APPENDICES 239

Appendix I

Definitions of the SI Base Units

Metre (m): The metre, symbol m, is the SI unit of length. It is defined by taking the
fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when
expressed in the unit ms-1, where the second is defined in terms of the caesium
frequency.
Kilogram (k): The kilogram, symbol kg, is the SI unit of mass. It is defined by taking
the fixed numerical value of the planck constant h to be 6.62607015 × 10–34 when
expressed in the unit Js, which is equal to kgm2s-1, where the metre and the
second are defined in terms of c and ∆ Vcs.
Second (s): The symbol s, is the SI unit of time. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆ Vcs, the unperturbed ground-state
hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when
expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1.
Ampere (A): The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is defined by
∆ taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be 1.602176634×10–19
when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the second is defined in
terms of .
Kelvin (K): The Kelvin, symbol K, is the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. It is
defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant K to be
1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit JK–1, which is equal to kgm2s–2K–1, where
the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ Vcs.
Mole (mol): The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
contains exactly 6.02214076×1023 elementary entities. This number is the fixed
numerical value of the Avogadro constant, N A, when expressed in the unit mol–1
and is called the Avogadro number. The amount of substance, symbol n, of a system
is a measure of the number of specified elementary entities. An elementary entity
may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any other particle or specified
group of particles.
Candela (cd): The candela, symbol cd is the SI unit of luminous intensity in a given
direction. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy
of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when expressed
in the unit lm·W–1, which is equal to cd·sr·W –1, or cd sr kg–1m –2s 3, where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆ Vcs.
(The symbols listed here are internationally agreed and should not be changed in
other languages and scripts.

2022-23
240 CHEMISTRY

Appendix II

Elements, their Atomic Number and Molar Mass

Element Symbol Atomic Molar Element Symbol Atomic Molar

Number mass/ Number mass/
(g mol–1) (g mol–1)

Actinium Ac 89 227.03 Mercury Hg 80 200.59

Aluminium Al 13 26.98 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Americium Am 95 (243) Neodymium Nd 60 144.24
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 Neon Ne 10 20.18
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Neptunium Np 93 (237.05)
Arsenic As 33 74.92 Nickel Ni 28 58.71
Astatine At 85 210 Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Barium Ba 56 137.34 Nitrogen N 7 14.0067
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Nobelium No 102 (259)
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 Osmium Os 76 190.2
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98 Oxygen O 8 16.00
Bohrium Bh 107 (264) Palladium Pd 46 106.4
Boron B 5 10.81 Phosphorus P 15 30.97
Bromine Br 35 79.91 Platinum Pt 78 195.09
Cadmium Cd 48 112.40 Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Caesium Cs 55 132.91 Polonium Po 84 210
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Potassium K 19 39.10
Californium Cf 98 251.08 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.91
Carbon C 6 12.01 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 Protactinium Pa 91 231.04
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Radon Rn 86 (222)
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Rhenium Re 75 186.2
Copper Cu 29 63.54 Rhodium Rh 45 102.91
Curium Cm 96 247.07 Rubidium Rb 37 85.47
Dubnium Db 105 (263) Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 Rutherfordium Rf 104 (261)
Einsteinium Es 99 (252) Samarium Sm 62 150.35
Erbium Er 68 167.26 Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Europium Eu 63 151.96 Seaborgium Sg 106 (266)
Fermium Fm 100 (257.10) Selenium Se 34 78.96
Fluorine F 9 19.00 Silicon Si 14 28.08
Francium Fr 87 (223) Silver Ag 47 107.87
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Sodium Na 11 22.99
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Germanium Ge 32 72.61 Sulphur S 16 32.06
Gold Au 79 196.97 Tantalum Ta 73 180.95
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Technetium Tc 43 (98.91)
Hassium Hs 108 (269) Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Helium He 2 4.00 Terbium Tb 65 158.92
Holmium Ho 67 164.93 Thallium Tl 81 204.37
Hydrogen H 1 1.0079 Thorium Th 90 232.04
Indium In 49 114.82 Thulium Tm 69 168.93
Iodine I 53 126.90 Tin Sn 50 118.69
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Titanium Ti 22 47.88
Iron Fe 26 55.85 Tungsten W 74 183.85
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Ununbium Uub 112 (277)
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 Ununnilium Uun 110 (269)
Lawrencium Lr 103 (262.1) Unununium Uuu 111 (272)
Lead Pb 82 207.19 Uranium U 92 238.03
Lithium Li 3 6.94 Vanadium V 23 50.94
Lutetium Lu 71 174.96 Xenon Xe 54 131.30
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Meitneium Mt 109 (268) Zinc Zn 30 65.37
Mendelevium Md 101 258.10 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22

The value given in parenthesis is the molar mass of the isotope of largest known half-life.

2022-23
APPENDICES 241

Appendix III

A. Specific and Molar Heat Capacities for Some Substances at 298 K and
one Atmospheric Pressure
Substance Specific Heat Capacity Molar Heat Capacity
(J/g) (J/mol)
air 0.720 20.8
water (liquid) 4.184 75.4
ammonia (gas) 2.06 35.1
hydrogen chloride 0.797 29.1
hydrogen bromide 0.360 29.1
ammonia (liquid) 4.70 79.9
ethyl alcohol (liquid) 2.46 113.16
ethylene glycol (liquid) 2.42 152.52
water (solid) 2.06 37.08
carbon tetrachloride (liquid) 0.861 132.59
chlorofluorocarbon (CCl F ) 0.5980 72.35
2 2
ozone 0.817 39.2
neon 1.03 20.7
chlorine 0.477 33.8
bromine 0.473 75.6
iron 0.460 25.1
copper 0.385 24.7
aluminium 0.902 24.35
gold 0.128 25.2
graphite 0.720 8.65

B. Molar Heat Capacities for Some Gases (J/mol)

Gas Cp Cv Cp - Cv C p / Cv

Monatomic*
helium 20.9 12.8 8.28 1.63
argon 20.8 12.5 8.33 1.66
iodine 20.9 12.6 8.37 1.66
mercury 20.8 12.5 8.33 1.66
Diatomic†
hydrogen 28.6 20.2 8.33 1.41
oxygen 29.1 20.8 8.33 1.39
nitrogen 29.0 20.7 8.30 1.40
hydrogen chloride 29.6 21.0 8.60 1.39
carbon monoxide 29.0 21.0 8.00 1.41
Triatomic†
nitrous oxide 39.0 30.5 8.50 1.28
carbon dioxide 37.5 29.0 8.50 1.29
Polyatomic†
ethane 53.2 44.6 8.60 1.19

*Translational kinetic energy only.

†Translational, vibrational and rotational energy.

2022-23
242 CHEMISTRY

Appendix IV

Physical Constants

Quantity Symbol Traditional Units SI Units

Acceleration of gravity g 980.6 cm/s 9.806 m/s
Atomic mass unit (1/12 amu 1.6606 × 10-24 g 1.6606 × 10-27 kg
the mass of 12C atom) or u
Avogadro constant NA 6.022 ×1023 6.022 × 1023
particles/mol particles/mol
Bohr radius ao 0.52918  5.2918 × 10-11 m
5.2918 × 10-9 cm
Boltzmann constant k 1.3807 × 10-16 erg/K 1.3807 × 10-23 J/K
Charge-to-mass e/m 1.758820 ×l08 coulomb/g 1.7588 × 1011 C/kg
ratio of electron
Electronic charge e 1.602176 × 10-19 coulomb 1.60219 × 10-19 C
4.8033 × 10-19 esu
Electron rest mass me 9.109382 ×10-28 g 9.10952 ×10-31 kg
0.00054859 u
Faraday constant F 96,487 coulombs/eq 96,487 C/mol e-
23.06 kcal/volt. eq 96,487 J/V.mol e-
3
L atm kPa dm
Gas constant R 0.8206 8.3145
mol K mol K

cal
1.987 8.3145 J/mol.K
mol K
Molar volume (STP) Vm 22.710981 L/mol 22.710981 × 10-3 m3/mol
22.710981 dm3/mol
Neutron rest mass mn 1.674927 × 10-24 g 1.67495 × 10-27 kg
1.008665 u
Planck constant h 6.6262 × 10-27 ergs 6.6262 × 10-34 J s
Proton rest mass mp 1.6726216 ×10-24 g 1.6726 ×10-27 kg
1.007277 u
Rydberg constant R∞ 3.289 × 1015 cycles/s 1.0974 × 107 m-1
2.1799 × 10-11 erg 2.1799 × 10-18 J
Speed of light c 2.9979 ×1010 cm/s 2.9979 × 108 m/s
(in a vacuum) (186,281 miles/second)

π = 3.1416 2.303 R = 4.576 cal/mol K = 19.15 J/mol K

e = 2.71828 2.303 RT (at 25°C) = 1364 cal/mol = 5709 J/mol
ln X = 2.303 log X

2022-23
APPENDICES 243

Appendix V

Some Useful Conversion Factors

Common Unit of Mass and Weight Common Units of Length

1 pound = 453.59 grams 1 inch = 2.54 centimetres (exactly)
1 pound = 453.59 grams = 0.45359 kilogram 1 mile = 5280 feet = 1.609 kilometres
1 kilogram = 1000 grams = 2.205 pounds 1 yard = 36 inches = 0.9144 metre
1 gram = 10 decigrams = 100 centigrams 1 metre = 100 centimetres = 39.37 inches
= 1000 milligrams = 3.281 feet
1 gram = 6.022 × 1023 atomic mass units or u = 1.094 yards
1 atomic mass unit = 1.6606 × 10–24 gram 1 kilometre = 1000 metres = 1094 yards
1 metric tonne = 1000 kilograms = 0.6215 mile
= 2205 pounds 1 Angstrom = 1.0 × 10–8 centimetre
= 0.10 nanometre
Common Unit of Volume = 1.0 × 10–10 metre
1 quart = 0.9463 litre = 3.937 × 10–9 inch
1 litre = 1.056 quarts
Common Units of Force* and Pressure
1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic
centimetres = 0.001 cubic metre 1 atmosphere = 760 millimetres of mercury
1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre = 0.001 litre = 1.013 × 105 pascals
= 1.056 × 10-3 quart = 14.70 pounds per square inch
1 cubic foot = 28.316 litres = 29.902 quarts 1 bar = 105 pascals
= 7.475 gallons 1 torr = 1 millimetre of mercury
1 pascal = 1 kg/ms2 = 1 N/m2
Common Units of Energy
1 joule = 1 × 107 ergs Temperature
SI Base Unit: Kelvin (K)
1 thermochemical calorie**
= 4.184 joules K = -273.15°C
= 4.184 × 107 ergs K = °C + 273.15
= 4.129 × 10–2 litre-atmospheres °F = 1.8(°C) + 32

= 2.612 × 1019 electron volts

°F − 32
1 ergs = 1 × 10–7 joule = 2.3901 × 10–8 calorie °C =
1 electron volt = 1.6022 × 10–19 joule 1.8
= 1.6022 × 10–12 erg
= 96.487 kJ/mol†
1 litre-atmosphere = 24.217 calories
= 101.32 joules
= 1.0132 ×109 ergs
1 British thermal unit = 1055.06 joules
= 1.05506 ×1010 ergs
= 252.2 calories

* Force: 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2, i.e.,the force that, when applied for 1 second, gives a
1-kilogram mass a velocity of 1 metre per second.
** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.50C to
15.50C.
† Note that the other units are per particle and must be multiplied by 6.022 ×1023 to be strictly
comparable.

