10.1007@s10554 020 01913 6
10.1007@s10554 020 01913 6
10.1007@s10554 020 01913 6
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10554-020-01913-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
Abstract
Negative stress echocardiography (NSE) is associated with low cardiovascular morbidity and overall mortality. We aimed
to determine the clinical and echocardiographic predictors of overall and cardiovascular outcomes following NSE. Patients
who underwent SE between 2013 and 2017 were reviewed. Patients with a history of solid organ transplant or being evalu-
ated for transplant, history of end-stage renal or liver disease, and positive SE were excluded. NSE results were divided into
negative diagnostic if patient reached target heart rate (THR) and had no wall motion abnormality (WMA) at rest or stress;
negative non-diagnostic if patient had no WMA but did not reach THR or if image quality was non-diagnostic; and abnormal
non-ischemic if patient had a resting WMA not worsened at stress along with a personal history of coronary artery disease
(CAD). New CAD lesion at 1 year was defined as ≥ 50% stenosis on cardiac catheterization. Of 4119 patients with SE, 2575
were included. All-cause mortality rate was 1.1%/year and CAD rate was 3.1%/year. Predictors of all-cause mortality were
age, male gender, history of smoking and being selected for dobutamine SE. Predictors of a new CAD lesion at 1 year were
male gender, diabetes, personal history of CAD and abnormal non-ischemic SE. We identified clinical and echocardiographic
characteristics in a subset of NSE patients who are at higher risk for subsequent adverse events. These characteristics should
be accounted for during the clinical interpretation of SE, and patients found at increased risk for morbidity and mortality
warrant continued follow-up.
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Methods that could interact with the outcomes of the study (such
as beta-blockers) were discontinued prior to the stress
Patient selection and outcomes test unless instructed otherwise by the referring physi-
cian. Patients’ heart rates and rhythms were continuously
The methods and results of our initial study involving the monitored using an electrocardiogram. Blood pressure was
same patient cohort have been described in detail else- obtained at rest and after every stage of stress. SE was
where [9]. We reviewed all SE tests performed in the terminated if the patient achieved target heart rate (THR),
outpatient setting between January 2013 and December experienced severe chest pain or developed ST-segment
2017 at Indiana University Methodist Hospital (N = 4119). elevation or hemodynamic abnormalities; these include
Patients with a history of heart transplant (N = 50), being hypotension (defined as a drop in systolic blood pressure
evaluated for solid organ transplants (N = 1016), and of > 10 mmHg from baseline blood pressure despite an
patients with a history of end-stage renal disease (N = 101) increase in workload), hypertension (defined as a systolic
or end-stage liver disease (N = 94) were excluded. We then blood pressure ≥ 250 mmHg and/or a diastolic blood pres-
excluded those with positive SE results (N = 283, 9.9%). sure ≥ 115 mmHg) and worrisome tachyarrhythmia. SE
In the event a patient had more than one SE during the test was considered diagnostic if patients reached at least
study period, only the first test was selected for analysis. 85% of the age-predicted maximal heart rate (defined as
Data collection included demographics (age, gender, race, 220—age). SE images were reviewed and interpreted by
and body mass index), cardiac risk factors (hypertension, cardiologists who are level II or level III-trained in echo-
diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, previous or current cardiography. Left ventricular ejection fraction was deter-
history of smoking, family history of CAD, and personal mined by the Simpson method or by visual assessment.
history of CAD), SE results and outcomes (overall mortal- Positive SE result was defined as the presence of new
ity, 1-year mortality, and new CAD lesion at 1 year). In or worsening of wall motion abnormality (WMA) post-
patients with a new CAD lesion at 1 year, we determined stress. NSE results were divided into negative diagnostic
if acute coronary syndrome (ACS) was diagnosed. The if patient reached THR (85% of the age-predicted maximal
study was approved by the Indiana University Institutional heart rate) and had no WMA at rest or stress; negative
Review Board. No consent was required given the retro- non-diagnostic if patient had no WMA but did not reach
spective nature of the study. THR or if image quality was reported as non-diagnostic
New CAD lesion at 1 year was defined as the presence per the interpreting physician; and abnormal non-ischemic
of a new obstructive lesion (≥ 50% lesion in ≥ 1 epicardial if patient had a known personal history of CAD and a rest-
coronary arteries or major branches) on cardiac catheteri- ing WMA not worsened post-stress.
