RULES GOVERNING THE ŠAYH-MURŠID'S

CONDUCT

BY

CAESAR E. FARAH
University of Minnesota, U.S.A.

Introduction by Anne11wrie Schimmel

Sufism has often been regarded, by Western authors, as a religious
movement which transgresses the borders of Islamic legalism, thus
constituting a way towards greater individual freedom, and which
may even end up in a complete negligence of law and order. The
exuberant poetical utterances of many Persian, Turkish, and Urdu
poets were taken at face value and understood to depict a state of
constant intoxication which was, then, considered to be the very
meaning and end of Sufism.
Contrary to this widespread view it cannot be stressed enough that
Sufism in its classical form consists primarily of the deepening of the
religious injunctions as laid down in the Qur:dn and the tradition of
the Prophet Muhammad. The early Sufis as well as the leaders of the
mystical orders which emerged from the mid-eleventh century in the
Islamic world were always conscious of the paramount importance of
the šarïca, the Islamic law. The meditation of the Qur'an was a basic
part of their guidance and instruction. Besides, the Sufis developed
a remarkable psychological insight in their training the souls of men.
The first to lay down in writing rules of psychological control, which
not the slightest movement of the nafs, e.g. the 'lower soul', the 'base
faculties' could escape, was the Iraqi mystic al-Harith al-Muhasibi
(d. 859). His method of rigorous introspection was taken over by
many of the later writers on Sufi practices, and the 'training of the
na f s' constitutes the most important part of Sufi education. a) By
`l?ittle sleep, little eating, little talk' (to which often was added the

a) The best introduction is: Joseph van Ess, Die Gedankenwelt des H�rit al-
Muh�sib�, anhand von Uebersetzungen aus seinen Schriften dargestellt und er-
läutert. Bonn, 1061.
82

forty days' seclusion, halwa) the novice learned to govern his lower
instincts, and was slowly guided to higher regions of religious ex-
perience, so that he might traverse the different states (pdl, pl.
apzudl) and stations on the Path (tariq) and perhaps be
blessed, finally, with annihilation (fand:') and the even higher rank of
baq,d", the eternal life in God and through God.
The Swiss scholar, Fritz Meier, has shown that Sufism was, and is,
based on initiation b) ; an alleged Prophetic tradition claims that 'He
who has no spiritual master (šay!:J), his master is Satan', for proper
guidance on the difficult path is absolutely necessary for the wayfarer
(s.alik). That is why the relations of the master with the disciple
(lurid) were strictly regulated from the very beginning of organized
mystical life. The disciple's behavior toward all classes of people and
under all conditions, in sleeping and wakefulness, in eating, fasting,
or travelling was likewise strictly prescribed lest he fall a prey to
Satanic insinuations. Small wonder that the first complete handbook
of adab, etiquette, was composed by the founder of the first order
proper, Abu Najib al-Suhrawardi (d. II68). Earlier authors had
touched upon these problems <in special sections of their books.
Since the disciple was bound to complete surrender and perfect
obedience, a preformed harmony had to exist between master and
disciple; we therefore often read that mystics traversed many countries
until they found a master whom they could trust without any reluctance,
just as the master would accept only those who seemed close to his
heart, or 'whose names he had read on the Well Preserved Tablet as
belonging to his disciples'. Notwithstanding the almost absolute power
of the spiritual guide (mur šid) over his followers, one should not
forget that his goal was not to kill the disciple's nafs but rather to
train it: the base faculties are like a restive horse or a donkey which
can work excellently and carry the soul towards its goal once it has
felt the hand of the maste.r-rider. C) The alleged word of the Prophet:
aslayvca šay!ani "My Satan (e.g. my lower qualities and instincts) has

b) Fritz Meier, Vom Wesen der islamischen Mystik, Basel 1943 ; cf. also his
edition of Nagmuddin Kubr�'s main work with an important introduction : Die
faw�¸ih al-gam�lwa faw�tih al-gal�ldes Nagmudd�nal-Kubr�,herausgegeben
und eingeleitet von Fritz Meier, Wiesbaden 1956 (indispensable for the psychology
of Sufism).
c) Cf. A. Schimmel, "Nur ein störrisches Pferd ...." Festschrift für Geo
Widengren, Leiden 1972.
 83

become a Muslim, i.e. has submitted itself to me, and now it does what-
ever I order it of good things" expresses perfectly the goal of the Sufi
master: whatever 'raw material' of qualities the disciple possesses, all
of them, without exception, have to be transformed into the 'gold' of
perfect mystical love by the spiritual alchemy as worked by the master.
One of the most important duties of the master in this process ifs
to introduce the murid to the right use of the formulae of recollection;
for the human soul needs a special type of recollection on every station.
It depends upon the master to find out, either by spiritual insight
( f irdsa) or by discussing the disciples dreams and visions, which
formula or which Divine Name may be used by him in his present
state; for the wrong formula of recollection (which has to be repeated
thousands of times until it completely permeates man's soul and body)
can lead to grave psychic deformations or to mental shocks. d)
There were many more duties of the master, beginning with the
careful selection of his followers: the act of sniffing (šamm) which is
mentioned in the following article, belongs to the most interesting
methods to choose a disciple. It is well-known that some people are able
to discern illnesses by mere sniffing at a person's body - so why not
discover illnesses of the soul by this method? The frequent use of
metaphors connected with 'smelling' in the works of Persian Sufi
poets - particularly Rumi - points to the great importance given to
the sense of smelling as well: was not Jacob cured by sniffing at
Joseph's shirt, according to Islamic tradition?
The etiquette of the disciples vis-a-vis their master has been discussed
several times during recent years, thus by Fritz Nleier in his article
"Ein Knigge fiir Sufis" e) and by the author of the following essay. To
understand the strictly lawbound, very well defined attitude of the
leading masters of Sufism in the methods of practical training, it is
highly relevant to have an account of the master's duties towards his
disciples; it is, besides, a good lesson for psychologists and educa-
tionalists, even if they are not working in the mystical Path.