2022-23
244 CHEMISTRY

Appendix VI

Thermodynamic Data at 298 K

INORGANIC SUBSTANCES

Substance Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs Energy of formation, Entropy,*

∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Aluminium
Al(s) 0 0 28.33
Al3+(aq) – 524.7 –481.2 –321.7
Al2O3(s) –1675.7 –1582.3 50.92
Al(OH)3(s) –1276 — —
AlCl3(s) –704.2 –628.8 110.67

Antimony
SbH3(g) 145.11 147.75 232.78
SbCl3(g) –313.8 –301.2 337.80
SbCl5(g) –394.34 –334.29 401.94

Arsenic
As(s), gray 0 0 35.1
As2S3(s) –169.0 –168.6 163.6
AsO43–(aq) –888.14 –648.41 –162.8

Barium
Ba(s) 0 0 62.8
Ba2+(aq) –537.64 –560.77 9.6
BaO(s) –553.5 –525.1 70.42
BaCO3(s) –1216.3 –1137.6 112.1
BaCO3(aq) –1214.78 –1088.59 –47.3

Boron
B(s) 0 0 5.86
B2O3(s) –1272.8 –1193.7 53.97
BF3(g) –1137.0 –1120.3 254.12

Bromine
Br2(l) 0 0 152.23
Br2(g) 30.91 3.11 245.46
Br(g) 111.88 82.40 175.02
Br–(aq) –121.55 –103.96 82.4
HBr(g) –36.40 –53.45 198.70
BrF3(g) –255.60 –229.43 292.53

Calcium
Ca(s) 0 0 41.42
Ca(g) 178.2 144.3 154.88
Ca2+(aq) –542.83 –553.58 –53.1

(continued)

2022-23
APPENDICES 245

Substance Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs Energy of formation, Entropy,*

∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Calcium (continued)
CaO(s) –635.09 –604.03 39.75
Ca(OH)2(s) –986.09 –898.49 83.39
Ca(OH)2(aq) –1002.82 –868.07 –74.5
CaCO3(s), calcite –1206.92 –1128.8 92.9
CaCO3(s), aragonite –1207.1 –1127.8 88.7
CaCO3(aq) –1219.97 –1081.39 –110.0
CaF2(s) –1219.6 –1167.3 68.87
CaF2(aq) –1208.09 –1111.15 –80.8
CaCl2(s) –795.8 –748.1 104.6
CaCl2(aq) –877.1 –816.0 59.8
CaBr2(s) –682.8 –663.6 130
CaC2(s) –59.8 –64.9 69.96
CaS(s) –482.4 –477.4 56.5
CaSO4(s) –1434.11 –1321.79 106.7
CaSO4(aq) –1452.10 –1298.10 –33.1

Carbon**
C(s), graphite 0 0 5.740
C(s), diamond 1.895 2.900 2.377
C(g) 716.68 671.26 158.10
CO(g) –110.53 –137.17 197.67
CO2(g) –393.51 –394.36 213.74
CO32–(aq) –677.14 –527.81 –56.9
CCl4(l) –135.44 –65.21 216.40
CS2(l) 89.70 65.27 151.34
HCN(g) 135.1 124.7 201.78
HCN(l) 108.87 124.97 112.84

Cerium
Ce(s) 0 0 72.0
Ce3+(aq) –696.2 –672.0 –205
Ce4+(aq) –537.2 –503.8 –301

Chlorine
Cl2(g) 0 0 223.07
Cl(g) 121.68 105.68 165.20
Cl–(aq) –167.16 –131.23 56.5
HCl(g) –92.31 –95.30 186.91
HCl(aq) –167.16 –131.23 56.5

Copper
Cu(s) 0 0 33.15
Cu+ (aq) 71.67 49.98 40.6
Cu2+(aq) 64.77 65.49 –99.6
Cu2O(aq) –168.6 –146.0 93.14
CuO(s) –157.3 –129.7 42.63
CuSO4(s) –771.36 –661.8 109
CuSO4.5H2O(s) –2279.7 –1879.7 300.4

** For organic compounds, a separate table is provided in continuation. (continued)

2022-23
246 CHEMISTRY

Substance Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs Energy of formation, Entropy,*

∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Deuterium
D2(g) 0 0 144.96
D2O(g) –249.20 –234.54 198.34
D2 O(l) –294.60 –243.44 75.94

Fluorine
F2(g) 0 0 202.78
F–(aq) –332.63 –278.79 –13.8
HF(g) –271.1 –273.2 173.78
HF(aq) –332.63 –278.79 –13.8

Hydrogen (see also Deuterium)

H2(g) 0 0 130.68
H(g) 217.97 203.25 114.71
H+ (aq) 0 0 0
H2 O(l) –285.83 –237.13 69.91
H2O(g) –241.82 –228.57 188.83
H2O 2(l) –187.78 –120.35 109.6
H2O2(aq) –191.17 –134.03 143.9

Iodine
I2(s) 0 0 116.14
I2(g) 62.44 19.33 260.69
I–(aq) –55.19 –51.57 111.3
HI(g) 26.48 1.70 206.59

Iron
Fe(s) 0 0 27.28
Fe2+(aq) –89.1 –78.90 –137.7
Fe3+(aq) –48.5 –4.7 –315.9
Fe3O4(s), magnetite –1118.4 –1015.4 146.4
Fe2O3(s), haematite –824.2 –742.2 87.40
FeS(s,α) –100.0 –100.4 60.29
FeS(aq) — 6.9 —
FeS2(s) –178.2 –166.9 52.93
Lead
Pb(s) 0 0 64.81
Pb2+(aq) –1.7 –24.43 10.5
PbO2(s) –277.4 –217.33 68.6
PbSO4(s) –919.94 –813.14 148.57
PbBr2(s) –278.7 –261.92 161.5
PbBr2(aq) –244.8 –232.34 175.3

Magnesium
Mg(s) 0 0 32.68
Mg(g) 147.70 113.10 148.65
Mg2+(aq) –466.85 –454.8 –138.1
MgO(s) –601.70 –569.43 26.94
MgCO3(s) –1095.8 –1012.1 65.7
MgBr2(s) –524.3 –503.8 117.2

(continued)

2022-23
APPENDICES 247

Substance Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs Energy of formation, Entropy,*

∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Mercury
Hg(1) 0 0 76.02
Hg(g) 61.32 31.82 174.96
HgO(s) –90.83 –58.54 70.29
Hg2Cl2(s) –265.22 –210.75 192.5

Nitrogen
N2(g) 0 0 191.61
NO(g) 90.25 86.55 210.76
N2O(g) 82.05 104.20 219.85
NO2(g) 33.18 51.31 240.06
N2O4(g) 9.16 97.89 304.29
HNO3(1) –174.10 –80.71 155.60
HNO3(aq) –207.36 –111.25 146.4
NO3– (aq) –205.0 –108.74 146.4
NH3(g) –46.11 –16.45 192.45
NH3(aq) –80.29 –26.50 111.3
NH+4 (aq) –132.51 –79.31 113.4
NH2OH(s) –114.2 — —
HN3(g) 294.1 328.1 238.97
N2H4(1) 50.63 149.34 121.21
NH4NO3(s) –365.56 –183.87 151.08
NH4Cl(s) –314.43 –202.87 94.6
NH4ClO4(s) –295.31 –88.75 186.2

Oxygen
O2(g) 0 0 205.14
O3(g) 142.7 163.2 238.93
OH–(aq) –229.99 –157.24 –10.75

Phosphorus
P(s), white 0 0 41.09
P4(g) 58.91 24.44 279.98
PH3(g) 5.4 13.4 210.23
P4O10(s) –2984.0 –2697.0 228.86
H3PO3(aq) –964.8 — —
H3PO4(1) –1266.9 — —
H3PO4(aq) –1277.4 –1018.7 —
PCl3(1) –319.7 –272.3 217.18
PCl3(g) –287.0 –267.8 311.78
PCl5(g) –374.9 –305.0 364.6

Potassium
K(s) 0 0 64.18
K(g) 89.24 60.59 160.34
K+ (aq) –252.38 –283.27 102.5
KOH(s) –424.76 –379.08 78.9
KOH(aq) –482.37 –440.50 91.6
KF(s) –567.27 –537.75 66.57

(continued)

2022-23
248 CHEMISTRY

Substance Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs Energy of formation, Entropy,*

∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Potassium (continued)
KCl(s) –436.75 –409.14 82.59
KBr(s) –393.80 –380.66 95.90
KI(s) –327.90 –324.89 106.32
KClO3(s) –397.73 –296.25 143.1
KClO4(s) –432.75 –303.09 151.0
K2S(s) –380.7 –364.0 105
K2S(aq) –471.5 –480.7 190.4

Silicon
Si(s) 0 0 18.83
SiO2(s,α) –910.94 –856.64 41.84

Silver
Ag(s) 0 0 42.55
Ag+(aq) 105.58 77.11 72.68
Ag2O(s) –31.05 –11.20 121.3
AgBr(s) –100.37 –96.90 107.1
AgBr(aq) –15.98 –26.86 155.2
AgCl(s) –127.07 –109.79 96.2
AgCl(aq) –61.58 –54.12 129.3
AgI(s) –61.84 –66.19 115.5
AgI(aq) 50.38 25.52 184.1
AgNO3(s) –124.39 –33.41 140.92
Sodium
Na(s) 0 0 51.21
Na(g) 107.32 76.76 153.71
Na+(aq) –240.12 –261.91 59.0
NaOH(s) –425.61 –379.49 64.46
NaOH(aq) –470.11 –419.15 48.1
NaCl(s) –411.15 –384.14 72.13
NaCl(aq) –407.3 –393.1 115.5
NaBr(s) –361.06 –348.98 86.82
NaI(s) –287.78 –286.06 98.53
NaHCO3(s) –947.7 –851.9 102.1
Na2CO3(s) –1130.9 –1047.7 136.0
Sulphur
S(s), rhombic 0 0 31.80
S(s), monoclinic 0.33 0.1 32.6
S 2–(aq) 33.1 85.8 –14.6
SO2(g) –296.83 –300.19 248.22
SO3(g) –395.72 –371.06 256.76
H2SO4(l) –813.99 –690.00 156.90
H2SO4(aq) –909.27 –744.53 20.1
SO42–(aq) –909.27 –744.53 20.1
H2S(g) –20.63 –33.56 205.79
H2S(aq) –39.7 –27.83 121
SF6(g) –1209 –1105.3 291.82
(continued)

2022-23
APPENDICES 249

Substance Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs Energy of formation, Entropy,*

∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Tin
Sn(s), white 0 0 51.55
Sn(s), gray –2.09 0.13 44.14
SnO(s) –285.8 –256.9 56.5
SnO2(s) –580.7 –519.6 52.3

Zinc
Zn(s) 0 0 41.63
Zn2+(aq) –153.89 –147.06 –112.1
ZnO(s) –348.28 –318.30 43.64
Zn(g) +130.73 +95.14 160.93

*The entropies of individual ions in solution are determined by setting the entropy of H+ in water equal to
0 and then defining the entropies of all other ions relative to this value; hence a negative entropy is one
that is lower than the entropy of H+ in water.

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Substance Enthalpy of Enthalpy of Gibbs Energy of

combustion, formation, formation, Entropy,
∆cH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Hydrocarbons
CH4(g), methane –890 –74.81 –50.72 186.26
C2H2(g), ethyne (acetylene) –1300 226.73 209.20 200.94
C2H4(g), ethene(ethylene) –1411 52.26 68.15 219.56
C2H6(g), ethane –1560 –84.68 –32.82 229.60
C3H6(g), propene (propylene) –2058 20.42 62.78 266.6
C3H6(g), cyclopropane –2091 53.30 104.45 237.4
C3H8(g), propane –2220 –103.85 –23.49 270.2
C4H10(g), butane –2878 –126.15 –17.03 310.1
C5H12(g), pentane –3537 –146.44 –8.20 349
C6H6(l), benzene –3268 49.0 124.3 173.3
C6H6(g) –3302 — — —
C7H8(l), toluene –3910 12.0 113.8 221.0
C7H8(g) –3953 — — —
C6H12(l), cyclohexane –3920 –156.4 26.7 204.4
C6H12(g), –3953 — — —
C8H18(l), octane –5471 –249.9 6.4 358

Alcohols and phenols

CH3OH(l), methanol –726 –238.86 –166.27 126.8
CH3OH(g) –764 –200.66 –161.96 239.81
C2H5OH(l), ethanol –1368 –277.69 –174.78 160.7
C2H5OH(g) –1409 –235.10 –168.49 282.70
C6H5OH(s), phenol –3054 –164.6 –50.42 144.0

(continued)

2022-23
250 CHEMISTRY

Substance Enthalpy of Enthalpy of Gibbs Energy of

combustion, formation, formation, Entropy,
∆cH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fH/ (kJ mol–1) ∆fG/ (kJ mol–1) S/(J K–1 mol–1)

Carboxylic acid
HCOOH(l), formic acid –255 –424.72 –361.35 128.95
CH3COOH(l), acetic acid –875 –484.5 –389.9 159.8
CH3COOH (aq) — –485.76 –396.64 86.6
(COOH)2(s), oxalic acid –254 –827.2 –697.9 120
C6H5COOH(s), benzoic acid –3227 –385.1 –245.3 167.6

Aldehydes and ketones

HCHO(g), methanal –571 –108.57 –102.53 218.77
(formaldehyde)
CH3CHO(l), ethanal –1166 –192.30 –128.12 160.2
(acetaldehyde)
CH3CHO(g) –1192 –166.19 –128.86 250.3
CH3COCH3(l), propanone –1790 –248.1 –155.4 200
(acetone)
Sugars
C6H12O6(s), glucose –2808 –1268 –910 212
C 6H12O6(aq) — — –917 —
C6H12O6(s), fructose –2810 –1266 — —
C12H22O11(s), sucrose –5645 –2222 –1545 360

Nitrogen compounds
CO(NH2)2(s), urea –632 –333.51 –197.33 104.60
C6H5NH2(l), aniline –3393 31.6 149.1 191.3
NH2CH2COOH(s), glycine –969 –532.9 –373.4 103.51
CH3NH2(g), methylamine –1085 –22.97 32.16 243.41

