modify. They help to
answer questions like "which one?" or "how many?" For instance, "three" in "three
books."

Position: Adjectives are generally placed before the noun they modify. However,
certain adjectives can come after a linking verb, as in "The sky is blue."

Comparison: Adjectives often have comparative and superlative forms to indicate

degrees of comparison. For example, "big" (positive), "bigger" (comparative),
"biggest" (superlative).

Articles: Articles (a, an, the) are a type of adjective that provide information about
the noun they precede.

Quantitative: Adjectives can express quantity, such as "many," "few," "some," etc.

Demonstrative: Adjectives like "this," "that," "these," and "those" point to specific
nouns and help in indicating their proximity.

Possessive: Adjectives can show possession, such as "my," "your," "his," "her,"
"its," "our," and "their."

3. What adjectives form their degrees by both inflections and words more and
most?

Adjectives that form their degrees using both inflections (changing the form of the
adjective) and the words "more" and "most" are called "gradable adjectives." These
adjectives can be modified to express different degrees of the quality they describe.
For example:

Positive: hot; Comparative: hotter; Superlative: hottest

In this case, "hot" is a gradable adjective because its degrees can be formed by
adding the suffix "-er" for the comparative form and "-est" for the superlative form.
Additionally, you can use "more" for the comparative and "most" for the
superlative:

Positive: beautiful; Comparative: more beautiful; Superlative: most beautiful

In this example, "beautiful" is another gradable adjective because you can form its
comparative and superlative degrees using both inflections and the words "more"
and "most."

4. What is the etymology of Grammar?

The term "grammar" has its roots in the Latin language. It can be traced back to the
Latin word "grammatica," which in turn is derived from the Greek word
"grammatikē tékhnē," meaning "art of letters" or "letter craft." The Greek term
comes from "gramma," which means "letter" or "something written." Here's a brief
etymological breakdown:

Greek:

"grammatikē tékhnē" (Γραμματική τέχνη)

"gramma" (Γράμμα)

Latin:

"grammatica"

Old French:

"gramaire"

Middle English:

"gramer," "gramaire"

Over time, the term evolved through linguistic and historical changes, transitioning
from Latin to Old French and later into Middle English. The development of the
word reflects its association with the study of written language, letters, and
linguistic structure. In the broadest sense, "grammar" refers to the set of structural
rules governing the composition of sentences, the formulation of language, and the
study of the principles underlying language usage.

5. What is the difference between primary and secondary levels?

The terms "primary" and "secondary" are not typically used to denote stages of
education. Instead, these terms may be employed in a linguistic or grammatical
context. Let's explore how they might be used:

Primary Linguistic Units: Primary Units: In theoretical grammar, primary

linguistic units refer to fundamental elements like morphemes, words, and phrases.
These are the basic building blocks of a language's structure. Example: In the
sentence "She walks to the store," words like "she," "walks," "to," and "the"
represent primary linguistic units.

Secondary Linguistic Units: Secondary Units: Secondary linguistic units are more
complex structures that emerge through the combination of primary units. These
include clauses, sentences, and discourse-level structures. Example: In the sentence
"While she walks to the store, he waits at home," the entire clause "While she
walks to the store" is a secondary linguistic unit. In this linguistic context,
"primary" and "secondary" refer to the level of complexity within the grammatical
structure. Primary units are the basic, indivisible elements, while secondary units
are formed through the combination of these primary elements. It's important to
note that the terminology and concepts within theoretical grammar can vary, and
different linguistic frameworks may use alternative terms or categorizations.

6. What's the difference between language levels and speech levels?

In theoretical grammar, the concepts of language levels and speech levels are often
associated with different aspects of linguistic analysis. Let's break down these
terms:

1. *Language Levels:*
- *Phonological Level:* Deals with the sound structure of language, including
phonemes, syllables, and stress patterns.
- *Morphological Level:* Focuses on the structure and formation of words,
including morphemes (the smallest units of meaning).
- *Syntactic Level:* Involves the arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and
sentences to create meaning.
- *Semantic Level:* Concerns the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.
These levels collectively contribute to the overall structure and understanding of a
language. Analyzing language at these levels helps linguists and grammarians
understand how sounds, words, and sentences are organized and interpreted.

2. *Speech levels:
- *Phatic Level:* Refers to the social aspects of communication, such as greetings,
small talk, and other language used to establish or maintain social relationships.
- *Metalinguistic Level:* Involves language that discusses language itself. This
can include clarifications, definitions, or discussions about the meaning of words.
- *Referential Level:* Concerns the communication of factual information. It is
focused on conveying facts and describing reality.
- *Conative Level:* Involves language used to influence the behavior of the
listener, such as commands, requests, or persuasion.
- *Poetic Level:* Emphasizes the aesthetic aspects of language, often found in
poetry or creative expressions.
Speech levels are more concerned with the functions or purposes of
communication and the social context in which language is used. Different
situations and relationships may call for different speech levels, and individuals
often switch between them depending on the context.
In summary, language levels pertain to the structural aspects of language (sounds,
words, sentences), while speech levels relate to the functions and social aspects of
communication. Both concepts contribute to a comprehensive understanding of
language and communication.

7. Characterize the Non-Finite Form of the Verb: The Infinitive?

The infinitive is a non-finite verb form that is not bound by person or number. In
English, the infinitive is typically formed by placing "to" before the base form of
the verb. For example:
- **To run**
- **To eat**
- **To study**
Here are some characteristics of the infinitive:
1. **To + Base Form:** As mentioned, the infinitive is formed by adding "to"
before the base form of the verb. This structure is used in a variety of contexts.
2. **No Person or Number:** Unlike finite verbs, which change based on the
subject's person and number (I run, he runs), the infinitive remains constant.
3. **Various Uses:**
- **Bare Infinitive:** In some cases, the "to" is omitted, and the base form alone
is used (e.g., "I can run").
- **Split Infinitive:** In formal English, the "to" and the base form can be
separated by an adverb (e.g., "to quickly run").
4. **Roles in a Sentence:**
- **Subject:** "To read is enjoyable."
- **Object:** "She likes to dance."
- **Complement:** "His goal is to succeed."
5. **No Tense Distinction:** The infinitive is not marked for tense, but it can
sometimes convey aspect, such as with "to have eaten" or "to be studying."
The infinitive is a versatile form used in various sentence constructions and is an
essential element in expressing purpose, obligation, desire, and more.

8. What types of grammatical categories do you know?

Grammatical categories are the classes that words are divided into based on their
grammatical properties. Some of the most common grammatical categories
include: Part of speech: This category classifies words
into nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and
interjections. Number: This
category classifies nouns and pronouns into singular and plural.
Gender: This category classifies nouns, pronouns, and adjectives into masculine,
feminine, and neuter.
Case: This category classifies nouns, pronouns, and adjectives according to their
grammatical function in a sentence.
Tense: This category classifies verbs according to the time of the action or state
they describe. Mood: This category classifies verbs according to their modality, or
how certain or uncertain the speaker is about the action or state they describe.
Voice: This category classifies verbs according to whether the subject of the
sentence is the one performing the action or being acted upon.
Degree: This category classifies adjectives and adverbs according to their intensity.
Person: This category classifies pronouns according to the speaker, the addressee,
or a third party.

9. What does lexicological level study?

The lexicological level in linguistic study focuses on the vocabulary or lexicon of a

language. Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that examines words, their
structure, meaning, usage, and the relationships between them. At the lexicological
level, researchers analyze the vocabulary of a language, studying various aspects
such as:
1. *Word Formation:* Understanding how words are created, including prefixes,
suffixes, and other morphological processes that contribute to word formation.
2. *Word Meaning:* Examining the meanings of words, including their denotative
(literal) and connotative (associated or implied) meanings.
3. *Word Usage:* Investigating how words are used in different contexts,
considering their syntactic and semantic roles.
4. *Lexical Semantics:* Exploring the relationships between words and the
meanings they convey, including synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and
hypernymy.
5. *Lexical Fields:* Analyzing groups of words that are related by topic or theme,
forming lexical fields or semantic fields.
6. *Word Etymology:* Tracing the historical development and origins of words,
including their linguistic roots and influences.
7. *Lexical Change:* Studying how words evolve over time, including shifts in
meaning, pronunciation, or usage.
8. *Lexicographical Studies:* Creating dictionaries and other lexical resources to
document and organize the vocabulary of a language.
By examining these aspects, lexicologists gain insights into the structure, meaning,
and usage of words in a language, contributing to a comprehensive understanding
of its lexical system.