d) A good introduction is Ibn cAt�Allah al-Iskandar�ni, mift�h al-fal�hwa

misb�hal-arw�h, Cairo 1961; cf. also Fritz Meier, "Qušayr�sTartib as-sul�k,
Oriens XVI, 1963.
e) In Scritti in onore di Giuseppe Furlani, Rome 1957, and id. "Huras�nund das
Ende der klassischen Sufik", La Persia nel Medioevo, Rome 1971 about the
different types of šayhs.
84

Rules Governing the Conduct

"Truly I am an instructor of insight and wit in this

our time" - Harraz.

An incursion into the category of adab (correct behaviour) governing

sayla-murid relationships tends at first glance to impress the reader
with a picture of the šay!:J almost totally dominating the murid and of the
latter being completely at his mercy. The principal source references
on Sufism have contributed to this impression by accentuating the
position of the šay!:J and degrading that of the ynurid. 1 ) For a move-
ment that berated status, it seems inconceivable that those who elevated
the role of the šayl; to such lofty heights 2) would ignore adab
governing his relationships with the murid. Depicting him as God's
and the Prophet's spiritual vicegerent seems to justify his immunity in
their eyes to regulatory procedures. Already the is deemed
superior to the ccilim (scholar) in both his knowledge of the faith and
in his extraordinary gift for spiritual perception, which ipso facto
renders him indispensable to the mMr?. 3)

1) See my "Etiquette Governing the Mur�d'sRelations with his Šayh-muršid"

in Festschrift Pareja, II (Leiden: Brill, 1973).
2) In "Ris�lat qaw�nînal-išr�qil�kull al-S�f�ya li-jmn�� al-�f�q"of Jam�l
al-D�nMuhammad al-Tunis�al-Waf�¸� al-Šadhil�(Cambridge, Or. 1008, fol. 38a),
the šayh is "he who teaches thee by his q�l(speech) and elevates thee by his
h�l (mystical state), who benefits the seeker (al-t�lib) and opens up searches
(matalib) ; he is perfect in both his dh�t (essence) and sif�t (qualities) ; who,
if his protecting arm (him�)is desired, there is no need for another besides him;
who benefits thee in šah�da(the visible) and gayb (the invisible) and purifies
thine sirr (secret) with his own; who if his aid is desired he is there before it is
asked, who protects the wur�dwith his kal�la (fatigue) and relieves thee of
anxiety with his care, and who is the sirr of God disguised in human form out
of concern for the very special of His elect."
3) States Qušayr�(Rishila, ed. cAbd al-Halim Mahm�d and M. b. al-Šar�f,
Cairo: Dar al-Ta¸l�f,1966, 732-34) : "never in history has a c�limnot humbled
himself before a Sufi šayh as concerns knowledge of us�l." Suhrawardi asserts
that even among the Sufis themselves spiritual leadership is the domain of but
a few who possess extraordinary powers of discernment and insight. These are
rare men "who appear now and then and who may or may not have left written
testimony to their spiritual superiority and unique qualities: Junayd (d. 910), Ab�
Hafs al-N�s�b�r� (ca 880 or 883), Ab�cAl�al-Daqq�q(d. 1015 or 1021) before,
and cAbd al-Q�dir al-G�l�r�d (d. 1166), Ab�'1-Hasan al-Šadhil�(d. 1258), Ab�
'1-�Ald¸ al-Murs�(d. 1287), and Ibn �At�¸ Allah al-Sakandar�(also al-Iskandar�n�)
(d. 1309) after the introduction of the orders to the world of the Sufis.
 85

The concept of murid-šayl; relationship was current though not yet

formalized in the third/tenth century, a century or so before al-èazali
(d. 1111) accentuated the need for dependence with attending rules
and observances. 4) Abu Yazid (d. 26i/875) had stated earlier that
"he who has no master is the disciple of the devil," and Abu call
al-Daqqaq told al-Qusayri (d. 1072), his disciple, "a tree that grows
from unplanted seed bears no fruit." 5) Others like Ahmad al-Rifa?i
(d. I I78) maintain he cannot even be regarded as a vvcurid until the
irida (will, intention) of the šay!:J is locked into him (la yakunu
inuridan illa idha thabatat irtidat al-šay!:Ji f ihi) . 6)
Though there is reference to the adab incumbent on the murïd vis-a-
vis his šayl; in such key works as al-Lumac 7) of Sarraj (d. 988) and
al-RisaIa 8) of al-Qušayri, these and others like Hujwiri's (d. ca. 1071)
Kašf al-mahjftb ignore the category of adab 9) pertaining to the šay!:J's
relationship with the murid. Harraz (d. ca. 89o) refers to adab only
by allusion, 1°) Muhasibi (d. 859) makes almost no mention of it, 11)
and Junayd (d. gio) only tangentially and philosophically, 12) while