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APPENDICES 251

Appendix VII

Standard potentials at 298 K in electrochemical order

Reduction half-reaction E  /V Reduction half-reaction E  /V

H4XeO6 + 2H+ + 2e– → XeO3 + 3H2O +3.0 Cu+ + e– → Cu +0.52

F2 + 2e– → 2F– +2.87 NiOOH + H2O + e– → Ni(OH)2 + OH– +0.49
O3 + 2H+ + 2e– → O2 + H2O +2.07 Ag2CrO4 + 2e– → 2Ag + CrO42– +0.45
2–
S2O8 + 2e– → 2SO4
2–
+2.05 O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH– +0.40
+ –
Ag + e → Ag +
+1.98 ClO–4 + H2O + 2e– → ClO–3 + 2OH– +0.36
Co3+ + e– → Co2+ +1.81 [Fe(CN)6]3– + e– → [Fe(CN)6]4– +0.36
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– → 2H2O +1.78 Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu +0.34
Hg2Cl2 + 2e– → 2Hg + 2Cl– +0.27
Au+ + e– → Au +1.69
AgCl + e– → Ag + Cl– +0.27
Pb4+ + 2e– → Pb2+ +1.67
Bi3+ + 3e– → Bi +0.20
2HClO + 2H+ + 2e– → Cl2 + 2H2O +1.63 –
SO42 + 4H+ + 2e– → H2SO3 + H2O +0.17
Ce4+ + e– → Ce3+ +1.61
Cu + e– → Cu+
2+
+0.16
2HBrO + 2H+ + 2e– → Br2 + 2H2O +1.60
– Sn4+ + 2e– → Sn2+ +0.15
MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O +1.51
AgBr + e– → Ag + Br– +0.07
Mn3+ + e– → Mn2+ +1.51 Ti4+ + e– → Ti3+ 0.00
Au3+ + 3e– → Au +1.40 2H+ + 2e– → H2 0.0 by
Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl– +1.36 definition
2–
Cr2O 7 + 14H+ + 6e– → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.33 Fe3+ + 3e– → Fe –0.04
O3 + H2O + 2e– → O2 + 2OH– +1.24 O2 + H2O + 2e– → HO–2 + OH– –0.08
O2 + 4H+ + 4e– → 2H2O +1.23 Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb –0.13
ClO–4 + 2H+ +2e– → ClO–3 + 2H2O +1.23 In+ + e– → In –0.14
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e– → Mn2+ + 2H2O +1.23 Sn2+ + 2e– → Sn –0.14
Pt2+ + 2e– → Pt +1.20 AgI + e– → Ag + I– –0.15
Br2 + 2e– → 2Br– +1.09 Ni2+ + 2e– → Ni –0.23
Pu4+ + e– → Pu3+ +0.97 V3+ + e– → V2+ –0.26
NO–3 + 4H+ + 3e– → NO + 2H2O +0.96 Co2+ + 2e– → Co –0.28
2Hg2+ + 2e– → Hg 2+2 +0.92 In3+ + 3e– → In –0.34
ClO– + H2O + 2e– → Cl– + 2OH– +0.89 Tl+ + e– → Tl –0.34
Hg2+ + 2e– → Hg +0.86 PbSO4 + 2e– → Pb + SO2–
4 –0.36
NO–3 + 2H+ + e– → NO2 + H2O +0.80 Ti3+ + e– → Ti2+ –0.37
Ag+ + e– → Ag +0.80 Cd2+ + 2e– → Cd –0.40
Hg 2+ – In2+ + e– → In+ –0.40
2 +2e → 2Hg +0.79
Cr3+ + e– → Cr2+ –0.41
Fe + e → Fe2+
3+ –
+0.77
Fe2+ + 2e– → Fe –0.44
BrO– + H2O + 2e– → Br– + 2OH– +0.76
In3+ + 2e– → In+ –0.44
Hg2SO4 +2e– → 2Hg + SO42– +0.62
S + 2e– → S2– –0.48
MnO42– + 2H2O + 2e– → MnO2 + 4OH– +0.60
In3+ + e– → In2+ –0.49
MnO–4 + e– → MnO2– +0.56
4
U4+ + e– → U3+ –0.61
I2 + 2e– → 2I– +0.54
– Cr3+ + 3e– → Cr –0.74
I3 + 2e– → 3I– +0.53
Zn2+ + 2e– → Zn –0.76
(continued)

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252 CHEMISTRY

Appendix continued

Reduction half-reaction E /V Reduction half-reaction E /V

Cd(OH)2 + 2e– → Cd + 2OH– –0.81 La3+ + 3e– → La –2.52

2H2O + 2e– → H2 + 2OH– –0.83 Na+ + e– → Na –2.71
Cr2+ + 2e– → Cr –0.91 Ca2+ + 2e– → Ca –2.87
Mn2+ + 2e– → Mn –1.18 Sr2+ + 2e– → Sr –2.89
V2+ + 2e– → V –1.19 Ba2+ + 2e– → Ba –2.91
Ti2+ + 2e– → Ti –1.63 Ra2+ + 2e– → Ra –2.92
Al3+ + 3e– → Al –1.66 Cs+ + e– → Cs –2.92
U3+ + 3e– → U –1.79 Rb+ + e– → Rb –2.93
Sc3+ + 3e– → Sc –2.09 K+ +e– → K –2.93
Mg2+ + 2e– → Mg –2.36 Li+ + e– → Li –3.05
Ce3+ + 3e– → Ce –2.48

2022-23
 Appendix 1

INFINITE SERIES

A.1.1 Introduction
As discussed in the Chapter 9 on Sequences and Series, a sequence a1, a2, ..., an, ...
having infinite number of terms is called infinite sequence and its indicated sum, i.e.,
a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an + ... is called an infinte series associated with infinite sequence.
This series can also be expressed in abbreviated form using the sigma notation, i.e.,
∞

a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . + an + . . . = ∑a
k =1
k

In this Chapter, we shall study about some special types of series which may be
required in different problem situations.
A.1.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index
In Chapter 8, we discussed the Binomial Theorem in which the index was a positive
integer. In this Section, we state a more general form of the theorem in which the
index is not necessarily a whole number. It gives us a particular type of infinite series,
called Binomial Series. We illustrate few applications, by examples.
We know the formula
(1 + x)n = n C0 + n C1 x + . . . + n Cn xn
Here, n is non-negative integer. Observe that if we replace index n by negative
integer or a fraction, then the combinations n C r do not make any sense.
We now state (without proof), the Binomial Theorem, giving an infinite series in
which the index is negative or a fraction and not a whole number.
Theorem The formula
m ( m − 1) 2 m ( m − 1)( m − 2 ) 3
(1 + x )
m
= 1 + mx + x + x + ...
1.2 1.2.3
holds whenever x < 1 .

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 INFINITE SERIES 413

Remark 1. Note carefully the condition | x | < 1, i.e., – 1< x < 1 is necessary when m
is negative integer or a fraction. For example, if we take x = – 2 and m = – 2, we
obtain
( −2 )( −3)
(1 − 2 )−2 = 1 + ( −2 )( −2 ) + (−2 )2 + ...
1.2
or 1= 1 + 4 + 12 + . . .
This is not possible
2. Note that there are infinite number of terms in the expansion of (1+ x)m, when m
is a negative integer or a fraction
m m
  b  m b
(a + b) =  a 1 +   = a 1 + 
m
Consider
  a   a

 b m ( m − 1)  b  
2

= a m
 1 + m +   + ...
 a 1.2 a 

m −1 m ( m − 1)
= a + ma b +
m
a m − 2b 2 + ...
1.2

b
This expansion is valid when < 1 or equivalently when | b | < | a |.
a
The general term in the expansion of (a + b)m is
m ( m − 1)( m − 2 )...( m − r + 1) a m − r b r
1.2.3...r
We give below certain particular cases of Binomial Theorem, when we assume
x < 1 , these are left to students as exercises:
1. (1 + x) – 1 = 1 – x + x2 – x3 + . . .
2. (1 – x) – 1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .
3. (1 + x) – 2 = 1 –2 x + 3x2 – 4x3 + . . .
4. (1 – x) – 2 = 1 +2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + . . .
1
−
 x 2
Example 1 Expand  1 −  , when | x | < 2.
 2

2022-23
414 MATHEMATICS

Solution We have

1  1  1  3 
 x
−
 −  −x  −  −  2
= 1 +  2    +  2  2   − x  + ...
2
1 −     
 2 1  2  1. 2  2

x 3x 2
= 1+ + + ...
4 32
A.1.3 Infinite Geometric Series
From Chapter 9, Section 9.5, a sequence a 1 , a 2, a 3, ..., a n is called G.P., if
ak +1
ak = r (constant) for k = 1, 2, 3, ..., n–1. Particularly, if we take a1 = a, then the
resulting sequence a, ar, ar2, ..., arn–1 is taken as the standard form of G.P., where a is
first term and r, the common ratio of G.P.
Earlier, we have discussed the formula to find the sum of finite series
a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn – 1 which is given by

Sn =
(
a 1− rn ).
1− r

In this section, we state the formula to find the sum of infinite geometric series
a + ar + ar2 + ... + arn – 1 + ... and illustrate the same by examples.

2 4
Let us consider the G.P. 1, , ,...
3 9
2
Here a = 1, r = . We have
3
n
2
1−  
 3  = 3 1 −  2  
n
Sn =     ... (1)
2   3  
1−
3

n
 2
Let us study the behaviour of   as n becomes larger and larger.
 3

2022-23
 INFINITE SERIES 415

n 1 5 10 20
n
2
  0.6667 0.1316872428 0.01734152992 0.00030072866
3
n
2
We observe that as n becomes larger and larger,   becomes closer and closer to
3
n
2
zero. Mathematically, we say that as n becomes sufficiently large,   becomes
3
n
2
sufficiently small. In other words, as n → ∞,   → 0 . Consequently, we find that
3
the sum of infinitely many terms is given by S = 3.
Thus, for infinite geometric progression a, ar, ar2, ..., if numerical value of common
ratio r is less than 1, then

(
a 1− rn ) a
−
ar n
Sn = =
1− r 1− r 1− r

ar n
In this case, r n → 0 as n → ∞ since | r | <1 and then → 0 . Therefore,
1− r

a
Sn → as n → ∞ .
1− r
Symbolically, sum to infinity of infinite geometric series is denoted by S. Thus,
a
we have S=
1− r
For example
1 1 1 1
(i) 1+ + + + ... = =2
2 2 2 23 1−
1
2

1 1 1 1 1 2
(ii) 1 − + 2 − 3 + ... = = =
2 2 2  1 1 3
1−  −  1+
 2 2

2022-23
416 MATHEMATICS

Example 2 Find the sum to infinity of the G.P. ;

−5 5 −5
, , ,....
4 16 64
−5 1
Solution Here a = and r = − . Also | r | <1 .
4 4

−5 −5
Hence, the sum to infinity is 4 = 4 = −1 .
1 5
1+
4 4
A.1.4 Exponential Series
Leonhard Euler (1707 – 1783), the great Swiss mathematician introduced the number
e in his calculus text in 1748. The number e is useful in calculus as π in the study of the
circle.
Consider the following infinite series of numbers
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + ... ... (1)
1! 2! 3! 4!
The sum of the series given in (1) is denoted by the number e
Let us estimate the value of the number e.
Since every term of the series (1) is positive, it is clear that its sum is also positive.
Consider the two sums
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... + + ... ... (2)
3! 4! 5! n!
1 1 1 1
and 2
+ 3 + 4 + .... + n−1 + ... ... (3)
2 2 2 2
Observe that
1 1 1 1 1 1
= and 2 = , which gives < 2
3! 6 2 4 3! 2

1 1 1 1 1 1
= and 3 = , which gives <
4! 24 2 8 4! 23

1 1 1 1 1 1
= and 4 = , which gives < 4 .
5! 120 2 16 5! 2

2022-23
 INFINITE SERIES 417

Therefore, by analogy, we can say that

1 1
< n −1 , when n > 2
n! 2
We observe that each term in (2) is less than the corresponding term in (3),
1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 
Therefore  3! + 4! + 5! + ... + n!  <  2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n−1 + ...  ... (4)
   2 2 2 2 

 1 1
Adding 1 + 1! + 2!  on both sides of (4), we get,
 

 1 1 1 1 1 1 
1 + +  +  + + + ... + + ...
 1! 2!   3! 4! 5! n! 

 1 1  1 1 1 1  ... (5)
<  1 + +  +  2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n−1 + ...  
 1! 2!   2 2 2 2 

  1 1 1 1 1 
= 1 +  1 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + n−1 + ...  
  2 2 2 2 2 

1
= 1+ =1+ 2 = 3
1
1−
2
Left hand side of (5) represents the series (1). Therefore e < 3 and also e > 2 and
hence 2 < e < 3.
Remark The exponential series involving variable x can be expressed as
x x 2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + + + + ... + + ...
1! 2! 3! n!
Example 3 Find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of e2x+3 as a series in
powers of x.
Solution In the exponential series
x x 2 x3
e = 1+
x + + + ...
1! 2! 3!
replacing x by (2x + 3), we get

2022-23
418 MATHEMATICS

2 x+ 3 1+
( 2 x + 3 ) ( 2 x + 3)
+
2

+ ...
e =
1! 2!

( 2 x + 3)n (3+ 2 x) n
Here, the general term is = . This can be expanded by the
n! n!
Binomial Theorem as
1 n n
3 + C1 3n −1 (2 x ) + n C2 3n− 2 (2 x ) + ... + ( 2 x )  .
2 n

n!  