10. What does phonetical - phonological level study?

The study of the phonetic-phonological level in linguistics involves examining the
sounds of language and their organization.

- Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the physical
aspects of speech sounds. It involves the analysis and classification of sounds
based on their articulatory and acoustic properties. Phonetics explores how sounds
are produced by the human vocal apparatus, how they are transmitted as waves
through the air, and how they are perceived by the human auditory system. This
field helps describe and categorize the wide range of sounds found in different
languages.

Phonology is the branch of linguistics that examines the abstract, mental

representations of sounds within a particular language and the rules governing their
combination and patterning. Unlike phonetics, which deals with the physical
properties of speech sounds, phonology focuses on the systematic organization of
sounds as they function within a linguistic system. Phonologists study how sounds
are used to convey meaning and how they interact with each other in a given
language's phonological structure. This includes the study of phonemes,
allophones, syllable structure, and phonological processes.

Together, phonetics and phonology contribute to understanding how sounds are

produced and how they function as part of a language's structure and meaning.

11. What adjectives form their comparative and superlative by root-vowel and
final-consonant change?

Adjectives that form their comparative and superlative by root-vowel and final-
consonant changes are often referred to as irregular comparatives and superlatives.
Examples include:

1. **Good** (positive) - **Better** (comparative) - **Best** (superlative)

2. **Bad** - **Worse** - **Worst**

3. **Far** - **Farther/Further** - **Farthest/Furthest**

4. **Little** - **Less** - **Least**

5. **Many** - **More** - **Most**

In these cases, the comparative and superlative forms are not created by adding
standard suffixes (-er, -est) but involve changes in the root vowel or the final
consonant, making them irregular in comparison to the typical pattern of adjective
comparison.

12. What is the difference between notional and functional verbs?

Notional and functional verbs are two classifications based on their usage and
meaning in a sentence:
1. **Notional Verbs:**
- These verbs carry specific meaning or convey an action. They express actions,
events, or states and contribute significantly to the meaning of the sentence.

- Notional verbs have a clear lexical content or meaning. They describe actions
that are perceptible or tangible.

- Examples of notional verbs include "run," "eat," "write," "think," "love," etc.
These verbs represent actions that are easily visualized or understood.

2. **Functional Verbs:**

- These verbs do not convey specific actions or have a concrete meaning on their
own. Instead, they serve a grammatical function within a sentence or express
grammatical relationships.

- Functional verbs often act as connectors, helping verbs, or auxiliary verbs that
support the structure of the sentence or express mood, tense, aspect, or voice.

- Examples of functional verbs include "be," "have," "do," "can," "will," "might,"
etc. These verbs often combine with other verbs to form various tenses, aspects, or
express modality. In summary, notional verbs express concrete actions
or states, while functional verbs primarily serve a grammatical purpose within the
sentence's structure, conveying tense, mood, or aspect.

13. What are the main principles of classification of parts of speech?

The classification of parts of speech in language is based on several fundamental

principles, which help categorize and understand how words function within
sentences. The main principles of classification include:
1. **Form and Structure:** Parts of speech can be classified based on their
structural and morphological characteristics. For instance, nouns often refer to
people, places, things, or ideas, while verbs denote actions or states of being.
Adjectives modify or describe nouns, adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs, and so on. 2.
**Function in a Sentence:** Another principle involves considering the role a
word plays in a sentence. This principle focuses on how words function
syntactically within a sentence. For instance, the subject of a sentence is typically a
noun or pronoun, the verb shows the action or state, adjectives describe nouns,
adverbs modify verbs, and so forth. 3.
**Semantic Roles:** Words can be classified based on their meaning and semantic
roles. For example, nouns generally represent people, places, things, or concepts.
Verbs denote actions or states of being. Adjectives express qualities or attributes,
while adverbs often indicate manner, place, time, degree, etc.
4. **Derivation and Inflection:** Some parts of speech can be identified based on
their derivation (how they're formed from other words) and inflection (changes in
form to convey grammatical information like tense, number, gender, etc.). For
instance, verbs often undergo inflections to indicate tense (past, present, future),
while nouns might change forms to show plural or possessive cases.
5. **Distribution and Position in a Sentence:** Words can also be classified based
on their typical placement or distribution within a sentence. This principle looks at
word order and how certain parts of speech are positioned relative to others. For
example, adjectives often precede nouns they modify, adverbs typically follow
verbs they modify, etc.
These principles together provide a comprehensive framework for categorizing and
understanding the various parts of speech in a language, offering insights into their
form, function, meaning, and usage within sentences.

14. Why do we have to differentiate the qualitative and relative adjectives?

1. **Differentiating Qualitative and Relative Adjectives:**

- **Qualitative Adjectives:** These describe the inherent qualities of a noun and
express subjective judgments. Example: "beautiful," "smart."
- **Relative Adjectives:** These indicate a relation or comparison between
multiple entities. Example: "bigger," "more interesting."
It's important to differentiate them because qualitative adjectives focus on
describing qualities, while relative adjectives involve a comparison between
different entities.

2. **Formation of Comparative and Superlative Adjectives:**

- **Comparative Adjectives:** Used to compare two things or people.
- *For most one-syllable adjectives:* Add "-er" (e.g., tall → taller).
- *For most two-syllable adjectives ending in -y:* Change "y" to "i" and add "-er"
(e.g., happy → happier).
- *For adjectives with two or more syllables:* Use "more" before the adjective
(e.g., interesting → more interesting).
- **Superlative Adjectives:** Used to compare three or more things or people.
- *For most one-syllable adjectives:* Add "-est" (e.g., tall → tallest).
- *For most two-syllable adjectives ending in -y:* Change "y" to "i" and add "-est"
(e.g., happy → happiest).
- *For adjectives with two or more syllables:* Use "most" before the adjective
(e.g., interesting → most interesting).
Examples:
- *Comparative:* The cat is **smaller** than the dog.
- *Superlative:* The elephant is the **largest** animal in the zoo.
Understanding the formation of comparative and superlative adjectives is essential
for expressing comparisons and degrees of qualities in English.

15. What morphemes do you know according to the functional classification?

According to functional classification, morphemes are categorized into different

types based on their grammatical functions within a word. Here are some of the
main functional classifications of morphemes:

1. **Free Morphemes:**

- Definition: Can stand alone as a complete word.

- Example: "cat," "run," "happy"

2. **Bound Morphemes:**

- Definition: Cannot stand alone and must be attached to a free morpheme.

- Examples:

- **Prefixes:** "un-" in "undo"

- **Suffixes:** "-ing" in "running"

- **Roots or Stems:** "act" in "action"

3. **Inflectional Morphemes:**

- Definition: Convey grammatical information, such as tense, number, or case.

- Examples:

- **-s:** Indicates plural (e.g., cats)

- **-ed:** Indicates past tense (e.g., walked)

- **-ing:** Indicates present participle (e.g., running)

4. **Derivational Morphemes:**

- Definition: Create new words or change the grammatical category of a word.

- Examples:

- **-er:** Forms agent nouns (e.g., teacher)

- **-ize:** Forms verbs (e.g., organize)

- **un-:** Forms opposites or negations (e.g., unhappy)

5. **Inflectional vs. Derivational:**

- **Inflectional Morphemes:** Deal with grammatical relationships and do not

change the word's fundamental meaning.

- **Derivational Morphemes:** Alter the lexical meaning of a word or its

grammatical category.

These functional classifications help linguists understand how morphemes

contribute to the structure and meaning of words in a language.

16. What is the etymology of Grammar?

The term "grammar" has its roots in the Latin language. It can be traced back to the
Latin word "grammatica," which in turn is derived from the Greek word
"grammatikē tékhnē," meaning "art of letters" or "letter craft." The Greek term
comes from "gramma," which means "letter" or "something written." Here's a brief
etymological breakdown:

Greek:

"grammatikē tékhnē" (Γραμματική τέχνη)

"gramma" (Γράμμα)

Latin:

"grammatica"

Old French:

"gramaire"

Middle English:
"gramer," "gramaire"

Over time, the term evolved through linguistic and historical changes, transitioning
from Latin to Old French and later into Middle English. The development of the
word reflects its association with the study of written language, letters, and
linguistic structure. In the broadest sense, "grammar" refers to the set of structural
rules governing the composition of sentences, the formulation of language, and the
study of the principles underlying language usage.