4) Dh�'1-N�n(d. 859) was the murŠid of Sahl al-Tustar� (d. 283/896), who
is credited with articulating the earliest principle of Šayb-mur�drelationships, and
who in turn was Hall�j's (d. 309/922) Šayh. Ab��Al� al-Daqq�qwas QuŠayr�'s
(d. 465/1072) who imparted to him much of the information upon which he built
his notions of adab governing these ties.
5) Quoted in the Ris�la,731; see also �Aw�rif al-ma��rif,of �Abdal-Q�hir
al-Suhraward� (Beirut: D�r al-Kit�bal-�Arab�, 1966), 70.
6) From a Berlin miscellany, 3177. We. 1743 [W. Ahlwardt, Die Handschriften-
Verzeichnisse der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, IX, 3. Berlin : Asher & Co.
1891] fol. 49bs.
7) Less than two pages out of seventy (141-211) of his "Kit�b�d�b al-muta-
sawwifa" relate to "�d�bal-mur�d�n wa 'l-mubtadi¸�n"(205, 207) but none to
"adab al-šayh".
8) In it we have a cursory yet systematic treatment of the murid's adab only
("b�bal-was�yalil-mur�d,"731-52).
9) In chapter entitled "adab al-suhba" (334-66) the stress is on the sunna-
inspired concepts of adab ; no mention is made of the Šayh's etiquette towards
the mur�d.
10) In a chapter on "al-sidq fi 'l-hay�"(73-83 Arabic text of his Kit�bal-sidq.)
11) Less than a page, addressed only to the murid ("what the mitr�dhimself
must do inwardly and outwardly"). Ri'�ya, 133.
12) The closest he comes to the subject of adab is in his Ris�laentitled "adab
al-muftaqir ila 'l-L�h" (58-62) of Ras�'il al-Junayd). Hujw�r� (in his Kašf, 338)
refers to a work on adab by Junayd called "Tas��� al-ir�da"but which apparently
is unavailable (Cited in GAL, SI. 3. 18/2, 355 [Brill, 1936] on Hujw�r�'s authority
and in Sezgin's Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums 1, 21 (# 18, 647).
86

Makki (d. 996) deals with the subject haphazardly. 13) In his Jawt7ini'-
dddb al-5'üfïya, 14) al-Su?lami (d. 421/1021) has little to say about
adab al-sayla maca Jnuridihi, other than to state he is to have pity on
the lurid and be sociable with the brethren, on the authority of the
prophetic saying: point to the young the path of wisdom and correct-
ness, 15)
It is only with the orders that we notice in the tracts of some specific
allusion to adab A few authors make mention thereof in their
title or chapter headings. 16) The inevitable conclusion that without
murids there can technically be no šayl;-mudïds in itself is indicative
of interdependence. Indeed, frequent rebukes addressed to sayhs
soliciting actively Jnurids suggest the prestige of the šay!:J rested in no
small measure on a following of murids. The eagerness of the murïd

13) See 30-32, 131-48 and 168-70 of his Q�tal-Qul�b,I (Cairo: 'Js� al-B�b�
al-Halab�,1381/1961).
14) An interlinear edition was issued in Leiden in 1892 (see P. Voorhoeve,
Handlist of Arabic Manuscripts in the Library of the University of Leiden ...,
Leiden, 1957).
15) "Jaw�mi' �d�b al-S�tf�ya,"fol. 182 (Leiden, ms. Or. 1842).
16) For example, "al-'Iqd al-nad�dfi �d�b al-šayh wa 'l-mur�d"of Mu�ammad
Efendi al-Sayy�d� al-Rif�'�([Istanbul], 1307H.), executed in the form of an
urj�za (14-15) ; "Ris�lafi �d�b al-mašyaha wa 'l-mur�d�n" (part of a collection
in the India Office Library London, Ar. ms. 1038) for which no author is listed
but most presumably represents the Naqšaband�version; a chapter entitled "bay�n
'al�m�tal-muršid�n"in Zim�mal-s�lik�n fi �d�b al-tar�qaof Mu�ammadb. N�r
al-Maym�n� (Bombay, 1378/1958, p. 9), a Q�dir�ya expose; a section, in urj�za
style, of "Mutahharat al-nuf�s wa rawd al-qul�b" by Hasan Radw�n (Cairo:
D�w�n 'Um�m al-Awq�f al-Misr�yah,1322H, pp. 304-07) ; a chapter, "f��d�b
al-šayh wa m�ya'tamiduhu ma' al-ash�bwa 'l-tal�midha"in 'Aw�rif al-Ma'�rif,
414-21; "K�t�b al-rus�h fi maq�mal-šuy�h" of 'Abd al-Gan�yb. al-N�buls�
(Berlin. We. 1631); also from a miscellany (Berlin, Spr. 896), "Kit�b tu�fat
al-tull�bwa mun�atal-Wahh�bf�'l-�d�b bayn al-šayh wa'l-as��b,"fols. 41a seq.:
also "Kit�bmaqsad al-tull�b f�m�yalzam al-šayh wa 'l-mur�dmin al-�d�b" of
M. b. Zayn al-'Abid�n b. M. al-Gumr�y(Berlin, Spr. 897); "Ris�la f� šur�t
al-šayh wa 'l-tilm�dh ..." of 'Abd al-Mu't� al-Simill�w� (Berlin, Lbg. 107), and
a chapter on "šar�yital-mašyaha" in T�jal-D�nb. Zakar�y� al-'Uthm�n�'s "�d�b
al-mur�d�n" (Berlin, Pm. 243). There are several tracts on the subject in a
miscellany cited by Ahlwardt (III, M. 3206), also chapter X of Section 9 of
"Kit�bmirs�dal-'ib�d" by Najm al-D�nal-R�z� (Ottoman Turkish translation
by Q�simb. Ma�m�d Qara-H�s�r�. Uppsala University Library, 483 Zetterstéens
Katalog) entitled "f�maq�matal-šayh�yawa šar�yitihawa sif�tiha" (fols. 94-101),
occurring also in a Persian version (dar bay�n-imaq�m-išayh wa šar�yit-i�n")
in Y�s�fibn Sayh Muhammad Najm al-D�nGard�z�'s "Irš�d al-s�lik�n" (Cam-
bridge, King's No. i, fols. 79-84) which titles have been used for the present
study but by no means are deemed comprehensive or exclusive.
 87