2
n
C 2 3n − 2 2 2
Here, the coefficient of x is . Therefore, the coefficient of x2 in the whole
n!
series is
∞ n
C 2 3n − 2 22 ∞
n ( n − 1)3 n− 2

∑
n =2 n!
= 2
n= 2
∑ n!

∞
3n –2
= 2 ∑
n = 2 ( n − 2 )!
[using n! = n (n – 1) (n – 2)!]

 3 32 33 
= 1 + + + + ...
2
 1! 2! 3! 
= 2e3 .
Thus 2e is the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of e2x+3.
3

Alternatively e2x+3 = e3 . e2x

 2 x (2 x ) 2 (2 x)3 
e3 1 + + + + ...
=  1! 2! 3! 
2
3 2
Thus, the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of e2x+3 is e . = 2e 3
2!

Example 4 Find the value of e2, rounded off to one decimal place.
Solution Using the formula of exponential series involving x, we have
x x 2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + + + + ... + + ...
1! 2! 3! n!

2022-23
 INFINITE SERIES 419

Putting x = 2, we get

2 2 2 23 2 4 25 2 6
e2 = 1 + + + + + + + ...
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
4 2 4 4
= 1+ 2 + 2 + + + + + ...
3 3 15 45
≥ the sum of first seven terms ≥ 7.355.
On the other hand, we have

 2 22 23 24  25  2 22 23 
e2 < 1 + + + +  +  1 + + 2 + 3 + ... 
 1! 2! 3! 4!  5!  6 6 6 

 
4  1 1  4 1 
2
2
= 7 +  1 + +   + ...  = 7 +   = 7 + = 7.4 .
15  3  3   15 1
 1 −  5
 3

Thus, e2 lies between 7.355 and 7.4. Therefore, the value of e2, rounded off to one
decimal place, is 7.4.
A.1.5 Logarithmic Series
Another very important series is logarithmic series which is also in the form of infinite
series. We state the following result without proof and illustrate its application with an
example.
Theorem If | x | < 1, then
x 2 x3
log e (1 + x ) = x −+ − ...
2 3
The series on the right hand side of the above is called the logarithmic series.

A Note The expansion of log (1+x) is valid for x = 1. Substituting x = 1 in the

expansion of log (1+x), we get
e

1 1 1
log e 2 = 1 – + – + ...
2 3 4

2022-23
420 MATHEMATICS

Example 5 If α, β are the roots of the equation x 2 − px + q = 0 , prove that

α 2 + β2 2 α3 + β3 3
( )
log e 1 + px + qx 2 = ( α + β ) x −
2
x +
3
x − ...

 α 2 x 2 α 3 x3   β 2 x 2 β3 x3 
Solution Right hand side =  α x − + − ... +
  β x − + − ...
 2 3   2 3 

= log e (1 + α x ) + log (1 + β x )

(
= log e 1 + ( α + β ) x + αβx
2
)
= log e (1 + px + qx )
2
= Left hand side.

Here, we have used the facts α + β = p and αβ = q . We know this from the
given roots of the quadratic equation. We have also assumed that both | α x | < 1 and
| β x | < 1.

—v —

2022-23
 Appendix 2

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

A.2.1 Introduction
Much of our progress in the last few centuries has made it necessary to apply
mathematical methods to real-life problems arising from different fields – be it Science,
Finance, Management etc. The use of Mathematics in solving real-world problems
has become widespread especially due to the increasing computational power of digital
computers and computing methods, both of which have facilitated the handling of
lengthy and complicated problems. The process of translation of a real-life problem
into a mathematical form can give a better representation and solution of certain
problems. The process of translation is called Mathematical Modelling.
Here we shall familiaries you with the steps involved in this process through
examples. We shall first talk about what a mathematical model is, then we discuss the
steps involved in the process of modelling.
A.2.2 Preliminaries
Mathematical modelling is an essential tool for understanding the world. In olden days
the Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, Babylonians and Greeks indulged in understanding
and predicting the natural phenomena through their knowledge of mathematics. The
architects, artisans and craftsmen based many of their works of art on geometric
prinicples.
Suppose a surveyor wants to measure the height of a tower. It is physically very
difficult to measure the height using the measuring tape. So, the other option is to find
out the factors that are useful to find the height. From his knowledge of trigonometry,
he knows that if he has an angle of elevation and the distance of the foot of the tower
to the point where he is standing, then he can calculate the height of the tower.
So, his job is now simplified to find the angle of elevation to the top of the tower
and the distance from the foot of the tower to the point where he is standing. Both of
which are easily measurable. Thus, if he measures the angle of elevation as 40° and
the distance as 450m, then the problem can be solved as given in Example 1.

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422 MATHEMATICS

Example 1 The angle of elevation of the top of a tower from a point O on the ground,
which is 450 m away from the foot of the tower, is 40°. Find the height of the tower.
Solution We shall solve this in different steps.
Step 1 We first try to understand the real problem. In the problem a tower is given and
its height is to be measured. Let h denote the height. It is given that the horizontal
distance of the foot of the tower from a particular point O on the ground is 450 m. Let
d denotes this distance. Then d = 450m. We also know that the angle of elevation,
denoted by θ, is 40°.
The real problem is to find the height h of the tower using the known distance d
and the angle of elevation θ.
Step 2 The three quantities mentioned in the problem are height,
distance and angle of elevation.
So we look for a relation connecting these three quantities.
This is obtained by expressing it geometrically in the following
way (Fig 1).
AB denotes the tower. OA gives the horizontal distance
from the point O to foot of the tower. ∠AOB is the angle of
elevation. Then we have
h
tan θ = or h = d tan θ ... (1)
d Fig 1
This is an equation connecting θ, h and d.
Step 3 We use Equation (1) to solve h. We have θ = 40°. and d = 450m. Then we get
h = tan 40° × 450 = 450 × 0.839 = 377.6m
Step 4 Thus we got that the height of the tower approximately 378m.
Let us now look at the different steps used in solving the problem. In step 1, we
have studied the real problem and found that the problem involves three parameters
height, distance and angle of elevation. That means in this step we have studied the
real-life problem and identified the parameters.
In the Step 2, we used some geometry and found that the problem can be
represented geometrically as given in Fig 1. Then we used the trigonometric ratio for
the “tangent” function and found the relation as
h = d tan θ
So, in this step we formulated the problem mathematically. That means we found
an equation representing the real problem.

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 423

In Step 3, we solved the mathematical problem and got that h = 377.6m. That is
we found
Solution of the problem.
In the last step, we interpreted the solution of the problem and stated that the
height of the tower is approximately 378m. We call this as
Interpreting the mathematical solution to the real situation
In fact these are the steps mathematicians and others use to study various real-
life situations. We shall consider the question, “why is it necessary to use mathematics
to solve different situations.”
Here are some of the examples where mathematics is used effectively to study
various situations.
1. Proper flow of blood is essential to transmit oxygen and other nutrients to various
parts of the body in humanbeings as well as in all other animals. Any constriction
in the blood vessel or any change in the characteristics of blood vessels can
change the flow and cause damages ranging from minor discomfort to sudden
death. The problem is to find the relationship between blood flow and physiological
characteristics of blood vessel.
2. In cricket a third umpire takes decision of a LBW by looking at the trajectory of
a ball, simulated, assuming that the batsman is not there. Mathematical equations
are arrived at, based on the known paths of balls before it hits the batsman’s leg.
This simulated model is used to take decision of LBW.
3. Meteorology department makes weather predictions based on mathematical
models. Some of the parameters which affect change in weather conditions are
temperature, air pressure, humidity, wind speed, etc. The instruments are used to
measure these parameters which include thermometers to measure temperature,
barometers to measure airpressure, hygrometers to measure humidity,
anemometers to measure wind speed. Once data are received from many stations
around the country and feed into computers for further analysis and interpretation.
4. Department of Agriculture wants to estimate the yield of rice in India from the
standing crops. Scientists identify areas of rice cultivation and find the average
yield per acre by cutting and weighing crops from some representative fields.
Based on some statistical techniques decisions are made on the average yield of
rice.
How do mathematicians help in solving such problems? They sit with experts in
the area, for example, a physiologist in the first problem and work out a
mathematical equivalent of the problem. This equivalent consists of one or more
equations or inequalities etc. which are called the mathematical models. Then

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424 MATHEMATICS

solve the model and interpret the solution in terms of the original problem. Before
we explain the process, we shall discuss what a mathematical model is.
A mathematical model is a representation which comprehends a situation.
An interesting geometric model is illustrated in the following example.

Example 2 (Bridge Problem) Konigsberg is a town on the Pregel River, which in the
18th century was a German
town, but now is Russian. Within
the town are two river islands
that are connected to the banks
with seven bridges as shown
in (Fig 2).
People tried to walk around
the town in a way that only
crossed each bridge once, but it
proved to be difficult problem.
Leonhard Euler, a Swiss Fig 2
mathematician in the service of
the Russian empire Catherine the Great, heard about the problem. In 1736 Euler proved
that the walk was not possible to do. He proved this by inventing a kind of diagram
called a network, that is made up of vertices
(dots where lines meet) and arcs (lines) (Fig3).
He used four dots (vertices) for the two
river banks and the two islands. These have
been marked A, B and C, D. The seven lines
(arcs) are the seven bridges. You can see that
3 bridges (arcs) join to riverbank, A, and 3 join
to riverbank B. 5 bridges (arcs) join to island
C, and 3 join to island D. This means that all
the vertices have an odd number of arcs, so Fig 3
they are called odd vertices (An even vertex
would have to have an even number of arcs joining to it).
Remember that the problem was to travel around town crossing each bridge only
once. On Euler’s network this meant tracing over each arc only once, visiting all the
vertices. Euler proved it could not be done because he worked out that, to have an odd
vertex you would have to begin or end the trip at that vertex. (Think about it). Since
there can only be one beginning and one end, there can only be two odd vertices if you
are to trace over each arc only once. Since the bridge problem has 4 odd vertices, it
just not possible to do!

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 425

After Euler proved his Theorem, much

water has flown under the bridges in Konigsberg.
In 1875, an extra bridge was built in Konigsberg,
joining the land areas of river banks A and B
(Fig 4). Is it possible now for the Konigsbergians
to go round the city, using each bridge only once?
Here the situation will be as in Fig 4. After
the addition of the new edge, both the vertices
A and B have become even degree vertices.
Fig 4
However, D and C still have odd degree. So, it
is possible for the Konigsbergians to go around the city using each bridge exactly once.
The invention of networks began a new theory called graph theory which is now
used in many ways, including planning and mapping railway networks (Fig 4).
A.2.3 What is Mathematical Modelling?
Here, we shall define what mathematical modelling is and illustrate the different
processes involved in this through examples.
Definition Mathematical modelling is an attempt to study some part (or form) of the
real-life problem in mathematical terms.
Conversion of physical situation into mathematics with some suitable
conditions is known as mathematical modelling. Mathematical modelling is
nothing but a technique and the pedagogy taken from fine arts and not from the
basic sciences. Let us now understand the different processes involved in Mathematical
Modelling. Four steps are involved in this process. As an illustrative example, we
consider the modelling done to study the motion of a simple pendulum.
Understanding the problem
This involves, for example, understanding the process involved in the motion of simple
pendulum. All of us are familiar with the simple pendulum. This pendulum is simply a
mass (known as bob) attached to one end of a string whose other end is fixed at a
point. We have studied that the motion of the simple pendulum is periodic. The period
depends upon the length of the string and acceleration due to gravity. So, what we need
to find is the period of oscillation. Based on this, we give a precise statement of the
problem as
Statement How do we find the period of oscillation of the simple pendulum?
The next step is formulation.
Formulation Consists of two main steps.
1. Identifying the relevant factors In this, we find out what are the factors/

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426 MATHEMATICS

parameters involved in the problem. For example, in the case of pendulum, the factors
are period of oscillation (T), the mass of the bob (m), effective length (l ) of the pendulum
which is the distance between the point of suspension to the centre of mass of the bob.
Here, we consider the length of string as effective length of the pendulum and acceleration
due to gravity (g), which is assumed to be constant at a place.
So, we have identified four parameters for studying the problem. Now, our purpose
is to find T. For this we need to understand what are the parameters that affect the
period which can be done by performing a simple experiment.
We take two metal balls of two different masses and conduct experiment with
each of them attached to two strings of equal lengths. We measure the period of
oscillation. We make the observation that there is no appreciable change of the period
with mass. Now, we perform the same experiment on equal mass of balls but take
strings of different lengths and observe that there is clear dependence of the period on
the length of the pendulum.
This indicates that the mass m is not an essential parameter for finding period
whereas the length l is an essential parameter.
This process of searching the essential parameters is necessary before we go
to the next step.
2. Mathematical description This involves finding an equation, inequality or a
geometric figure using the parameters already identified.
In the case of simple pendulum, experiments were conducted in which the values
of period T were measured for different values of l. These values were plotted on a
graph which resulted in a curve that resembled a parabola. It implies that the relation
between T and l could be expressed
T2 = kl ... (1)

4π 2
It was found that k = . This gives the equation
g

l
T = 2π ... (2)
g
Equation (2) gives the mathematical formulation of the problem.
Finding the solution The mathematical formulation rarely gives the answer directly.
Usually we have to do some operation which involves solving an equation, calculation
or applying a theorem etc. In the case of simple pendulums the solution involves applying
the formula given in Equation (2).