17. Why do we categorize the grammatical meanings?

Categorizing grammatical meanings is a fundamental aspect of language analysis

and study. It serves several purposes that help linguists, language learners, and
communicators better understand and use a language. Here are some reasons why
we categorize grammatical meanings:

1. **Structural Organization:**

- **Syntax:** Categorizing grammatical elements helps in understanding the

structure of sentences and how words relate to each other within a sentence.

- **Grammar Rules:** By categorizing grammatical meanings, we can establish

and teach rules that govern the formation of grammatically correct sentences.

2. **Communication:**

- **Clarity:** Categories help in the effective and clear expression of ideas.

Knowing the categories helps speakers and writers convey their intended meanings
without ambiguity.

- **Consistency:** A standardized system of categorization promotes

consistency in language use, making it easier for people to understand and interpret
messages.

3. **Language Acquisition:**

- **Learning Aid:** For language learners, categorizing grammatical elements

provides a systematic approach to understanding the language and facilitates the
learning process.

- **Acquisition Patterns:** Knowing how words and structures are categorized

helps learners recognize patterns and make connections, leading to a more intuitive
grasp of the language.

4. **Analysis and Description:**

 - **Linguistic Analysis:** Linguists use categorization to analyze and describe
the structure of languages. It allows them to identify patterns, variations, and
relationships within a language.

- **Comparative Studies:** Categorization enables the comparison of

grammatical structures across different languages, aiding in linguistic research and
understanding language universals and diversity.

5. **Rule Formation:**

- **Grammar Development:** Categorization forms the basis for developing

grammatical rules. Rules help speakers and writers construct sentences that adhere
to the accepted norms of the language.

6. **Efficient Communication:**

- **Expressive Economy:** Categorization allows speakers to convey complex

ideas with a relatively small set of grammatical elements. This efficiency is crucial
for effective communication, especially in everyday conversation.

7. **Language Evolution:**

- **Evolutionary Changes:** As languages evolve, categorization helps

document and understand shifts in grammatical structures over time. It provides
insights into the historical development of languages.

In summary, categorizing grammatical meanings is essential for understanding the

structure of a language, facilitating effective communication, aiding language
acquisition, enabling linguistic analysis, and contributing to the overall
development and evolution of a language.

18. What peculiar features of nouns do you know?

Nouns are a fundamental part of language and serve as the names for people,
places, things, ideas, or concepts. They possess several peculiar features that
distinguish them from other parts of speech. Here are some notable features of
nouns:

1. **Noun Definition:**

- Nouns are words that refer to people, places, things, ideas, or concepts.

2. **Naming Function:**
 - Nouns function as the names of entities, providing a way to identify and refer to
specific elements in language.

3. **Countability:**

- Nouns can be either countable (e.g., "dog," "apple") or uncountable (e.g.,

"water," "happiness"). Countable nouns can be quantified with numbers, while
uncountable nouns are usually measured in general terms.

4. **Gender:**

- Some languages assign gender to nouns. For example, in languages like French
or Spanish, nouns are classified as masculine or feminine.

5. **Number:**

- Nouns can have singular or plural forms. The singular form refers to one item,
while the plural form refers to more than one (e.g., "cat" vs. "cats").

6. **Possessiveness:**

- Nouns can be modified to indicate possession. For example, adding "'s" or "s'"
to a noun shows ownership (e.g., "John's book," "the students' project").

7. **Case (in some languages):**

- In languages with grammatical cases (e.g., Latin, Russian, German), nouns may
change form to indicate their syntactic function in a sentence (e.g., subject, object,
possessive).

8. **Proper vs. Common Nouns:**

- Proper nouns refer to specific, unique entities and are capitalized (e.g., "New
York," "John"). Common nouns, on the other hand, refer to general entities and are
not capitalized unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.

9. **Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns:**

- Concrete nouns refer to tangible, physical entities (e.g., "tree," "book"), while
abstract nouns refer to intangible concepts or qualities (e.g., "love," "freedom").

10. **Collective Nouns:**

- Collective nouns refer to groups of people, animals, or things (e.g., "team,"

"herd," "family").
Understanding these features helps in correctly using nouns in sentences, forming
coherent phrases, and conveying precise meaning in language.

19. What are the basic grammatical means of the English language?

The basic grammatical means of the English language encompass various

components and structures that enable communication. Here are some fundamental
grammatical elements of English:

1. **Nouns:**

- Nouns are words that represent people, places, things, or concepts. They can be
common or proper, countable or uncountable.

2. **Pronouns:**

- Pronouns replace nouns in a sentence. Examples include "he," "she," "it,"

"they," "me," and "you."

3. **Verbs:**

- Verbs express actions, states of being, or occurrences. They are central to

constructing sentences.

4. **Adjectives:**

- Adjectives modify or describe nouns, providing additional information about

their qualities. Examples include "happy," "blue," and "tall."

5. **Adverbs:**

- Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often indicate how,
when, where, or to what extent an action is performed. Examples include
"quickly," "very," and "often."

6. **Prepositions:**

- Prepositions show the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another
word in the sentence. Common prepositions include "in," "on," "under," and
"between."

7. **Conjunctions:**

- Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. Examples include "and,"

"but," "or," and "because."

8. **Articles:**
 - Articles, including "a," "an," and "the," signal whether a noun is specific or
general.

9. **Determiners:**

- Determiners introduce and modify nouns, helping to specify them. Examples

include "this," "those," "some," and "each."

10. **Interjections:**

- Interjections express strong emotions or reactions and often stand alone as

exclamations. Examples include "wow," "ouch," and "oh."
Understanding and mastering these basic grammatical means is crucial for
constructing grammatically correct and meaningful sentences in English. They
provide the foundation for effective communication and writing.

20. Whose conceptions on grammatical category do you know?

Various linguists and grammarians have contributed to the development of theories

and conceptions regarding grammatical categories. Here are a few notable figures
whose ideas have had an impact on our understanding of grammatical categories:

1. **Noam Chomsky:**

- Chomsky is a prominent linguist who introduced transformational-generative

grammar. He proposed the idea of universal grammar, suggesting that there are
innate grammatical structures shared by all human languages. Chomsky's work has
influenced the study of grammatical categories and syntax.

2. **Ferdinand de Saussure:**

- Saussure, a Swiss linguist, is known for his structuralist approach to linguistics.

While he did not focus explicitly on grammatical categories, his ideas on language
structure and the relationship between signifier and signified have influenced
subsequent linguistic theories.

3. **Leonard Bloomfield:**

- Bloomfield was an American linguist who played a key role in the development
of structural linguistics. His work, "Language" (1933), contributed to the
understanding of linguistic structure and categories, although he did not delve
deeply into the philosophical aspects of language.

These and other scholars have approached the study of grammatical categories
from various perspectives, including generative grammar, structuralism,
functionalism, and cognitive linguistics. The field continues to evolve as
researchers explore new theories and refine existing ones.

21. What are the other classifications of parts of speech (O. Jespersen, A.
Smirnitsky, L. Barkhudarov, M. Blokh)?

1. **Otto Jespersen:**

- Jespersen, a Danish linguist, proposed a comprehensive classification of parts

of speech. In his system, he distinguished between content words (substantives,
adjectives, numerals, and verbs) and function words (pronouns, articles,
prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections). Jespersen's classification focused on
the functional role of words in a sentence.

2. **A. I. Smirnitsky:**

- Smirnitsky, a Russian linguist, provided a classification of parts of speech

based on their semantic functions. His classification included:

- **Nouns:** Naming words.

- **Verbs:** Words denoting actions or states.

- **Adjectives:** Words describing qualities of nouns.

- **Adverbs:** Words modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

- **Pronouns:** Words replacing nouns.

- **Prepositions:** Words indicating relationships between words.

- **Conjunctions:** Words connecting words or groups of words.