in turn to obtain al-lairda (the patched frock) as evidence of his having

been accepted, played an equally important role in his search for a
šayl; to train him, which too was a practice frowned upon by the
orthodox observer. 17) Al-Sulami maintains it was legitimate for the
šayl; to preach to commoners (cawdm) if ?it led to the discovery of
inurids who might conform with his goals. 18) However in accepting
to train him, it is for God and not for himself that he does so. 19)
Suhrawardi (d. 1234), on the other hand, insisted the sayh must not
actively seek Jnurlds because "God will send them to him, perhaps to
test his truthfulness and piousness." 20) Moreover, an unsolicited
1nurid is less prone to ictirdg (resistance), is easier to train, and is
more likely to succeed in his endeavors. 21)
Foremost among the qualifications of the sayh aspiring to
(spiritual guidance) is truthfulness 22) and visible qualities consonant
with the highest ethical standards. He must not even occupy the position
of irsad and training except with God's permission, declares call b.
Maymun al-Magribi.23) The stress is on piety, as evinced in the
Qur'dJJic dicta "we have rendered for the pious a leader", "the pious
are leaders of the people", and "the kindest in the sight of God are
the most pious." 24) Moreover, their claim to superiority over
al-culamct'3 (ulema) rests on the notion they constitute the elect of God,

17) In justifying the birqa, al-Sa'r�n�('Abd al-Wahh�b) (d. 1556), dubious

author of "al-Nafa��tal-quds�yafi bay�nqaw�'id al-S�f�yah"(Velieddin, 1835
Istanbul, fol. 12a) argues that the idea underlying wearing it is analogous to
a traveler who for each type of journey dons a suitable attire, "so we put it (birqa)
on the murid in order that the ��l of the tar�qahe chooses can permeate him."
18) His preaching, however, was to be restricted only to that information
which would lead to the winning over of a candidate. "Jaw�mi' �d�b al-S�f�ya,"
fol. 228.
19) From a ms. titled "Hul�sat al-arba' a'imma" but wherein the colophone
reads "L�m�yat al- ajam" (to be cited henceforth as such) and the card index
describes it as a "Manual of A�mad�ya"(Bodleian. Ms. Bruce 12), fol. 67b
(chapter entitled "ma yajib 'ala al-sayh ta'd�bal-murid).
20) 'Aw�rif al-ma'�rif, 415.
21) "L�m�yat al-'ajam", fol. 67b.
22) When Bahl�l "the mad" (early 9th century) was asked how could one
discern truthfulness in the šayh he replied : by the šayh's ability to close the door
of comfort and open that of abjection, close that of ease (r��a)and open the
door of striving ( juhd), close the door of wealth and open that of poverty,
and lastly, close the door of sleep and open that of wakefulness. Bodleian, Ms.
Arab. e. 189, fol. 106a.
23) From an untitled ms. (Berlin, 3180. Pm. 108), fol. 100.
24) Qur'�n, 49/13.
88

on the authority of the verse "We have chosen one of Our servants
and caused Our mercy to reach him and taught him much of Our
knowledge ('callamniihu min ladtinnct cilman')." 25) This is reinforced
by the prophetic saying "there still can be found a segment of my
people abiding with truth (qct3imina ?al.? al-haqq) who cannot be
harmed by those who forsake them." Mercy was a quality the elect of
the elect was required to display to commoners as well as inurids, to
Muslims and non-Muslims alike. 26) In short, the commonly held view
was that the should observe fine adab in every circumstance, first
and foremost of which was the emulation of the Prophet at the highest
level of perfection in respect to every detail of conduct, habit and act
of worship. 27)
Nearness to God obligated the sayh seeking to be an im?cv?i (leader
in worship and in general) of men to render upright his intent and
to purify his heart from every malice, hate, envy and presumption.
For, after all, it is their leaders who insist that the jflib (seeker)
must seek only the perfect .sayla to receive training from him, a sayli
who is free of all impediments and distractions, receptive to his Lord's
beckoning, identifies with His morality, who alone can point the way
for attaining wusul (the ultimate goal). 28) Moreover, by the divine
insight, inspiration and introspective knowledge thus acquired, the
sayh can perceive immediately "what needs be done to ready the murïd
for wusul and cause his own pfl (spiritual state) to flow into him,"
argues al-Šadhili. 29)
He who seeks to be a ??icrsid (who practices spiritual guidance) is
expected to master that amount of cilm 30) (knowledge, particularly in
the field of religious duties) which is deemed necessary for meeting

25) Qur'�n 18/64.