zation. The occurrence of ACS among patients with a new
CAD lesion at 1 year was determined by reviewing the
charts of patients with International Classification of Dis- Statistical analysis
ease (ICD)-9 and ICD-10 codes consistent with ACS and/
or with elevated troponin levels (defined as > 0.1 ng/ml) Categorical variables were presented as total number and
and findings were confirmed by a consultant cardiologist percentages, and continuous variables as mean ± stand-
who saw the patient at that time. Mortality was determined ard deviation. Clinical and echocardiographic charac-
by reviewing newspaper obituaries and medical databases. teristics were compared using chi-square analysis for
Only all-cause mortality was surveyed. categorical variables and one-way Anova for normally
distributed variables. In the event a continuous variable
was not normally distributed, tests for comparison were
Echocardiogram image acquisition and analysis done using Kruskal–Wallis. Univariate logistic and Cox
regression analyses were performed to investigate the
Patients underwent either exercise (treadmill or bicycle) association between variables and outcomes. Final mod-
or dobutamine SE. Two-dimensional SE was performed by els were derived in a stepwise fashion using variables
trained sonographers according to standardized protocols with probability to enter of < 0.1 on univariate analy-
[10]. Images were obtained with patients in the left lateral sis. Kaplan–Meier curves were constructed for all-cause
decubitus position and included apical (two-chamber and mortality and were stratified according to the independ-
four-chamber) and parasternal (short-axis and long-axis) ent categorical predictors of all-cause mortality obtained
echocardiographic views according to the recommenda- on multivariate analysis. Statistical significance was set
tions of the American Society of Echocardiography (ASE); at p < 0.05. Statistical testing was performed using Stata
examples of which are shown in Fig. 1 [10]. Medications version 13 (StataCorp, College Station, TX, USA).
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Fig. 1 Transthoracic echocardiography images were obtained in each chamber views at rest (top row) and stress (bottom row). PLAX par-
patient using a parasternal long-axis and short-axis views at rest (top asternal long-axis, PSAX parasternal short-axis, 2C apical two-cham-
row) and stress (bottom row), and b apical two-chamber and four- ber, 4C apical four-chamber
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Table 1 Descriptive statistics of clinical and stress test variables for selected to undergo dobutamine rather than exercise SE
the total population and patients dead at 1 year (1.6% death at 1 year), the presence of a resting WMA at
Variable Total (N = 2575) Dead at baseline (1.9% death at 1 year), and an ejection fraction
1 year < 50% (2.2% death at 1 year).
(N = 29)
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Table 2 Descriptive statistics of clinical and stress test variables for the total population, patients with new CAD at 1 year and patients with no
new CAD at 1 year
Variable Total (N = 2575) New CAD at 1 year (N = 80) No new CAD at 1 year P-value
(N = 2495)
modality (p = 0.004) were independent predictors of all- [2, 4, 5]. The annual rate of obstructive coronary stenosis
cause mortality in patients with NSE (Table 5 and Fig. 2). following NSE has been scarcely reported and was found
to be 3.1%/year in our study. The outcome of 137 patients
undergoing exercise SE was reported in a previous study
Discussion over a follow-up period of 23 months. The annual rate of
cardiac events, which included myocardial infarction and
To our knowledge, this is the largest contemporary study coronary revascularization, was found to be 1.8%/year [11].
that describes the prognostic significance of NSE. In this In a similar study, 170 patients undergoing exercise stress
study of 2575 patients with NSE, the annual all-cause mor- testing over a period of 28 months were found to have a
tality was found to be 1.1%/year (N = 29) while the study myocardial infarction rate of 0.85%/year and a coronary
mortality rate was found to be 3.8% (N = 99) over a follow- revascularization rate of 1.7%/year [3]. No deaths were
up period of 3.2 ± 1.2 years. These findings were similar recorded in any of the aforementioned studies. In a study by
to those reported in previous long-term follow-up studies Davar et al., 136 women with a high pretest probability of
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Table 3 Clinical and stress test Variable New CAD at 1 year All-cause mortality
variables associated with new
CAD at 1 year and all-cause OR (95% CI) P-value HR (95% CI) P-value
mortality on univariate analysis
Normal 1 1
Abnormal non-ischemic SE 5.68 (3.15–10.24) < 0.001 2.39 (1.32–4.33) 0.004
Non-diagnostic SE 2.31 (1.35–3.94) 0.002 1.14 (0.67–1.93) 0.64
Age 1.04 (1.02–1.06) < 0.001 1.06 (1.05–1.09) < 0.001
Body mass index 1.01 (0.99–1.03) 0.343 0.97 (0.95–1.00) 0.081
Male gender 2.52 (1.57–4.06) < 0.001 1.64 (1.09–2.44) 0.016
Black (versus non-black) 0.38 (0.19–0.74) 0.004 0.84 (0.52–1.34) 0.462
Diabetes mellitus 2.68 (1.70–4.21) < 0.001 1.08 (0.71–1.62) 0.726
Hypertension 3.24 (1.71–6.16) < 0.001 1.32 (0.84–2.06) 0.231
Hyperlipidemia 3.12 (1.75–5.60) < 0.001 0.99 (0.66–1.49) 0.981