- **Interjections:** Words expressing emotions.

3. **L. Barkhudarov:**

- Barkhudarov, a Soviet linguist, extended and modified Smirnitsky's

classification. He grouped words based on their communicative and functional
characteristics:

- **Nominal words:** Nouns and pronouns.

- **Verbal words:** Verbs.

- **Qualifying words:** Adjectives and adverbs.

- **Connecting words:** Prepositions, conjunctions, and particles.

 - **Interjections:** Words expressing emotions.

4. **M. Blokh:**

- Blokh, a Russian linguist, proposed a classification that considered both

syntactic and semantic features of words. His classification included:

- **Nouns:** Naming words.

- **Verbs:** Words denoting actions or states.

- **Adjectives:** Words describing qualities of nouns.

- **Numerals:** Words indicating quantity.

- **Pronouns:** Words replacing nouns.

- **Adverbs:** Words modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

- **Prepositions:** Words indicating relationships between words.

- **Conjunctions:** Words connecting words or groups of words.

- **Particles:** Words with no independent syntactic function.

- **Interjections:** Words expressing emotions.

22. What does morphological level study?

The morphological level of linguistic analysis focuses on the structure and

formation of words. Morphology is the branch of linguistics that examines the
smallest units of meaning in a language, called morphemes, and how these
morphemes combine to create words. Morphology is concerned with the internal
structure of words, the way words are formed, and how they convey meaning.

Key aspects studied at the morphological level include:

1. **Morphemes:**

- Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. They can be

classified into two main types:

- **Free Morphemes:** These can stand alone as independent words (e.g.,

"book," "happy").
 - **Bound Morphemes:** These must attach to a free morpheme to convey
meaning (e.g., "un-" in "undo," or "-ed" in "walked").

2. **Word Formation:**

- Morphology studies how words are formed through processes like affixation
(adding prefixes, suffixes, infixes), compounding (combining two or more words),
conversion (changing the grammatical category of a word without adding affixes),
and other word-formation processes.

3. **Word Structure:**

- Morphology analyzes the internal structure of words, examining how

morphemes are arranged to create meaningful units. For example, the word
"unhappiness" consists of three morphemes: "un-" (a bound morpheme indicating
negation), "happy" (a free morpheme), and "-ness" (a bound morpheme forming a
noun).

4. **Inflection and Derivation:**

- Morphological analysis distinguishes between inflectional and derivational

morphemes. Inflectional morphemes convey grammatical information such as
tense, number, or case (e.g., the "-s" in "cats" indicating plural). Derivational
morphemes create new words or change the grammatical category of a word (e.g.,
"happiness" derived from "happy").

5. **Morphological Processes:**

- Morphological analysis involves studying various processes, such as

reduplication (repeating a morpheme), truncation (shortening a word), and
blending (combining parts of two words).

6. **Morphological Variation:**

- Morphology also considers variations in word forms based on factors like tense,
number, person, and gender. For example, the verb "run" undergoes morphological
changes in its forms: "run," "ran," "running."

Understanding the morphological level is essential for grasping the internal

structure of words, recognizing word forms, and comprehending how words
convey meaning in a language.
23. What are the main principles of classification of parts of speech?
The classification of parts of speech is based on the syntactic and semantic
functions that words perform within a language. While there might be variations in
the specifics, the main principles of classification include:

1. **Syntactic Function:**

- **Nouns:** Words that represent people, places, things, or ideas. They often
serve as the subject or object of a sentence.

- **Pronouns:** Words that replace nouns to avoid repetition. They can function
as subjects, objects, or possessive determiners.

- **Verbs:** Words that express actions, states, or occurrences. They are central
to constructing sentences.

- **Adjectives:** Words that modify or describe nouns, providing additional

information about their qualities.

- **Adverbs:** Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, typically

indicating how, when, where, or to what extent.

2. **Semantic Function:**

- **Content Words:** Words that carry meaning on their own. This category
includes nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

- **Function Words:** Words that serve a grammatical purpose, often

connecting or specifying relationships between content words. This category
includes pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and some adverbs.

3. **Morphological Characteristics:**

- **Inflectional Morphemes:** Morphemes that convey grammatical

information, such as tense, number, or case. They are often associated with verbs,
nouns, and adjectives.

- **Derivational Morphemes:** Morphemes that create new words or change the

grammatical category of a word. They are often associated with nouns, verbs, and
adjectives.

4. **Position in a Sentence:**

- **Subject:** Typically nouns or pronouns, these words perform the action in a

sentence or are associated with a state of being.
 - **Object:** Nouns or pronouns that receive the action in a sentence.

- **Modifiers:** Adjectives and adverbs that provide additional information

about nouns or verbs.

- **Connectors:** Conjunctions and prepositions that link words, phrases, or

clauses.

5. **Grammatical Roles:**

- **Nouns and Pronouns:** Often function as subjects, objects, or possessors in

a sentence.

- **Verbs:** Serve as predicates, indicating actions or states.

- **Adjectives and Adverbs:** Modify or describe other words in a sentence.

- **Conjunctions and Prepositions:** Connect words or groups of words.

6. **Independence and Dependence:**

- **Independent Words:** Words that can stand alone as complete units (e.g.,
nouns, verbs).

- **Dependent Words:** Words that typically rely on other words to convey a

complete meaning (e.g., prepositions, conjunctions).

24. State on the Main Sentence Parts: the subject and the predicate, their
types.

In a sentence, the two main parts are the subject and the predicate. These parts are
crucial for conveying meaning and organizing information within a sentence.

1. **Subject:**

- The subject is the part of the sentence that indicates who or what the sentence is
about. It typically contains the main noun or pronoun that performs the action or is
associated with the state of being in the sentence. The subject is a fundamental
component for sentence structure.

Types of Subjects:

- **Simple Subject:** The main noun or pronoun in the subject, without any
modifiers. For example, in the sentence "The cat sleeps," "cat" is the simple
subject.
 - **Compound Subject:** Two or more nouns or pronouns sharing the same
predicate. For example, in the sentence "John and Mary play tennis," "John and
Mary" form a compound subject.

2. **Predicate:**

- The predicate is the part of the sentence that contains the verb and provides
information about the action or state of being expressed by the subject. It also
includes any additional words or phrases that modify or complete the verb.

Types of Predicates:

- **Simple Predicate (Verb):** The main verb in the predicate, indicating the
action or state of being. For example, in the sentence "She sings," "sings" is the
simple predicate.

- **Compound Predicate:** Two or more verbs sharing the same subject. For
example, in the sentence "They eat and laugh," "eat and laugh" form a compound
predicate.

- **Complete Predicate:** The entire predicate, including the main verb and any
modifiers or complements. For example, in the sentence "The cat sleeps
peacefully," "sleeps peacefully" is the complete predicate.

Understanding the subject and predicate is essential for analyzing sentence

structure, identifying the key elements of a statement, and constructing clear and
grammatically correct sentences. The subject and predicate work together to
convey the main idea of a sentence.

25. What types of morphemes are distinguished according to the criterion of

number correlation between form and content?

According to the criterion of number correlation between form and content,

morphemes can be classified into two main types: free morphemes and bound
morphemes. This classification is based on whether a morpheme can stand alone as
an independent word or if it must be attached to another morpheme to convey
meaning.

1. **Free Morphemes:**

- Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as independent words and
carry meaningful content on their own. They are not dependent on other
morphemes to convey meaning. Examples of free morphemes include nouns (e.g.,
"dog," "book"), verbs (e.g., "run," "eat"), adjectives (e.g., "happy," "blue"), and
adverbs (e.g., "quickly," "often").

2. **Bound Morphemes:**

- Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone as independent

words and must be attached to other morphemes to convey meaning. They
typically modify the meaning of free morphemes or create new words. Bound
morphemes include prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Examples include:

- **Prefixes:** "un-" in "undo," "re-" in "redo."

- **Suffixes:** "-ed" in "walked," "-ing" in "running."

- **Infixes:** Less common in English, infixes are inserted within a word, as

in "abso-bloomin'-lutely."

Understanding the distinction between free morphemes and bound morphemes is

essential for analyzing word structure and morphology in a language. It also helps
in recognizing how words are formed and how morphemes contribute to the
meaning of words.