26) An extreme position cited in "Mirs�d al-'ib�d," fol. 966.
27) A Naqšaband�position, so stated in "Tu�fat al-a�b�b fi 'l-sul�kila tar�q
as�abihi"of Tr�bz�nl� Derviš Ahmed (Haci Mahmud, 2448 Istanbul, fol. 17a).
See also Mutahharat al-nuf�s, 304.
28) Zim�mal-S�lik�n, 9.
29) Muhammad b. "Umar, "Lat�'if al-i'l�m," fol. 326b; also al-Sayr wa
'l-sul�kila malik al-mul�kof Q�simb. Sal�� al-D�nal-H�n� al-Halabi (ed. M. 'Td
al-S�fi'i. Cairo: D�r al-Tib�'a ... lil-J�mi'a al-S�f�ya,n.d.), 129.
30) The basis for questioning the validity of 'ilm for training rests on the
saying "araftu rabbi bi-rabbi" (Through God I know God) and Jesus' dictum,
"Ye must be born twice" (See "Irš�d al-s�lik�n" of al-Gard�z�, Cambridge ms.
King's No. I, fol. 50b and 81a).
 89

the murid's need, particularly at the beginning of his irdda when

doubt might still linger on. Besides knowledge of fiqh (jurisprudence)
and identifying with the beliefs of "those who adhere to ahl al-suuna
wa (those who follow the Prophetic tradition and do not
differ from the great body of believers)" he is expected to have full
command of aids leading to perfecting hearts, knowledge of the self's
shortcomings and ailments, and of ways to treat, regulate, and maintain
the soundness thereof. Compassionate to both people in general and
the Jnurid in particular, the sayh. was not expected to commence treating
the latter in the Halwati order until after he had accompanied him for
a while to ascertain the receptiveness of the ivturid for training. This
was most important since the sayh must never deceive, in keeping with
the prophetic saying: "he who deceives is not one of us." If a murïd
is deemed unsuitable for training he must be advised to return to
his lifestyle and profession or allowed, should he insist, to attend and
cater to the needs of those in training. 31) Qušayri and others advocate
that the not overlook 'weaknesses of the yvcurid and, if in doubt,
should try him first to determine the truthfulness of his ?intent to dis-
sociate from all ties and learn adhkdr (formulae of recollection). Only
after his heart bears witness to his truthfulness does the sayh accept
the murid for training.
Besides the general conditions laid down for occupying the position
of we must treat both the category of rules pertaining to the
moral and psychological prerequisites and the procedural steps
to be followed in training the >nurld. First, the latter. The must
immediately treat the four barriers to al-Haqq in "riya.dat na f s al-
(training of the disciple's base faculties) as it is put: nial
(possessions), jah (prestige), trc?assub li-'Imadlbabib (prejudice in favor
of a rite) and ?a-za?siya (an act of defiance or error). He can protect
, the murid therefrom by prescribing, in the words of Sahl al-Tustari
(d. 896), "quenching the desires of the stomach (i.gn2ad al-ba!n), wake-
fulness (al-sahr), silence (al-sam!), and seclusion (al-iCtizäl Can al- .
either by awrtid (litanies, prescribed prayer-formulae), econo-
mizing on fard'id (the prescribed religious duties), rawdtib (religious
exercises) or halwa (seclusion). Arranging for the mUi'ïd a source of
kasb (acquisition, gain), i.e. to meet minimal nutritional and other

31) That is those already undergoing riy�d�tand muj�had�t,

Ibid., 128.
90

requirements sufficient unto his basic needs was also deemed im-
portant. 32)
Among the first duties of the sayh is to teach the murid the proper
recitation of prayers, the basic requisites to distinguish
between the lawful (halal) and forbidden to be rid of devious
behavior to abide by his halwa, how and when to fast and bear
hunger, and ways to obey only God. 33) The mursid thus assists the
Jnurïd to abandon disposition (tabc) for prescription If he
discerns true striving (mitiohada) and determination (Cazïma) in the
inurid by the light of God's revelations and knowledge, the §ayfi
proceeds then to teach the murid spiritual exercises (riyadat) with
firmness, not laxity. 34)
In teaching the murïd a mode of dhikr (recollection of God), the
,?ay? must ensure that the latter continues to mention Allah with suf-
ficient force and determination until heart and tongue become one
(yastazui lisanuhu maca qalbihi), and the wcurid succee<is thereby in
achieving a hal with all his members "becoming dha.kira (recollecting
God)." 35)
By way of tangible training, the nturid concentrates on learning
adhkär and awrjd tailored by the sayh to his ability to absorb and
apply. 36) If the zliurid manifests adroitness, the could employ
rational proofs, for ?ilrn allegedly helps display lingering doubts. Should
the sayh discern in him strength and firmness in the path, he might
command the Jnurid to be patient and continue his dhikr till the "lights
of acceptance prevail in his heart and the suns of wusul rise in his
sirr" (the innermost core of the heart). 37) Suhrawardi advocates
gentleness (rifq) not ?il?L on grounds the former might win the
vraurid over while the latter would alienate him. 38) This again is derived.