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 427

The period of oscillation calculated for two different pendulums having different
lengths is given in Table 1
Table 1
l 225 cm 275cm
T 3.04 sec 3.36 sec

The table shows that for l = 225 cm, T = 3.04 sec and for l = 275 cm, T = 3.36 sec.
Interpretation/Validation
A mathematical model is an attempt to study, the essential characteristic of a real life
problem. Many times model equations are obtained by assuming the situation in an
idealised context. The model will be useful only if it explains all the facts that we would
like it to explain. Otherwise, we will reject it, or else, improve it, then test it again. In
other words, we measure the effectiveness of the model by comparing the results
obtained from the mathematical model, with the known facts about the real
problem. This process is called validation of the model. In the case of simple
pendulum, we conduct some experiments on the pendulum and find out period of
oscillation. The results of the experiment are given in Table 2.
Table 2
Periods obtained experimentally for four different pendulums
Mass (gms) Length (cms) Time (secs)

385 275 3.371

225 3.056
230 275 3.352
225 3.042
Now, we compare the measured values in Table 2 with the calculated values given in
Table 1.
The difference in the observed values and calculated values gives the error. For
example, for l = 275 cm, and mass m = 385 gm,
error = 3.371 – 3.36 = 0.011
which is small and the model is accepted.
Once we accept the model, we have to interpret the model. The process of
describing the solution in the context of the real situation is called interpretation
of the model. In this case, we can interpret the solution in the following way:
(a) The period is directly proportional to the square root of the length of the
pendulum.

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428 MATHEMATICS

(b) It is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
Our validation and interpretation of this model shows that the mathematical model
is in good agreement with the practical (or observed) values. But we found that there
is some error in the calculated result and measured result. This is because we have
neglected the mass of the string and resistance of the medium. So, in such situation we
look for a better model and this process continues.
This leads us to an important observation. The real world is far too complex to
understand and describe completely. We just pick one or two main factors to be
completely accurate that may influence the situation. Then try to obtain a simplified
model which gives some information about the situation. We study the simple situation
with this model expecting that we can obtain a better model of the situation.
Now, we summarise the main process involved in the modelling as
(a) Formulation (b) Solution (c) Interpretation/Validation
The next example shows how modelling can be done using the techniques of finding
graphical solution of inequality.
Example 3 A farm house uses atleast 800 kg of special food daily. The special food is
a mixture of corn and soyabean with the following compositions

Table 3

Material Nutrients present per Kg Nutrients present per Kg Cost per Kg

Protein Fibre

Corn .09 .02 Rs 10

Soyabean .60 .06 Rs 20

The dietary requirements of the special food stipulate atleast 30% protein and at most
5% fibre. Determine the daily minimum cost of the food mix.
Solution Step 1 Here the objective is to minimise the total daily cost of the food which
is made up of corn and soyabean. So the variables (factors) that are to be considered
are
x = the amount of corn
y = the amount of soyabean
z = the cost
Step 2 The last column in Table 3 indicates that z, x, y are related by the equation
z = 10x + 20y ... (1)
The problem is to minimise z with the following constraints:

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 429

(a) The farm used atleast 800 kg food consisting of corn and soyabean
i.e., x + y ≥ 800
... (2)
(b) The food should have atleast 30% protein dietary requirement in the proportion
as given in the first column of Table 3. This gives
0.09x + 0.6y ≥ 0.3 (x + y) ... (3)
(c) Similarly the food should have atmost 5% fibre in the proportion given in
2nd column of Table 3. This gives
0.02x + 0.06 y ≤ 0.05 (x + y) ... (4)
We simplify the constraints given in (2), (3) and (4) by grouping all the coefficients
of x, y.
Then the problem can be restated in the following mathematical form.
Statement Minimise z subject to
x + y ≥ 800
0.21x – .30y ≤ 0
0.03x – .01y ≥ 0
This gives the formulation of the model.
Step 3 This can be solved graphically. The shaded region in Fig 5 gives the possible
solution of the equations. From the graph it is clear that the minimum value is got at the

Fig 5
point (470.6,329.4) i.e., x = 470.6 and y = 329.4.
This gives the value of z as z = 10 × 470.6 + 20 × 329.4 = 11294

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430 MATHEMATICS

This is the mathematical solution.

Step 4 The solution can be interpreted as saying that, “The minimum cost of the
special food with corn and soyabean having the required portion of nutrient contents,
protein and fibre is Rs 11294 and we obtain this minimum cost if we use 470.6 kg of
corn and 329.4 kg of soyabean.”
In the next example, we shall discuss how modelling is used to study the population
of a country at a particular time.
Example 4 Suppose a population control unit wants to find out “how many people will
be there in a certain country after 10 years”
Step 1 Formulation We first observe that the population changes with time and it
increases with birth and decreases with deaths.
We want to find the population at a particular time. Let t denote the time in years.
Then t takes values 0, 1, 2, ..., t = 0 stands for the present time, t = 1 stands for the next
year etc. For any time t, let p (t) denote the population in that particular year.
Suppose we want to find the population in a particular year, say t0 = 2006. How
will we do that. We find the population by Jan. 1st, 2005. Add the number of births in
that year and subtract the number of deaths in that year. Let B(t) denote the number of
births in the one year between t and t + 1 and D(t) denote the number of deaths
between t and t + 1. Then we get the relation
P (t + 1) = P (t) + B (t) – D (t)
Now we make some assumptions and definitions
B (t )
1. P (t ) is called the birth rate for the time interval t to t + 1.

D (t)
2.
P (t) is called the death rate for the time interval t to t + 1.

Assumptions
1. The birth rate is the same for all intervals. Likewise, the death rate is the same
for all intervals. This means that there is a constant b, called the birth rate, and a
constant d, called the death rate so that, for all t ≥ 0,
B (t ) D (t )
b= and d= ... (1)
P (t ) P (t )
2. There is no migration into or out of the population; i.e., the only source of population

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 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING 431

change is birth and death.

As a result of assumptions 1 and 2, we deduce that, for t ≥ 0,
P (t + 1) = P(t) + B(t) – D(t)
= P(t) + bP(t) – dP(t)
= (1 + b – d) P(t) ... (2)
Setting t = 0 in (2) gives
P(1) = (1 + b – d)P (0) ... (3)
Setting t = 1 in Equation (2) gives
P(2) = (1 + b – d) P (1)
= (1 + b – d) (1 + b – d) P (0) (Using equation 3)
2
= (1 + b – d) P(0)
Continuing this way, we get
P(t) = (1 + b – d)t P (0) ... (4)
for t = 0, 1, 2, ... The constant 1 + b – d is often abbreviated by r and called the growth
rate or, in more high-flown language, the Malthusian parameter, in honor of Robert
Malthus who first brought this model to popular attention. In terms of r, Equation (4)
becomes
P(t) = P(0)r t , t = 0, 1, 2, ... ... (5)
P(t) is an example of an exponential function. Any function of the form cr t, where c
and r are constants, is an exponential function.
Equation (5) gives the mathematical formulation of the problem.
Step 2 – Solution
Suppose the current population is 250,000,000 and the rates are b = 0.02 and d = 0.01.
What will the population be in 10 years? Using the formula, we calculate P(10).
P(10) = (1.01)10 (250,000,000)
= (1.104622125) (250,000,000)
= 276,155,531.25
Step 3 Interpretation and Validation
Naturally, this result is absurd, since one can’t have 0.25 of a person.
So, we do some approximation and conclude that the population is 276,155,531
(approximately). Here, we are not getting the exact answer because of the assumptions
that we have made in our mathematical model.
The above examples show how modelling is done in variety of situations using
different mathematical techniques.

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432 MATHEMATICS

Since a mathematical model is a simplified representation of a real problem, by its

very nature, has built-in assumptions and approximations. Obviously, the most important
question is to decide whether our model is a good one or not i.e., when the obtained
results are interpreted physically whether or not the model gives reasonable answers.
If a model is not accurate enough, we try to identify the sources of the shortcomings.
It may happen that we need a new formulation, new mathematical manipulation and
hence a new evaluation. Thus mathematical modelling can be a cycle of the modelling
process as shown in the flowchart given below:

START
↓
< ASSUMPTIONS/AXIOMS
↓
FORMULATION
↓
SOLUTION
↓
INTERPRETATION
↓
<

VALIDATION
↓

NO YES
< SATISFIED < STOP

—v —

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ANSWERS 207

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A 1
THE GREEK ALPHABET

APPENDIX A 2
COMMON SI PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES

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208 PHYSICS

APPENDIX A 3
SOME IMPORTANT CONSTANTS

Other useful constants

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APPENDICES 209

APPENDIX A 4
CONVERSION FACTORS

Conversion factors are written as equations for simplicity.

Length Angle and Angular Speed

1 km = 0.6215 mi π rad = 180°
1mi = 1.609 km 1 rad = 57.30°
1m = 1.0936 yd = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 1° = 1.745 × 10–2 rad
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 rev min–1 = 0.1047 rad s–1
1 ft = 12 in = 30.48 cm 1 rad s–1 = 9.549 rev min–1
1 yd = 3ft = 91.44 cm Mass
15
1 lightyear = 1 ly = 9.461 x 10 m 1 kg = 1000 g
°
1 A = 0.1nm 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 1 Mg
Area 1 u = 1.6606 × 10–27 kg
1 m2 = 104 cm2 1 kg = 6.022 × 1026 u
1km2 = 0.3861 mi2 = 247.1 acres 1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 in2= 6.4516 cm2 1 kg = 6.852 × 10–2 slug
1ft2= 9.29 x 10-2m2 1 u = 931.50 MeV/c2
1 m2= 10.76 ft2 Density
1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 g cm–3 = 1000 kg m–3 = 1 kg L–1
1 mi2= 460 acres = 2.590 km2 Force
Volume 1 N = 0.2248 lbf = 105 dyn
1m3= 106cm3 1 lbf = 4.4482 N
3 -3 3
1 L = 1000 cm = 10 m 1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf
1 gal = 3.786 L Time
1 gal = 4 qt = 8 pt = 128 oz = 231 in3 1 h = 60 min = 3.6 ks
1 in3 = 16.39 cm3 1 d = 24 h = 1440 min = 86.4 ks
1ft3 = 1728 in3 = 28.32 L = 2.832 × 104 cm3 1y = 365.24 d = 31.56 Ms
Speed Pressure
–1 –1 –1
1 km h = 0.2778 m s = 0.6215 mi h 1 Pa = 1 N m–2
1mi h–1 = 0.4470 m s–1 = 1.609 km h–1 1 bar = 100 kPa
–1 –1
1mi h = 1.467 ft s 1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
Magnetic Field 1atm = 14.7 lbf/in2 = 760 mm Hg
1 G = 10–4 T = 29.9 in Hg = 33.8 ft H2O
–2 4
1 T = 1 Wb m = 10 G 1 lbf in–2 = 6.895 kPa
1 torr = 1mm Hg = 133.32 Pa

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210 PHYSICS

Energy Power
1 kW h = 3.6 MJ 1 horsepower (hp) = 550 ft lbf/s
1 cal = 4.186 J = 745.7 W
–3
1ft lbf = 1.356 J = 1.286 × 10 Btu 1 Btu min–1 = 17.58 W
1 L atm = 101.325 J 1 W = 1.341 × 10–3 hp
1 L atm = 24.217 cal = 0.7376 ft lbf/s
1 Btu = 778 ft lb = 252 cal = 1054.35 J Thermal Conductivity
–19
1 eV = 1.602 × 10 J 1 W m–1 K–1 = 6.938 Btu in/hft2 °F
1 u c2 = 931.50 MeV 1 Btu in/hft2 °F = 0.1441 W/m K
1 erg = 10–7J

APPENDIX A 5
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Geometry y x
sin θ = cos θ =
Circle of radius r: circumference = 2πr; r r
y x
area = πr2 tan θ = cot θ =
x y
Sphere of radius r: area = 4πr2;
r r
4 3 sec θ = csc θ =
volume = πr x y
3
Right circular cylinder of radius r
Pythagorean Theorem
and height h: area = 2π r 2 +2π r h;
In this right triangle, a2 + b2 = c2
2
volume = π r h ;
Triangle of base a and altitude h.
1
area = ah
2
Quadratic Formula

If ax2 + bx + c = 0,

− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
then x=
2a
Trigonometric Functions of Angle θ Fig. A 5.2

Triangles
Angles are A, B, C
Opposite sides are a, b, c
Angles A + B + C = 1800

sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c

c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
Fig. A 5.1 Exterior angle D = A + C