26. What is the difference between primary and secondary Language and
Speech levels?

The concepts of primary and secondary language and speech levels are often
associated with the work of Russian linguist Lev Vygotsky. These levels refer to
different stages of cognitive development in children and the role of language in
shaping thought and behavior.

1. **Primary Language and Speech Levels:**

- **Primary Language Level:** This level corresponds to the early stages of a

child's development, particularly in the pre-school years. At this stage, language is
primarily a tool for communication and expressing immediate needs. The focus is
on practical, everyday communication within the child's immediate environment.

- **Primary Speech Level:** The primary speech level is closely connected to the
primary language level. It involves the use of language for practical, concrete
purposes, such as obtaining objects, expressing basic needs, and interacting in the
immediate social context. The primary speech level is characterized by the
functional and utilitarian aspects of language use.

2. **Secondary Language and Speech Levels:**

 - **Secondary Language Level:** As children grow and enter formal education,
they progress to the secondary language level. At this stage, language becomes a
tool for abstract and theoretical thinking. It involves the ability to use language for
more complex cognitive processes, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and
abstract reasoning.

- **Secondary Speech Level:** The secondary speech level is closely linked to the
secondary language level. It involves using language for academic and abstract
purposes, such as engaging in discussions, expressing complex ideas, and
participating in more advanced forms of communication. The secondary speech
level reflects the higher cognitive functions associated with language use in
academic and formal contexts.

It's important to note that while these distinctions are helpful for understanding the
general progression of language development, individual experiences and cultural
contexts can lead to variations in the development of language and speech levels.

27. Comment the grammatical category of Degrees of Comparison in Modern

English

The grammatical category of degrees of comparison in Modern English refers to

the ways in which adjectives and adverbs are modified to indicate the relative
degree of a quality or characteristic. There are three degrees of comparison:
positive, comparative, and superlative.

1. **Positive Degree:**

- The positive degree is the simplest form of an adjective or adverb, indicating

the basic quality without making a comparison. Examples:

tall, happy, easily, well

2. **Comparative Degree:**

- The comparative degree is used to compare two things or entities. It is formed

by adding "-er" to short adjectives and adverbs or by using "more" before longer
adjectives and adverbs. Examples:

- taller, happier, more easily, better

3. **Superlative Degree:**

- The superlative degree is used to compare three or more things or entities,

indicating the highest degree of a quality. It is formed by adding "-est" to short
adjectives and adverbs or by using "most" before longer adjectives and adverbs.
Examples:

tallest, happiest, easily, best

**Irregular Forms:**

- Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms in the comparative and
superlative degrees, such as "good" (comparative: better, superlative: best) and
"bad" (comparative: worse, superlative: worst).

**Modifiers:**

- Intensifiers like "much," "far," and "a lot" can be used with comparatives and
superlatives to add emphasis. For example: "much taller," "far more interesting,"
"a lot faster."

28. How many grammatical categories of nouns do you know?

Here are some common grammatical categories of nouns:

1. **Common Nouns:**

Examples: dog, book, city.

2. **Proper Nouns:**

Examples: John, Paris, The Mona Lisa.

3. **Concrete Nouns:**

Examples: table, tree, car.

4. **Abstract Nouns:**

Examples: love, freedom, happiness.

5. **Countable Nouns:**

Examples: cat, dogs, book, books.

6. **Uncountable Nouns:**

Examples: water, knowledge, happiness.

7. **Collective Nouns:**

Examples: team, herd, family.

8. **Animate Nouns:**
Examples: person, dog, bird.

9. **Inanimate Nouns:**

Examples: table, chair, computer.

10. **Possessive Nouns:**

Examples: John's car, the cat's tail.

11. **Compound Nouns:**

Examples: toothpaste, bedroom, sunflower.

12. **Concrete Nouns:**

Examples: a dog, the book, my car.

29. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meanings?

Lexical meanings and grammatical meanings are two distinct aspects of meaning
in language, and they serve different purposes in communication. Here's an
explanation of the differences between lexical and grammatical meanings:

1. **Lexical Meanings:**

- **Nature:** Lexical meanings pertain to the content or substantive aspect of a

word. They involve the core, dictionary definition or referential meaning of a
word.

- **Content:** Lexical meanings convey the specific idea, concept, or thing that
a word represents. These meanings contribute to the denotation or referential
aspect of a word.

- **Examples:** In the word "cat," the lexical meaning is the actual animal
itself. In the word "run," the lexical meaning refers to the physical action of
running.

2. **Grammatical Meanings:**

- **Nature:** Grammatical meanings are related to the form, structure, and

function of words within a sentence or a linguistic context. They involve the
relational and procedural aspects of language.
 - **Function:** Grammatical meanings indicate the role of words in a sentence,
how they relate to each other, and the grammatical functions they perform (e.g.,
subject, object, verb).

- **Examples:** In the sentence "She runs," the grammatical meaning of "she" is

the subject, and the grammatical meaning of "runs" is the action performed by the
subject.

In summary, lexical meanings deal with the core content or referential aspect of
individual words, while grammatical meanings involve the structural and relational
aspects of words within a sentence. Both are essential components of language,
working together to convey clear and meaningful communication.

30. What are the main requirements for the grammatical category?

The concept of a grammatical category involves a set of words that share a

common feature or features, typically related to syntax, morphology, or semantics.
The main requirements for defining a grammatical category include:

1. **Shared Features:**

- Members of a grammatical category should share common linguistic features.

These features could be morphological (related to form), syntactic (related to
sentence structure), or semantic (related to meaning).

2. **Mutual Exclusivity:**

- Words within a grammatical category should be distinguishable from those

outside the category. There should be clear criteria that allow for the categorization
of words and prevent ambiguity or overlap with other categories.

3. **Rule-Governed Behavior:**

- Words within a grammatical category should exhibit consistent patterns of

behavior governed by linguistic rules. These rules dictate how words in a category
function within sentences, including their syntactic roles, agreement, and
placement.

4. **Productivity:**

- A grammatical category should have the potential for productivity, meaning

that new words can be easily created and assimilated into the category following
established linguistic patterns.

5. **Semantic Coherence:**
 - Words within a grammatical category should exhibit a degree of semantic
coherence, sharing related meanings or functions. However, this requirement is not
always absolute, as some categories may include words with diverse meanings
(e.g., prepositions).

The fulfillment of these requirements helps linguists define and analyze

grammatical categories, contributing to our understanding of how language
organizes and expresses meaning.

Block2

31. Determine which language levels the following language units belong to:
(1) a wonderful girl, (2) un-, (3) /t/, (4) bachelor, 5) this is my husband, (6) if
he were here now, he would help us, (7) – hood, (8) language, (9) a blue sky,
(10) /ei/.

"A wonderful girl"

Language Level: Sentence/Phrase

Explanation: This is a complete sentence.

"Un"

Language Level: Morpheme

Explanation: "Un" is a morpheme, a meaningful linguistic unit.

"/t/"

Language Level: Phoneme

Explanation: "/t/" represents a single sound, the phoneme.

"Bachelor"

Language Level: Word

Explanation: "Bachelor" is a single word.

"This is my husband"

Language Level: Sentence/Phrase

Explanation: This is a complete sentence.

"If he were here now, he would help us."

Language Level: Sentence

Explanation: This is a complex sentence with a conditional clause.

"-hood"

Language Level: Morpheme

Explanation: "-hood" is a morpheme used to form nouns indicating a state or

condition.

"Language"

Language Level: Word

Explanation: "Language" is a single word.

"A blue sky"

Language Level: Phrase

Explanation: This is a noun phrase.

"/ei/"

Language Level: Phoneme

Explanation: "/ei/" represents a diphthong, a combination of two vowel sounds.

32. Determine the grammatical form of the following language units: is

reading, children, decided, Anna`s, was having.

"Is reading"

Grammatical Form: Present Progressive Verb Phrase

Explanation: The auxiliary verb "is" indicates present progressive tense, and
"reading" is the present participle, forming a verb phrase.

"Children"

Grammatical Form: Noun

Explanation: "Children" is a plural noun.

"Decided"

Grammatical Form: Past Tense Verb

Explanation: "Decided" is the past tense form of the verb "decide."

