HACHALU HUNDESSA CAMPUS

INTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND
COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Lelisa B (Msc)
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 Load Frequency Control-I
• In a power system, both active and reactive power
demands are never steady and they continually change
with the rising or falling trend.

• Steam input to turbo-generators or water input to

hydro-generators must, therefore, be continuously
regulated to match the active power demand, failing
which the machine speed will vary with consequent
change in frequency and it may be highly undesirable.

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• The maximum permissible change in frequency is ±2%.
Also, the excitation of the generators must be
continuously regulated to match the reactive power
demand with reactive power generation; otherwise, the
voltages at various system buses may go beyond the
prescribed limits.

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 Necessity of Maintaining the Frequency Constant
• All the AC motors should require constant frequency
supply so as to maintain speed constant.

• In continuous process industry, it affects the operation

of the process itself.

• For synchronous operation of various units in the power

system network, it is necessary to maintain frequency
constant.

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• Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted
through interconnecting lines.

• Electrical clocks will lose or gain time if they are driven

by synchronous motors, and the accuracy of the clocks
depends on frequency and also the integral of this
frequency error is loss or gain of time by electric clocks.

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Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)
• Load frequency control (LFC) is the basic control
mechanism in the power system operation.

• Whenever there is a variation in load demand on a

generating unit, there is momentarily an occurrence of
unbalance between real-power input and output.

• This difference is being supplied by the stored energy

of the rotating parts of the unit.

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• The kinetic energy of any rotating unit is given by
where
I is the moment of inertia of the
rotating part and ω the angular
speed of the rotating part.
• If KE reduces, ω decreases; then the speed falls, hence
the frequency reduces.

• The change in frequency Δf is sensed and through a

speed- governor system, it is fed back to control the
position of the inlet valve of the prime mover, which is
connected to the generating unit.
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• It changes the input to the prime mover suitably and tries
to bring back the balance between the real-power input
and output.

• Hence, it can be stated that the frequency variation is

dependent on the real-power balance of the system.

• The LFC also controls the real-power transfer through the

interconnecting transmission lines by sensing the change
in power flow through the tie lines.

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• Prime movers driving the generators are fitted with
governors, which are regarded as primary control
elements in the LFC system.

• Governors sense the change in a speed control

mechanism to adjust the opening of steam valves in the
case of steam turbines and the opening of water gates in
the case of water turbines.

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• The amount of speed drop as the load on the turbine is
increased from no load to its full-load value is
(No–N), where No is the speed at no load and N is the
speed at rated load.
• The steady-state speed regulation in per unit is given by

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• The value of R varies from 2% to 6% for any generating
unit.

• Since the frequency and speed are directly related, the

speed regulation can also be expressed as the ratio of
the change in frequency from no load to its full load to
the rated frequency of the unit:
i.e

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GENERATOR CONTROLLERS (P–f AND Q–V CONTROLLERS)
• The active power P is mainly dependent on the internal
angle 𝛿 and is independent of the bus voltage
magnitude |V|.
• The bus voltage is dependent on machine excitation and
hence on reactive power Q and is independent of the
machine angle 𝛿 .
• Change in the machine angle 𝛿 is caused by a
momentary change in the generator speed and hence
the frequency.
• Therefore, the load frequency and excitation voltage
controls are non-interactive for small changes and can
be modeled and analyzed independently.
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• Figure 4.1 below gives the schematic diagram of load
frequency (P–f) and excitation voltage (Q–V) regulators of
a turbo-generator.