32) From an untitled ms., author unknown, called "Ris�la f��d�b al-su�ba"
(Cambridge Or. Add. 3540), fol. 31a.
33) From an untitled ms. by an unknown author commencing with "B�bfi
bid�yatal-S�f�y�n al-mur�d�n" (Bodleian. Ms. Arab. e. 189), fol. 105a.
34) "L�m�yat al-'ajam", fol. 67b ("m�yajibu �al� al-šayh fi ta¸d�bal-mur�d").
35) "Ris�lan�fi�a" of �Abdal-Wahh�bal-Sa�r�n� (British Museum, Or. 6306),
fol. 184a.
36) In some orders learning a dhikr can entail up to twenty steps, each governed
by its own rules. See Ša�ran�'s "al-Nafa��tal-quds�ya,"fols. 9b-10b.
37) al-Ris�la al-Qušayr�ya (Cairo : Sab�h,n.d.), 182; see also "al-Nafa��t
al-quds�ya,"fol. 16b.
38) �Aw�rif al-ma��rif, 48. Ibn al-Jawz�(d. 1200) took Sufi šayhs to task for
 91

from a precedent set by the Prophet himself in addressing each fol-

lower according to his capacity to assimilate and react in the desired
manner. 39)
Once admitted to his companionship, the assumed full respon-
sibility for supervising, guiding and revealing the secrets of spiritual
life to him and keeping the yvturid in close proximity to himself. He
must serve as a source of continuous encouragement, strength and
succor to the murid, keep him firmly on the path, and not be the
cause for his deviating from it. Should he discern such deviation there-
from, particularly as concerns Jarc (law) he should correct him and
turn him away from error, particularly if it pertains to usftl and furft'
(the basic and the particular parts of Islamic law).
Gentleness was the overall trait stressed in governing the attitude
of the sayli towards the ircurid. As al-Sadhili (d. 1258) put it, "the
souls of the murlds are of the sentiments of God; 40) he who glorifies
the sentiments of God his heart will be filled with piety, and he who
pleases his brother the murïd with the amount of a breath (bi-qadari
nafasin), God will reward him amply for it, the like of which seventy
years of prayer could not." 41) While he might be strict and forceful,
since most authorities insisted he could not overlook his short-
oomings,42) still he should treat him with care, compassion, and
sympathy. If he must reprimand him, this should be done by the sayh

both downplaying and downgrading �ilm,which he construed as merely a pretext

for them to justify preaching their own distorted views of the sunna; for when-
ever they resorted to isn�d (chain of transmission), he argued, they invariably
ended up with a weak �ad�th, or one their understanding of which was bad. See
his Talb�sIblis (ed. Hayr al-D�n�Al�. Beirut: D�ral Wa�yal-�Arab� n.d.), 238.
39) Cited in the �Aw�rif, 416.
40) Nuf�s al-mur�d�n min ša��¸ir al-L�h.
41) M. b.A�mad,Man�qibšayh al-tar�qaal-Šadhil�ya(2nd printing, Cairo:
Mustafa al-B�b� al-Halab�,1353/1934), 20.
42) Suhraward�preferred a circuitous approach for reprimanding him: rather
than speak an unkindly word to the mur�d,the šayh should address himself to
that particular objectionable act in general terms before a broader audience ; and
even if failure is further discerned, still he would prefer that the šayh forgive the
murid and gently urge him onto the right path, "for the word falls upon the
hearing of the truthful murid as grain on the soil: a bad seed perishes, and un-
sound words are like bad seeds." �Aw�rif, 415. The most common punishment
was fasting over a period of time deemed proper for the offense committed. And
even then he must gauge carefully the individual's capacity to bear the pains of
punishment meted out. See Muttaharat al-nuf�s, 305 ; also "Mirs�d al-�ib�d,"
fol. 100a.
92

calling attention to a deviant mode of behavior in general terms, in

a session of the jamaica (group) and not by direct confrontation with
the murïd whenever it is possible to avoid it. He was enjoined not to
address the 111urid before looking into his own heart, which in turn
should seek guidance from God before he admonishes the Jnurld, "for
as the tongue is the spokesman of the heart, so is the heart the spokes-
man of the Haqq." 43)
Conditions set down for occupying the position of irs.dd may have
varied in ininutae from order to order, but not in substance. All agree
that a sayh cannot formally become a rnursid unless so authorized by
a ?ayli mukammal (a perfected master), or one who has attained to
the highest level of Sufi perfection, in the analogy of God appointing
the Prophet for his mission of instruction. Attending this necessary
requirement is that the iiiur?id should have no visible defects which
might compromise his sayhiya (office, or virtue of the master) by a
correlative amount. A basic prerequisite deemed pertinent to the adab
al-sayla nzaca iituridihi is that the sayla must not accept to train a murid
until his own "heart bears witness to him" and the latter pledges firmly
to accept pain, humility, poverty, and hardship. The murïd must first
traverse the first maqavrc (spiritual station), which is tawba (repent-
ance).
Equally important, the must be truthful in his intent; it was
considered a sign of great dishonesty for him to place himself in the
position of irsad without having been called to it by God, or for the
sake of being flattered. 44) He was to be sound in his ictiqadctt (reli-
gious convictions) according to the tenets of "ahl al-sutlna wa 'l-jamäCa"
to save the vnurid from committing bidca (heretic innovations). Na-
turally, he was expected to possess sufficient intelligence (caql) to
help organize the path for the murïd and keep him on it. It was also
incumbent upon him to have attained fan-ti:! (annihilation in God) but
yet baqa' ('remaining', life in God). 45)
Perfection was to accompany his speech, deeds and states. Some went
so far as to insist he be a wali (friend of God, saint) before he could