"Anna's"

Grammatical Form: Possessive Noun

Explanation: "Anna's" is a possessive form, indicating that something belongs to

Anna.

"Was having"

Grammatical Form: Past Progressive Verb Phrase

Explanation: The auxiliary verb "was" indicates past progressive tense, and
"having" is the present participle, forming a verb phrase.

33. Analyze the morphemic composition of the word by its direct components:
mountains, oxen, grandfather`s tie, overhear, unseen, argument, childhood.

Mountains:

Morphemes: mountain-s

Components: mountain (root) + -s (plural suffix)

Oxen:

Morphemes: ox-en

Components: ox (root) + -en (plural suffix)

Grandfather's Tie:

Morphemes: grandfather-'s + tie

Components: grandfather (root) + -'s (possessive suffix) + tie (root)

Overhear:

Morphemes: over-hear

Components: over (prefix) + hear (root)

Unseen:

Morphemes: un-seen

Components: un (prefix) + seen (past participle of see, root)

Argument:

Morphemes: argu-ment
Components: argu (root) + -ment (noun-forming suffix)

Childhood:

Morphemes: child-hood

Components: child (root) + -hood (noun-forming suffix)

34. Give examples of word-formative and inflectional affixes in English.

Word-Formative Affixes:

These affixes are used to create entirely new words or change the word class.

Example:

Affix: -ize

Word Formation: analyze

Original Word: analysis

In this example, the suffix "-ize" is a word-formative affix. It transforms the noun
"analysis" into the verb "analyze."

Inflectional Affixes:

Inflectional affixes don't create new words but rather modify the grammatical form
of a word to indicate features like tense, number, case, etc.

Example:

Affix: -s

Word: cat

Inflected Form: cats

In this case, the suffix "-s" is an inflectional affix. It changes the number of the
noun "cat" from singular to plural.

35. Determine which part of speech the highlighted words in the sentences
belong to:

a) "upped" – past tense verb (action)

b) "hardly" – adverb (modifying the verb “hear”)

c) "some" - determiner
 d) "smoking" - gerund, "is" - verb, "full of" - prepositional phrase

e) “when”- subordinating conjunction

f) "was" - verb, "able" - adjective, "to" - infinitive marker

g) "to" - infinitive marker, "have" - verb, "an" - determiner, "active" – adjective,

“life”- noun

h) "slowly" - adverb, "down" - adverb

36. Explain the use of the article in the following statements:

In the provided statements, articles (definite article "the" and indefinite articles "a"
and "an") are used to specify or generalize nouns. Here's an analysis of each
statement:

a) **The dog was tamed by man a long time ago.**

- "The" is used before "dog" to specify a particular dog.
- "A" is used before "long time ago" to indicate an indefinite period.

b) **He felt pity as he knew that living with him didn't give her pleasure.**
- "The" is not used before "pity" because it's a general feeling.
- "Her" is used before "pleasure" to indicate a specific person.

c) **It would have been a surprise to hear that she felt attached to him.**
- "A" is used before "surprise" because it's a general statement.
- "Him" is used without an article as it refers to a specific person.

d) **A group of boys were playing volleyball.**

- "A" is used before "group" to indicate an unspecified group.
- "Boys" is used without an article as it's a plural countable noun.

e) **The woman who teaches us Italian now is not a teacher.**

- "The" is used before "woman" to specify a particular woman.
- "A" is used before "teacher" as it refers to a general profession.

f) **The theatre showed us a new Oscar Wilde, not the great Wilde, but a man in
despair, full of doubts.**
- "The" is used before "theatre" to specify a particular theatre.
- "A" is used before "man" to introduce a new person.

g) **It was better to have a sulky Arthur than no Arthur at all.**

- "A" is used before "sulky Arthur" to indicate an unspecified Arthur.

h) **She was no woman, she was a servant.**

 - "No" and "a" are used to emphasize the contrast between "woman" and
"servant."

i) **Hollowquay was a has-been if there ever was.**

- "A" is used before "has-been" to indicate a general state.

j) **Developed first as a fishing village and then further developed as an English

Riviera - and now a mere summer resort, crowded in August.**
- "A" is used before "fishing village" and "English Riviera" to indicate general
categories.

k) **Now a mere summer resort, crowded in August.**

- "A" is used before "mere summer resort" to indicate a general category.

37. Translate the following phrases into English using, where possible, the
model Adjective + Noun или Noun +Noun:

a) зубная боль, зубной врач;

Toothache, dentist

The adjectives "зубной" (tooth) and "железный" (iron) are used before the
nouns "боль" (pain) and "врач" (doctor) to form compound nouns.

b) железная воля, железная дорога, железный век;

Iron will, railroad, Iron Age

In these cases, the adjective "железный" (iron) is used to describe the nouns
"воля" (will), "дорога" (road), and "век" (age).

c) золотая рыбка, золотая валюта, золотая середина, золотое сердце, золотое

шитье, золотые волосы, золотой песок, золотой шанс, золотая корона,
золотая свадьба, золотая молодежь, золотой треугольник, золотые прииски,
золотые пляжи;

goldfish, gold currency, golden mean, golden heart, gold embroidery, golden
hair, golden sand, golden opportunity, golden crown, golden wedding,
golden youth, golden triangle, gold mines, golden beaches

In all of these cases, the adjective "золотой" (golden) is used to modify the
noun.
d) женская одежда, женская школа, женская походка, существительное
женского рода, женское (феминистское) движение, женские руки, женская
литература;

Women’s clothing, girls' school, feminine walk, feminine noun, women's

movement, women's hands, women's literature

In these cases, the adjective "женский" (feminine) is used to indicate that the noun
refers to something that is feminine.

38. Explain the use of the infinitive in the following statements:

a) To have asked questions here would have attracted attention,

In this sentence, the infinitive "to have asked questions" is used to express a
hypothetical situation. The speaker is saying that if they had asked
questions, it would have attracted attention.

b)To see is to believe,

In this sentence, the infinitive "to see" is used to express the meaning of the
verb "to believe." The speaker is saying that seeing something is the only
way to believe it.

c) I wanted to tell them before they discovered,

In this sentence, the infinitive "to tell them" is used to express the speaker's
intention. The speaker is saying that they wanted to tell them something
before they found out on their own.

d) There was no one to read the words that were being treated,

In this sentence, the infinitive "to read" is used to express a purpose. The
speaker is saying that there was no one who could read the words that were
being treated.

e) “He was a good workman; too good a workman to be sacked."

In this context, the infinitive phrase "to be sacked" provides additional

information about the quality of the workman.

39. Explain the use of the gerund in the following statements:

In these statements:
a) "Your listening to me" - Here, the gerund "listening" is used as the subject of the
sentence, indicating the action of listening.

b) "The only remedy for such headache is going to bed" - In this case, the gerund
"going" functions as a noun, serving as the subject complement for "is."

c) "I love reading" - The gerund "reading" is the direct object of the verb "love,"
representing the activity that is loved.

d) "He had a gift of listening" - The gerund "listening" is part of the prepositional
phrase "of listening," functioning as the object of the preposition "of."

e) "On entering the house, I said 'hello'" - Here, "entering" is a gerund used in a
participial phrase that provides additional information about the subject "I."

40. Explain the use of the adverb in the following statements:

In these statements:

a) "If there is too much snow, the match will be cancelled" - The adverb "too"
modifies the adverb "much," indicating an excessive amount of snow.

b) "The dog barks loudly" - The adverb "loudly" modifies the verb "barks,"
describing the manner or intensity of the barking.

c) "I met him yesterday" - The adverb "yesterday" specifies the time when the
meeting occurred, providing additional temporal information.

d) "I have seen him only once" - The adverb "only" modifies the adverb "once,"
emphasizing the limited frequency of the speaker's sightings.

e) "Therefore they decided to go on strike" - The adverb "therefore" indicates a

logical consequence or result, connecting the decision to go on strike with a
preceding situation.

f) "I searched for him everywhere" - The adverb "everywhere" specifies the extent
or scope of the search, indicating that the speaker looked in all possible places.

41, 51 Define the underlined parts of speech and their functions in the
sentence.

1. To see you is nice.

2. He called her a taxi.
3. Tom Hanks, who is the greatest actor, should win the Oscar.
4. Mary has been out in the canoe all morning when she suddenly fell into the
lake.
 5. By sundown he will have finished the job.