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APPENDICES 211

cos α + cos β

1 1
= 2 cos ( a + b ) cos ( a b)
2 2

cos α – cos β

1 1
= -2 sin ( a + b ) sin (a b )
Fig. A 5.3 2 2

Mathematical Signs and Symbols

Binomial Theorem
= equals
≅ equals approximately nx n(n -1)x 2
~ is the order of magnitude of (1– x)n =1– + +.....(x 2 <1)
1! 2!
≠ is not equal to
≡ is identical to, is defined as
> is greater than (>> is much greater than) nx n(n +1)x 2
(1– x)-n =1m + + .....(x 2 <1)
< is less than (<< is much less than) 1! 2!
≥ is greater than or equal to (or, is no less
than) Exponential Expansion
≤ is less than or equal to (or, is no more
x2 x3
than) e x =1+ x + + + .....
± plus or minus 2! 3!
∝ is proportional to
Logarithmic Expansion
∑ the sum of
x or < x > or xav the average value of x
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric Expansion
sin (900 – θ ) = cos θ
(θ
θ in radians)
cos (900 – θ ) = sin θ
sin θ/ cos θ = tan θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ =1
sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1
csc2 θ – cot2 θ = 1
sin2 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ Products of Vectors
2 2 2
cos2 θ = cos θ – sin θ = 2cos θ –1
Let be unit vectors in the x, y and z
= 1– 2 sin2 θ
directions. Then
sin(α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos (α ± β ) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

tan (α ± β ) = Any vector a with components ax, ay, and az

along the x,y, and z axes can be written,
1 1
sin α ± sin β = 2 sin (a ± b ) cos (a m b )
2 2

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212 PHYSICS

Let a, b and c be arbitary vectors with a × b = ab sin θ

magnitudes a, b and c. Then
a × ( b + c) = ( a × b ) + ( a × c) ˆi ˆj kˆ
a × b = − b × a = ax ay az
( sa) × b = a × ( sb) = s(a × b) (s is a scalar)
bx by bz
Let θ be the smaller of the two angles ( ) ( )
= a y bz − bya z ˆi + (a z bx − bz a x ) ˆj + a x by − bx a y k
ˆ
between a and b. Then
a . (b × c) = b. (c × a) = c . (a × b)
a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a = a x b x + a y by + a z bz = ab cosθ
a × (b × c) = (a . c) b – (a . b) c

APPENDIX A 6
SI DERIVED UNITS
A 6.1 Some SI Derived Units expressed in SI Base Units

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APPENDICES 213

A 6.2 SI Derived Units with special names

pascal

A 6.3 Some SI Derived Units expressed by means of SI Units with special names

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214 PHYSICS

Absorbed dose rate

APPENDIX A 7
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES, CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS AND NUCLIDES

• Symbols for physical quantities are normally single letters and printed in italic (or sloping) type.
However, in case of the two letter symbols, appearing as a factor in a product, some spacing is
necessary to separate this symbol from other symbols.
• Abbreviations, i.e., shortened forms of names or expressions, such as p.e. for potential energy,
are not used in physical equations. These abbreviations in the text are written in ordinary
normal/roman (upright) type.
• Vectors are printed in bold and normal/roman (upright) type. However, in class room situations,
vectors may be indicated by an arrow on the top of the symbol.
• Multiplication or product of two physical quantities is written with some spacing between them.
Division of one physical quantity by another may be indicated with a horizontal bar or with

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APPENDICES 215

solidus, a slash or a short oblique stroke mark (/) or by writing it as a product of the
numerator and the inverse first power of the denominator, using brackets at appropriate
places to clearly distinguish between the numerator and the denominator.
• Symbols for chemical elements are written in normal/roman (upright) type. The symbol is
not followed by a full stop.
For example, Ca, C, H, He, U, etc.
• The attached numerals specifying a nuclide are placed as a left subscript (atomic number)
and superscript (mass number).
For example, a U-235 nuclide is expressed as 235
92 U
(with 235 expressing the mass number
and 92 as the atomic number of uranium with chemical symbol U).
• The right superscript position is used, if required, for indicating a state of ionisation (in
case of ions).
For example, Ca2+, PO34−

APPENDIX A 8
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR USING SYMBOLS FOR SI UNITS, SOME OTHER UNITS, AND
SI PREFIXES

• Symbols for units of physical quantities are printed/written in Normal/Roman (upright) type.
• Standard and recommended symbols for units are written in lower case roman (upright)
type, starting with small letters. The shorter designations for units such as kg, m, s, cd,
etc., are symbols and not the abbreviations. The unit names are never capitalised. However,
the unit symbols are capitalised only if the symbol for a unit is derived from a proper name
of scientist, beginning with a capital, normal/roman letter.
For example, m for the unit ‘metre’, d for the unit ‘day’, atm for the unit ‘atmospheric
pressure’, Hz for the unit ‘hertz’, Wb for the unit ‘weber’, J for the unit ‘joule’, A for the unit
‘ampere’, V for the unit ‘volt’, etc. The single exception is L, which is the symbol for the
unit ‘litre’. This exception is made to avoid confusion of the lower case letter l with the
Arabic numeral l.
• Symbols for units do not contain any final full stop at the end of recommended letter and
remain unaltered in the plural, using only singular form of the unit.
For example, for a length of 25 centimetres the unit symbol is written as 25 cm
and not 25 cms or 25 cm. or 25 cms., etc.
• Use of solidus ( / ) is recommended only for indicating a division of one letter unit symbol by
another unit symbol. Not more than one solidus is used.
For example :
m/s2 or m s–2 (with a spacing between m and s–2) but not m/s/s;
1 Pl =1 N s m –2 = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/s m=1 kg m–1 s–1, but not 1 kg/m/s;
J/K mol or J K–1 mol–1, but not J/K/mol; etc.
• Prefix symbols are printed in normal/roman (upright) type without spacing between the
prefix symbol and the unit symbol. Thus certain approved prefixes written very close to the
unit symbol are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of a SI unit, when it is
inconveniently small or large.
For example :
megawatt ( 1MW = 106 W); nanosecond (1 ns = 10–9 s);
–2
centimetre (1 cm = 10 m); picofarad (1 pF = 10–12 F);.
3
kilometre ( 1 km = 10 m); microsecond (1µs = 10–6 s);
–3
millivolt (1 mV= 10 V); gigahertz (1GHz = 109 Hz);

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216 PHYSICS

kilowatt-hour (1 kW h = 103 W h = 3.6 MJ = 3.6 × 106 J);

microampere (1µ A = 10–6 A); micron (1µm = 10–6 m);
angstrom (1 Α° =0.1 nm = 10–10 m); etc.
The unit ‘micron’ which equals 10–6 m, i.e. a micrometre, is simply the name given to
convenient sub-multiple of the metre. In the same spirit, the unit ‘fermi’, equal to a
femtometre or 10–15 m has been used as the convenient length unit in nuclear studies.
Similarly, the unit ‘barn’, equal to 10–28 m2, is a convenient measure of cross-sectional
areas in sub-atomic particle collisions. However, the unit ‘micron’ is preferred over the
unit ‘micrometre’ to avoid confusion of the ‘micrometre’ with the length measuring
instrument called ‘micrometer’. These newly formed multiples or sub-multiples (cm, km,
µm, µs, ns) of SI units, metre and second, constitute a new composite inseparable symbol
for units.
• When a prefix is placed before the symbol of a unit, the combination of prefix and symbol is
considered as a new symbol, for the unit, which can be raised to a positive or negative
power without using brackets. These can be combined with other unit symbols to form
compound unit. Rules for binding-in indices are not those of ordinary algebra.
For example :
cm3 means always (cm)3 = (0.01 m)3 = (10–2 m)3 = 10–6 m3, but never 0.01 m3 or
10–2 m3 or 1cm3 (prefix c with a spacing with m3 is meaningless as prefix c is to be attached
to a unit symbol and it has no physical significance or independent existence without
attachment with a unit symbol).
Similarly, mA2 means always (mA)2= (0.001A)2 = (10–3 A)2 =10–6 A2, but never 0.001 A2 or
10–3 A2 or m A2;
1 cm–1 = (10–2m)–1=102 m–1, but not 1c m–1 or 10–2 m–1;
1µs–1 means always (10–6s)–1=106 s–1, but not 1 × 10–6 s–1;
1 km2 means always (km)2 = (103 m)2=106 m2, but not 103 m2;
1mm2 means always (mm)2= (10–3 m)2=10–6 m2, but not 10–3 m2.
• A prefix is never used alone. It is always attached to a unit symbol and written or fixed
before (pre-fix) the unit symbol.
For example :
103/m3 means 1000/m3 or 1000 m-3, but not k/m3 or k m-3.
106/m3 means 10,00,000/m3 or 10,00,000 m–3, but not M/m3 or M m–3
• Prefix symbol is written very close to the unit symbol without spacing between them, while
unit symbols are written separately with spacing when units are multiplied together.
For example :
m s-1 (symbols m and s–1, in lower case, small letter m and s, are separate and independent
unit symbols for metre and second respectively, with spacing between them) means ‘metre
per second’, but not ‘milli per second’.
Similarly, ms–1 [symbol m and s are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m
(for prefix milli) and unit symbol s, in lower case, small letter (for unit ‘second’) without
any spacing between them and making ms as a new composite unit] means ‘per millisecond’,
but never ‘metre per second’.
mS–1[symbol m and S are written very close to each other, with prefix symbol m (for prefix
milli) and unit symbol S, in capital roman letter S (for unit ‘siemens’) without any spacing
between them, and making mS as a new composite unit] means ‘per millisiemens’, but
never ‘per millisecond’.
C m [symbol C and m are written separately, representing unit symbols C (for unit ‘coulomb’)
and m (for unit ‘metre’), with spacing between them] means ‘coulomb metre’, but never
‘centimetre’, etc.
• The use of double prefixes is avoided when single prefixes are available.
For example :

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APPENDICES 217

10–9 m = 1nm (nanometre), but not 1mµm (millimicrometre),

10–6 m= 1µm (micron), but not 1mmm(millimillimetre),
10–12 F= 1 pF (picofarad), but not 1µµF (micromicrofarad),
109 W=1 GW (giga watt), but not 1 kMW (kilomegawatt), etc.
• The use of a combination of unit and the symbols for units is avoided when the physical quantity
is expressed by combining two or more units.
For example :
joule per mole kelvin is written as J/mol K or J mol–1 K–1, but not joule/mole K or
J/ mol kelvin or J/mole K, etc.
joule per tesla is written as J/T or J T–1, but not joule /T or J per tesla or J/tesla, etc.
newton metre second is written as N m s, but not Newton m second or N m second or N metre s
or newton metre s, etc.
joule per kilogram kelvin is written as J/kg K or J kg–1 K–1, but not J/kilog K or joule/kg K or J/
kg kelvin or J/kilogram K, etc.
• To simplify calculations, the prefix symbol is attached to the unit symbol in the numerator and
not to the denominator.
For example :
106 N/m2 is written more conveniently as MN/m2, in preference to N/mm2.
A preference has been expressed for multiples or sub-multiples involving the factor 1000, 10+3n
where n is the integer.
• Proper care is needed when same symbols are used for physical quantities and units of physical
quantities.
For example :
The physical quantity weight (W) expressed as a product of mass (m) and acceleration due to
gravity (g) may be written in terms of symbols W, m and g printed in italic ( or sloping) type as W
= m g, preferably with a spacing between m and g. It should not be confused with the unit
symbols for the units watt (W), metre (m) and gram (g). However, in the equation W=m g, the
symbol W expresses the weight with a unit symbol J, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg and
g as the acceleration due to gravity with a unit symbol m/s2. Similarly, in equation F = m a, the
symbol F expresses the force with a unit symbol N, m as the mass with a unit symbol kg, and a
as the acceleration with a unit symbol m/s2. These symbols for physical quantities should not
be confused with the unit symbols for the units ‘farad’ (F), ‘metre’(m) and ‘are’ (a).
Proper distinction must be made while using the symbols h (prefix hecto, and unit hour), c
(prefix centi, and unit carat), d (prefix deci and unit day), T (prefix tera, and unit tesla), a (prefix
atto, and unit are), da (prefix deca, and unit deciare), etc.
• SI base unit ‘kilogram’ for mass is formed by attaching SI prefix (a multiple equal to 103) ‘kilo’ to
a cgs (centimetre, gram, second) unit ‘gram’ and this may seem to result in an anomaly. Thus,
while a thousandth part of unit of length (metre) is called a millimetre (mm), a thousandth part
of the unit of mass (kg) is not called a millikilogram, but just a gram. This appears to give the
impression that the unit of mass is a gram (g) which is not true. Such a situation has arisen
because we are unable to replace the name ‘kilogram’ by any other suitable unit. Therefore, as
an exception, name of the multiples and sub-multiples of the unit of mass are formed by attaching
prefixes to the word ‘gram’ and not to the word ‘kilogram’.
For example :
103 kg =1 megagram ( 1Mg), but not 1 kilo kilogram (1 kkg);
10–6 kg = 1 milligram ( 1 mg), but not 1 microkilogram ( 1µkg);
10–3 kg = 1 gram (1g), but not 1 millikilogram (1 mkg), etc.
It may be emphasised again that you should use the internationally approved and recommended
symbols only. Continual practice of following general rules and guidelines in unit symbol writing
would make you learn mastering the correct use of SI units, prefixes and related symbols for physical
quantities in a proper perspective.