43) �Aw�rif, 416.

44) Evidence of his truthfulness: not turning upon a murid who leaves him
for another šayh.
45) The Naqšaband�yafeared possible kufr (infidelity) on his part were he
�d�bal-
to sit in the position of irš�d after he attained baq�¸.See "Ris�laf�
mašyaha," fol. 129b.
 93

qualify as a ziaursid but frowned upon his demanding the nnurid call
him wali, kiss his hand or display like gestures of ego-building. 46)
All devil-inspired sentiments, i.e. rudeness, cursing, maligning, harsh-
ness, he must conceal from the vnurid and address him only with
endearing terms, like calling him "son". He must guide the breaths
and motions of the n2urid in keeping with truthfulness and prod him
constantly to persist in his exercises and strivings till he attains to
the ends, namely fan,(V and baga.'.
Attending the prerequisites of the sayla in this regard is that he
should have full knowledge of the yvcurid's behavioral motivation and
patterns and even by "sniffing" should recognize those suitable
from those who are not for training. 47)
Authorities insisted the sayh be generous with the rrcurid, giving him
what he might need by way of clothing, shelter and food, so he would
not be distracted from his exercises. As concerns eating, the sayh was
to observe certain proprieties, like not having meals at a ?nurid's place,
except perhaps once a year on very special occasions, nor prolonging
the process of eating in the rycurid's presence, as 'it would constitute a
disrespectful act when it was incumbent on the if he were to
maintain the respect of the yvcurid, to retain at all times his dignity,
demeanor and calmness. Indeed he must never lose the niurid's ta'ahhul
(consideration) for himself, particularly in saindc (the spiritual concert,
often accompanied by whirling dance). 48)
In addition, the sayh was expected not to mix much with Jnurlds
except at dhikr time in a hczlqa (circle of Sufis), and only when
exhibiting a hal, again so as not to detract from his own esteem in
the ?2urid's eyes. There could be no laxity, even if it appeared war-
ranted, so that the gate of fayd (spiritual influx) would not be barred
to him.
By his compassion he was to be safeguarded from fornica-
tion (zina'). Some insisted the sayh observe continence (Ci ffa) and
not allow passions to dominate him; equilibrium in the conduct of the
?ay? would erase doubts in the mind of the zuurid at the commence-
46) Such gestures "are for kings not šayhs" asserts �Abdal- Wahh�bal-Ša�r�n�,
"Ris�lat tata�allaq bi-maš�yih,al-tar�q wa a�w�lihim"(British Museum, Or.
6306), fol. 294a.
47) Ša�r�n�, "Ris�la," fol. 129b.
48) According to Ša�r�n� ("Ris�lafi �d�b al-su�ba," fol. 24b) this is one of
the five rules governing sam�� which the šayh must closely safeguard.
94

ment of his iriida. This also entails full cognition on the part of
the pitfalls of suluk (the spiritual journey) so as to prevent a waq'a
(shock) or avert a 'uqda (problem) for the yvcurid, which reason is
behind their insistence the latter must never conceal the slightest from
his ?ursid.
Altruism (ithdr) was to be observed, in that the Jayh had to treat
the rvLUrid's interests as he would his very own. Generosity (karam)
was equally stressed in the context stated by Ahmad al-Gazali
(d. 1126): "the gifts received from God are to be passed on as a right
thereto by the recipient." 49) Trust in God (tawakkul) meant the
murid need not fear for want of basic sustenance required at various
levels of training. The ?aytt was to be yielding (observe taslivn), that
is, offer counsel and succor to whomever needed it, and content (ob-
serve rida.), by objecting not to divine pre-eternal decrees (ahkarvc
azaliya). The dignity (waqär) exhibited thusly by the sayh in itself
is a source of strength for the n?urid, who would then magnify farther
the greatness of the former's wildya (saintliness). Observing sukuna
(calmness) meant the rriurid would not be rushed into a situation of
committing an error. Thabiit (steadfastness) inspired confidence and
positive response from the JJJ.urid. A stern countenance (hayba) would
guarantee persistence in the irdda and avoidance of defiances on the
Jnurld's part.
Being highminded (ali meant no turning to the outside
world and its inhabitants except when absolutely necessary. The
could covet gain neither for the ?2crid nor for himself therefrom. In-
deed, he must never ask for material compensation or overt expressions
of gratitude from the JJJurid unless it be to the advantage of or serve
a benefit for the vuurid, in keeping with the Qur'anic verse: "We
feed you for the sake of God and desire not compensation or gratitude
from thee" (Sura 76/9). Moreover he must zealously safeguard the
murld's secrets as the latter is taught to safeguard the secret, for
ti has been alleged that "the hearts of the elect are the tombs of secrets."
Besides, the secret of the murid was deemed a trust placed in the care
of the znursid.
Training always had to be at a level consonant with the murid's
ability to comprehend. The sayh must know what assignment to make