1. “To see”: Infinitive phrase functioning as the subject of the sentence.

2. “her”: Pronoun, the indirect object receiving the action.
3. “Tom Hanks”: Proper noun, the subject of the sentence.
“the Oscar”: Noun phrase, the direct object of the verb “should win.”
4. “She suddenly fell into the lake”: Independent clause describing an
unexpected event (main action).
5. “will have finished”: Verb phrase indicating future perfect tense,
suggesting the completion of an action before a specified future time.

42,52 Give the plural form of the following English nouns:

1. Oasis → Oases

2. Nucleus → Nuclei

3. Medium → Media

4. Axis → Axes

5. Bacillus → Bacilli

6. Bacterium → Bacteria

7. Larva → Larvae

8. Analysis → Analyses

9. Phenomenon → Phenomena

10. Encyclopedia → Encyclopedias

11. Fungus → Fungi

12. Criterion → Criteria

13. Hypothesis → Hypotheses

14. Formula → Formulas or Formulae

15. Abacus → Abaci or Abacuses

16. Nebula → Nebulae

17. Alumnus → Alumni

18. Basis → Bases

19. Symposium → Symposia or Symposiums

20. Paralysis → Paralyses

21. Genius → Geniuses or Genii

22. Calculus → Calculi

23. Sclerosis → Scleroses

24. Uvula → Uvulae

25. Moratorium → Moratoriums or Moratoria

26. Iambus → Iambi or Iambuses

27. Cumulus → Cumuli

28. Datum → Data

29. Amoeba → Amoebae or Amoebas

30. Copula → Copulae or Copulas

31. Thesis → Theses

43,53 Make compound nouns with the following words:

1. **Air:**

- Airplane

- Airfield

2. **Black:**

- Blackboard

- Blacksmith

3. **Ice:**

- Iceberg

- Ice cream

4. **Wall:**

- Wallpaper
 - Wallflower

5. **Sea:**

- Seashore

- Seagull

6. **High:**

- High school

- High-rise

7. **Hair:**

- Hairbrush

- Haircut

8. **Bed:**

- Bedtime

- Bedspread

9. **Motor:**

- Motorbike

- Motorcade

10. **Rain:**

- Raincoat

- Raindrop

11. **Hand:**

- Handshake

- Handwriting

12. **Soft:**

- Softball
 - Soft drink

13. **Out:**

- Outfit

- Outdoors

14. **Break:**

- Breakwater

- Breakfast

15. **Make:**

- Makeup

- Makeover

16. **Land:**

- Landscape

- Landmark

17. **Fall:**

- Waterfall

- Fallacy

18. **Ball:**

- Basketball

- Ballroom

19. **Food:**

- Foodcourt

- Foodstuff

20. **Down:**

- Countdown
 - Downpour

21. **Up:**

- Upgrade

- Uplift

22. **Room:**

- Classroom

- Bedroom

23. **Ware:**

- Hardware

- Software

24. **Plane:**

- Airplane

- Planetary

25. **Put:**

- Putty

- Put-down

26. **Board:**

- Keyboard

- Bulletin board

27. **Cycle:**

- Bicycle

- Cyclical

28. **Light:**

- Lamplight
 - Sunlight

29. **Paper:**

- Newspaper

- Wallpaper

30. **Cut:**

- Haircut

- Shortcut

44,54 Define the verbs in the following sentences and explain their
grammatical categories.

1. **Go on the Internet and order a new phone.**

- Verbs: **Go, order**

- **Go:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb

- Tense: Present (imperative)

- Form: Base form

- **Order:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb

- Tense: Present (imperative)

- Form: Base form

2. **Where are you going?**

- Verbs: **are, going**

- **Are:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (copula or linking verb)

- Tense: Present

- Form: Present tense of "to be"

 - **Going:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (gerund)

- Tense: Present

- Form: Present participle of "go"

3. **They will have gone.**

- Verbs: **will have gone**

- **Will:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (auxiliary/modal)

- Tense: Future

- Form: Modal verb indicating future

- **Have:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (auxiliary)

- Tense: Present perfect

- Form: Present tense of "have" as an auxiliary

- **Gone:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (main verb)

- Tense: Present perfect

- Form: Past participle of "go"

4. **The facts had compromised the new secretary.**

- Verbs: **had compromised**

- **Had:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (auxiliary)

- Tense: Past perfect

- Form: Past tense of "have" as an auxiliary

 - **Compromised:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (main verb)

- Tense: Past perfect

- Form: Past participle of "compromise"

5. **I will help the blind across the road.**

- Verbs: **will help**

- **Will:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (auxiliary/modal)

- Tense: Future

- Form: Modal verb indicating future

- **Help:**

- Grammatical Category: Verb (main verb)

- Tense: Future

- Form: Base form

45,55 Identify the Tense, Aspect, Mood and Voice in the following sentences.

1. **The woman trying on the red shoes is an actress.**

- **Tense:** Present

- **Aspect:** Continuous (or Progressive)

- **Mood:** Indicative

- **Voice:** Active

2. **We were brought a lot of presents.**

- **Tense:** Past

- **Aspect:** Simple

- **Mood:** Indicative
 - **Voice:** Passive

3. **I wish I were sixteen again.**

- **Tense:** Present (but it's a subjunctive construction)

- **Aspect:** Simple

- **Mood:** Subjunctive

- **Voice:** Not applicable (since it's a subjunctive construction)

4. **Turn off this terrible music.**

- **Tense:** Present (imperative mood)

- **Aspect:** Simple

- **Mood:** Imperative

- **Voice:** Active

5. **He had been staying in the hotel for a week when his friends arrived.**

- **Tense:** Past perfect (for the first part), Past simple (for the second part)

- **Aspect:** Continuous (for the first part), Simple (for the second part)

- **Mood:** Indicative

- **Voice:** Active

46,56 Define the verbs in the following sentences and explain their
grammatical categories.

1. **"I will call you later; I am having dinner now."**

- Verbs:

- **"will call":** This is a future tense verb phrase. "Will" is a modal auxiliary
indicating future action, and "call" is the main verb. The verb "call" is in the base
form.
 - **"am having":** This is a present progressive (or present continuous) verb
phrase. "Am" is the present tense of the verb "to be," and "having" is the present
participle of the verb "to have."

2. **"I always taste food before adding salt."**

- Verbs:

- **"taste":** This is a base form verb indicating the action of sampling or

evaluating the flavor of food.

- **"adding":** This is a present participle, indicating ongoing or continuous

action. It functions as part of the present participle phrase "before adding salt."

3. **"Please answer my letter."**

- Verb:

- **"answer":** This is a base form verb. It indicates the action of responding

to or replying to a letter.

4. **"Our car was stolen yesterday."**

- Verb:

- **"was stolen":** This is a past tense passive voice verb phrase. "Was" is the
past tense of the verb "to be," and "stolen" is the past participle of the verb "to
steal." The passive voice is used because the focus is on the action (the car being
stolen) rather than the doer of the action.

5. **"We have waited for you."**

- Verb:

- **"have waited":** This is a present perfect tense verb phrase. "Have" is a

present tense auxiliary verb, and "waited" is the past participle of the verb "to
wait." The present perfect tense indicates an action that began in the past and has
relevance to the present.

**Grammatical Categories:**

- **Base Form Verb:** The simplest form of a verb.

- **Present Tense Verb:** Indicates an action happening in the present.

- **Present Participle:** The -ing form of the verb used in progressive or
continuous tenses.

- **Past Tense Verb:** Indicates an action that occurred in the past.

- **Past Participle:** The third form of the verb often used in perfect tenses or
passive voice.

- **Modal Auxiliary:** An auxiliary verb used to express modality, such as

possibility, necessity, or intention.

- **Present Perfect Tense:** Indicates an action that started in the past and has
relevance to the present.

- **Passive Voice:** The form of a verb that emphasizes the action's recipient
rather than the doer.

47,57 What is Asyndetic sentences. Give examples.