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218 PHYSICS

APPENDIX A 9
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

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APPENDICES 219

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220 PHYSICS

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APPENDICES 221

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222 PHYSICS

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ANSWERS 223

ANSWERS

Chapter 2

2.1 (a) 10–6 ; (b) 1.5 × 104 ; (c) 5 ; (d) 11.3, 1.13 × 104.
2.2 (a) 107 ; (b) 10–16 ; (c) 3.9 × 104 ; (d) 6.67 × 10–8.
2.5 500
2.6 (c)
2.7 0.035 mm
2.9 94.1
2.10 (a) 1 ; (b) 3 ; (c) 4 ; (d) 4 ; (e) 4 ; (f) 4.
2.11 8.72 m2; 0.0855 m3
2.12 (a) 2.3 kg ; (b) 0.02 g
2.13 13%; 3.8
2.14 (b) and (c) are wrong on dimensional grounds. Hint: The argument of a trigonometric
function must always be dimensionless.
2.15 The correct formula is m = m0 (1 – v2/c2)–½
2.16 ≅ 3 × 10–7 m3
2.17 ≅ 104; intermolecular separation in a gas is much larger than the size of a molecule.
2.18 Near objects make greater angle than distant (far off) objects at the eye of the observer.
When you are moving, the angular change is less for distant objects than nearer objects.
So, these distant objects seem to move along with you, but the nearer objects in opposite
direction.
2.19 ≅ 3 × 1016 m; as a unit of length 1 parsec is defined to be equal to 3.084 × 1016 m.
2.20 1.32 parsec; 2.64″ (second of arc)
2.23 1.4 × 103 kg m-3; the mass density of the Sun is in the range of densities of liquids /
solids and not gases. This high density arises due to inward gravitational attraction
on outer layers due to inner layers of the Sun.
2.24 1.429 × 105 km

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224 PHYSICS

2.25 Hint: tan θ must be dimensionless. The correct formula is tan θ = v/v ′ where v ′ is the
speed of rainfall.
2.26 Accuracy of 1 part in 1011 to 1012
2.27 ≅ 0.7 × 103 kg m–3. In the solid phase atoms are tightly packed, so the atomic mass
density is close to the mass density of the solid.
2.28 ≅ 0.3 × 1018 kg m–3 – Nuclear density is typically 1015 times atomic density of matter.
2.29 3.84 × 108 m
2.30 55.8 km
2.31 2.8 × 1022 km
2.32 3,581 km
2.33 Hint: the quantity e4/ (16 π 2 ∈20 mp me2 c3 G ) has the dimension of time.

Chapter 3
3.1 (a), (b)
3.2 (a) A....B, (b) A....B, (c) B....A, (d) Same, (e) B....A....once.
3.4 37 s
3.5 1000 km/h
3.6 3.06 m s–2 ; 11.4 s
3.7 1250 m (Hint: view the motion of B relative to A)
3.8 1 m s–2 (Hint: view the motion of B and C relative to A)
3.9 T = 9 min, speed = 40 km/h. Hint: v T / ( v – 20 ) =18; v T / ( v + 20 ) = 6
3.10 (a) Vertically downwards; (b) zero velocity, acceleration of 9.8 m s-2 downwards;
(c) x > 0 (upward and downward motion); v < 0 (upward), v > 0 (downward), a > 0
throughout; (d) 44.1 m, 6 s.
3.11 (a) True;, (b) False; (c) True (if the particle rebounds instantly with the same speed, it
implies infinite acceleration which is unphysical); (d) False (true only when the chosen
positive direction is along the direction of motion)

15 45
3.14 (a) 5 km h–1, 5 km h–1; (b) 0, 6 km h–1; (c) km h–1, km h–1
8 8
3.15 Because, for an arbitrarily small interval of time, the magnitude of displacement is equal
to the length of the path.
3.16 All the four graphs are impossible. (a) a particle cannot have two different positions at
the same time; (b) a particle cannot have velocity in opposite directions at the same
time; (c) speed is always non-negative; (d) total path length of a particle can never
decrease with time. (Note, the arrows on the graphs are meaningless).
3.17 No, wrong. x- t plot does not show the trajectory of a particle. Context: A body is dropped
from a tower (x = 0) at t = 0.
3.18 105 m s-1

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ANSWERS 225

3.19 (a) A ball at rest on a smooth floor is kicked, it rebounds from a wall with reduced speed
and moves to the opposite wall which stops it; (b) A ball thrown up with some initial
velocity rebounding from the floor with reduced speed after each hit; (c) A uniformly
moving cricket ball turned back by hitting it with a bat for a very short time-interval.
3.20 x < 0, v < 0, a > 0; x > 0, v > 0, a < 0; x < 0, v > 0, a > 0.
3.21 Greatest in 3, least in 2; v > 0 in 1 and 2, v < 0 in 3.
3.22 Acceleration magnitude greatest in 2; speed greatest in 3; v > 0 in 1, 2 and 3; a > 0 in 1
and 3, a < 0 in 2; a = 0 at A, B, C, D.
3.23 A straight line inclined with the time-axis for uniformly accelerated motion; parallel to
the time- axis for uniform motion.
3.24 10 s, 10 s
3.25 (a) 13 km h–1 ; (b) 5 km h–1; (c) 20 s in either direction, viewed by any one of the parents,
the speed of the child is 9 km h–1 in either direction; answer to (c) is unaltered.
3.26 x2 – x1 = 15 t (linear part); x2 – x1 = 200 + 30 t – 5 t2 (curved part).
3.27 (a) 60 m, 6 m s-1 ; (b) 36 m, 9 m s-1
3.28 (c), (d), (f)
Chapter 4
4.1 Volume, mass, speed, density, number of moles, angular frequency are scalars; the rest
are vectors.
4.2 Work, current
4.3 Impulse
4.4 Only (c) and (d) are permissible
4.5 (a) T, (b) F, (c) F, (d) T, (e) T
4.6 Hint: The sum (difference) of any two sides of a triangle is never less (greater) than the
third side. Equality holds for collinear vectors.
4.7 All statements except (a) are correct
4.8 400 m for each; B
4.9 (a) O; (b) O; (c) 21.4 km h–1
4.10 Displacement of magnitude 1 km and direction 60o with the initial direction; total path
length = 1.5 km (third turn); null displacement vector; path length = 3 km (sixth turn);
866 m, 30o, 4 km (eighth turn)
4.11 (a) 49.3 km h–1 ; (b) 21.4 km h–1. No, the average speed equals average velocity magnitude
only for a straight path.
4.12 About 18o with the vertical, towards the south.
4.13 15 min, 750 m
4.14 East (approximately)
4.15 150.5 m
4.16 50 m

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226 PHYSICS

4.17 9.9 m s-2, along the radius at every point towards the centre.
4.18 6.4 g
4.19 (a) False (true only for uniform circular motion)
(b) True, (c) True.

4.20 (a) v ( t ) = ( 3.0 i − 4.0 t j) a (t ) = − 4.0 j

(b) 8.54 m s–1, 70° with x-axis.
4.21 (a) 2 s, 24 m, 21.26 m s–1

4.22 2 , 45o with the x-axis; (

2 , – 45o with the x - axis, 5 / 2 , − 1 / )
2 .

4.23 (b) and (e)

4.24 Only (e) is true
4.25 182 m s–1
4.27 No. Rotations in general cannot be associated with vectors
4.28 A vector can be associated with a plane area
4.29 No
4.30 At an angle of sin-1 (1/3) = 19.5° with the vertical; 16 km.
4.31 0.86 m s–2, 54.5° with the direction of velocity

Chapter 5

5.1 (a) to (d) No net force according to the First Law

(e) No force, since it is far away from all material agencies producing electromagnetic
and gravitational forces.
5.2 The only force in each case is the force of gravity, (neglecting effects of air) equal to
0.5 N vertically downward. The answers do not change, even if the motion of the pebble
is not along the vertical. The pebble is not at rest at the highest point. It has a constant
horizontal component of velocity throughout its motion.
5.3 (a) 1 N vertically downwards (b) same as in (a)
(c) same as in (a); force at an instant depends on the situation at that instant, not on
history.
(d) 0.1 N in the direction of motion of the train.
5.4 (i) T
5.5 a = – 2.5 m s–2. Using v = u + at, 0 = 15 – 2.5 t i.e., t = 6.0 s
5.6 a = 1.5/25 = 0.06 m s–2
F = 3 × 0.06 = 0.18 N in the direction of motion.
5.7 Resultant force = 10 N at an angle of tan–1 (3/4) = 37° with the direction of 8 N force.
Acceleration = 2 m s–2 in the direction of the resultant force.
5.8 a = – 2.5 m s–2 , Retarding force = 465 × 2.5 = 1.2 × 103 N
5.9 F – 20,000 × 10 = 20000 × 5.0, i.e., F = 3.0 × 105 N
5.10 a = – 20 m s–2 0 ≤ t ≤ 30 s

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ANSWERS 227

t = –5 s : x = u t = – 10 × 5 = –50 m
t = 25 s : x = u t + (½) a t2 = (10 × 25 – 10 × 625)m = – 6 km
t = 100 s : First consider motion up to 30 s
x1 = 10 × 30 – 10 × 900 = – 8700 m
At t = 30 s, v = 10 – 20 × 30 = –590 m s-1
For motion from 30 s to 100 s : x2 = – 590 × 70 = – 41300 m
x = x1 + x2 = – 50 km

5.11 (a) Velocity of car ( at t = 10 s ) = 0 + 2 × 10 = 20 m s–1

By the First Law, the horizontal component of velocity is 20 m s–1 throughout.
Vertical component of velocity (at t = 11s) = 0 + 10 × 1 = 10 m s–1

Velocity of stone (at t = 11s) = 20 2 + 10 2 = 500 = 22.4 m s – 1 at an angle of tan–1 ( ½) with

the horizontal.
(b)10 m s-2 vertically downwards.
5.12 (a) At the extreme position, the speed of the bob is zero. If the string is cut, it will fall
vertically downwards.
(b) At the mean position, the bob has a horizontal velocity. If the string is cut, it will fall
along a parabolic path.
5.13 The reading on the scale is a measure of the force on the floor by the man. By the Third
Law, this is equal and opposite to the normal force N on the man by the floor.
(a) N = 70 × 10 = 700 N ; Reading is 70 kg
(b) 70 × 10 – N = 70 × 5 ; Reading is 35 kg
(c) N – 70 × 10 = 70 × 5 ; Reading is 105 kg
(d) 70 × 10 – N = 70 × 10; Reading would be zero; the scale would read zero.
5.14 (a) In all the three intervals, acceleration and, therefore, force are zero.
(b) 3 kg m s–1 at t = 0 ; (c) –3 kg m s–1 at t = 4 s.
5.15 If the 20 kg mass is pulled,
600 – T = 20 a, T = 10 a
a = 20 m s–2, T = 200 N
If the 10 kg mass is pulled, a = 20 m s–2, T = 400 N
5.16 T – 8 × 10 = 8 a,12 × 10 – T = 12a
i.e. a = 2 m s–2, T = 96 N
5.17 By momentum conservation principle, total final momentum is zero. Two momentum
vectors cannot sum to a null momentum unless they are equal and opposite.
5.18 Impulse on each ball = 0.05 ×12 = 0.6 kg m s-1 in magnitude. The two impulses are
opposite in direction.
5.19 Use momentum conservation : 100 v = 0.02 × 80
v = 0.016 m s–1 = 1.6 cm s–1
5.20 Impulse is directed along the bisector of the initial and final directions. Its magnitude is
0.15 × 2 × 15 × cos 22.5° = 4.2 kg m s–1
40
5.21 v = 2π × 1.5 × = 2π m s –1
60
mv 2 0.25 × 4π 2
T= = = 6.6 N
R 1.5

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228 PHYSICS

2
mvmax
200 = , which gives v max = 35 m s –1
R
5.22 Alternative (b) is correct, according to the First Law
5.23 (a) The horse-cart system has no external force in empty space. The mutual forces
between the horse and the cart cancel (Third Law). On the ground, the contact force
between the system and the ground (friction) causes their motion from rest.
(b) Due to inertia of the body not directly in contact with the seat.
(c) A lawn mower is pulled or pushed by applying force at an angle. When you push, the
normal force (N ) must be more than its weight, for equilibrium in the vertical direction.
This results in greater friction f ( f ∝ N ) and, therefore, a greater applied force to move.
Just the opposite happens while pulling.
(d) To reduce the rate of change of momentum and hence to reduce the force necessary
to stop the ball.
5.24 A body with a constant speed of 1 cm s -1 receives impulse of magnitude
0.04 kg × 0.02 m s–1 = 8 × 10–4 kg m s–1 after every 2 s from the walls at x = 0 and
x = 2 cm.
5.25 Net force = 65 kg × 1 m s–2 = 65 N
amax = µs g = 2 m s–2
5.26 Alternative (a) is correct. Note mg + T2 = mv22/R ; T1 – mg = mv12/R
The moral is : do not confuse the actual material forces on a body (tension, gravitational
force, etc) with the effects they produce : centripetal acceleration v22/R or v12/R in this
example.
5.27 (a) ‘Free body’ : crew and passengers
Force on the system by the floor = F upwards; weight of system = mg downwards;
∴ F – mg = ma
F – 300 × 10 = 300 × 15
F = 7.5 × 103 N upward
By the Third Law, force on the floor by the crew and passengers = 7.5 × 103 N downwards.
(b) ‘Free body’ : helicopter plus the crew and passengers
Force by air on the system = R upwards; weight of system = mg downwards
∴ R – mg = ma
R – 1300 × 10 = 1300 × 15
R = 3.25 × 104 N upwards
By the Third Law, force (action) on the air by the helicopter = 3.25 × 104 N downwards.
(c) 3.25 × 104 N upwards
5.28 Mass of water hitting the wall per second
= 103 kg m–3 × 10–2 m2 × 15 m s–1 = 150 kg s –1

Force by the wall = momentum loss of water per second = 150 kg s–1 × 15 m s-1 = 2.25
× 103 N
5.29 (a) 3 m g (down) (b) 3 m g (down) (c) 4 m g (up)
5.30 If N is the normal force on the wings,

2022-23
ANSWERS 229

mv 2
N cos θ = mg, N sin θ =
R
v2 200 × 200
which give R = = = 15km
g tan θ 10 × tan15°

5.31 The centripetal force is provided by the lateral thrust by the rail on the flanges of the
wheels. By the Third Law, the train exerts an equal and opposite thrust on the rail
causing its wear and tear.