49) Cited in "Mirs�dal-�ib�d,"

fol. 100b.
 95

for each Jnurid, after carefully assessing how much he can cope with
and when to assign it, never giving him to do what he has not been
readied for. 50) He must conserve the means of instruction, resorting
merely to signs, motions or nods if they should suffice. It was also
deemed necessary that the sayh first undergo a period of complete
seclusion. 51) If at any time the murïd reached a hdi above that of the
ynursid, the latter could no longer train him and the ynurid was then
enjoined to go to another Jay[1. 52) It was not unusual for a ?zurid
to take on another sayla for particularly if his own died before
he finished training him. As a matter of fact, in extreme disciplinary
cases the n2urid would be ejected altogether if in his heart the sayh
became convinced that the vnurid had no respect for him and was
merely going through the semblances of training. 53)
What we have cited here from a variety of sources 54) are the es-
sential ingredients most authorities agree constitute the sine qua MOM
of the etiquette vis-a-vis his disciple. Ir?Ctd was con-
sidered an essential prerequisite for anyone aspiring to become a
al-tariqa (master of the Path, or: of the Order). 55) Almost all Sufi

50) Ša�r�n�, "Ris�la," fol. 283a; "L�m�yat al- ajam," fol. 67b.
51) Twelve years "during which he has seen no one" argues a Naqšaband�critic.
See "Ris�lafi �d�b al-mašyahya," fol. 129b.
52) There is reference in the "Maq�m�t al-Naqšaband�"to a mur�dof Ab�
Turab (al-Nahšab�)who was advised to go to Ab�Yazid (al-Bistam�)for further
training when he got passed him in a ��l and was told seeing Ab�Yazid was
better than seeing God seventy times over. Cited by al-Gaz�l� in his I�y�¸�ul�m
al-din and on his saying by numerous others. See "Ris�la fi al-mašyaha,"
fol. 130b.
53) Al-Razi is alleged to have counseled šayhs never to accompany anyone who
"pretends to the way through abiding simply with semblances" for then he would
cease to be a true šayh. Cited by the unknown author of "al-Nafa��tal-quds�ya"
(fol. 86a) on the authority of Ibn �Arab�'s "al-Hukm al-marb�t f�n�yalzam
ahl tar�qAll�hmin al-šur�t."
54) "Al-Nafa��t al-quds�ya," fols. 82-86; Muttaharat al-nuff�s, 305-307;
"Mirs�d al-�ib�d," 99b-101b; "Ris�la fi �d�b al-mašyaha wa 'l-mur�d�n," fols.
128a-131a; �Aw�rifal-ma��rif,415-20; al-Ris�la al-Qušayr�ya (Ma�m�d&
Šar�fedition), 742; "Irš�d al-s�lik�n," fols. 82b-84a; see also Cambridge copy
(King's No. I) chapter titled "dar bay�n-imaq�m-išayh va šar�yitva sif�t-i�n,"
here attributed to Yus�f b. Šayh M. Najm al-D�nGardizi, fols. 79-84. "Ris�lat
qaw�n�n �ikamal-išr�q," fol. 38; "Ris�la ... bi-maš�yihal-tar�q,"fols. 281-82;
"L�m�yat al-�ajam," fols. 67b-68a.
55) Moreover, one does not become a muršid by frequenting sessions of riw�ya
(e.g. of Had�th) but only through heavenly decree (amr sam�w�) and spiritual
exercises on the aspirant's part. Zim�mal-s�lik�n, 10.
96

orders considered it an important condition of irs?ad that the saylz be

possessed at all times of adab and conduct himself in a manner as to
render him "light upon light (nür cala nür)" (Sura 2q/35) for the
in keeping with the saying in the QurJän: "God guides to his
light who seeks Our contentment." Their claim to virtue rested in
their pointing the way to endeavor,, in keeping with the mandate "such
is the grace of God, He bestows it upon whomsoever He desireth"
(Sura 62/4).
One might conclude that observing etiquette is a reciprocal affair.
While the ynurid might have been more constrained thereby, his posi-
tion on the recipient end of training by necessity decreed it to be thus.
It is equally evident that a greater burden was placed on the
for it is he who must demonstrate at every level and stage of training
his own spiritual qualifications and ability to command and hold the
respect and willingness of the ?ziurid to be trained by him! Indeed it
has been said that "the murid is the mirror of the and he who
seeks to know a he has not met should look first at his murïd." 56)
For that reason most authorities insisted that if the was
unable to observe such adab, it was more preferable that he remove
himself from such a position of zeildya and concentrate on striving with
and training his own self; better yet, he should search for a sayh
who could teach him adab, set him straight and inculcate him with
good manners (yuJadibbuhu, yuqawrxrimuhu wa yuhadhdhibuhu) .

"Ris�la," fol. 287b.

56) Ša�r�n�,