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

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 P–f CONTROL VERSUS Q–V CONTROL
• Any static change in the real bus power ΔPi will affect
only the bus voltage phase angles (δi) (since P∝δ), but
will leave the bus voltage magnitudes almost
unaffected.
• Static change in the reactive bus power ΔQi affects
essentially only the bus voltage magnitudes (since Q ∝ V
,but leave the bus voltage phase angles almost
unchanged.
• Static change in reactive bus power at a particular bus
affects the magnitude of that bus voltage most
strongly, but in less degree the magnitudes of the bus
voltages at remote buses.
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1.Speed governing system model: Schematic diagram for speed
governing of steam turbine is shown below

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Various components of the system are explained as
under
(i) Flyball speed governor: This is the heart of the system
which senses the change in speed (frequency). It is purely
mechanical speed-sensitive device coupled to the rotating
system. As the speed increases the flyballs move outwards
and the point B on the linkage mechanism moves
downwards. The reverse happens when the speed
decreases.
(ii) Hydraulic amplifier: It consists a pilot valve and main
piston arrangement. Low power level pilot valve and main
piston arrangement.
• Low power level pilot valve movement is converted into
high power level pilot valve movement. This is required to
open or close the steam valve against high pressure
steam.
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(iii) Linkage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B
and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D. This link
mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in
proportion to change in speed. It also provides feedback
from the steam valve movement (link 4).
(iv) Speed changer: It provides a steady state power
output setting for the turbine. Its downward movement
opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is
admitted to the turbine under steady state conditions.
The reverse happens for upward movement of the speed
changer. Mostly this is controlled manually.

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 Model of speed governing system:
• Speed governing system is shown in figure above. To find
its model, assume that initially the system is in steady
state operation.
• Let the point A moved downward by ∆𝑦𝐴 . This is a
command which causes the turbine power output to
change and can therefore be written as ∆𝑦𝐴 = 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 .
• Where ∆𝑃𝐶 is the commanded increase in power it
changes the steam valve by ∆𝑦𝐸 .
• As A move downwards, C will move upwards (-ve
movement) and when B move downwards, C will move
downwards. So movement of C is influenced by A and B.
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 ∆𝑦𝐶 = − 𝑘1 ∆𝑦𝐴 + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓
∆𝑦𝐶 = − 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 + 𝑘2 ∆𝑓
• The movement of D is contributed by C and E,
∆𝑦𝐷 = 𝑘3 ∆𝑦𝐶 + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸
• The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is
proportional to the time integral of ∆𝑦𝐷 and positive
movement of ∆𝑦𝐷 causes negative movement of ∆𝑦𝐸 .
𝑡
∆𝑦𝐸 = 𝑘5 (−∆𝑦𝐷 )𝑑𝑡
0

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• Taking the laplace transform of above three equations

∆𝑦𝐶 𝑆 = − 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘2 ∆𝐹(𝑆) …..1

∆𝑦𝐷 (𝑆) = 𝑘3 ∆𝑦𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆)………..2

1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = −𝑘5 ∆𝑦𝐷 (𝑆)……………3
𝑆

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• Eliminating ∆𝑦𝐷 (𝑆) in the above equation, eqn2 into 3
1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = −𝑘5 (𝑘3 ∆𝑦𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))……………4
𝑆
• Eliminating ∆𝑦𝐶 (𝑆) in the above equation, eqn1 into 4
1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = −𝑘5 (𝑘3 (− 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 (𝑆) + 𝑘2 ∆𝐹(𝑆)) + 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑆
On simplification,
1 1 1
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘3 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 𝑘5 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘5 ∆𝐹(𝑆) − 𝑘4 𝑘5 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆
• Multiplying both side with 𝑆/𝑘5
𝑆
( ) ∗ ∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘3 𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − 𝑘2 𝑘3 ∆𝐹(𝑆) − 𝑘4 ∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆))
𝑘5

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 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − 𝑘2 𝑘3 ∆𝐹 𝑆
∆𝑦𝐸 (𝑆) =
𝑆
𝑘4 +
𝑘5
𝑘2 𝑘5
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆
𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 𝑘4 𝑘5 + 𝑆

𝑘2 1 𝑘4
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆
𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 1+𝑆 𝑘 𝑘
4 5

𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘3 𝐾𝐶 𝑘4
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆
𝑘1 𝐾𝐶 1+𝑆 𝑘 𝑘
4 5