–1  v 
2
–1  15 × 15 
Angle of banking = tan   = tan    37°
 R g   30 × 10 

5.32 Consider the forces on the man in equilibrium : his weight, force due to the rope and
normal force due to the floor.
(a) 750 N (b) 250 N; mode (b) should be adopted.
5.33 (a) T – 400 = 240, T = 640 N
(b) 400 – T = 160, T = 240 N
(c) T = 400 N
(d) T = 0
The rope will break in case (a).
5.34 We assume perfect contact between bodies A and B and the rigid partition. In that
case, the self-adjusting normal force on B by the partition (reaction) equals 200 N.
There is no impending motion and no friction. The action-reaction forces between A
and B are also 200 N. When the partition is removed, kinetic friction comes into play.
Acceleration of A + B = [ 200 – ( 150 × 0.15 ) ] / 15 =11.8 m s–2
Friction on A = 0.15 × 50 = 7.5 N
200 – 7.5 – FAB = 5 × 11.8
FAB = 1.3 × 102 N; opposite to motion .
FBA = 1.3 × 102 N; in the direction of motion.
5.35 (a) Maximum frictional force possible for opposing impending relative motion between
the block and the trolley = 150 × 0.18 = 27 N, which is more than the frictional force of
15 × 0.5 = 7.5 N needed to accelerate the box with the trolley. When the trolley moves
with uniform velocity, there is no force of friction acting on the block.
(b) For the accelerated (non-inertial) observer, frictional force is opposed by the pseudo-
force of the same magnitude, keeping the box at rest relative to the observer. When the
trolley moves with uniform velocity there is no pseudo-force for the moving (inertial)
observer and no friction.
5.36 Acceleration of the box due to friction = µg = 0.15 × 10 = 1.5 m s–2. But the acceleration
of the truck is greater. The acceleration of the box relative to the truck is 0.5 m s-2

towards the rear end. The time taken for the box to fall off the truck = 2×5
= 20 s .
0.5
During this time, the truck covers a distance = ½ × 2 × 20 = 20 m.

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230 PHYSICS

5.37 For the coin to revolve with the disc, the force of friction should be enough to provide the
mv 2 2π
necessary centripetal force, i.e ≤ µ m g . Now v = rω, where ω = is the angular
r T
frequency of the disc. For a given µ and ω, the condition is r ≤ µg / ω2. The condition is
satisfied by the nearer coin ( 4 cm from the centre).

mv 2
5.38 At the uppermost point, N + mg = , where N is the normal force (downwards) on the
R
motorcyclist by the ceiling of the chamber. The minimum possible speed at the uppermost
point corresponds to N = 0.
i.e. v min = Rg = 25 × 10 = 16 m s –1
5.39 The horizontal force N by the wall on the man provides the needed centripetal force : N
= m R ω2. The frictional force f (vertically upwards) opposes the weight mg. The man
remains stuck to the wall after the floor is removed if mg = f < µ N i.e. mg < µ m R ω2. The
minimum angular speed of rotation of the cylinder is ω min = g / µR = 5 s–1

5.40 Consider the free-body diagram of the bead when the radius vector joining the centre of
the wire makes an angle θ with the vertical downward direction. We have
mg = N cos θ and m R sin θ ω2 = N sin θ. These equations give cos θ = g/Rω2. Since cos θ ≤ 1,
g
the bead remains at its lowermost point for ω ≤ .
R

2g 1
For ω = , cos θ = i.e. θ = 60 0 .
R 2

Chapter 6

6.1 (a) +ve (b) –ve (c) –ve (d) + ve (e) – ve

6.2 (a) 882 J ; (b) –247 J; (c) 635 J ; (d) 635 J;
Work done by the net force on a body equals change in its kinetic energy.
6.3 (a) x > a ; 0 (c) x < a, x > b ; - V1
(b) −∞ < x < ∞; V1 (d) - b/2 < x < - a / 2, a / 2 < x < b / 2; -V1
6.5 (a) rocket; (b) For a conservative force work done over a path is minus of change in
potential energy. Over a complete orbit, there is no change in potential energy; (c) K.E.
increases, but P.E. decreases, and the sum decreases due to dissipation against friction;
(d) in the second case.
6.6 (a) decrease; (b) kinetic energy; (c) external force; (d) total linear momentum, and also
total energy (if the system of two bodies is isolated).
6.7 (a) F ; (b) F ; (c) F ; (d) F (true usually but not always, why?)
6.8 (a) No
(b) Yes
(c) Linear momentum is conserved during an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is, of
course, not conserved even after the collision is over.
(d) elastic.

6.9 (b) t

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ANSWERS 231

6.10 (c) t3/2

6.11 12 J
6.12 The electron is faster, ve / vp = 13.5
6.13 0.082 J in each half ; – 0.163 J
6.14 Yes, momentum of the molecule + wall system is conserved. The wall has a recoil
momentum such that the momentum of the wall + momentum of the outgoing molecule
equals momentum of the incoming molecule, assuming the wall to be stationary initially.
However, the recoil momentum produces negligible velocity because of the large mass of
the wall. Since kinetic energy is also conserved, the collision is elastic.
6.15 43.6 kW
6.16 (b)
6.17 It transfers its entire momentum to the ball on the table, and does not rise at all.
6.18 5.3 m s-1
6.19 27 km h–1 (no change in speed)
6.20 50 J

6.21 (a) m = ρ Avt (b) K = ρ Av 3t /2 (c) P = 4.5 kW

6.22 (a) 49,000 J (b) 6.45 10-3 kg

6.23 (a) 200 m2(b) comparable to the roof of a large house of dimension 14m × 14m.
6.24 21.2 cm, 28.5 J
6.25 No, the stone on the steep plane reaches the bottom earlier; yes, they reach with the
same speed v, [since mgh =(1/2) m v2 ]
vB = vC = 14.1 m s–1 , tB = 2 2 s , tC = 2 2 s
6.26 0.125
6.27 8.82 J for both cases.
6.28 The child gives an impulse to the trolley at the start and then runs with a constant
relative velocity of 4 m s–1 with respect to the trolley’s new velocity. Apply momentum
conservation for an observer outside. 10.36 m s–1, 25.9 m.
6.29 All except (V) are impossible.

Chapter 7

7.1 The geometrical centre of each. No, the CM may lie outside the body, as in case of a
ring, a hollow sphere, a hollow cylinder, a hollow cube etc.
7.2 Located on the line joining H and C1 nuclei at a distance of 1.24 Å from the H end.
7.3 The speed of the CM of the (trolley + child) system remains unchanged (equal to v)
because no external force acts on the system. The forces involved in running on the
trolley are internal to this system.
7.6 lz = xpy – ypx, lx = ypz – zpy, ly = zpx – xpz
7.8 72 cm
7.9 3675 N on each front wheel, 5145 N on each back wheel.
7.10 (a) 7/5 MR2 (b) 3/2 MR2

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232 PHYSICS

7.11 Sphere
7.12 Kinetic Energy = 3125 J; Angular Momentum = 62.5 J s
7.13 (a) 100 rev/min (use angular momentum conservation).
(b) The new kinetic energy is 2.5 times the initial kinetic energy of rotation. The child
uses his internal energy to increase his rotational kinetic energy.
7.14 25 s-2; 10 m s-2
7.15 36 kW
7.16 at R/6 from the center of original disc opposite to the center of cut portion.
7.17 66.0 g
7.18 (a) Yes; (b) Yes, (c) the plane with smaller inclination (äa α sin θ)
7.19 4J
7.20 6.75×1012 rad s–1
7.21 (a) 3.8 m (b) 3.0 s
7.22 Tension = 98 N, NB = 245 N, NC = 147 N.
7.23 (a) 59 rev/min, (b) No, the K.E. is increased and it comes from work done by man in
the process.
7.24 0.625 rad s–1
7.27 (a) By angular momentum conservation, the common angular speed
ω = (I1 ω1 + I2 ω2) / (I1 + I2)
(b) The loss is due to energy dissipation in frictional contact which brings the two
discs to a common angular speed ω. However, since frictional torques are internal
to the system, angular momentum is unaltered.
7.28 Velocity of A = ωo R in the same direction as the arrow; velocity of B = ωo R in the
opposite direction to the arrow; velocity of C = ωo R/2 in the same direction as the
arrow. The disc will not roll on a frictionless plane.
7.29 (a) Frictional force at B opposes velocity of B. Therefore, frictional force is in the same
direction as the arrow. The sense of frictional torque is such as to oppose angular
motion. ωo and τ are both normal to the paper, the first into the paper, and the second
coming out of the paper.
(b) Frictional force decreases the velocity of the point of contact B. Perfect rolling
ensues when this velocity is zero. Once this is so, the force of friction is zero.
7.30 Frictional force causes the CM to accelerate from its initial zero velocity. Frictional
torque causes retardation in the initial angular speed ωo. The equations of motion are
: µk m g = m a and µk m g R = – Iα, which yield v = µk g t, ω = ωo – µk m g R t / I. Rolling
begins when v = R ω. For a ring, I = m R2, and rolling begins at t = ωo R/2 µk g. For a
disc, I = ½ m R2 and rolling starts at break line t = R ωo/3 µk g. Thus, the disc begins to
roll earlier than the ring, for the same R and ωo. The actual times can be obtained for
R = 10 cm, ωo = 10 π rad s–1, µk = 0.2

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ANSWERS 233

7.31 (a) 16.4 N

(b) Zero
(c) 37° approx.
Chapter 8

8.1 (a ) No.
(b) Yes, if the size of the space ship is large enough for him to detect the variation in g.
(c) Tidal effect depends inversely on the cube of the distance unlike force, which depends
inversely on the square of the distance.
8.2 (a) decreases; (b) decreases; (c) mass of the body; (d) more.
8.3 Smaller by a factor of 0.63.
8.5 3.54 × 108 years.
8.6 (a) Kinetic energy, (b) less,
8.7 (a) No, (b) No, (c) No, (d) Yes
[The escape velocity is independent of mass of the body and the direction of projection.
It depends upon the gravitational potential at the point from where the body is launched.
Since this potential depends (slightly) on the latitude and height of the point, the escape
velocity (speed) depends (slightly) on these factors.]
8.8 All quantities vary over an orbit except angular momentum and total energy.

8.9 (b), (c) and (d)

8.10 and 8.11 For these two problems, complete the hemisphere to sphere. At both P, and C,
potential is constant and hence intensity = 0. Therefore, for the hemisphere, (c) and (e)
are correct.

P C

8.12 2.6 × 108 m

8.13 2.0 × 1030 kg
8.14 1.43 × 1012 m
8.15 28 N
8.16 125 N
8.17 8.0 × 106 m from the earth’s centre
8.18 31.7 km/s
8.19 5.9 × 109 J

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234 PHYSICS

8.20 2.6 × 106 m/s

8.21 0, 2.7 × 10-8 J/kg; an object placed at the mid point is in an unstable equilibrium
8.22 –9.4 × 106 J/kg
8.23 G M / R2 = 2.3 × 1012 m s-2 , ω2 R = 1.1 × 106 m s-2; here ω is the angular speed of rotation.
Thus in the rotating frame of the star, the inward force is much greater than the outward
centrifugal force at its equator. The object will remain stuck (and not fly off due to
centrifugal force). Note, if angular speed of rotation increases say by a factor of 2000,
the object will fly off.
8.24 3 × 1011 J
8.25 495 km

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