An asyndetic sentence is a sentence structure where conjunctions (such as "and,"

"but," "or") are deliberately omitted between words, phrases, or clauses. Asyndeton
is a stylistic choice that can create a specific rhythm, pace, or emphasis in writing.
It often results in a more rapid flow of ideas and can convey a sense of urgency or
immediacy. Here are some examples of asyndetic sentences:

1. **Without Conjunctions:**

- "I came, I saw, I conquered."

- In this example, the absence of conjunctions emphasizes the quick, direct

succession of actions, giving the sentence a forceful and assertive quality.

2. **In a List:**

- "She packed her bags, grabbed her keys, dashed to the car."

- The lack of conjunctions in this list adds speed and efficiency to the actions
being described.

3. **In Narrative Style:**

- "The wind whispered through the trees, the leaves rustled, the night was alive."

- Here, the absence of conjunctions contributes to a sense of continuous

movement and activity in the scene being described.

4. **With Phrases:**
 - "He spoke with passion, conviction, sincerity."

- The asyndetic structure in this sentence enhances the rhythm and emphasis on
the qualities being attributed to the person.

5. **In Proverbs and Sayings:**

- "Eat, drink, be merry."

- This example condenses a common saying by omitting conjunctions, creating

a concise and rhythmic expression.

Asyndetic sentences are not only a literary device but are also used in everyday
language to convey a particular tone, rhythm, or impact. The deliberate omission of
conjunctions allows for a more dynamic and memorable expression of ideas.

48,58 Give the definitions of the following notions: morphology, morpheme,

allomorph, word, root morpheme, affixal morpheme (affix), alloterms, eme-
terms.

1. **Morphology:**

- **Definition:** Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies the internal

structure of words and the way morphemes, the smallest units of meaning,
combine to create words. It deals with the rules governing word formation and the
structure of words in a language.

2. **Morpheme:**

- **Definition:** A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It

can be a whole word or a part of a word, and it carries semantic meaning.
Morphemes can be free (stand alone as words) or bound (must be attached to other
morphemes).

3. **Allomorph:**

- **Definition:** Allomorphs are different phonological or morphological

representations of a morpheme. They are variations of a morpheme that occur in
different linguistic environments or due to phonological rules.

4. **Word:**

- **Definition:** In linguistics, a word is the smallest unit of language that can

stand alone and carry meaning. A word can consist of one or more morphemes,
and it typically represents a single concept.
5. **Root Morpheme:**

- **Definition:** A root morpheme is the primary morpheme in a word, carrying

its core meaning. It is the morpheme to which affixes (prefixes, suffixes) are added
to create derived or inflected forms.

6. **Affixal Morpheme (Affix):**

- **Definition:** An affixal morpheme, or simply an affix, is a morpheme that is

attached to a root or stem to create a derived or inflected form of a word. Affixes
include prefixes (before the root), suffixes (after the root), and infixes (inserted
within the root).

7. **Alloterms:**

- **Definition:** "Alloterms" is not a standard linguistic term. It seems to be a

term specific to a certain context or field. Without additional context, it's
challenging to provide a precise definition. It's possible that it could be a term used
in a specialized area or in a specific linguistic theory.

8. **Eme-Terms:**

- **Definition:** "Eme-terms" is not a recognized linguistic term in standard

linguistic literature. It seems to be a term specific to a particular context or field.
Without additional information or context, it's difficult to provide a precise
definition.

49,59 Make the new words with the help of the following affixes and translate
them as in the example: help (помогать) – helpful (услужливый), helpfulness
(услужливость), unhelpful (неуслужливый), helpless (беспомощный),
helplessness (беспомощность).

Affixes: un-, mis-, im-, in-, -il, dis-; -ful, - ity, -less, -ness, -ment, -able.

Words: possible, polite, stress, agree, legal, use, like, taste, understand, hope,
care, mortal, human, success, popular, profit, thought.

1. **possible**

- impossible (невозможный)

2. **polite**

- impolite (невежливый)

3. **stress**
 - distress (стресс)

4. **agree**

- disagree (не соглашаться)

5. **legal**

- illegal (незаконный)

6. **use**

- misuse (неправильное использование)

7. **like**

- dislike (неприязание)

8. **taste**

- distaste (отвращение)

9. **understand**

- misunderstand (неправильно понять)

10. **hope**

- hopeless (безнадежный)

11. **care**

- careless (беспечный)

12. **mortal**

- immortal (бессмертный)

13. **human**

- inhuman (нелюдский)

14. **success**

- unsuccessful (неудачный)

15. **popular**

- unpopular (непопулярный)
16. **profit**

- nonprofit (некоммерческий)

17. **thought**

- thoughtless (бессмысленный)

Now, let's use the affixes to create additional words:

18. **agree**

- misagree (несогласие)

19. **like**

- unlike (непохожий)

20. **use**

- disuse (непользование)

21. **hope**

- hopeless (безнадежный)

22. **care**

- careful (осторожный)

23. **thought**

- thoughtfulness (внимательность)

24. **understand**

- understanding (понимание)

25. **success**

- successful (успешный)

50,60 Define the underlined parts of speech and their functions in the sentence.

1. “To see”: Infinitive phrase functioning as the subject of the sentence.

2. “her”: Pronoun, the indirect object receiving the action.
3. “Tom Hanks”: Proper noun, the subject of the sentence.
“the Oscar”: Noun phrase, the direct object of the verb “should win.”
4. “She suddenly fell into the lake”: Independent clause describing an
unexpected event (main action).
 5. “will have finished”: Verb phrase indicating future perfect tense,
suggesting the completion of an action before a specified future time.
6. **"She ran faster than her father."**

- Parts of Speech:

- **She:** Pronoun (subject)

- **ran:** Verb (past tense)

- **faster:** Adverb (comparative)

- **than:** Conjunction (introducing a comparison)

- **her:** Pronoun (object)

- **father:** Noun (object of the preposition "than")

- Functions:

- **She:** Subject of the verb "ran."

- **ran:** Main verb indicating the action.

- **faster:** Modifying the verb "ran," indicating the manner of running.

- **than:** Introducing a comparison between the speed of "She" and "her

father."

- **her:** Object of the preposition "than."

- **father:** Object of the preposition "than."

7. **"I fell sick."**

- Parts of Speech:

- **I:** Pronoun (subject)

- **fell:** Verb (past tense)

- **sick:** Adjective (describing the state of health)

- Functions:

- **I:** Subject of the verb "fell."

 - **fell:** Main verb indicating the action of falling.

- **sick:** Adjective modifying the subject "I," describing the state resulting
from the action.

8. **"To live happily is not so hard."**

- Parts of Speech:

- **To:** Infinitive marker

- **live:** Verb (infinitive)

- **happily:** Adverb (modifying "live")

- **is:** Verb (linking)

- **not:** Adverb (negation)

- **so:** Adverb (intensifier)

- **hard:** Adjective (describing the difficulty)

- Functions:

- **To:** Introduces the infinitive phrase.

- **live:** Infinitive verb, serving as the subject of the sentence.

- **happily:** Modifies the verb "live," indicating the manner of living.

- **is:** Linking verb connecting the subject "To live happily" with the
predicate.

- **not:** Indicates negation.

- **so:** Intensifies the adjective "hard."

- **hard:** Describes the difficulty of living happily.

9. **"She played well."**

- Parts of Speech:
 - **She:** Pronoun (subject)

- **played:** Verb (past tense)

- **well:** Adverb (modifying "played")

- Functions:

- **She:** Subject of the verb "played."

- **played:** Main verb indicating the action of playing.

- **well:** Adverb modifying the verb "played," indicating the manner of

playing.

10. **"Joe Louis was a fantastically successful boxer."**

- Parts of Speech:

- **Joe Louis:** Proper Noun (subject)

- **was:** Verb (linking)

- **a:** Article (indefinite)

- **fantastically:** Adverb (modifying "successful")

- **successful:** Adjective (describing "boxer")

- **boxer:** Noun (predicate nominative)

- Functions:

- **Joe Louis:** Subject of the linking verb "was."

- **was:** Linking verb connecting the subject "Joe Louis" with the predicate.

- **a:** Indefinite article introducing the noun "boxer."

- **fantastically:** Modifies the adjective "successful," indicating the degree

of success.

- **successful:** Describes the noun "boxer."

 - **boxer:** Predicate nominative, the noun that complements the subject "Joe
Louis."