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 1 𝐾𝑠𝑔
∆𝑦𝐸 𝑆 = ∆𝑃𝐶 𝑆 − ∆𝐹 𝑆 ∗
𝑅 1 + 𝑇𝑠𝑔 𝑆
Where R = K1Kc/k2 = Speed regulation of the governor
Ksg=k1k3kc/k4 = Gain of speed governor
Tsg =1/k4k5 = Time constant of the governor
• The above equation is represented in block diagram form
as follows

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 2.Turbine model:
• In the above ∆𝑦𝐸 is the steam valve opening which
change the output power, it influence the turbine
speed. Figure below shows the two stage steam turbine
with reheat unit. The dynamic response is largely
influenced by two factors,
1. The steam pressure difference between the inlet
steam and first stage of the turbine,
2. The storage action in the reheater which causes the
output of the low pressure stage to lag behind that of
the high pressure stage.

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• Thus the turbine transfer function is characterized by
two time constants. For simplicity, the turbine can be
modelled to have single equivalent time constant. The
transfer function model of the steam turbine is shown
below.

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 3.Generator load model
To develop the mathematical model of an isolated
generator, which is only supplying local load and is not
supplying power to another area. Let the load change is
∆𝑃𝐷 . Due to the action of turbine controllers, the
generator generates a power which is greater than the
required (required is ∆𝑃𝐷 ) and is ∆𝑃𝐺 . The surplus power
(∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 )will be absorbed by the system in two ways.
1. Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in the
generator rotor.

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• The stored energy at rated frequency or scheduled
frequency(f0) is given by
Wke0 = H * Pr KW-sec
Where Pr is the KW rating of the turbo generator
And H is inertia constant, KW-sec/KVA
• KE is proportional to square of the speed ( speed is
proportional to frequency)
• The KE at new frequency as the frequency is changed by
∆𝑓 is given by

2
0 𝑓0 + ∆𝑓 2∆𝑓
𝑊𝑘𝑒 = 𝑊𝑘𝑒 = 𝐻𝑃𝑟 1+ 0
𝑓0 𝑓
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• Rate of change of kinetic energy is
𝑑 2𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑
𝑊𝑘𝑒 = 0 (∆𝑓)
𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑑𝑡

2. As the load changes, it result in oscillations in transient

state. And these are proportional to change in frequency
(change in speed) and the proportional coefficient is B.
• Writing the power balance equation considering above
two factors during load changing,
2𝐻𝑃𝑟 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺 − ∆𝑃𝐷 = 0 ∆𝑓 + 𝐵 ∗ ∆𝑓
𝑓 𝑑𝑡

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 𝜕𝑃𝐷
Where 𝐵 = and B is determined empirically.
𝜕𝑓
Dividing the above equation by Pr
2𝐻 𝑑
∆𝑃𝐺 (𝑝𝑢) − ∆𝑃𝐷 (𝑝𝑢) = 0 ∆𝑓 + 𝐵(𝑝𝑢) ∗ ∆𝑓
𝑓 𝑑𝑡
• Taking the laplace transform for the above and finding the
expression for ∆𝐹 𝑆 ,

1
∆𝑷𝑮 (𝑺) − ∆𝑷𝑫 (𝑺) 𝐵
∆𝐹 𝑆 = = [∆𝑷𝑮 𝑺 − ∆𝑷𝑫 𝑺 ]
2𝐻 2𝐻
𝐵+ 0 𝑆 1+ 0 𝑆
𝑓 𝐵𝑓
𝑲𝒑𝒔
∆𝑭 𝑺 = [∆𝑷𝑮 𝑺 − ∆𝑷𝑫 𝑺 ]
𝟏 + 𝑻𝒔𝒑𝒔

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 𝟐𝑯
Where 𝑇𝑝𝑠 = 𝟎 =power system time constant
𝑩𝒇
𝐾𝑝𝑠 = 1/B = power system gain

• The above generator model equation in block diagram

form is shown in figure below

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Complete Block Diagram Model Representation Of Load
Frequency Control Of An Isolated Power System:
• The complete block diagram representation of an isolated
power system can be obtained by combining individual
models of turbine speed governing system, turbine model
and generator load model which are derived is earlier
sections. It is shown below.

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Figure 3.1 Block diagram representation of a single area

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