Prior or current smoking 1.64 (1.05–2.56) 0.03 1.90 (1.28–2.82) 0.002
Personal history of CAD 7.48 (4.57–12.24) < 0.001 2.31 (1.55–3.43) < 0.001
Family history of CAD 2.13 (1.07–4.21) 0.03 1.23 (0.60–2.54) 0.569
Exercise SE 0.86 (0.54–1.37) 0.542 0.40 (0.27–0.60) < 0.001
IVS diastolic thickness 3.46 (1.40–8.57) 0.007 2.05 (0.87–4.86) 0.1
Resting EF 0.97 (0.95–0.99) 0.046 0.99 (0.96–1.02) 0.47
Peak heart rate 0.97 (0.96–0.98) < 0.001 0.98 (0.97–0.99) < 0.001
Peak systolic blood pressure 1.00 (0.99–1.01) 0.07 0.99 (0.98–1.00) 0.075
Peak diastolic blood pressure 1.00 (0.99–1.02) 0.335 0.99 (0.97–1.00) 0.233
CAD coronary artery disease, OR odds ratio, HR hazard ratio, SE stress echocardiography, EF ejection
fraction
Table 4 Clinical and stress test variables associated with new CAD at Table 5 Clinical and stress test variables associated with all-cause
1 year on multivariate analysis death on Cox regression
Variable New CAD at 1 year Variables All-cause death
OR (95% CI) P-value HR (95% CI) P-value
Abnormal non-ischemic SE 2.41 (1.24–4.69) 0.01 Abnormal non-ischemic SE 1.34 (0.72–2.50) 0.356
Age 1.00 (0.98–1.03) 0.605 Age 1.05 (1.02–1.07) < 0.001
Male gender 1.98 (1.19–3.28) 0.009 Male gender 1.59 (1.05–2.40) 0.028
Black race 0.52 (0.26–1.06) 0.073 Body mass index 0.99 (0.96–1.02) 0.546
Diabetes mellitus 2.18 (1.34–3.26) 0.002 Personal history of CAD 1.18 (0.76–1.84) 0.452
Hyperlipidemia 1.14 (0.59–2.23) 0.732 Prior or current smoking 1.86 (1.22–2.83) 0.004
Prior or current smoking 1.01 (0.62–1.66) 0.923 Exercise SE 0.52 (0.34–0.81) 0.004
Personal history of CAD 3.96 (2.19–7.17) < 0.001 Peak systolic blood pressure 0.99 (0.98–1.00) 0.172
Family history of CAD 1.39 (0.67–2.90) 0.351 Peak heart rate 0.99 (0.97–1.00) 0.172
Peak systolic blood pressure 1.01 (1.00–1.02) 0.133
HR hazard ratio, SE stress echocardiography, CAD coronary artery
Peak heart rate 0.99 (0.97–1.00) 0.051 disease
Resting EF 0.99 (0.97–1.03) 0.981
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Fig. 2 Kaplan–Meier analysis for all-cause mortality stratified according to age (a), gender (b), history of smoking (c) and stress echocardiogra-
phy modality (d)
emergency department. In this study, 20.7% (34/164) of the older age, male gender, presence of diabetes, personal his-
patients with NSE performed within 3 years of presenta- tory of CAD and abnormal non-ischemic SE results as
tion had significant CAD [13]. While the annual CAD rate independent predictors of new CAD at 1 year. Advanced
was not reported in this study, 27 of the 34 patients newly age is associated with a higher prevalence of cardiovascu-
diagnosed with CAD had their stress tests performed within lar and non-cardiovascular comorbidities thus explaining
1 year from diagnosis. The discrepancy between our results why age was found to be an independent predictor for both
and those of the previous study could be explained by the CAD at 1 year as well as all-cause mortality [5, 14]. Large
fact that patients presenting to the emergency department epidemiological studies have demonstrated that men have
with acute chest pain are more likely to have CAD. In addi- higher all-cause mortality (including cardiovascular causes)
tion, all of the patients included in our study were evaluated than women [15–17]. This disparity in survival between the
in the outpatient setting and only 53% had chest pain as an two genders has been attributed to biological differences
indication for SE. (such as genetic factors, immune response, hormones, and
disease patterns) and behavioral differences (such as com-
Predictors of clinical outcomes pliance with medications and willingness to seek medical
help) [17]. Male gender was independently associated with
While NSE is usually associated with favorable prognosis, a higher rate of new CAD at 1 year and all-cause mortality
we identified a subset of patients that are at a higher risk of in our study. Smoking is a well-established risk factor for
overall as well as cardiovascular adverse outcomes. Patients CAD and all-cause mortality [18, 19]. In our study, smok-
who were older, males, with a prior or current history of ing was found to be an independent predictor of all-cause
smoking and who were selected to undergo dobutamine SE mortality but not of 1-year CAD. It is possible that since
had a higher rate of overall mortality. We also identified patients with 1-year CAD constituted only 3.1% of the total
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Funding None. women over two decades: a registry-based study in Ontario, Can-
ada. BMJ Open 6:e012564
16. Crimmins EM, Shim H, Zhang YS, Kim JK (2019) Differences
Compliance with ethical standards between men and women in mortality and the health dimensions
of the morbidity process. Clin Chem 65:135–145
Conflict of interest None declared. All authors take responsibility for 17. Oksuzyan A, Juel K, Vaupel JW, Christensen K (2008) Men: good
all aspects of the reliability and freedom from bias of the data pre- health and high mortality. Sex differences in health and aging.
sented and their discussed interpretation. Aging Clin Exp Res 20:91–102
18. Doyle JT, Dawber TR, Kannel WB, Heslin AS, Kahn HA (1962)
Cigarette smoking and coronary heart disease: combined expe-
rience of the Albany and Framingham studies. N Engl J Med
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